1 s2.0 S0020768307002107 Main

International Journal of Solids and Structures 44 (2007) 75977614
www.elsevier.com/locate/ijsolstr
On the eect of corrosion defects on the collapse

pressure of pipelines
T.A. Netto *, U.S. Ferraz, A. Botto
Ocean Engineering Department, COPPE-Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, 21949900 Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
Received 29 August 2006; received in revised form 30 April 2007
Available online 6 May 2007
Abstract
The loss of metal in a pipeline due to corrosion usually results in localized pits with various depths and irregular shapes
on its external and internal surfaces. The eect of corrosion defects on the collapse pressure of oshore pipelines was studied through the combination of small-scale experiments with nonlinear numerical analyses based on the nite element
method. After calibrated based on the experimental results, the model was used to determine the collapse pressure as a
function of material and geometric parameters of dierent pipes and defects. An extensive parametric study using 2-D
and 3-D numerical models was carried out encompassing dierent defect geometries and their interaction with pipe
ovalization.
2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Collapse pressure; Corrosion defects; Pipelines
1. Introduction
The increasing number of aging pipelines in operation has signicantly increased the number of accidents.
Both internal and external corrosion defects (e.g., Oce of Pipeline Safety Statistics, 2006) are some of the
major causes of accidents in liquid and natural gas pipelines. While internal pressure is the predominant load
for onshore and shallow water pipelines, deep and ultra-deep pipelines must be designed to resist collapse due
to the ambient external pressure. The economic consequences of a reduced operating pressure, loss of production due to downtime, repairs, or replacement can be severe and, in some cases, not aordable. Thus, even
when signs of corrosion are detected through visual inspection and other inspection techniques (e.g. instrumented pigs), there are several pipelines kept in operation. Most of these pipelines are allowed to operate after
recalculating the maximum admissible internal/external pressure of the product being transported. With this
purpose, reliable criteria are useful to readily check the residual strength of pipelines avoiding the immediate
need of more sophisticated analyses.
Corresponding author. Tel.: +55 21 25627789; fax: +55 21 25627790.

E-mail address: tanetto@lts.coppe.ufrj.br (T.A. Netto).
0020-7683/$ - see front matter 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ijsolstr.2007.04.028
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T.A. Netto et al. / International Journal of Solids and Structures 44 (2007) 75977614
Nomenclature
PCOR
PCO
D
t
L
d
c
l
ro
ry
rp
rr
n
E
m
Collapse pressure of the corroded pipe

Collapse pressure of intact pipe
Outside diameter of the pipe
Wall thickness of the pipe
Length of the pipe
Maximum depth of the defect
Maximum width of the defect
Maximum length of the defect
0.2% strain oset yield stress
Stress at a strain of 0.5% (API yield stress)
Proportional stress
Tensile strength
Hardening exponent
Youngs modulus
Poissons ratio
The residual strength of pipelines with corrosion defects under internal pressure has been extensively studied in the past fteen years. Among the existing criteria, the ASME B31G code (1991) originally developed
many years ago, is still the most widely used criterion. Kiefner and Vieth (1990) later recognized that the corrosion assessment methods in the B31G code could be over conservative for some kinds of defects found in
practice. They modied the code that is known as the 0.85 dL method. As the original version, the length
of the defect l and its depth d are the only parameters needed to dene the defect. Recently, DNV (1999)
has published recommended practices for assessing corroded pipelines under combined internal pressure
and longitudinal compressive stress. Based on both experimental tests and numerical calculations, the proposed empirical formulae comprise single and interacting defects, and complex shaped defects. More recent
experimental and numerical analyses (e.g. Benjamin et al., 2002; Netto et al., 2005) indicate that these currently accepted assessment codes involve safety factors which can occasionally impose costly and unnecessary
repair of defects or replacement of the aected region.
As oshore activities move to deeper scenarios, pipelines and risers used to connect sea-oor wells to
platforms can also be susceptible to collapse due to the ambient external pressure. Collapse of tubular
structures has been extensively studied in the past and nowadays, the problem is well understood. The
major parameters that aect collapse are the pipe diameter-to-thickness ratio, its material properties, initial
geometric imperfections like out-of-roundness (ovality) and thickness variations (Yeh and Kyriakides,
1986; Timoshenko, 1993; Dyau and Kyriakides, 1993), anisotropies in yielding and residual stresses introduced in the manufacturing process (Kyriakides et al., 1994). Other factors that can locally reduce the
collapse of pipelines and risers during installation and operation, such as dents induced by the impact
objects (Park and Kyriakides, 1996), local buckles induced by excessive bending (Murphey and Langner,
1985), have also been investigated. On the other hand, studies on the behavior of pipelines with wall
thickness reduction due to wear or corrosion under external pressure are not so readily available in the
open literature. Bai and Hauch, 1998, studied the problem by reducing the thickness of the shell to be
equal to that of the corroded region. As expected, the proposed analytical model yielded over conservative
estimates, especially for deeper defects. Fatt (1999), proposed an exact solution for the elastic buckling of
cylindrical shells with non-uniform thickness. Using the same analytical model, Xue and Fatt (2002) investigated dierent buckling modes of corroded pipes. The authors suggest that depending on the depth and
width of the defect, the deformation mechanism of the corroded region is correlated to that of an arch
with built-in ends (Timoshenko and Gere, 1961). Bounds between symmetric and unsymmetrical elastic
buckling modes are dened as a function of the defect geometry. Analytical results were well compared
with nite element analysis.
7599
In this work, the factors governing the behavior of corroded pipelines subject to external pressure are investigated through combined experimental and numerical eorts. The residual strength of pipelines with single
longitudinal corrosion defects was initially studied through a series of small-scale experiments. In parallel,
two and three-dimensional nonlinear nite element models were developed to predict the collapse pressure
of intact and corroded pipes. The models were rst validated by reproducing numerically the physical experiments performed, and then used to carry on an extensive parametric study. The results are used to assess the
detrimental eects of length, width, and depth of corrosion defects on the collapse pressure and their interaction with pipe out-of-roundness.
2. Experiments
Eleven small-scale steel specimens were manufactured, of these, one intact and ten with induced defects.
Availability of X-grade steel pipes in small diameters is limited and, as a consequence, the specimens were
machined from two long pipes (P1 and P2) made of mild steel AISI 1020. Nominal material and geometric
parameters are as follows:
Material: AISI 1020.

Diameter (D): 42 mm.
Thickness (t): 2.7 mm.
Length (L): 750 mm.
The experimental results shown will be used to calibrate a nite element model capable of reproducing the
collapse mechanism of corroded pipes. Once calibrated, this model is used to perform an extensive parametric
study in which API X-grade steels and other geometries (16 < D/t < 32) are considered.
2.1. Geometric parameters
Prior to each experiment, the dimensions of the test specimens and initial geometric imperfection parameters were measured and recorded. The diameter (D) was measured with a caliper at twenty points along
the circumference of eleven cross-sections along the overall length. A caliper was also used to measure the wall
thickness (t) at the ends, totaling forty thickness measurements at each cross-section.
This set of data was used to calculate the out-of-roundness (ovality), Do, and the wall thickness eccentricity,
No, due to thickness variations of the measured cross-sections, dened respectively as follows (Yeh and
Kyriakides, 1986):
Do
Dmax Dmin
Dmax Dmin
No
tmax tmin
:
tmax tmin
and,
The mean values of the diameters were found to vary between +0.07% and +0.71% from the nominal value
(42 mm), whereas the mean wall thickness deviated 1.11 % to 4.07% with respect to the nominal thickness
(2.7 mm). The maximum out-of-roundness was in all cases below 0.16% (varying between 0.04% and
0.16%). The maximum wall thickness eccentricity had values between 1.4% and 4.4%. Table 1 reports the main
geometric parameters of the test specimens.
2.2. Corrosion defects
Dierent geometries of material discontinuities were induced on the pipe specimens through a spark erosion
process with customized tools for each size of defect. An overall view of a pipe and induced defect is shown in
Fig. 1. Defects were introduced in the region of maximum out-of-roundness of each pipe. Additionally, they
7600
Table 1
Parameters of pipes tested (Fatt, 1999)
Specimen
Pipe
D (mm)
t (mm)
d/t
l/D
c/pD
Do (%) (max.)
No (%) (max.)
P COR a
P CO
T1I
T8D
T9D
T10D
T11D
T2D
T3D
T4D
T5D
T6D
T7D
P1
P2
P2
P2
P2
P1
P1
P1
P1
P1
P1
42.11
42.03
42.04
42.05
42.05
42.06
42.08
42.07
42.07
42.03
42.07
2.81
2.77
2.76
2.77
2.77
2.77
2.79
2.73
2.79
2.79
2.78
0.20
0.20
0.40
0.40
0.60
0.61
0.70
0.68
0.80
0.77
1.00
0.50
1.00
0.50
1.00
0.50
1.00
0.50
1.00
0.50
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.0700
0.0773
0.0773
0.0654
0.0773
0.0927
0.1605
0.0464
0.0499
0.0381
0.0416
3.9
2.7
2.82
2.71
4.40
4.4
4.1
4.3
3.5
3.5
3.3
1.000
0.978
0.966
0.872
0.939
0.664
0.763
0.612
0.767
0.599
0.762
Collapse pressure of intact pipe, PCO = 41.73 MPa.
R=
d l2
+
2 8d
d c2
+
2 8d
Fig. 1. Pipe and defect geometric parameters.
were positioned so that the minimum thickness was coincident with the minimum diameter of the ovalized
cross-section. The tools used to induce the defects on the pipes were made in circular shapes in both longitudinal and hoop directions in order to obtain maximum depths (d) of approximately 0.2t, 0.4t, 0.6t, 0.7t, and
0.8t, maximum lengths (l) of 0.5D and 1.0D, and maximum widths (c) equal to 0.05pD and 0.1pD. This results
in an oval-like shape of the defect on the external specimen surface, as shown in Fig. 1. The gure also gives a
detailed representation of the induced defects, and the radii of curvature in both directions as a function of
their main geometric parameters. Fig. 2 depicts pipe T3D and its induced defect before the experimental test.
The length and width of the defects were measured using conventional calipers. The maximum depth was
obtained with the aid of a displacement transducer by mounting the pipes on a lathe (Fig. 3). These values are
shown in Table 1.
7601
Fig. 2. Test specimen T3D with induced defect.
Fig. 3. Defect depth measurement.
2.3. Material characterization

The measured engineering stressstrain responses of the two pipes from which the test specimens were
extracted are shown in Fig. 4. The curves are the average of tests on three test coupons cut in the axial direction of the pipes. In general, individual tests did not deviate more than 7% from the corresponding average.
The average Youngs modulus (E), Poissons ratio (m), and 0.2% oset yield stresses (ro) of each region are
listed below. The material properties in the hoop direction were obtained by internally pressurizing a piece
of pipe with zero axial stress following a similar procedure to that suggested in ASTM A-370 (1991). The
material anisotropy was found to be negligible (the ratio roh/ro was in average 0.98, roh being the yield stress
measured in the circumferential direction).
7602
Fig. 4. Engineering stressstrain curve of test specimens.
PIPE
E (MPa)
ro (MPa)
rp (MPa)
rr (MPa)
P1
P2
216,000
211,000
287
291
243
250
381
389
0.3
0.3
2.4. Experimental procedure and results

The customized apparatus built for the experimental tests is illustrated in Fig. 5. The specimen is sealed by
two internal plugs connected by four rigid rods so that no compression is transferred to the specimen due to
hydrostatic pressure. On the external surface at both ends, two conical grip assemblies are mounted and rigidly
attached to circular end plates. These plates are connected to each other by four threaded rods. As a result, the
apparatus nearly simulates a clamped boundary condition on the specimen edges (no displacements allowed).
The experiments are conducted inside a 5 m long pressure vessel with a pressure capacity of approximately
70 MPa.
After introducing the apparatus, the pressure vessel is closed, lled with water, and then pressurized.
During the test, the signal from a calibrated pressure transducer is monitored via a computer based data
acquisition system operating in the Labview environment. The pressuretime response is quite linear up to
the maximum pressure (usually, a pressurizing rate of approximately 0.33 MPa/min was adopted. Pipe local
collapse is followed by a sudden pressure drop because of the nearly incompressible nature of the pressurizing
uid (water). Because of the high volume of water inside the pressure vessel, local collapse propagates dynamically, aecting the full length of the specimens. The maximum pressures attained at each test are listed in
Table 1. Then, it is clear how the collapse pressure of the pipes is aected by the dierent geometric parameters
of the defects. For deeper defects, variations in length l caused a more detrimental eect than depth variations,
as observed in specimens T3D, T5D, and T7D for which the collapse pressures were nearly the same, even
though the defects had dierent depths (d/t = 0.6, 0.7, and 0.8, respectively). Similar results were obtained
among specimens T2D, T4D, and T6D. Inversely, the collapse pressure varied signicantly between specimens
with the same d/t but dierent l/D (e.g. T10 and T11, T2D and T3D, T4D and T5D, T6D and T7D). For
intermediate defects (e.g. T11D d/t = 0.4), both the depth and length of the defects inuence the collapse
pressure. Very small inuence on the collapse pressure was observed for shallower defects (e.g., T8D and
T9D d/t = 0.2). In these cases, the collapse mode and collapse pressures were approximately the same as
for an intact pipe.
7603
Fig. 5. (a) Test apparatus, (b) schematic view and (c) detail of end connections.
Fig. 6 shows pictures of the intact specimen (T1I) and two other specimens (T8D and T5D) after collapse. Two dierent collapse modes can be observed: the usual doubly-symmetric mode (henceforth called
at- mode) for the intact specimen and specimens with shallow defects (d/t = 0.2), and a U-shape mode
(called U-mode) with only one plane of symmetry of the collapsed cross-section. Clearly, the second mode
7604
Fig. 6. Test specimens after collapse (a) and (b) intact specimen T1I at-mode, (c) and (d) specimen T8D shallow defect at-mode, (e)
and (f) specimen T5D U-mode.
was induced by the presence of the defect and its coincidence with the minor diameter of the ovalized
cross-section. As it will be seen later in the parametric study, depending on the defect dimensions and
its position relative to the oval shape of the pipe cross-section, other collapse modes besides those two
can occur.
3. Numerical models
Parallel with the experimental program, nite element models were developed to simulate the
collapse mechanism of intact and externally damaged pipes under external pressure. These models
were developed within the framework of the nonlinear nite element code ABAQUS (version
6.4).
Including the defect regions, the pipes were idealized with three-dimensional, 27-node, quadratic brick elements (C3D27). The number of integration points per element was 27, i.e., a full integration scheme was used
(the onset of collapse is expected to occur at low to moderate plastic strains for the geometries considered,
exempting the possibility of numerical problems related to volumetric locking). The active degrees of freedom
were three displacement components at each node. A typical mesh used in the analyses of the corroded
pipes is illustrated in Fig. 7, reproducing the exact shape of the defects (exact model). The mesh was automatically generated through the commercial software Abaqus CAE (version 6.4). The deformation of the crosssections of the pipes was assumed to be symmetric with respect to plane 12. Furthermore, plane 23, located
at the mid axial position of the pipe (and defect), was also assumed to be a plane of symmetry, and the nodes
at x1 = L/2 were restricted in the axial direction. The problem was then reduced to a quarter of its original
Fig. 6 (continued)
Fig. 7. Typical nite element mesh used in the numerical analyses of corroded pipes exact model.
7605
7606
size. The material of the pipes was assumed to be J2-type, elasticplastic, nitely deforming solid that hardens
isotropically (Dyau and Kyriakides, 1993).
The exact models were rst used to simulate each of the physical experiments conducted. The actual geometric and material parameters of the pipes tested were used in the analyses. The true stress-logarithmic strain
versions of the curves shown on Fig. 4 were approximated through multi-linear ts. Pipes were loaded with
external pressure using the Riks path following a scheme to obtain the loading history over the maximum
pressure. Fig. 8 shows the calculated P dV responses for test specimens T1I, T6D, and T7D using the exact
model (V0 is the initial internal volume of the pipe and dV is the absolute value of the change of volume evaluated for each pressure level). The pressure peaks marked on the curves with the symbol ^ represent the onset
of collapse. Following the limit load, the deformation was localized on a few diameter long sections (Dyau and
Kyriakides, 1993). Based on this, collapse of the intact pipe was initiated from a local imperfection placed in
the neighborhood of x1 = 0, of the form (Dyau and Kyriakides, 1993):

x1 2
wo h Do exp b
cos 2h
3
D
where wo is the radial displacement and h is the polar angular coordinate measured from the x2 axis. The maximum amplitude of the imperfection is Do and b is a multiplier parameter that determines the extent of the
imperfect area. In these analyses b was set equal to two pipe diameters. For the corroded pipes, the ovalization
was kept constant to Do along the length (x1 axis).
Fig. 8. Calculated pressure vs. change in volume response for specimens T1I, T6D, and T7D.
Table 2
Comparison between experiments and analyses (Fatt, 1999)
Specimen
Pipe
P COR a
P CO
P^^ COR b
P CO
Collapse modec
T1I
T8D
T9D
T10D
T11D
T2D
T3D
T4D
T5D
T6D
T7D
P1
P2
P2
P2
P2
P1
P1
P1
P1
P1
P1
1.000
0.978
0.966
0.872
0.939
0.664
0.763
0.612
0.767
0.599
0.762
1.057
0.979
1.007
0.910
0.977
0.696
0.786
0.607
0.770
0.556
0.731
F
F
F
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
a
b
c
Experiments.
Analyses exact model.
F = Flat-mode; U = U-mode.
7607
Results from experimental tests (PCOR), and correspondent analyses using the exact model (P^^ COR are summarized in Table 2. In general, the estimates from the exact model correlated very well with the experimental
results (maximum deviation of 4%). We attribute part of these dierences to the fact that parameters like residual stresses, anisotropy (though small), and thickness eccentricity were not modeled.
Another model, in which the defect regions were considered as sectors of length l and width c, with constant
thickness equal to t d, Fig. 9 (simplied model), was developed to be used in the parametric study below. Element types, boundary conditions, material constitutive model and pressurization scheme were the same previously described. As a result of mesh sensitivity analyses, element distribution and renement varied depending
on the geometry of the defects, though roughly keeping the same total number of elements in all cases. Usually,
Fig. 9. Typical nite element mesh used in the numerical analyses of corroded pipes simplied model.
Table 3
Mesh convergence results. Adopted mesh is marked with
Defect
Hoopa
Thickb
Hoopa
(a) 2-D Model (D=406.4 mm, t=12.7 mm, Do = 0.2%, d/t = 0.4 and c/pD = 0.025)
2.0
2.0
40.0
4.0*
1.0*
40.0*
4.0
2.0
40.0
Longit.c
Thickd
(b) 3-D Model (intact model with D=406.4 mm, t=12.7 mm, Do = 0.2%)
20
01
20
02
20
03
40
01
40
02
40*
03*
40
04
60
01
60
02
60
03
a
c
d
Number
Number
Number
Number
Thickb
3.0
3.0*
3.0
P CO
0.639
0.633
0.633
P^ COR
Pipe
P^ COR
Pipe
of
of
of
of
uniform elements in the hoop direction.

uniform elements in the thick direction.
elements in the longitudinal direction.
elements in the thick direction.
_
P CO
1.111
1.108
1.106
1.001
1.000
1.000*
1.000
0.994
0.994
0.993
7608
a preliminary 2-D mesh sensitivity study was performed to obtain the optimum mesh in both thickness and hoop
directions for a given defect. Then, 3-D models were generated varying the number of elements in the longitudinal
direction. Table 3 summarizes the mesh convergence study performed for a given pipe and defect geometry and
the nal adopted mesh for this case. Similar methodology was applied to the various cases studied.
Before going ahead, it is important to note that simplied models like this one will generally yield lower
bound estimates for the collapse pressure of pipes with corroded defects. In other words, making the depth
of the defect constant in the numerical model leads to a higher detrimental eect on the collapse pressure.
In order to quantify this eect, the simplied model was used to obtain the collapse pressure of pipes with
the same material and geometric parameters adopted in the exact model analyses. Table 4 shows a comparison
between the results obtained from the two models.
The shallower and shorter the defect, the smaller the dierence between the two predictions is. This trend
can be observed by comparing the results obtained from the analyses of pipes T5D and T3D. Very poor correlation was obtained for models T2D, T4D, T6D, and T7D. As more material is removed from the pipe in the
simplied analysis, the defect, depending on its geometry, tends to have an arch-like behavior, as described
previously by Xue and Fatt (2002). This behavior could be depicted in the numerical analysis of pipe T6D.
When using the simplied model, the defect region buckled symmetrically like an arch while the rest of the
cross-section remained nearly intact, see Fig. 10(a). As a result, the maximum pressure attained in this analysis
was much lower than the experimental value and its prediction using the exact numerical model. In these latter
cases, the U-mode of collapse was observed, in which the whole cross-section buckled in a U-symmetric shape,
Fig. 10(b), as described before.
To verify the possibility of occurrence of non-symmetric collapse modes and their eects on the collapse
pressure, dierent two-dimensional analyses considering the whole cross-section were performed. However,
for the pipe and defect geometries considered in this study, only symmetric modes were observed (a typical
deformed conguration obtained in these analyses is shown in Fig. 11).
4. Parametric study
Experimental and numerical analyses showed that dierent collapse modes can occur depending on the
geometry of the defect. Moreover, the circumferential shape of the defect, with respect to the ovalized
cross-section, can also change the collapse mode, and, as a consequence, the corresponding collapse pressure.
An extensive parametric study using 2-D (plane strain elements) and 3-D simplied models (as the one
described above) was carried out. The objective was to describe dierent collapse mechanisms associated with
varied defect geometries, and how the collapse pressure is aected by them. The simplied model was used
because actual corrosion defects can take any shape in both directions, depending on the corrosion mechanism. Thus, the most conservative approach is to adopt a uniform thickness reduction throughout the aected
area. As seen in the previous section, the resulting degree of conservatism will strongly depend upon the geometry of the defect. Other approaches, similar to the eective area method used for burst pressure calculations
Table 4
Comparison between exact and simplied models for dierent defect geometries
Model
d/t
l/D
c/pD
P^ COR a
P CO
P^^ COR b
P CO
T8D
T9D
T10D
T11D
T2D
T3D
T4D
T5D
T6D
T7D
0.2
0.2
0.4
0.4
0.60
0.61
0.70
0.68
0.80
0.77
1.00
0.50
1.00
0.50
1.00
0.50
1.00
0.50
1.00
0.50
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
1.000
1.032
0.823
0.936
0.476
0.718
0.344
0.737
0.227
0.353
0.979
1.007
0.910
0.977
0.696
0.786
0.607
0.770
0.556
0.731
a
b
Analyses simplied model.

Analyses exact model.
7609
Fig. 10. Collapse modes (a) localized arch-like behavior and (b) early stages of the U-mode.
(Kiefner and Vieth, 1990), can be considered to estimate the collapse pressure of pipes with irregular shape
defects. However, this was left for further investigation.
The geometric parameters of pipes and defects analyzed are given in Table 5. As previously explained,
defects were considered as sectors of length l and width c, with constant thickness equal to t d.
The uniaxial stressstrain curves of the material in the elasticplastic range were represented by a power
hardening law of the form:
r
e
for r < rp
E

n
rp 1 r
1
for r P rp
e
1
4
n
E n rp
for strains less than 10%. The t parameters, given below, were selected to approximate the API yield stress
(ry) to that of nominal API X-65 grade steel.
Other materials used in practice (dierent API X-grades) were also considered in this parametric study.
However, no signicant dierences were observed in the ratio between the collapse pressure of the corroded
pipe and the collapse pressure of the intact pipe for the same pipe and defect geometry. Thus, for the sake of
simplicity, only results for API X-65 grade steel are reported in this paper.
Material
E (GPa)
rp (MPa)
ry (MPa)
X-65
207
0.3
325
448.
9.65
7610
Fig. 11. Symmetric collapse mode (D/t = 32, d/t = 0.4,c/pD = 0.3).
Table 5
Material and geometric parameters analyzed
Material
X-65
D (mm)
t (mm)
d/t
l/D
c/pD
406.4
12.7
0.2, 0.4, 0.6
1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0, 9.0, 10.0, 11.0, 12.0, 13.0, 14.0
0.00156, 0.00312; 0.00625; 0.0125; 0.025; 0.05; 0.1; 0.2; 0.3; 0.4; 0.5; 0.6; 0.7; 0.8; 0.9; 0.95; 1.0
In the interest of space, only part of the obtained results aiming to illustrate how the geometry of the defect
can aect the collapse pressure and its associated mode, is shown in this work. Figs. 12 and 13 show the inuence of defect length (l/D) and width (c/pD) on the collapse pressure of the pipe analyzed. Results for three
dierent depths are shown: d/t = 0.2, 0.4, and 0.6. In Fig. 12, the defect was considered to aect the whole
circumference for these three depths (solid lines). In order to compare, collapse pressures for defects with
c/pD = 0.1 and dierent lengths were also plotted (dashed lines). When analyzing the inuence of the parameter c/pD, pipe and defects were assumed to have innite lengths, allowing the use of 2-D plane strain elements
for simplicity, Fig. 13. Because of the axisymmetric nature of the defect shown in Fig. 12, the collapse mode
obtained for these cases was the conventional at-mode observed for intact pipes (one should note that axi-
^
PCOR 1.0
_______
------
^
PCO 0.8
axisymmetric defect
X-65
c/D = 0.1
= 0.2%
l
2
D = 32
t
0.6
d/t= 0.2
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.0
d/t= 0.4
d/t= 0.6
4.0
8.0
12.0
Fig. 12. Collapse pressure as function of l/D.
l
__
D
16.0
7611
1.0
^
P
= 0.2%
COR
^
P
X-65
D = 32
t
0.8
Flat mode
U1 mode
U2 mode
U3 mode
Pear mode
c
2
CO
0.6
d/t = 0.2
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.0
d/t = 0.4
d/t = 0.6
0.3
0.5
0.8
c
__
D
1.0
Fig. 13. Collapse pressure as function of c/pD.
symmetric and innite length defects are both idealized and impractical cases that were included just for the
sake of identifying lower bounds for the eect of localized defects on the collapse pressure). The curves
smoothly converge to the lower bound indicated by the dashed lines, which correspond to the collapse pressure of pipes with reduced thickness equal to the thickness of the defects. Similar trend is observed for the
narrow defect, though in this case the collapse pressure tends to a higher plateau, whereas a U-type collapse
mode is observed. In contrast, the curves correlating the collapse pressure to the width of the defect clearly
identify regions with dierent behaviors, Fig. 13. These are associated to the collapse modes shown in
Fig. 14. Pipes with no defects collapse in the regular at-mode (Fig. 14(a)). Narrow defects precipitate the
U1-mode of collapse, i.e., the cross-section collapses in a U-shape pattern (Fig. 14(b)). This mode switches
to an arch-like instability behavior in the region of the defect, or the U2-mode (Fig. 14(c)). For defects with
depths d/t = 0.4 and 0.6, as the width increases, another mode is observed, in which the collapsed cross-section
resembles the shape of a pear (Fig. 14(d)). When most of the section is aected by the defect, the pipe collapses
in an intermediate mode between the U1-mode and the at-mode, here called the U3-mode (Fig. 14(e)). The
collapse mode for pipes with shallower defects (d/t = 0.2) jumps straight from the U2 to the U3-mode. As
expected, the regular at-mode is again observed when the whole cross-section has a uniform reduced
thickness.
These collapse mechanisms are complex and they aect the collapse pressure of the corroded pipes. The
problem is not only aected by the geometry of the defect, as illustrated above, but also by its type (internal
or external) and its position relative to the ovalized cross-section. In order to address this issue, another 2-D
parametric study was performed, in which dierent defect depths (d/t = 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.6) and out-ofroundness (0.2% and 0.5%) were analyzed. The width of the defect (c/pD) was set equal to 0.05. Additionally,
dierent positions concerning minor and major diameter of the ovalized cross-sections were considered, as
seen in Table 6.
The results obtained for internal and external defects were quite similar, though they showed interesting
distinct collapse mechanisms because of the interaction defect-ovalization. The worst scenario cases occur
when the defect coincides with what would be the most compressed bers of the collapsed cross-section without the presence of the defect. These are schematically illustrated in the rst and fourth rows of Table 6. When
the pipe tends to collapse in accordance with the ovalization, but the defect is shifted 90 with respect to the
most compressed bers (second and third rows), defect and ovalization interact against each other. Eventually,
depending on their values, either the ovalization or the depth of the defect prevails to determine the nal collapse conguration. The net result is a higher collapse pressure.
Dierent defect geometries could be considered, particularly defects with dierent lengths through 3-D
numerical analyses. Depending on parameters such as the width and length of the defect, extent and relative
position of the ovalized cross-sections, slightly dierent interaction mechanisms can occur. The authors
deemed these analyses unnecessary since the dierences in the results, when considering internal or external
7612
Fig. 14. Symmetric collapse modes (a) at-mode, (b) U1-mode, (c) U 2-mode, (d) Pear-mode and (e) U 3-mode.
defects (which is a very practical issue) and the way the collapse pressure is aected by the interaction with
other geometrical imperfection (ovality), could be well understood through the use of the 2-D analyses and
results obtained.
5. Concluding remarks
Small-scale steel pipe specimens were fabricated, one intact and ten with dierent induced defects, and
tested under external pressure to investigate the residual strength of damaged pipes. Numerical models based
on the nite element method incorporating nonlinear kinematics and plasticity were developed to simulate the
problem. Numerical and experimental results presented very good correlation when the exact shape of the
defects was reproduced. A parametric study was then performed considering dierent defect geometries in
7613
Table 6
Inuence of the position of the defect with respect to the ovalized cross-section in the collapse pressure
0
d/ t
0.2%
0.1
0.2
PCOR
Ovality / Defect
position
0.3
0.5%
0.4
0.6
0.1
PCO
0.2
PCOR
(Collapse configuration)*
0.3
0.4
0.6
PCO
(Collapse configuration)*
0.95
0.88
0.74
0.64
0.49
0.96
0.86
0.77
0.68
0.54
0.99
0.99
0.96
0.75
0.54
0.98
0.96
0.94
0.94
0.68
0.99
0.99
0.88
0.71
0.53
0.98
0.96
0.95
0.95
0.66
0.93
0.83
0.72
0.62
0.49
0.94
0.85
0.75
0.66
0.53
(*) The schemes represent the preferred collapse conguration. Depending on the geometry of the defect the collapse mode can be either
at or U-mode.
order to assess their inuence on the collapse pressure. It was shown that dierent collapse modes can occur
depending on the defect geometry. Moreover, interaction of defect and pipe ovality can also aect the collapse
pressure. The problem is not only inuenced by the geometry of the defect, but also by its type (internal or
external) and its position relative to the ovalized cross-section.
Acknowledgements
The work of U. Ferraz was sponsored by ANP-Brazil, and that of T.A. Netto by CNPq-Brazil. The authors
would like to thank the technical sta of the Subsea Technology Laboratory COPPE/UFRJ for their assistance in the design and execution of the experiments.
References
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International Journal of Solids and Structures 44 (2007) 75977614

On the eect of corrosion defects on the collapse

Corresponding author. Tel.: +55 21 25627789; fax: +55 21 25627790.

Collapse pressure of the corroded pipe

Material: AISI 1020.

Collapse pressure of intact pipe, PCO = 41.73 MPa.

Fig. 1. Pipe and defect geometric parameters.

Fig. 2. Test specimen T3D with induced defect.

Fig. 3. Defect depth measurement.

2.3. Material characterization

Fig. 4. Engineering stressstrain curve of test specimens.

2.4. Experimental procedure and results

uniform elements in the hoop direction.

Analyses simplied model.

Fig. 12. Collapse pressure as function of l/D.

Fig. 13. Collapse pressure as function of c/pD.

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