CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1

Motivation and background

Transportation is the back bone of any nation. Among the available transportation
systems, railway is the cheaper, less polluted and eco friendly system. For faster
transportation and compete with roadways vehicle, there is very much need for increase
in speed. Indian Railway, introduced in 1853, is the world's fourth largest railway
network after those of the United States, Russia and China. It is world's second largest
commercial or utility employer. It is operated on three gauges- broad gauge (W-1676
mm), meter gauge (M-1000 mm) and narrow gauge (Y-762 and 610 mm). The presence of
the Indian Railways in the todays world demands higher speed, better traffic safety,
better comfort and low running cost. Satisfying these demands is absolutely necessary to
maintain and increase the competitiveness of Indian Railway as public and goods
transport. Hence we can say Indian Railway is life line of our nation.
The motivation of this study originated due to increasing incidents of derailment
of the trains causing much harm to public property and lives, congestion in road traffic,
passengers time wastage at the bus terminals and fuel price hike all around the world.
Increasing rail car tonnages and speed are limited due to track conditions and
maintenance costs associated with degradation of track. Once the train speed reaches the
critical speed, the amplitude of the track vibration will increase significantly, and causes
safety problem of the railway system [1].
The interaction between vehicle and track dynamics plays an essential role. An
investigation of the dynamic interaction of rail track and wagon system has to be
exposed more in order to avoid train accidents and to increase passenger comfort while
travelling. The interactive forces developed between vehicle and track depends on the
dynamic properties of the vehicle speed and the irregularities along the track and vehicle
parameters. The dynamic behavior and, more specifically the interactive forces directly

depend on the load and the mechanical systems (such as springs, dampers etc.) which
interact with the wheels, the train body and bogies etc.
In the present work an attempt has been made to investigate different aspects of
railway dynamics and interaction between vehicle and track by considering a coupled
vehicle track model. The effect of rail track structure on the vertical dynamics has been
studied by simulating the bond graph model of coupled wagon-track system.

1.2

Introduction

The rail track and wagon system is modeled as a discrete system of masses, springs and
viscous dampers, which is linear. The complete model of vehicle track system is
schematically represented in Fig. 1.1. The conventional railway track structures, consists
of the superstructure and the substructure. The superstructure contains the rails, the
fastening and the sleeper, while the sub-structure contains the ballast, sub-ballast and
sub-grade [1].
1.2.1

Rail vehicle and its components

Car body is assumed as a lumped mass and is connected to the bogie frame by secondary
Suspension System on which it is directly carried. This permits rotation and transverse
movement between the car-body and bogie. Complete railway system along with the car
body, bogie, wheel set, suspension system and track is shown in Fig. 1.1. The principal
functions of the primary suspension are guidance of wheelsets on straight track and in
curves, and isolation of the bogie frame from dynamic loads produced by track
irregularities. The primary suspension systems are typically made of coil springs that
minimize the impact and enhance the stability of wagon operation to cushion the ride,
consists of wheelset and wheel. The secondary suspension provides the reduction of
dynamic accelerations acting on the car body which determines passenger comfort. The
source of these accelerations is excitation from the track irregularity/roughness profile
and the natural oscillations of the bogie frame and car body on their suspension elements
A bogie is a structure underneath a train to which axle are attached through
bearings. Bogies serve several purposes

To support the rail vehicle body.

To run stably on both straight and curved track.
Ensure ride comfort by absorbing vibration, and minimizing centrifugal forces

when the trains run on curves at high speed.

Minimize generation of track irregularities and rail abrasion.

Usually two bogies are fitted to each carriage, wagon or locomotive, one at each end.
Bogie frame consist of two side frames, which are connected together by to cross tubes.

Fig. 1.1: A dynamic schematic model of rail track and wagon system [2]

The wheelsets are coupled to the rail via non-linear Hertzian contact springs,
consists of two wheels fixed on a common axle, so that each wheel rotates with a
common angular velocity and a constant distance between the two wheels is maintained.
It provides the necessary distance between the vehicle and the track and transmitting
traction and braking forces to the rails to accelerate and decelerate the vehicle [3].
1.2.2

Rail track

The purpose of a railway track is to guide the trains in a safe and economic manner. The
track and the switches should allow smooth passage of the trains. If the track is not
perfectly leveled and aligned, the irregularities will cause oscillations or vibrations of the
train, and this may induce discomfort for passengers and damage for goods [4]. A
3

perfectly smooth track or rail never exists. There are always more or less irregularities
present on the track. The amplitude of these irregularities varies strongly with the
wavelength [5]. When a railway track is excited to generalize dynamic loading, the
railway track deforms and then vibrates for certain duration.
1.2.3

Track and its components

A railway track structure consists of rails, sleepers, rail pads, fastenings, ballast, subballast, and sub-grade as shown in Fig 1.2.

Fig. 1.2: Railway ballasted track components

The rail dampers reduce dynamic interaction forces and shift the force spectrum
to longer wavelengths [6] and their primary components are fastener and rail pad as
shown in Fig. 1.3. The fastening system connects the rail to the sleeper, and sometimes
acts as electrical insulation between the rail and the sleepers. Fasteners clamp the rail
gauge within acceptable tolerances and also absorb forces from the rails and transfer
them to the sleepers. Vibration and impact from various sources e.g. traffics, natural
hazards, etc. are also dampened and decelerated by fastenings.

Fig. 1.3: Typical fastening system for concrete sleepers [7]

Rail pads are installed on rail seats to reduce the dynamic stress from axle loads
and wheel impact from both regular and irregular train movements and transfer the
dynamic forces from rails and fasteners to the sleepers. The rail pad (nominally ten mm
thick) is a rubber or a high-density polyethylene mat that is used as a bearing layer
between the rails and the concrete sleepers [8]. Its functions are to reduce the excessive
high-frequency forces, increase decay rate, decrease rail noise and provides a resiliency
between rail and sleeper [9]. The highest rail pad stiffness leads to the highest rail seat
loads, irrespectively of ballast stiffness [10]. Rail fastener connects the rail and the
sleeper together. The elasticity of the fastener is measured by the spring rate, which is
the amount of deflection proportional to the clamping force.
Railway concrete sleepers model using the beam on elastic foundation theory
[11], are more widely used because they are not affected very much by either climate or
weather. The important functions of sleepers are: To uniformly transfer and distribute
loads from the rail foot to the underlying ballast bed, To provide an anchorage for the
fastening system that holds the rails at their correct gauge and preserves inclination, and
to support the rail and restrain longitudinal, lateral and vertical movement by embedding
itself onto the substructures [12]. The gaps between the unsupported sleepers and ballast
masses have a great influence on the normal load of the wheel and the rail [13].
Ballast, a type of granular material is an insulating layer of crushed stone on
which the sleeper rest and supports the rails. It distributes the cyclic train loading from
sleeper to sub-grade [14] and anchors the track in place against lateral, vertical and
5

longitudinal movement by the way of irregular shaped ballast particles that interlock
with each other. By giving resiliency and energy absorption to the sleeper it provides the
water drainage from the track structure, resilience to vibration and facilitates the
maintenance, reduce bearing stresses from the sleeper to acceptable stress levels for
underlying layers; retards the growth of vegetation and resists the effects of fouling from
deposited materials. The most important functions are to retain track position, reduce the
sleeper bearing pressure for the underlying materials, store fouling materials, provide
drainage for water falling onto the track, and rearrange during maintenance to restore
track geometry. Thus, ballast materials are required to be hard, durable, an angular, free
from dust and dirt, and have relatively large voids [15].
The rail sub-ballast is interposing a special semi-rigid layer in the area between
the ballast and the embankment and absorbs the train weight and distributes it from the
rails to the sub grade, thereby avoiding any deformation. The sub-ballast is normally laid
on a highly compacted embankment layer. The sub-ballast particles should be so graded
that do not penetrate into the sub grade and at the same time does not allow penetration
of ballast particles into the sub ballast zone. Sub-ballast functions are: To create a
working platform on which subsequent work operations, such as installation of electric
lines, ballast and rail laying; To assist in distributing the loads transmitted by passing
trains; To protect the embankment body from the seepage of rain-water and from
seasonal thermal extremes; To eliminate contamination of the ballast from fine material
migrating up from the foundation and To distribute the concentrated pressures and
eliminate any "rupture" of the embankment [16].
Sub-grade, or formation, is a surface of earth or rock levelled off to receive a
foundation for the track bed. Sometimes an extra layer, a formation layer, is put on the
earth so as to give the correct profile of the track bed. On this material the subballast and
ballast layers rest. The sub-grade is a very important component in the track structure
and has been the cause of track failure and development of poor track quality.
Unfortunately, in existing tracks the subgrade is not involved in the maintenance
operations, and once the track has been laid, little can be done to alter its characteristics.

1.3

Modeling and simulation

Modeling and simulation has an increasing importance in the development of complex

or large mechanical systems. In areas such as rail vehicles, high speed mechanisms,
industrial robots and road vehicles etc., modeling is an inexpensive way to experiment
with different system design concepts and to aid the design and development of an
appropriate system. In classical mechanics several methods exist by which differential
equations can be derived from a system of rigid bodies. In the case of large systems,
these procedures are labour-intensive and consequently error-prone, unless they are
computerised. A disadvantage of these methods is that they offer a systematic procedure
for the mechanical part only. Most modern mechanical systems, however, form a part of
multi-disciplinary system and are closely coupled with the hydraulic, magnetic,
electrical or other energy domains. A unified approach to the modeling of
multidisciplinary physical system was introduced by Paynter [17] and perfected by other
researchers. Using this approach every kind of lumped physical system can be modelled
by ideal elements, having the properties of storage, dissipation or transformation of
energy. The elements are interconnected in an energy conserving way by bonds and
junctions. The resulting network structure is represented by a diagram, called a Bond
Graph.
In modeling dynamic systems the bond graph technique appears to be a powerful
tool. In order to analyze the behavior of a dynamical system, the physical and the
mathematical substitute models must be drawn up according to functional principles in
view of the demands. The model has to represent the kinematic, static and dynamical
behavior of the system. The entire process of simulation is shown in Fig 1.4.

Fig. 1.4: Process of simulation

1.3.1

Kinematic model

The kinematic behavior of the system is determined by the degrees of freedom and the
geometry of the suspension/tilt module. Ten degrees of freedom rigid body model has
been used to study the vertical dynamic behavior of passenger car system.
1.3.2

Dynamic model

The dynamic model describes the dynamical behaviour under the effect of force. Thus a
mathematical statement on the system behaviour, using the principles of physics, can be
made.
1.3.3

Statical model

The statical model describes the Statical behaviour of the rail road vehicle when it is at
rest.

Fig. 1.5: Computer modeling and simulation process [18]

Three basic elements can be defined in the computer modeling and simulation
process: reality, conceptual model and computerized model as shown in Fig. 1.5. The
process which relate the elements to each other are described by the inner arrows. The
outer arrows refer to the procedures where by the credibility of these processes are
evaluated. Reality is an entity, situation, or system which has been selected for analysis.
For example, it could be a railway train, vehicle, bogie or wheelset operating under
specified conditions.
The domain of intended application of a conceptual model is a set of prescribed
conditions for which the conceptual model is intended to match reality. The conceptual
model may be a verbal description, equations, governing relationships or a natural law
that describes reality. Newtons laws of motion are natural laws used in deriving the
differential equations of railway components or systems.
The computerized model (sometimes called computer model) is an operational
computer program which implements a conceptual model. It is the result of an activity
9

called programming. The domain of applicability of a computerized model consists of

the prescribed conditions for which it has been tested, compared against reality to the
extent possible, and judge suitability for uses [18].

1.4

Bond graph modeling

The laws of thermodynamics are relevant to systems in all science and engineering
domains. The first law of thermodynamics states that energy can neither be created nor
be destroyed but simply changes from one form to another. By modeling the flow of
energy from one form to another, a methodology that describes systems in multiple
energy domains is obtained. One such methodology is bond graph modeling.
Bond graph modeling is a graphical modeling technique that preserves the
computational structure and the topological structure of the system being modeled and a
methodology that maps power flow and signal flow throughout thus allowing the user to
define the cause and effect relationships between all describing variables of the system.
The ability to map power flow across energy domain boundaries, and map signal flow
information across the same boundaries, is an indispensable aid in the users quest to
form cause and effect relationships within interdisciplinary systems. Bond graphs are
able to connect model sub-systems of different domains together to form a larger, mixeddomain model, in a concise and meaningful way.
Bond graphs are pictorial representations of essential dynamics of physical
systems through exchange of power amongst the basic elements the system is composed
of, and its environment. Powers being the common currency of exchange, interaction of
several energy domains are represented in a unified manner. The entire process of
modeling is algorithmic, making it suitable for implementation on computer.
In 1959, Henry Paynter [17] introduced at first depicting systems in terms of
power bonds, connecting the elements of the physical system to the so called junction
structures which were manifestations of the constraints. Bond Graph theory has been
developed and consolidated further by many researchers Karnopp, Margolis, and
Rosenberg [19], Thoma [20], Cellier [21], Breedveld and Dauphin-Tanguy [22],
Gawthrop and Smith [23], Mukherjee and Karmakar [24], Brown [25], who have worked
on extending this modeling technique to power hydraulics, mechanics, mechatronics,
10

general thermodynamic systems and recently to electronics and non-energetic systems

like economics and queuing theory.
The language of bond graphs aspires to express general class of physical systems
through power interactions. The factors of power, i.e., Effort and Flow, have different
interpretations in different physical domains. Yet, power can always be used as a
generalized co-ordinate to model coupled systems residing in several energy domains. In
bond graphs, one needs to recognize only four groups of basic symbols, i.e., three basic
one port passive elements inertance (I), capacitance (C), and resistance (R); two basic
active elements source of effort (SE), and source of flow (SF); two basic two port
elements gyrator (GY), and transformer (TF); and two basic junctions i.e., constant effort
junction (0), and constant flow junction (1). The basic variables are effort (e), flow (f),
time integral of effort (P) and the time integral of flow (Q).
In the context of mathematical models of dynamical system, the equations for the
system can be easily formulated in a systematic way from the bond graph representation.
The bond graph representation of a system may be constructed in total abstraction from
the mathematical model of the system. The bond graph causality concept, presented by
Karnopp and Rosenberg [26], orientates the calculus schemes in the system model. This
constitutes the physical level of the description contained in the bond graph
representation.
By this approach, a physical system can be represented by symbols and lines,
identifying the power flow paths. The lumped parameter elements of resistance,
capacitance and inertance are interconnected in an energy conserving way by bonds and
junctions resulting in a network structure. From the pictorial representation of the bond
graph, the derivation of system equations is so systematic that it can be algorithmized.
The whole procedure of modeling and simulation of the system may be performed by
some of the existing software e.g., ENPORT, Camp-G, SYMBOLS, COSMO, SIM-20,
etc.

Main advantages of bond graph techniques may be summarized as

11

 Bond graphs provide a useful notation for the purpose of modeling physical

systems.
Systems with diverse energy domains are treated in a unified manner.
Graphical representations document complex models clearly and unambiguously.
Easiest way to communicate the description of energy flows in dynamic systems.
Since a bond graph is an unambiguous representation of an energy system, it is
possible for a computer program to automatically generate the equations for

dynamic analysis of the system.

By using bond graphs power conservation properties one may need to constraints
velocities only and the forces will automatically balance.
The present dissertation work explores the ability of the bond graphs to obtain
dynamic behavior of railway vehicle by using bond graph based on the physical
paradigm of the system. Bond graph technique generally offers flexibility in modeling
and formulation of system equations. A very large system may also be modeled in a
modular form by creating sub -system models and then joining them together at their
interaction port to create an integrated system model. Models may be easily modified
making it a powerful tool for system synthesis and consolidation of innovative ideas.
Bond graph equations normally use generalized displacement and generalized momenta
as state variables. The bond graph modeling and simulation is performed using Symbol
Shakti software [27].

1.5

Objective of the research work

The following objective are set for the research work

To create a coupled model of the rail track and wagon system by using bond
graph technique.
Simulation of the bond graph model to obtain vertical dynamic behavior of
railway vehicle on straight track at different operating speeds.
Analysis of the result obtained through simulation of coupled bond graph model
of rail track- wagon system.
To validate the model by comparing the results obtained through simulation with
available literatures.

1.6

Organization of thesis
12

The chapters of the thesis are organized in the following manner. The second chapter is
focused on the latest work that has been reported by many researchers and scientists in
the field of rail vehicle dynamics. Third chapter presents the mathematical modeling of
the rail track and wagon system. Fourth chapter deals with the rail track and wagon
system modeling through the bond graph. Fifth chapter consists of simulation of rail
track and wagon system through Symbol Shakti software for analyzing the behaviour of
the vehicle at different operating speeds. In the sixth chapter, results and discussions
have been presented. The final (seventh) chapter concludes the thesis and also suggests
some future scope.

13