Documente Academic
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51
By Ben Givan
M o s t a n a l y t i c a l l i t e r a t u r e o n j a z z still places a p r e m i u m o n s t r u c t u r a l
unity. E a r l y writers, s u c h as A n d r e H o d e i r (1956) a n d G u n t h e r S c h u l l e r
( 1 9 5 8 ) , s o u g h t to l e g i t i m i z e t h e m u s i c i n the eves o f the m u s i c o l o g i c a l
c o m m u n i t y by d e m o n s t r a t i n g its accessibility to t r a d i t i o n a l f o r m a l i s t interp r e t a t i o n . T h i s m e t h o d o l o g i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n persists i n m u c h c u r r e n t j a z z
analysis (e.g., B l o c k 1990; M a r t i n 1996; L a r s o n 1998; M a r k e r 1999). I n rec e n t years, h o w e v e r , t h e f o r m a l i s t view o f j a z z i m p r o v i s a t i o n s as a u t o n o m o u s artifacts, whose aesthetic value stems f r o m t h e i r i n t e r n a l c o h e r e n c e , has b e e n c h a l l e n g e d o n the g r o u n d s that it r e m a i n s as inseparablytied to a n i n a p p o s i t e , E u r o p e a n i d e o l o g i c a l heritage as the conservatism it
o p p o s e s . E t h n o m u s i c o l o g i s t s a n d " n e w " m u s i c o l o g i s t s have i n s t e a d pref e r r e d to divert t h e i r a t t e n t i o n t o w a r d jazz's i m m e d i a t e social c o n t e x t
p r i m a r i l y the v e r n a c u l a r c u l t u r e o f b l a c k A m e r i c a a n d its h i s t o r i c roots
i n sub-Saharan A f r i c a ( T o m l i n s o n 1992; W a l s e r 1995; F l o y d 1995). T h i s
m o r e h u m a n i s t i c p e r s p e c t i v e has served to d i s p e l f o r m a l i s m ' s c l a i m s to
objectivity.
A c o m p r o m i s e c a n be f o u n d between these o p p o s i n g s t a n d p o i n t s by reg a r d i n g m u s i c a l structure a n d social c o n t e x t as i n e x t r i c a b l y i n t e r d e p e n d ent ( M o n s o n 1996:186, 190). B u t a f u r t h e r possibility that has yet to be
c o n s i d e r e d seriously is that j a z z m i g h t b e subjected to close analysis w i t h o u t n e c e s s a r i l y i n v o k i n g t h e o r g a n i c i s t c o r o l l a r y that t h e m u s i c i t s e l f
o u g h t , at s o m e level, to e x h i b i t a u n i f i e d structure. I n d e e d , as this p a p e r
w i l l show, an e x a m i n a t i o n o f manifestations of" d i s c o n t i n u i t y , r a t h e r than
o f unity, may o f f e r insight i n t o the creative processes u n d e r l y i n g i m p r o vised p e r f o r m a n c e .
T h e i m p r o v i s a t i o n s o f guitarist D j a n g o R e i n h a r d t ( 1 9 1 0 - 1 9 5 3 ) p r o v i d e
a fitting case-study, because they o f t e n e x h i b i t s t r i k i n g d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s . T h e
critic W h i t n e y B a l l i e t t recently d e s c r i b e d R e i n h a r d t ' s characteristic m o d u s
o p e r a n d i as follows:
R e i n h a r d t m i g h t start a m e d i u m - t e m p o b a l l a d w i t h t h r e e o r f o u r
bars o f s l i g h t l y a l t e r e d m e l o d y , p l a y e d i n s i n g l e notes b e h i n d t h e
beat, each phrase g r a c e d by his v i b r a t o (almost a t r e m b l e ) , pause f o r
a beat, a n d g o i n t o a b r i e f m o c k d o u b l e - t i m e , rest a g a i n , d r o p i n a n
a b r u p t , massive c h o r d , a n d release a h i s s i n g u p w a r d r u n . T h e n h e ' d
cut his v o l u m e i n h a l f a n d t u r n i n t o the b r i d g e w i t h a delicate, fernl i k e single-note v a r i a t i o n o f the m e l o d y , l e t t i n g h i s notes l i n g e r a n d
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B u t t h e i m p r o v i s e r ' s m i n d is n o t e x c l u s i v e l y o c c u p i e d by images of
events that w i l l subsequently be r e a l i z e d as s o u n d . A p e r f o r m e r of m o s t
m a i n s t r e a m j a z z styles is usually g u i d e d by a p r e e x i s t e n t t h e m e . B y p r e s c r i b i n g a fixed t e m p o r a l - h a r m o n i c s t r u c t u r e ( a n d i n m a n y instances a
m e l o d y , t o o ) , the t h e m e dictates a set o f creative constraints. T h u s j a z z i m provisers m u s t k e e p these constraints i n m i n d . M a n y say that they r e t a i n
an i n n e r i m a g e o f the h a r m o n i e s ( " c h o r d changes") w h i l e they play, a n d
some use the m e l o d y itself as a c o n t i n u a l object o f r e f e r e n c e . O n e o f this
article's basic p r e m i s e s is that d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s w i t h i n a g i v e n i m p r o v i s e d
solo m a y result f r o m a p e r f o r m e r ' s attentive shifts between d i f f e r e n t c o n c e p t u a l fields. T h i s p r e m i s e also u n d e r l i e s t h e w e l l - k n o w n d i s t i n c t i o n
p o s i t e d by H o d e i r h i m s e l f , whereby " p a r a p h r a s e i m p r o v i s a t i o n , " w h i c h is
e x p l i c i t l y based o n a p r e - e x i s t i n g m e l o d y , is d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m " c h o r u s
phrase i m p r o v i s a t i o n , " w h i c h observes o n l y a n established h a r m o n i c structure ( H o d e i r 1 9 5 6 : 1 4 4 ) . A s L a w r e n c e G u s h e e has n o t e d , o n e o f the deepest f o u n d a t i o n a l a s s u m p t i o n s o f H o d e i r ' s analytical f r a m e w o r k is that the
i m p r o v i s a t i o n a l process is based o n " s e p a r a b l e levels o f m e n t a l activity"
( 1 9 8 1 : 1 5 8 ) . O t h e r authors have b o t h r e f i n e d ( K e r n f e l d 1 9 8 1 : 1 7 ; 1 9 9 5 : 1 3 1 ;
Martin 1 9 9 6 : 3 4 ) a n d questioned (Larson 1 9 9 9 : 2 8 6 ) Hodeir's dichotomy;
however, this p a p e r does n o t directly a d o p t o r adapt h i s s c h e m e . Instead,
it p r o c e e d s f r o m the same basic s u p p o s i t i o n that c o n t r a s t i n g regions o f a
m u s i c a l i m p r o v i s a t i o n m a y derive f r o m separate e l e m e n t s o f the i m p r o viser's c o n c e p t u a l m o d e l , b u t ultimately derives some a d d i t i o n a l hypotheses
that are specifically g e a r e d toward R e i n h a r d t ' s m u s i c .
2
D i s c o n t i n u i t y b e t w e e n t e m p o r a l l y p r o x i m a t e m u s i c a l events leads
H o d e i r to c l a i m that o n e phrase i n R e i n h a r d t ' s p e r f o r m a n c e o f " S o l i d O l d
M a n " "does n o t b e l o n g to the solo p r o p e r . " T h e t e c h n i q u e o f j u x t a p o s i n g
c o n t r a s t i n g m a t e r i a l has n u m e r o u s p r e c e d e n t s i n v a r i o u s m u s i c a l cultures,
a n d it is o f t e n associated w i t h effects s u c h as a n t i p h o n y , o r n a m e n t a l interp o l a t i o n , a n d the i l l u s i o n o f s i m u l t a n e o u s p r o g r e s s i o n . D i f f e r e n t i a t i o n i n
the d o m a i n o f any given m u s i c a l p a r a m e t e r c a n p r o d u c e these effects, b u t
they are most readily a c h i e v e d by the e x p l o i t a t i o n o f t i m b r a l a n d spatial
contrasts between two o r m o r e d i f f e r e n t i n s t r u m e n t s , o r g r o u p s o f i n s t r u m e n t s . F a m i l i a r e x a m p l e s o f s u c h p r a c t i c e s i n c l u d e the rori spezzati o f
Renaissance V e n i c e , the call-and-response r o u t i n e s o f W e s t A f r i c a n a n d
African-diasporic musical traditions, a n d the discontinuities i n certain
w o r k s o f I g o r S t r a v i n s k y . H o w e v e r , t h e effect that H o d e i r i d e n t i f i e s i n
R e i n h a r d t ' s blues c h o r u s c o n v e y e d by j u s t o n e p e r f o r m e r , p l a y i n g a single m u s i c a l i n s t r u m e n t i s also c o m m o n . G u n t h e r S c h u l l e r has d r a w n a n
analogy b e t w e e n p i a n i s t E a r l H i n e s ' s use o f d y n a m i c s a n d m u s i c a l texture
"to d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n p r i m a r y a n d s e c o n d a r y m a t e r i a l " ( 1 9 8 9 : 2 8 0 ) a n d
the i n t e r p o l a t i v e effects f o u n d i n various p i a n o works by C h o p i n a n d L i s z t .
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A s e c o n d use o f d i s c o n t i n u i t y i n R e i n h a r d t ' s m u s i c is e x e m p l i f i e d at
the c o n c l u s i o n o f his solo o n " B o d y a n d S o u l . " H e r e h e creates a n a b r u p t
d i s c o n t i n u i t y by i n t r o d u c i n g a n a s c e n d i n g five-note gesture played i n octaves. T h i s gesture (also b r a c k e t e d i n ex. 5) is c o n c e p t u a l l y separate f r o m
the m a i n b o d y o f the solo. Its f u n c t i o n is to d e m a r c a t e the f o r m a l b o u n d ary b e t w e e n t h e t h e m e ' s first s i x t e e n measures a n d the b r i d g e . I n fact,
R e i n h a r d t p l a y e d a n almost i d e n t i c a l figure at the same p o i n t i n the prec e d i n g c h o r u s , w h i l e a c c o m p a n y i n g t h e p r e v i o u s soloist. T h e s e sorts o f
" s t r u c t u r a l m a r k e r s , " o f t e n c h a r a c t e r i z e d by octave d o u b l i n g as i n t h e
present e x a m p l e , are a r e c u r r e n t feature o f his w o r k as a n a c c o m p a n i s t .
W h e n s i m i l a r devices o c c u r i n his solo i m p r o v i s a t i o n s (often p r o d u c i n g
d i s j u n c t contrasts) they c a n convey the same f u n c t i o n a l m e a n i n g s .
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i m p r o v i s i n g , R e i n h a r d t ' s m i n d m i g h t be o c c u p i e d by n o t o n l y a f i x e d r e f
e r e n t i n the f o r m o f his t h e m e ' s m e l o d i c a n d h a r m o n i c m o d e l , b u t m o r e over by a n associated a c c o m p a n i m e n t a l " b a c k g r o u n d " texture.' I n a d d i t i o n to t h i c k e n i n g t h e m u s i c ' s texture, the r e a l i z a t i o n o f this c o n c e p t u a l
b a c k g r o u n d i n the f o r m o f repetitive, ostinato-like patterns c a n also prevent a loss of m o m e n t u m d u r i n g lulls between phrases b e l o n g i n g to the
m u s i c a l f o r e g r o u n d . T h e effect is o f s i m u l t a n e o u s p r o g r e s s i o n : t h e backg r o u n d m a t e r i a l r e m a i n s c o n c e p t u a l l y present even w h e n aurally a b s e n t .
:
10
R e i n h a r d t was a d e p t at s w i t c h i n g swiftly b e t w e e n b a c k g r o u n d - t y p e
r h y t h m i c figures, m e l o d i c paraphrases, a n d s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d " f o r e g r o u n d "
i m p r o v i s a t i o n , even at y e n fast tempos. T h i s facility is evident d u r i n g the
o p e n i n g o f his 1 9 3 5 solo o n "I've H a d M y M o m e n t s " (ex. 8 ) . T h e solo's
first five measures c o n t a i n a reiterated e i g h t h - n o t e
f o l l o w e d by a series
o f s t r u m m e d c h o r d s . T h i s passage contrasts starkly w i t h the m a t e r i a l that
follows ( m m . 5 - 9 ) .
It seems s t r o n g l y a c c o m p a n i m e n t a l i n c h a r a c t e r
s i m p l y by virtue o f its pitch-repetitiveness, even d u r i n g the very b e g i n n i n g ,
w h i c h c o n t a i n s n o c h o r d a ] p l a y i n g . A t m . 5 , R e i n h a r d t a b r u p t l y shifts to
the p r i n c i p a l m e l o d y (shown above t h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n ) , with a few e m b e l l i s h m e n t s , a n d i t is n o t u n t i l five m e a s u r e s later that h e b e g i n s t r u l y to
i m p r o v i s e m e l o d i c lines f o r the first l i m e ( m m . lOff').
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m u s i c a l d i s c o n t i n u i t y r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e i n s e r t i o n of r i f f - l i k e m a t e r i a l
w i t h i n a single-note solo. T h i s represents a n a d d i t i o n a l sort o f d i s c o n t i n u ous p r a c t i c e ; it m a y be c o n s i d e r e d a s e c o n d a r y
type o f b a c k g r o u n d -
oriented technique.
R e i n h a r d t often juxtaposes
s h o r t , r i f f - l i k e f r a g m e n t s against
mono-
r e c o r d i n g of "jeepers
effects f r e q u e n t l y h e a r d i n b i g b a n d
arrangements,
w h e n a soloist alternates w i t h a l a r g e r e n s e m b l e .
B i g b a n d a r r a n g e m e n t s o f the S w i n g E r a o f t e n feature short riff-like e n s e m b l e passages at the b e g i n n i n g of a c h o r u s , o r o t h e r s i g n i f i c a n t f o r m a l
d i v i s i o n , c r e a t i n g a sort o f m u s i c a l p u n c t u a t i o n d u r i n g an i m p r o v i s e d solo.
In the same wax, R e i n h a r d t tends to i n t e r j e c t b r i e f r i f f - l i k e statements,
g e n e r a l l v two o r f o u r measures i n d u r a t i o n a n d p l a y e d i n c h o r d s o r octaves, at the b e g i n n i n g o f a f o r m a l s e c t i o n . E x a m p l e 10, a n e x c e r p t f r o m
his 1949
instance
BEN GIVAN
249
s e l f - c o n t a i n e d m o t i v i c d e v e l o p m e n t , as o c c u r s i n a c o m p a r a t i v e l y l e n g t h y
excursion
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T o g e t h e r , the f o r e g o i n g e x a m p l e s suggest the f o l l o w i n g hypothesis: disc o n t i n u o u s regions o f R e i n h a r d t ' s i m p r o v i s a t i o n s may be
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a c c o m p a n i m e n t a l b a c k g r o u n d is s o m e t i m e s m a d e e x p l i c i t as w e l l , o f t e n
w i t h f u n c t i o n a l i m p l i c a t i o n s s u c h as to p r o v i d e s t r u c t u r a l m a r k e r s , to
c r e a t e r i f f - l i k e e x c h a n g e s , to s u p p l e m e n t a sparse m u s i c a l a c c o m p a n i m e n t , o r to k e e p the m u s i c g o i n g w h i l e he gathers i n s p i r a t i o n .
W h i l e c l e a r - c u t d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s c a n be h e a r d i n a s i g n i f i c a n t p o r t i o n
o f R e i n h a r d t ' s r e c o r d e d solos, they are not the n o r m . It is m o r e c o m m o n
f o r less e x p l i c i t d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s to arise w i t h i n i m p r o v i s e d m a t e r i a l , all o f
w h i c h a p p e a r to be " p r i m a r y " i n c h a r a c t e r ( a l o n g the lines o f " B o d y a n d
S o u l " (ex. 5), w h e r e m e l o d i c p a r a p h r a s e a n d " p u r e " i m p r o v i s a t i o n were
less s h a r p l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e d ) . B u t e v e n i n these m o r e typical scenarios, it
may be possible to d i s c e r n the same sorts o f c o n c e p t u a l d i s t i n c t i o n s . T o
illustrate, this p a p e r c o n c l u d e s with s o m e r e m a r k s o n two c o m p l e t e solos,
b o t h o f w h i c h c o n t a i n relatively few e x p l i c i t contrasts. T h e s e p e r f o r m ances were r e c o r d e d just a day apart i n 1946, a n d , c o i n c i d e n l a l l y , are b o t h
i m p r o v i s a t i o n s o n themes by G e o r g e G e r s h w i n : " L i z a " a n d " E m b r a c e a b l e
You."
E x a m p l e 13 is a t r a n s c r i p t i o n o f R e i n h a r d t ' s solo o n " L i z a , " d i v i d e d
a m o n g three separate staves. A b o v e these staves, a f o u r t h staff displays the
m e l o d y as o r i g i n a l l y p u b l i s h e d . T h e l o w e r m o s t staff c o n t a i n s m u s i c a l m a terial b e l o n g i n g to the " b a c k g r o u n d l e v e l " o f the p e r f o r m a n c e . T h e m i d d l e staff is reserved for all passages that p a r a p h r a s e the written m e l o d y at
a p p r o x i m a t e l y its o r i g i n a l l o c a t i o n i n the piece's f o r m . T h e top staff of the
t r a n s c r i p t i o n h o l d s e v e r y t h i n g else, w h i c h is to say all " f o r e g r o u n d " musical m a t e r i a l w i t h n o e x p l i c i t c o n n e c t i o n to the o r i g i n a l m e l o d y .
E x a m p l e 13 h i g h l i g h t s several n o t e w o r t h y features o f the s o l o . First,
note that a f o u r - m e a s u r e m e l o d i c p a r a p h r a s e appears at the b e g i n n i n g o f
the f i n a l A - s e c t i o n of this A A B A f o r m d u r i n g a l l three o f R e i n h a r d t ' s c h o ruses ( m m . 29, 61, a n d 93). E a c h o f these paraphrases begins with a
that d o v e t a i l s w i t h a p r e c e d i n g m e l o d i c l i n e . I n the first c h o r u s ( m m .
2 7 - 2 8 ) , the l i n e a r p r o g r e s s i o n C - B - A p r e c e d e s the p a r a p h r a s e , a n d i n the
t h i r d c h o r u s a n o t h e r descent, f r o m E t , is h e a r d ( m . 92); i n the s e c o n d
c h o r u s an a s c e n d i n g c h r o m a t i c scale c u l m i n a t e s w i t h the same p i t c h , G
( m m . 5 9 - 6 0 ) . T h e s e references to the t h e m e ' s o r i g i n a l m e l o d y f u n c t i o n as
a consistent means o f p u n c t u a t i o n w i t h i n this solo.
T h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n also indicates that six d i f f e r e n t b a c k g r o u n d ostinato
figures o c c u r d u r i n g R e i n h a r d t ' s solo o n " L i z a " ( m m . 9 - 1 2 , 4 5 - 4 8 , (56-71,
7 5 - 7 7 , 9 0 - 9 2 , a n d 9 8 - 1 0 0 ) . T h e t h i r d o f these ( m m . 6 6 - 7 1 ) straddles the
i n i t i a l d o w n b e a t o f a new thirty-two-bar c h o r u s , thus d e - e m p h a s i z i n g this
f o r m a l b o u n d a r y . ( T h i s p r o c e d u r e c o u n t e r a c t s the s t r o n g p e r i o d i c i t y of
m u c h o f the r e m a i n d e r o f the s o l o , w h i c h is heavily b a s e d o n f o u r - b a r
phrases.) I n contrast, the b e g i n n i n g o f R e i n h a r d t ' s s e c o n d c h o r u s ( m . 37)
is m a r k e d by an e m p h a t i c f o u r - m e a s u r e riff-like p a t t e r n , p l a y e d i n octaves.
19Z
NVAIQ
Ntg
258
CURRENT MUSICOUXIY
C U R R E N T M U S I C O MO G Y
BL:N G I V A N
261
1 5
external
se-
l e c t i o n o f a strategy for c o n t i n u i n g the i m p r o v i s a t i o n . T h e h i g h e r the freq u e n c y o f these c o g n i t i v e event cycles, the better able he will be to execute fresh strategies, c o n c e i v e d " i n the m o m e n t . " C o n v e r s e l y , the slower
t h e i r f r e q u e n c y , the m o r e l i k e l y he is to use r e p e t i t i o n , o r pre-established
m a t e r i a l , w h e t h e r it be d r a w n f r o m his o w n r e p e r t o i r e of m e l o d i c f o r m u las, o r f r o m e l e m e n t s o f the t h e m e itself."' Sarath's m o d e l has loose p a r a l lels w i t h the r e m a r k s o f s a x o p h o n i s t L e e K o n i t z , w h o has d e s c r i b e d his
o w n i m p r o v i s a t o r y process i n terms o f a series o f c o n c e p t u a l "levels" r a n g i n g f r o m non-creative r e p l i c a t i o n o f a t h e m e , t h r o u g h i n c r e a s i n g degrees
o f e m b e l l i s h m e n t , to "the c r e a t i o n o f w h o l l y n e w m e l o d i e s " ( q u o t e d i n
B a l l i e t t 1 9 9 6 : 4 8 5 ) . T h e perspectives o f Sarath a n d K o n i t z suggest that it
may be possible to assign h y p o t h e t i c a l "creative levels" to d i f f e r e n t passages
f r o m R e i n h a r d t ' s solo o n " L i z a . " Repetitive b a c k g r o u n d m a t e r i a l may i n d i cate a relatively low creative l e v e l a slow rate o f c o g n i t i v e event cycles, i n
S a r a t h ' s terms. E m b e l l i s h e d , o r o t h e r w i s e slightly m o d i f i e d , e x p r e s s i o n s
o f the pre-existent m e l o d y i m p l y a s o m e w h a t g r e a t e r creative l e v e l , a n d
o r i g i n a l , s p o n t a n e o u s l y c o n c e i v e d m a t e r i a l o f c o m p a r a t i v e c o m p l e x i t y may
r e p r e s e n t a still h i g h e r level o f c o g n i t i v e a c t i v i t y .
17
O n e can thus view R e i n h a r d t ' s p e r f o r m a n c e o f " L i z a " as f l u c t u a t i n g between d i f f e r e n t creative levels. F o r instance, after b e g i n n i n g with a n eightm e a s u r e passage o f r e l a t i v e l y c o m p l e x m e l o d i c i n v e n t i o n , the first i n stance o f b a c k g r o u n d m a t e r i a l ( m m . 9 - 1 2 ) i m p l i e s a m o m e n t a r y p e r i o d o f
r e d u c e d creative activity whose repetitive p i t c h - c o n t e n t enables R e i n h a r d t
to devote m o r e o f his m e n t a l resources to p r e t e n t i o n s o f the f o r t h c o m i n g
f o r e g r o u n d e d m a t e r i a l that begins at m . 13. T h e r e m a i n d e r o f the i m p r o visation c a n be i n t e r p r e t e d a l o n g s i m i l a r lines. I n this p a r t i c u l a r solo, the
f r e q u e n t r e c u r r e n c e o f certain m e l o d i c patterns w i t h o n l y m i n o r variations
(compare, for example, m m . 1 9 - 2 0 with m m . 3 5 - 3 6 , or m m . 4 1 - 4 2 with
m m . 4 9 - 5 0 ) suggests that these may d e r i v e f r o m R e i n h a r d t ' s p e r s o n a l voc a b u l a r y o f m e l o d i c f o r m u l a s . A l t e r n a t i v e l y , these sorts o f c o m p a r a t i v e l y
fixed m e l o d i c ideas mav be specific to this o c c a s i o n , a n d as such may either
have b e e n p r e p a r e d b e f o r e h a n d , o r i n v e n t e d i n the course o f the p e r f o r m ance. Irrespective o f t h e i r actual d e r i v a t i o n , their r e c u r r e n c e suggests a creative level somew4iat b e n e a t h that o f n o n - r e p e a t e d f o r e g r o u n d e d passages,
such as the diverse material i n t r o d u c e d at the b e g i n n i n g o f each c h o r u s '
262
C U R R E N T MUSICOI.OGY
b r i d g e ( m m . 2 1 , 5.3, a n d 8 5 ) , whose u n i q u e n e s s i m p l i e s a m o r e truly s p o n t a n e o u s c o n c e p t u a l o r i g i n . U l t i m a t e l y , these sorts of s p e c u l a t i v e j u d g ments w o u l d be e n h a n c e d by a k n o w l e d g e o f the guitarist's c u s t o m a r y formulaic vocabulary.
(A s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n o r i e n t a t i o n b e t w e e n S a r a t h a n d K o n i t z
o u g h t to be r a i s e d . S a r a t h c o n s t r u e s his m o d e l o f the i m p r o v i s a t i o n a l
process as a value h i e r a r c h y : a h i g h e r rate o f c o g n i t i v e event cycles i m p l i e s
a g r e a t e r "creative p o t e n t i a l , " a n d is thus r e g a r d e d as a "creative g o a l "
( 1 9 9 6 : 8 - 9 ) . T o the c o n t r a r y , K o n i t z takes the view that " n o o n e level is
m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n any o t h e r " ( q u o t e d i n B a l l i e t t 1 9 9 6 : 4 8 5 ) . T h e latter
p o s i t i o n seems m o r e r e a s o n a b l e ; c o n j e c t u r e s
about creative c o g n i t i o n
ten-measure
(most e x p l i c i t l y t o w a r d the b e g i n n i n g o f
integrates
264
( l U K K K N T Mu.SIGOLOGY
270
CURRENT MUSICOLOGY
Appendix: Discography
Title
Matrix N o .
R e c o r d i n g Date
"Ilodv a n d S o u l "
ci.(i7Ki-i
M a v 3 1 . 1938
(Green-Heyman)
"Charleston"
Friends
1 T(>;',-1
O L A
A p r i l 21, 1937
(Mack-Johnson)
The
( D R G 8193)
Complete
Reinhardt
Django
and
Quintet
oj France
HMYSessions,
(Mosaic
"Embrace-able Y o n "
( ) K F 27-1
J a n u a r y 3 1 . 194f>
MDo-190)
1'he Complete
Django
. . (Mosaic
Reinhardt.
(Gershwin-Gershwin)
Swing/
l9M-l<t4K
MDIi-190)
"H.c.Q. S u n t "
OR
3802-1
A u g u s t 2:>. 1 9 3 0
Parisian
Siring:
Django
and
Slephane
Reinhardt
(Reinhardt-Grappelli)
Crapj>elli
with
lite (hiinlet
aj
(AVID
of France
A M S C 1)48)
"I've H a d M y M o m e n t s "
P 77538
September,
1935
(Kahn-Donaldson)
Django
Reinhardt,
"Japanese S a n d m a n "
O I . A 1889-1
July 7, 1 9 3 7
(Whiting-Egan)
"Jeepers C r e e p e r s "
(Warren-Mercer)
"Liza"
C A 4908-1/
M a r c h 21. 1939
D R 10029-1
(P-7614))
Django
With
Friends
( O R G 8493)
Parisian
F e b r u a r y 1, 1 9 1 6
Swing
Django
D R I002G-I
February
I, 1 9 1 0
Django
and
with
lite
of
Reinhardt
Slephane
and
Crappellt
. . . (London
8 2 0 591-2)
"Marie"
CYV 38
Jan./Feb.,
1919
(Berlin)
"The Sheik o f A r a b y "
Djatigology
'49
( B l u e b i r d 9988-2-RB)
O L A 1837 1
A p r i l 27, 1937
77/c Complete
Django
. . . (Mosaic
Reinhardt
(Smith-Wheeler-Snvder)
MD6-190)
"Solid O l d M an
OSW07-1
A p r i l 5, 1 9 3 9
(Stewart)
"St. L o u i s B l u e s "
(Handy)
OLA
1952-1
S e p t e m b e r 9, 1 9 3 7
Django
Willi
Friends
( D R G 8193i
The
France:
( L o n d o n 8 2 0 591-2)
Souvenirs
(Reinhardt)
. . .
Crappellt
Ouinlct
American
(.18)
Reinhardt
Step/tune
(Gershwin)
"Love's M e l o d y "
His
(AMD AMSC
2HPP
of
First
(Prestige O J C C D -
Recordings!
1895-2
(hiiutet
of France:
Complete
Reinhardt.
His
American
Django
. . (Mosaic
MD5-190)
t M a n y t r a c k s a r e a v a i l a b l e o n o t h e r c o m p i l a t i o n s i n a d d i t i o n to t h o s e l i s t e d h e r e .
CURRENT MUSICOLOGY
272
No/ex
* I w o u l d l i k e to t h a n k R a m o n S a t y e n d r a , P a t r i c k M c C r e l e s s , Robert P. M o r g a n ,
a n d M i c h a e l F r i c d m a n n f o r t h e i r c o m m e n t s o n e a r l i e r draffs o f this p a p e r . A vers i o n was p r e s e n t e d at the A n n u a l M e e t i n g o f t h e S o c i e t y f o r M u s i c T h e o r y i n
P h i l a d e l p h i a , P e r m . , N o v e m b e r 2001.
1. F o r e x a m p l e , clarinetist Pee W e e Russell states. "I usually t h i n k a b o u t f o u r
bars a h e a d what I ' m g o i n g to p l a v " ; flugelhorn player A r t F a r m e r observes "1 rarely
k n o w what I ' m g o i n g to d o i n a s o l o m o r e t h a n a m e a s u r e o r two a h e a d " ; a n d
tenor saxophonist W a r n e M a r s h claims " M y m i n d works a h e a d a bar or two"
(Balliett 1996:138, 447, 4 9 2 ) .
2. F o r i n s t a n c e , v i b r a p h o n i s t M i l l Jackson attests that "I k e e p the m e l o d y i n
m i n d . I always r e m e m b e r the m e l o d y a n d t h e n I have s o m e t h i n g to fall b a c k o n
w h e n I get lost" (Balliett 1996:308). Pianist H a n k Jones states that " y o u t h i n k a b o u t
the c h o r d p a t t e r n n o t e a c h c h o r d a n d y o u t h i n k a b o u t the m e l o d y " (Balliett
2000b:837).
3. O n e c o u l d , o f c o u r s e , a d d to this list by i n c l u d i n g p h e n o m e n a s u c h as the
" m o m e n t f o r m " c o d i f i e d i n the w r i t i n g s o f K a r l h c i n z S t o c k h a u s e n (for a s u m m a i y ,
see K r a m e r 1 9 7 8 ) , o r v a r i o u s postmodern " c o l l a g e " techniques. E v e n t h e R o m a n t i c (or m o d e r n i s t ) n o t i o n o f o r g a n i c i s m c a n be c o n c e i v e d i n d i a l e c t i c a l terms,
f o r e x a m p l e , as the synthesis o f c o n t r a s t i n g ideas (see C h e r l i n 2 0 0 0 ) .
4. O n all but t h r e e o f the r e c o r d i n g s d i s c u s s e d i n this essay R e i n h a r d t is a c c o m p a n i e d by m e m b e r s o f the Q u i n t e t o f the H o t C l u b of F r a n c e . P e r s o n n e l varies,
but the Q u i n t e t ' s r h y t h m s e c t i o n always consists o f two guitars a n d a d o u b l e bass.
T h e t h r e e e x c e p t i o n s are the p r e v i o u s l y m e n t i o n e d p e r f o r m a n c e of " S o l i d O l d
M a n , " a c c o m p a n i e d by B i l l v T a y l o r (bass) a n d B a r n e y R i g a r d ( d r u m s ) ; "Japanese
S a n d m a n , " a c c o m p a n i e d by D i c k F u l l b r i g h t (bass) a n d B i l l Reason ( d r u m s ) ; a n d
" M a r i e , " a c c o m p a n i e d by G i a n n i S a i l e d ( p i a n o ) , C a r l o R e c o r i (bass), a n d A u r e l i o
de Carolis (drums).
5. O n several of R e i n h a r d t ' s o t h e r r e c o r d i n g s , a n a l o g o u s i n t e r c h a n g e s o c c u r
b e t w e e n two d i f f e r e n t i n s t r u m e n t s . F o r instance, o n " S t u d i o 24" ( A p r i l H i , 1942;
m a t r i x 16192) R e i n h a r d t i n t e r p o l a t e s g u i t a r " f i l l s " b e t w e e n m e l o d i c phrases p l a y e d
by pianist Ivcm d e B i e .
6. In fact, t h e r e are r e m a r k a b l y few r e c o r d i n g s o n w h i c h R e i n h a r d t plays, i n
r e c o g n i z a b l e f o r m , a m e l o d y that is not his o w n f o r a p e r i o d o f m o r e t h a n a b o u t
four measures without i n t e r r u p t i o n .
7. A strict, p r a c t i c a l l y v i a b l e d e f i n i t i o n o f m e l o d i c p a r a p h r a s e i n jazz i m p r o v i s a t i o n has e l u d e d jazz scholars f o r reasons i l l u s t r a t e d by e x a m p l e 5: p e r f o r m e r s o f t e n
utilize p a r a p h r a s e v e i v freely (for a b r i e f d i s c u s s i o n o f this issue, see W i l l i a m s 1997
9 8 ) . F o r i n s t a n c e , Harker ( 1 9 9 9 : 5 8 f f ) cites Louis Armstrong's d i m i n i s h i n g d i f f e r entiation between m e l o d i c paraphrases a n d arpeggiated, harmonically-oriented
i m p r o v i s e d melodies as a feature o f the t r u m p e t e r ' s stylistic e v o l u t i o n d u r i n g the
mid-to-late 1920s.
8. T h i s t e r m is used by B e r l i n e r ' (1994:626 a n d p a s s i m ) .
9. Musical a c c o m p a n i m e n t s , in a variety o f genres, are o f t e n c h a r a c t e r i z e d by
the r e p e t i t i o n o f s h o r t m u s i c a l u n i t s . In the t e r m i n o l o g y o f G e s l a l t psychology',
RKN G l V A N
273
Schenkerian
theory.
11. H e r e it s h o u l d be a c k n o w l e d g e d that the a n a l y t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e t a k e n i n
this p a p e r g e n e r a l l y p r i v i l e g e s the p a r a m e t e r o f p i t c h above r h y t h m . T h a t is, passages o f m u s i c ate o f t e n c o n t r a s t e d o n the basis o f d i f f e r i n g p i t c h - c o m p l e x i t y , even
t h o u g h l l i e v may n o t be so r e a d i l y d i s t i n g u i s h e d w i t h respect to r h y t h m (or, f o r
that m a t t e r , t i m b r e , d y n a m i c s , a n d so f o r t h ) . T h i s bias is c l e a r l y o p e n to q u e s t i o n .
12. T h o u g h it is d i f f i c u l t to t e l l c o n c l u s i v e l y f r o m t h e r e c o r d i n g , I suspect
that
connection
that, w h e n p l a y i n g u p - t e m p o u n a c c o m p a n i e d
improvisations, he
w o u l d o f t e n i m a g i n e a d r u m m e r a c c o m p a n y i n g h i m . T h i s is a k i n to the " r e p e t i t i v e
r h y t h m i c o s t i n a t o " a b o u t w h i c h I h y p o t h e s i z e h e r e , t h o u g h o f c o u r s e a d r u m acc o m p a n i m e n t , u n l i k e a g u i t a r ' s , lacks p i t c h ( a n d , u n l i k e B u n c h , R e i n h a r d t is playing with a c c o m p a n i m e n t ) .
15. " E x t e r n a l s o u n d s " c a n i n c l u d e the p r e c e d i n g i m p r o v i s e d m e l o d y , as w e l l as
the c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f o t h e r m e m b e r s o f the e n s e m b l e , o r e v e n , m o t e rarely, s o u n d s
o r i g i n a t i n g o u t s i d e o f the e n s e m b l e a l t o g e t h e r . T h e latter sorts o f i n t e r a c t i v e p h e n o m e n a ( w h i c h are f u n d a m e n t a l to M o n s o n 1996) are not a d d r e s s e d i n this p a p e r .
I n d e e d , i n c o m p a r i s o n to the p o s t - W o r l d W a r II jazz styles that are Monson's p r i mary focus, R e i n h a r d t ' s S w i n g E r a i m p r o v i s a t i o n s (particularly those w i t h
the
figures
that R e i n h a r d t s o m e t i m e s e m p l o y e d w h e n a c c o m p a n y i n g
CURRENT
274
MUSICOLOGY
(in-
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