Academic Writing

1. Writing an Introduction
Writing an introduction is often seen as a relatively straightforward element of the
assignment writing process. The reason for this may be that we often find typical
ingredients in an introduction that we can use, regardless of the assignment we are writing.
One of the challenges of writing a good introduction, however, is to be brief, and to stay
focused. A rambling or unfocussed introduction, or one that is over-lengthy, will get the essay
off to the wrong sort of start an will not create a good impression. In particular, you should
avoid being 'anecdotal' in your introduction (i.e. writing as if you are telling a story) and you
will also need to avoid wasting words by 'stating the obvious' and writing a series of overgeneralised statements. Below you will find some helpful suggestions for writing
introductions to essays and assignments.

What are the typical ingredients of an essay introduction?

Trzeciak and Mackay (1994) have identified a number of ingredients of an
introduction. It will not always be necessary or desirable to include all of them, but they
will generally be used in some combination or other, in order to introduce an academic
argument.

a statement of the importance of the subject

mention of previous work on the subject

a justification for dealing with the subject

a statement of your objectives

a statement of the limitations of the work

a mention of some of the differing viewpoints on the subject

a definition of the topic being discussed

Swales and Feak (2004), meanwhile, focus on the research paper in particular. They
attempt to place introduction ingredients into a sequence. They identify the following
series of moves in a typical introduction to a research paper:

Move 1: Establishing a research territory

- by showing that the general research area is important, central, interesting,

problematic, etc. (optional)
- by introducing and reviewing items of previous research in the area (obligatory)

Move 2: Establishing a niche

- by indicating a gap in the previous research or by extending previous knowledge in

some way (obligatory)

Move 3: Occupying the niche

- by outlining purposes or stating the nature of the present research (obligatory)

- by listing research questions of hypotheses
- by announcing principal findings
- by stating the value of the previous research
- by indicating the structure of the research paper
Should I follow introduction structures closely?
The above-mentioned elements of an introduction are helpful, and could be followed
quite systematically to produce a reasonably acceptable introduction. However, there
might be several problems associated with an attempt to follow these introduction
structures too closely and to include them in every assignment you write :

Your introductions might become too predictable and formula-written, and

may lack a sense of enthusiasm and commitment;

Your introduction may become too lengthy in relation to the remainder of the
essay (depending on the length of the paper);

Your introduction might become too detailed and this may spoil the surprise
effect of what you go on to say next;

The existence of an introduction, as described above, is not self-evident or

natural in all disciplines; and even within subjects that commonly require an
introduction (typically, social sciences and humanities disciplines) there may be
some types of question that do not especially need one (e.g. document
commentaries, unseen commentaries on literary texts, business plans, some short
law questions, etc.);

One of the key aspects of writing an introduction, in many disciplines, is to

attract the interest of the reader if you give the impression that your writing is
formula driven, you may fail to make the sort of impact you want on your reader.
Sometimes, of course, the reader is not looking for interesting introductions
(especially in fact-based or mathematical work).

Dissertations and theses

In many respects, the procedure for writing an introduction remains the same for a
longer piece of writing, such as a dissertation. In particular, it is still very important:

To write an eye-catching opening sentence that will keep the readers

attention focused;

Not to say everything you have to say in the introduction save some of your
good material for later.

To try to keep the reader in suspense and to make them read on;

To ensure that there is a direct relationship between the introduction and the
remainder of the dissertation;

To ensure that you do not promise what cannot be fulfilled or what goes
beyond what can reasonably be expected.

At the same time, there will also be some differences in your approach. Among these
differences are the following:

As well as having an overall introduction to your dissertation or thesis, each

chapter should also have an introduction (as well as a conclusion). The reason for
this is that in a longer piece of writing, it becomes more important to remind the
reader of what you are doing and why you are doing it, before each chapter
continues.

Because of its length, there will be more opportunity to introduce a sense of

debate into the introduction to a thesis; and you will have time to bring in a wider
range of references from outside.

It is a good idea in a chapter introduction to remind the reader what happened

in the previous chapter (e.g. In the previous chapter, the literature relating to the
teaching of vocabulary was considered. From this discussion, it was seen that.).

2. Writing the Body of an Assignment

Most research in academic English writing tends to focus on aspects of an assignment that
are easy for the researcher to analyse. Typically, introductions and conclusions have been
considered in much more detail than the main body of an assignment. What comes between
the introduction and conclusion (known as the main body) is often left up to the individual
student, and less is known about the typical structures of the main body. On this page, you
will find some helpful suggestions and practice activities for developing the body of your
assignment, which we hope will 'de-mystify' the process of assignment writing somewhat.
What is the structure of the main body of an assignment?
The structure of the main body of an assignment is dictated by at least two factors:
a) The title and wording of the assignment (whether it is your own, negotiated with the
tutor- or one that has been given to you).
b) The statement of intent that you write in the introduction, based on the title.
Once you have dealt with the above two elements, the main body of the assignment
probably then serves to do at least two things:
a) Demonstrate/show your knowledge of the topic, by including relevant evidence;
b) Analyse/evaluate the evidence you have gathered.
The material you use will usually be grouped into broad categories (assignment
sections). That is to say, it is strategically organised. Sometimes the broad categories are

indicated by sub titles (as in published research). However, in some disciplines, particularly
Arts and Humanities and Social Studies undergraduate courses, this is not always
desirable or recommended. Scientists and Engineers, on the other hand, will often make
their writing more 'user-friendly' by clearly indicating the different sections. Always check
with your department to see exactly what the requirements are, and if possible, have a look
at some assignments that have been written previously to get a feel for what is required.

General advice for writing the main body of an assignment

Here is some useful general advice for writing the main body of an assignment.
Plan you work properly before you write. Use brainstorming, mind maps or just a list of
points you want to include; whatever works best for you.
Know your audience. Having a good idea of who will be reading your essay or
assignment is helpful.
Know what the requirements are. Like any game of skill, in order to write an effective
assignment, you have to know what is required. You can't play tennis without knowing the
rules of the game. The same is true of writing assignments. The rules of the game are very
subtle, of course, and vary from department to department. And unfortunately, even within
departments, there may be differences of opinion as to how things should be done. If in
doubt, ask your tutor.
Don't expect your tutor to tell you what to say. In some cultures, critical thinking is not
strongly encouraged and many assessments are simply a case of reproducing what the
lecturer has told you in the lecture. This is not true of the British academic system. In
Britain, you are expected to think critically and to react to (as well as simply describe) what
you have learned. This is not an easy skill to develop and it usually gets easier over time.
You are expected to formulate your own perspective with regard to the material you study.
In some ways, it does not really matter so much what you say as how you say it. Whatever
your point of view, it needs to be backed up with adequate evidence and material.
Keep the assignment title firmly in mind as you write. Keep looking back at your
assignment title in order to remind yourself of what you are supposed to be doing. Keep
referring to key words in the title; this is especially useful in examinations, to remind the
reader that you are writing relevantly.
Don't 'rewrite' the question in your own words to make it more answerable. In strict
terms, you must answer the question set, not the question that you want to answer. Titles
will often be worded very specifically and it is your job to rise to the challenge of answering
the question. If you rephrase the question and write your own essay, you may fail the
assignment or examination.
Keep your essay balanced. Paragraphs should be more or less the same length. Don't
write very lengthy paragraphs. If there are two parts to a question, spend about the same
time on each (unless of course the marks awarded, or your tutor, indicate differently). The

Writing the main body of an assignment is a major challenge. Why?

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Due attention needs to be given to referencing- by no means an easy task.
Use feedback effectively: Don't just look at your marks when your assignment is returned.
Use of quotations is often a problem; students often use quotations either
Read
any comments carefully and act on them. You will not be able to produce a perfect
because
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essay first
time round.
concepts very well. Make sure that your quotations do not simply serve as a
decorative ornament, but that you introduce them and comment on them.

It goes without saying that you must always avoid lifting words and phrases
from your reading and including them without due acknowledgement
(plagiarism). Penalties are usually very severe for this kind of practice and you
could even end up by failing your assignment.

Analysis vs description: a basic distinction

One of the most important requirements when writing many assignments (depending on
the title) is to be analytical, rather than just descriptive. If your assignment title begins
with words like these: 'How far do you agree that...?', 'To what extent do you consider
that..., or 'Evaluate the success of..., etc, this means that you will need to analyse the
topic, as well as describe it.There will obviously be some description: an essay without
some descriptive detail would quickly become unreadable! However, the reader will
usually be looking for more than description, and if you are looking to cut down on word
length, reducing some of the more lengthy descriptions and examples is a useful
strategy to adopt.
A key point to remember, then, is that very few assignment titles at university level will
require pure description, and most will test your skills of analysis in some capacity. So try

3. About conclusion paragraphs

Conclusion paragraphs are about 5% of your essay word count (e.g. about 50 or so words
per 1000 word essay). In clearly-written sentences, you restate the thesis from your
introduction (but do not repeat the introduction too closely), make a brief summary of your
evidence and finish with some sort of judgment about the topic. You can follow this basic
pattern (recipe) for writing introduction paragraphs to help you get started.
It's a good idea to start your conclusion with transitional words (e.g. 'In summary', 'To
conclude', 'In conclusion', 'Finally',) to help you to get the feel of wrapping up what you have
said. The conclusion is not the place to present new facts (should be in the body of your
essay), so conclusions don't usually have references unless you come up with a 'punchy'
quote from someone special as a final word.
Writing pattern for conclusion paragraphs
The conclusion to an essay is rather like a formal social farewell. For example, if an ASO
consultant does a guest presentation at a lecture, it would be good practice to conclude the
session by tying up the key points of the lecture and leave the students with a final message
about the subject of the lecture:

To conclude, students, you should now know how to apply

the three main steps for analysing a question(restatement
main idea). If you identify the instruction words, the topic
words and the restricting words accurately, this will provide
you with a framework for building your essay plan (summary
of key points). Essays that are analysed accurately will have
much greater success in answering the set question and
assist you to get better marks (statement of benefit).
A conclusion paragraph is very much tied to the introduction paragraph and the question that
has been set (see Question analysis workshop) and we use special terms to describe each
stage of the conclusion.

4. Paragraphing
Paragraphing is part of the visual presentation of your essay or assignment along with
punctuation, spelling, double spacing, page numbering etc. However, unlike all the above
which are mechanical and fairly easily checked for problems (since simple rules can be
applied to them), paragraphs can require a considerable amount of thought and effort to
get right. However a well-paragraphed essay signals a careful, organised writer (a
good way to pick up marks!) and so it is worth making sure that you have done everything
you can to improve them.

Basic principles to paragraphing

There are some basic principles to paragraphing. Some of these apply to the visual
impact on the reader, others to thecontent. Both aspects are important.
visual impact
1. A new paragraph is signalled by starting a new line AND either indenting
slightly OR leaving a blank line. Choose one style and stick to it throughout
your essay. See the diagrams below for examples of each type.
2. One sentence is not a paragraph in academic writing. It is possible to find one
sentence paragraphs in magazine articles and novels but good academic style
does not have one sentence paragraphs.
3. An average paragraph should be between 4 and 7 sentences long and should
take up about 2/5 of the page (i.e. you should aim to have about 2 and a half
paragraphs per page). This is an AVERAGE and so it will not matter if you
occasionally have a slightly longer or shorter paragraph. Introductions and
conclusions particularly tend to be shorter than the other paragraphs in an
essay.
4. A consistent length to your paragraphs shows the effort you have made to
make your essay easier for your reader to grasp. It is therefore another good
way to pick up marks.

Content
1. A paragraph contains a 'packet of information'. Each paragraph in your essay
should therefore have a different packet so that you are not repeating yourself.
2. The 'packet of information' is more than one sentence can contain, but is less
than your total essay. It should have a single point that is developed with some
or all of the following: examples, quotations, references, definitions,

explanations or (more rarely in academic writing) anecdotes.

3. Ideally your paragraphs will build up, one upon the other, each packet of
information helping to develop your argument one stage further.
4. Although it may be clear to you how two paragraphs are linked, it is important
to make it clear to your reader what the connection is.
5. A guiding principle for both sentences and paragraphs is that shorter is better
than longer. When a paragraph starts to take up more than half a page, stop
and see how you could say what you want to say in two or may be three
paragraphs instead.
6. Typical features of the average paragraph are: a topic sentence (usually the
first one) which sums up what the paragraph will be about, often linking it to
what has gone before; development sentences which explain or illustrate the
point; a concluding sentence which hints at how the next paragraph will carry
on.

5. Referencing Guidelines
When using sources in writing, the basic principles are:

any idea used in an essay which came from another source should be
acknowledged

the reader should be given enough information to locate the exact text or
paragraph if desired.

The following guidelines are based on the Harvard or Author / Date referencing system
which is the system generally used in academic writing in the Arts and Social Sciences in
Britain. Click on the links to learn different kinds of referencing.
Kinds of referencing
-

In-text referencing (what you write IN your essay)

List of References (what you write AT THE END of your essay)
Internet References
Notes and Footnotes

6. Descriptive writing
This section of our web resources is parrticularly devoted to writing in language tests. In
English language tests, you may be asked to write short descriptions. The exact question
cannot be predicted in advance and it is not useful to remember or learn descriptions before
you go and take the test. However, the following advice and examples on this page will be
helpful to you.
Writing a description from a personal angle

When you are writing a description from a personal angle, it is very useful to consider
the following ingredients which make a description more enjoyable and informative.

Try to introduce some informal, colloquial expressions into your descriptive

writing, to make it more colourful and to make it sound more natural.

It is useful to think of different adjectives that you can use that can replace
some of the more well-used ones (e.g. it is better to try to replace nice,
interesting and good with something more evocative).

It is good to start with a short, eye-catching first sentence, which attracts the
reader.

Use different words instead of he/she/they said (e.g. replied, retorted,

conceded, snapped, barked, whispered, etc).

You do not need to use very formal expressions in a description.

We usually try to avoid complex, lengthy sentences linked with who and
which.

Try using some negative inversions to create a sense of surprise. For example,
No sooner had I arrived than.. or Not only did they.but

Think of the story-line of your passage. Depending on the title of the essay, you
may be able to introduce a conflict into the story and to show how the conflict
was resolved at the end.

Writing a description from a more objective angle

When you are writing a description from a more objective angle, for example
describing a system or aspect of culture of your country in a more academic style, you
may find it useful to consider the following ingredients which make the description
useful and informative.

Plan your composition briefly before you start writing. Write only one copy of
your composition you will not have time to do a rough copy first.

Keep your ideas simple remember that any test of written English is a test of
langauge, first and foremost - not a test of philosophy.

Write what you know how to say, and what you feel confident with.

Always write about what you know and feel comfortable with.

Make your point of view clear.

It is always appreciated if you can write an introduction which outlines the

importance of the topic and what you are going to discuss. Keep the

introduction very brief, though.

Make sure that you group ideas into paragraphs, and try to avoid one or two
line paragraphs!

Group all paragraphs along a similar theme, e.g. problems and solutions, in the
same part of the composition, so that the essay has a shape and structure.

Use linking devices and connecting words where appropriate, but do not use
too many of them.

Use suitable academic language for this kind of description.

7. Discursive writing
Is it useful to learn and memorise some ready-made essay-type phrases for
this type of writing?

When preparing for a written test of English, a natural first strategy is to memorise a
number of ready-made phrases (for example: The first aspect that I shall discuss
is.).
In some respects, learning set phrases can be positive, because:

Knowing a range of correctly written sentences can give you confidence in

test conditions, when you might be feeling more nervous or anxious than
usual.

Phrases of this kind can help you to organise your thoughts more quickly;

Incorporating essay-type phrases (if they are well-chosen) can make your
writing sound more academic.

However, this method also has some disadvantages:

An essay with too many ready-made expressions may appear unnatural to

the reader.

It may be tempting to disguise poor English with a large number of readymade expressions which appear correct. An examiner will often see through
this strategy.

Your writing may become too clinical and formula-driven, and your own

character and personality may not show through in your writing.

Our recommendation is to get a balanced view - do use set expressions here and
there, but try to avoid over-using them. Otherwise, you writing may sound rather
'pompous' and 'over-bearing'. Remember to show something of your own personality,
too, and do not be afraid to express yourself in your own words.
What are the qualities of a good discussion essay?

A basic level of competence is usually characterised by an ability on the part of the

candidate to:

identify the task appropriately.

formulate a relevant response to the task.

provide a clear sense of organisation and purpose.

write reasonably accurately, though of course with some mistakes.

understand and use tenses appropriately.

choose words and phrases effectively to answer the question.

use at least some complex sentence structures, even if not always correctly.

use more than just simple, basic words and phrases.

show some awareness (even if not very developed) of academic style.

meet the language demands of their department with some help and
assistance, perhaps at pre-sessional level.

A higher level of competence is indicated by the candidates ability, in addition to the

above, to:

write with a good level of fluency.

write thoughtfully when formulating a response to the task.

write with a good sense of register and style.

write with a degree of persuasion.

write with a very high standard of accuracy.

evaluate the subject in a deeper and more critical fashion, given normal
constraints of time.
use appropriate academic vocabulary

These qualities may be phrased in various ways within the assessment criteria and
test specifications of different language tests.

A question of style should the first person pronoun (I) be used in discussion
essays?

Many researchers have spent considerable time examining the use of the personal
pronoun (I) in academic writing. Most specialists agree that the use of I probably
has little direct effect on the academic nature of the writing. In other words, using I
does not necessarily make the writing less formal, and avoiding I does not
automatically make it more academic. It is really your overall use of vocabulary and
language, rather than your selection of the personal pronoun, which has a greater
impact on the academic tone of your writing.
It is useful to bear in mind the following general rules about the use of the first person:

I is often used in introductions and conclusions, to say what you are going to
do before you do it, and what you have done afterwards.

Do not refer to yourself as the researcher or the writer it sounds very

artificial.

Some subject areas tend to favour the use of I more than others for
example, 'I' is used quite widely in social studies where the emphasis is on
practical research - but in language tests, this distinction according to subject
area is not very meaningful, and it is not necessary to take account of it.

When using the I form, it is helpful to try to vary the verb that comes
afterwards. For example, rather than simply putting I think, we can use I
feel, I would consider, I tend to regard, etc. Look for some ways to
'soften' your language and make it less direct or categorical.

It is always useful to use I when relating a personal experience as an

example, thereby distinguishing personal experience from aspects of your
reading and research (e.g. when describing an event that emphasises a point
you are making, you could say I recently encountered this phenomenon in one
of my classes, when.). However, try to avoid becoming too anecdotal
("story-telling") when you are recounting examples. Keep to the point.

A useful mnemonic device for discussion essays

When you are preparing for a test, it is useful to use mnemonic devices. Mnemonic
devices are word systems that help you to remember key points. Below is an example
of a mnemonic device for remembering important aspects in a discussion essay. You
can remember it just by remembering the initial letters of each word in the phrase:
Good Students Read EveryChapter.
Grammar - is your grammar correct and accurate?
Structure - is your essay well organised?
Relevance - have you answered the question asked of you?
Examples - have you included illustrations to reinforce your points?
Cohesion - have you used linking words and phrases (discourse markers)?

8. Writing style
Inductive and deductive styles
Good paragraphs usually contain just one idea which is developed through supporting
information. In countries like Britain, there is a preference for the main point to be stated
early in the paragraph and then developed. This kind of writing is called deductive. However,
you might come from a culture that prefers to move from the general to the specific, from
general principles to facts. This is style of writing is called inductive.
Of course, each of these two styles might also be preferred in different academic disciplines
and topic areas; in law, for example, a case is usually built up inductively. Nevertheless, you
should be aware that there is a preference in the UK for a more deductive style of writing, so
if all of your paragraphs are inductive, then the reader might become impatient and may be
thinking: Get to the point!!!
Here is an example of an inductive paragraph:
Years ago in a remote part of a Pacific island nation, an international aid agency donated a
hospital. This was a brand new purpose built facility that would serve a large community that
at that point had no health care. The architecture was of the highest modern standards and
the hospital was built on land well away from the river to avoid seasonal flooding. It was
constructed of materials which were able to withstand the extremes of temperature and
climate in the region. The opening was a great occasion. Officials and important people
came from far and wide for the event. There were politicians who made speeches to praise
the project. They said that it was a major development for the area and would radically
change the lives of the people. Sadly, however, it was never used. The government lacked
the funds to equip or staff the hospital. Moreover, the building itself was located far away
from the river, which was the main means of transport for local people, so access was
almost impossible. This health facility remained empty and unused. Many foreign aid
projects fail because of poor planning, thereby wasting huge amounts of money.

Sentence length and complexity

1. Choppy writing
Look at the paragraph below and notice how many short sentences there are:
UK polling data throughout the 1950s shows that happiness levels were above what they
are today. The proportion of people saying they are "very happy" has fallen from 52% in
1957 to just 36% today (GfK NOP, 2011). Survey results in Britain are similar to data from
America. In the U.S., social scientists have done a great deal of research into levels of life

satisfaction. Their survey findings reveal that happiness levels have gradually declined over
the last quarter of a century. But Britain and America are wealthy countries. In fact, in almost
every developed country in the Western world, happiness levels have remained largely
static over the past 50 years. This is despite huge increases in income. Britain, for example,
is three times richer than in the 1950's.Clearly, happiness and well-being do not necessarily
depend on material wealth.
Firstly, writing like this means that you take longer to express your ideas and the reader
might get a bit impatient because there is a lack of flow in the writing.
Short sentences might convey the impression that you are not developing your ideas or
connecting them in meaningful ways. It might just read like a series of unconnected facts
and pieces of information. Your reader (your academic tutor) might consider that you are
writing too simply, and therefore that your thinking is also simplistic.
Learners of English might write short sentences for a number of reasons and the main ones
are:
- They havent yet developed the ability to write grammatically complex sentences
- Writing short sentences is easier and they feel more confident about their writing if they
keep things simple
- In their own language, writing one-clause sentences is not considered inelegant as it is in
English.

2. Combining sentences
Here is an exercise in combining sentences, which is a way of avoiding writing in a choppy
style. Can you make ONE sentence? When you have written your answers, click here to see
possible combinations.
1. Queen Elizabeth II came to the throne in 1952. This was when her father King George VI
died. He died of lung disease.
2. In Britain, the crown normally passes from monarch to eldest son. King George VI had no
son. The crown passed to his eldest daughter, Elizabeth.
3. Queen Elizabeth II is a 'constitutional monarch'. This means that she is officially the head
of the state. However, the country is actually run by the government.
4. In the British monarchy system, the husband of a female monarch does not have any
recognized special status. This is why the present Queens husband is not called King Philip.

5. Every day, the Queens office receives official red boxes.. These boxes are full of
documents and reports from government ministers and officials. They must all be read and
signed by the Queen.
6. As Head of State, The Queen maintains close contact with the Prime Minister. She has a
weekly audience with the Prime Minister when she is in London.
7. The Queen's public birthday is celebrated in June with Trooping of the Colours. The
Queen's real birthday is on 21 April. She celebrates this privately.
8. The Queen makes her annual visit to Scotland during August and September. During this
time, Buckingham Palace is open to visitors from the public. Buckingham Palace is the
Queens main London residence and office.

3. Stringy and long sentences

Where possible, it is better to combine short sentences to create more grammatically
complex sentences with a few clauses. However, sometimes sentences can be too long and
the reader may therefore not follow the point being made. Here is an example of an overly
complex, long sentence:

Issues of gender, like those associated with race, are often highly complex given that they
arise in contexts of human interaction, which are often unpredictable and also determined, to
a great extent, though not exclusively so, by emotional response, which makes people react
in unexpected and unplanned ways.

There is a difference between complicated and complex writing. If you use long sentences
which contain many ideas and qualifications, then the reader has to work harder to unravel
the meaning. This kind of writing can be unnecessarily complicated. In academic English
writing, you can still use grammatically complex sentences containing a number of clauses,
but not too many. The key thing is to put yourself into the shoes of your reader and ask
yourself 'is this sentence becoming overloaded'?

Here are some examples of understandable, yet complex sentences from this section:
Having traced the history of nationalism in Europe, which was the recurring political theme of
the 20th century, this essay will now address the question as to why certain countries have
experienced it more overtly than others.
In earlier decades, theory about development, including both ideology and strategy,
prioritized economic growth and the application of modern scientific and technical
knowledge as the best way to create wealth in the underdeveloped world.

4. Varying sentence length

One common piece of advice about improving writing style is to try and use sentences of
differing lengths; this will make your writing more reader-friendly and lively. This doesn't
mean writing overly long sentences , nor does it mean including lots of short and choppy
sentences.
As a writer, you need to do a balancing act and try to produce pieces of writing in which you
consciously try to use a mixture of sentence lengths. Try this exercise below.
Here is a paragraph which contains a series of sentences which are all around 10 words
long. Can you re-write it by

joining two sentences to make them longer

keeping one short sentence

Many people take a coffee break while at work. They believe that this will ease their stress.
Research has been conflicting on the effects of caffeine. Some studies suggest that it can
worsen anxiety and trigger stress. However, others show it boosts confidence and alertness.
Recently, however, a study was done by psychologists at Bristol University in the UK. Their
research suggests that taking coffee breaks while working may actually negatively affect
employees' ability to do their jobs. It also undermines, rather than boosts, teamwork. So this
raises the question: do the classic American coffee breaks hurt more than help?

AVOIDING REPETITION AND REDUNDANCY

1. REPETITIVE USE OF VOCABULARY

If you are writing an academic text, it is not appropriate to keep repeating the same words
and phrases because this is poor style. Of course, it is inevitable that you will repeat key
nouns, as you are focussing on a particular topic when you write. If you are writing
about Google's marketing strategies, then those words will recur in your text. However, even
key words like these can be substituted. This section will focus on how.
Example 1
Look at the following text and notice how many times certain words and phrases are
repeated:

The owners of small businesses claim that there is no way that small businesses can
compete with massive companies like Wal-Mart. There are many reasons why they cannot
compete with these companies, such as the fact that small businesses do not have as much
access to advertising as large businesses like Wal-Mart. Small businesses also have limited
hours of operation compared to large businesses. Also, small businesses have fewer staff
and a lack of specialized staff. Small businesses also have a smaller inventory, and having a
small inventory means that they cannot lower prices to the extent that large businesses like
Wal-Mart reduce their prices. Small businesses are also usually not given the opportunity to
experiment with new retailing methods. Finally, small businesses also often suffer from a
lack of building space.

2. FINDING SYNONYMS

Clearly, one way to avoid using the same words and expressions too often within the same
text is to use synonyms (similar vocabulary). The longer you learn and are exposed to a
language, the wider your range of vocabulary will be. When you learn words, it's always
good to learn a few synonyms at the same time as this will enable you to express yourself
more flexibly, explain and reformulate ideas better, and of course, improve your writing style.

You can help build a stronger vocabulary by being an active reader - when you come across
useful words and expressions as you read, do you check them in the dictionary and find out
about their usage? Do your record these new items so as to learn them?
ANother way to widen your vocabulary is by using the Thesaurus. This is a synonyms
dictionary and you can find a number of these online:
http://www.merriam-webster.com/
http://thesaurus.com/
http://www.macmillandictionary.com/about_thesaurus.html

3. GRAMMATICAL SUBSTITUTION

You can avoid repeating words and improve your writing style by using grammatical
substitution; this just means replacing one grammatical item for another.
Here are just a few examples:
1. You can replace a noun with a pronoun:
There is always a safe way to do something, but the more dangerous one is usually more
fun.
2. You can replace a noun phrase with a pronoun:
Climbing a mountain without a rope sounds foolish, but this is just what some extreme
climbers do.
3. You can replace a verb with the appropriate form of the verb 'do' and the word 'so':
By law, people have to wear seatbelts. Failing to do so will incur a heavy fine.
4. You can replace a whole clause by using the word 'so':
Everyone seems to think hes guilty. If so, he will have to resign.
4. LABOURING A POINT

Another example of poor style is when a writer spends too long explaining something and
adding unnecessary detail - this is what we call 'labouring a point' (I think I just did it!)

Look at an example of this. What could be deleted?

Example one

A number of recent studies (Brudney, 1993; Clary & Snyder, 1991; Davis et al., 2003) have
found that young people volunteer to serve their community mainly because they are
motivated by the desire to help others. This kind of motivation is altruistic; in other words,
volunteers are considering and responding to the needs of others. Given this humanistic
motivation of volunteers, youth organizations should promote volunteering as an avenue to
make a difference in the lives of others.
Click here to check.

Example two
Again, here is another example in which the writer is labouring a point.
What would you delete?

It is commonly believed that English is the dominant language in the world today. However,
there is growing evidence that English will not remain in that dominant position in the future.
Instead, experts in linguistics predict that multilingualism will be the key trend in the years to
come. A multilingual population is already the case in much of the world and is becoming
more common in the United States. One in five Americans speak a language other than
English at home. The notion that English will take over the world and that we will all be
speaking it as a first language is now considered out-dated and erroneous. In most of the
world multilingualism is and will continue to be the norm, with English perhaps as just one
language among others of equal importance.