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University of Wollongong Thesis Collection
1986
Recommended Citation
Wingrove, Alan Lionel, An appraisal of the Tekken test, Doctor of Philosophy thesis, Department of Metallurgy and Materials
Engineering, University of Wollongong, 1986. http://ro.uow.edu.au/theses/1606
OF
FROM
BY
DEPARTMENT OF METALLURGY
and
MATERIALS ENGINEERING
MAY 1986
CANDITATE'S CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the work presented in this thesis was carried ou
the candidate in the laboratories of the Depertment of Metallurgy and
Materials Engineering of the University of Wollongong and has not been
presented to any other university or institution for a higher degree.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Welding Research Association for the financial support that has bee
has been helpful in some way and this has been greatly appreciated.
In particular thanks are due to the Head of Department,
Associate Professor N. F. Kennon for the use of the laboratory
facilaties and for his and Dr. D. P. Dunne's help and encouragement
during their supervision of the research.
Thanks are also due to Mr. F. Groves and the workshop staff
for design and construction of equipment and to Mrs. Ann Webb for
her assistance during the arduous task of preparing this thesis.
The donations of both the steel plate by B.H.P. Steel Slab and
SYNOPSIS
It was found that increases in welding speed and voltage increased the
value of the Cracking Index and increases in welding current decreased the Cracking
Index value. The interaction of these effects produced a variation of results for
welding at constant heat input.
to affect the microstructures of both the H A Z and the weldmetal. It was found that
increases in welding voltage and current and decreases in welding speed increased
the volume fraction of proeutectoid ferrite in the H A Z with an associated decrease in
H A Z cracking. Cracking of the weldmetal was found to be related to the ferrite
morphology; fine lath (acicular) ferrite was found to be the microstructure least
susceptible to cracking. Formation of fine lath ferrite microstrucures was enhanced
by low welding speeds. F r o m the various combinations of weldmetal and H A Z
microstructures that could be achieved a range of Cracking Index values could be
produced.
The influence that root gap of the test piece, the composition ( carbon
equivalent) of the steel plate, and the classification and manufacturing source of the
electrodes had on Cracking Index has also been studied. Increasing root gap and
carbon equivalent increased the value of Cracking Index although in the latter case
the relationship varied with welding conditions. Cracking Index was also found to
vary with electrodes of different classifications and from different manufacturing
sources. It is proposed that these Cracking Index variations are attributable to
strength incompatibilities and differences in electrode flux compositions
respectively.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
CHAPTER 4
4.1
W E L D A B I L I T Y TESTS
Introduction
CHAPTER 6 EXPERIMENTAL
6.1 Introduction 80
6.2 Materials 81
6.3 Specimen Preparation 82
6.4 Welding Equipment and Procedures 85
6.5 Determination of Cracking Index 87
6.6 Metallography 90
6.6.1 Optical Metallography 90
6.6.2 Electron Metallography 91
6.7 Restraint Stress 91
60
CHAPTER 7
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
7.1 Introduction 94
7.2 The Effect of Welding Variables on Cracking
Index
7.2.1 Introduction 96
7.2.2 The Effect of Voltage 97
7.2.3 The Effect of Current 97
7.2.4 The Effect of Speed 97
7.2.5 The Effect of Constant Heat Input 98
7.2.6 Discussion of Results 99
7.3 The Inter-relationship Between Welding Variables,
Microstructure, Stress and Cracking Index
7.3.1 Introduction 101
7.3.2 The Effect of Voltage 102
7.3.3 The Effect of Current 113
7.3.4 The Effect of Speed 118
7.3.5 The Effect of Constant Heat Input 123
7.4 Other Factors Affecting Cracking Index
7.4.1 Introduction 127
7.4.2 Root Gap 127
7.4.3 Material Composition 129
7.4.4 Electrode Type and Manufacture 133
APPENDIX
REFERENCES
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
The process of welding dates back to the Middle Ages (2). Forge welding
throughout that time was used in the production of armor, sword blades, and other
military equipment. With forge welding, the two steel parts to be joined were raised
to near white hot in the forge fire, fluxed with sand, and hammered together. The
hammering extruded the liquid oxide, or slag, bringing together clean metallic
surfaces to form a metallic bond - a process of coalescence. Forge welding is
essentially a solid phase process and it was not until the end of the 19th century that
fusion welding emerged.
6000km and supertankers of over 100,000tonne are examples of modern uses. The
fabrication of such structures is in fact a direct result of the development of fusion
welding as a steel fabrication process.
During this time significant advances in metal arc welding were made
and from the bare wire electrodes of Slavianoff in 1890 and Kjellberg in 1907(26),
Strohmerger in 1911 developed covered electrodes to be followed in 1917 by Jones
with powdered metal in the flux coating. Electrodes were developed to weld
stainless steel in 1920 and by the 1930's improvements in the flux coatings had led
to the production of weld deposits with mechanical properties commensurate with
those of the steel plate.
inrivetedstructures such as that which occurred with the allrivetedU S built ship
the Oakley L. Alexander(27). The investigation into the T 2 failures finally led the
United States Admiralty Ship Welding Committee to state that "welding as a process
for building ships has been entirely vindicated. Given sound design, good
workmanship and tough steel, the reliability of welded ships is beyond question".
Yet, even today there are still a few critics.
The knowledge that defects in the weldmetal and the heat affected
zone ( H A Z ) adjacent to the weld can lead to failure of the entire structure has led to
the development of welding procedures and steel compositions and cleanliness that
are directed towards eradicating or minimising the possibility of such defects. In
steel production, effective deoxidation processes, low sulphur and phosphorus
levels, high manganese to sulphur ratios and control of the shape and size of
inclusions, particularly M n S , has led to improved steels quality and reduced welding
defects.
Coupled with the demand for defect free weld zones has been the
demand for welded structures with larger physical dimensions to operate in more
hostile environments and so be constructed of more sophisticated alloys. The
submarines were constructed from low carbon steels having a yield strength (YS) of
220MPa. Between 1943 and 1958 high tensile steels with a Y S of 3 4 0 M P a were
used. These were replaced in 1958 by quenched and tempered steels with a
m i n i m u m Y S of 550MPa. In current use are the H Y 1 0 0 grade steels with a Y S of
6 9 0 M P a and the next generation of submarines are to be constructed from steels of
the type H Y 1 3 0 having a Y S of 900MPa. In the future the U.S. Navy plans to
build submersibles with a proposed depth capability of 6000m requiring steels with
a Y S of 1200MPa, these are the H Y 1 8 0 type steels (64).
product and to perform satisfactorily in the intended service". The precise meanings
of such terms as good weldability or poor weldability have been the topic of many
committee discussions. Basically there are three extrinsic factors that can be
important in determining the weldability of a steel, namely;
(i) the steel composition,
(ii) the joint,
(iii) the welding process,
The complexity of the interaction between these variables is demonstrated in Fig.
1.1(28) which relates to cold cracking. It is generally agreed that if conditions are
critical and cause an undesirable interaction between the intrinsic parameters of
microstructure, hydrogen content , and tensile stress, cracking will result. The
nature and number of possible combinations of the interactions involved makes
quantification difficult. However, to assess weldability in relation to cold cracking
would require quantitative knowledge of the extrinsic and intrinsic parameters.
produced by
service condition. This is particularly the situation with self restraining weldability
tests where difficulties also arise with reproducibility. The Lehigh Restraint
Test(16) has been applied as a workshop test for pipe materials (17) and some
correlation between propensity for cracking as indicated by the test and field
experience was claimed (18).
interpretation (19).
Subsequently an interlaboratory
comparison of the weldability of two steels was carried out by the Australian
Welding Research Association ( A W R A ) . The results of this comparison had a level
of scatter that m a d e comparison of the weldability of the two steels impossible and
cast doubt on the test as a quantitative measure of weldability. Several Japanese (25)
workers have found similar scatter. The A W R A thus concluded that, for the time
being , the Tekken Test not be included in an Australian Specification A S B 3 0 1 as a
weldability test as had been intended and that a further assessment be carried out
using welding equipment suitable for automatic deposition of the test weld. It was
on this basis that the present program of research was initiated and the results of this
work are covered in the second part of this thesis.
COLD CRACKING
period of time. The factors that are k n o w n to be associated with such cracking are
r
Chapters 2 ,3 discusses and relates these factors. Chapter 4 deals with welda
testing and in particular the Tekken Test. The overall literature of Chapters
inclusive thus serves as a background to Chapter 5 in which the scope and aim
the present research are presented.
CHAPTER T W O
2.1 INTRODUCTION
An electric arc has been defined (30) as " a discharge of relatively large
current and relatively low voltage, especially with a low cathode drop". Electrical
conduction takes place in the arc through a gaseous column (see Fg.2.1) called the
plasma, which has high electrical conductivity. The plasma contains a radiating
mixture of free electrons, positive ions, and highly excited electrically neutral atoms.
Because the conductivity of the plasma between the electrodes is maintained by
thermal ionization, the temperatures must be high. It is generally agreed (31) that the
zones of electrical contact between the plasma and the electrodes are quite different to
the general plasma column, so that the arc can be divided into three parts, see Fig.
2.1 (31). Because there exists a higher concentration of charge carriers at the anode
and cathode a non linear potential (or voltage) distribution occurs. Similarly,
temperature gradients occur at the anode and cathode relative to the plasma. High
electrical field strengths exist at the anode and cathode due to the space charge
10
distribution and high currents induce magnetic fields which compress the plasma.
Axial pressure gradients m a y be produced in the plasma stream which transport the
heat (and material, in the case of consumable electrodes) away from the electrode
(the cathode in Fig.2.1) and to the work (the anode).
It has been found that if the electrode is consumable, the geometry of the
tip of the electrode is unstable as metal droplets are transferred, however, with
tungsten electrodes using adequate cooling it has been possible to reduce these
instabilities (32,33,34) and to study the various current / voltage relationships and
their relationships to the arc. In this respect the tungsten arc inert gas system has
been particularly suitable for study and has been well documented(36).
When the electrode tip is not cooled, heating and melting may occur and
metal m a y transfer from the electrode to the work and this occurs with consumable
electrodes. T h e transfer of material m a y occur by one of two processes. Short
circuiting occurs when a droplet that has formed touches the weld puddle while still
partly attached to the electrode. At this instant metal vaporization occurs in the neck
connecting the droplet to the electrode thereby severing the droplet, and the arc is
re-established.
leaves the electrode and travels in free flight inside the arc plasma to the weld
puddle. The droplet velocity in the arc has been measured and found to be constant
over the arc length and between 380mm/sec and 1300mm/sec.(37), depending on
welding conditions. T h e velocity of a metal droplet falling under gravity has been
calculated as 32.5mm/sec which indicates that gravity forces alone do not cause
metal transfer.
It has been shown that for M I G metal transfer the electromagnetic
CATHODE
T A B L E 2.1.
The ionization potential of a number of elements and compounds(40)
Ca
Rb
K
Na
Ca
Ti
Fa
O,;0
3.88
4.16
4.34
5.14
6.11
6.84
783
12.5; 13.5
H;H,
H,0
CI,
CO; CO,
N.N,
Ar
F
He
13.5; 15.4
13.2
13.5
14.1; 14.3
14.5; 15.6
15.7
18.6
24.5
11
Manual metal arc welding processes are complex because of the nature of
the arc column brought about by the nature of the constituents that comprise the flux
coating. For covered electrodes the voltage difference in the column is small
compared with the difference in the cathode and anode regions^Electrons, because
of their size, are the most mobile particles in the arc column and thus contribute
most to the current flow. Temperatures in the arc and the arc stability are functions
of the ionization of the constituents in the flux coatings. The ionization potentials
(eV) of a number of constituents of welding arcs are shown in Table 2.1 from which
it can be seen that those elements which are normally gaseous at room temperatures
have the higher ionization potentials.
12
Table 2.2 presents the major constituents of the flux coatings of various
electrodes; all contain compounds capable of producing gases such as carbon
dioxide, carbon monoxide, hydro gen, and hydrocarbons. While the function of
these gases is to protect the molten metal from the effects of atmospheric oxygen and
nitrogen it is not just a simple mechanistic shielding as in the case of inert gas
shielding using argon or helium. Gas metal reaction involving oxidation/deoxidation
reactions at the electrode tip also appear to aid in metal transfer. Wegrzyn(39)
found that even with bare wire electrodes overhead ( vertically upward) welding
with fully killed steel wire was impossible, yet overhead welding with rimmed steel
wire was possible. The reason for the difference was related to the reaction at the
electrode tip (40). With rimmed steels the core usually contains higher carbon and
oxygen levels than the surface layers which are relatively clean and low in carbon
and oxygen. The effervescent reaction at the molten tip of the electrode of
caused a vigorous evolution of gas which aids in the projection of the metal dr
in the arc plasma.
Type of Covering
True Rutile
Basic
(Mild steel) Low-hydrogen
Cellulosic
Ingredients
0-10
15-19 FeMn
30-45
15-20
18-22
over 30
0-10
10-15 FeMn
main
0-10
40-60
0-15
5-20
4-10
0-5-1
20-30
0-35
8-15 varied
0-10
25-50
15-30
0-10
0-4
0-2-1
3-15
h-s,./.'.
x/
*>
be jfiu: .so
13
The high hydrogen content also produces reducing conditions and iron
oxides m a y be reduced by hydrogen.
Hence, only mild deoxidants such as ferromanganese need to be added to the flux.
However large quantities of hydrogen gas in the arc column lead to hydrogen
absorption in the weld metal which in turn can lead to hydrogen embrittlement
cracking in either or both of the H A Z and the weldmetal(59,60). Because of this,
cellulosic electrodes are particularly unsuitable for therigidrequirements set down
for such structures as off shore platforms and pressure vessels.
found that S i O z caused high Si pickup in the ferritic weld metal and resulted in
weldmetal embrittlement. In addition to the deoxidation characteristics,Ti02 has
low thermionic emission potential which results in smooth arc characteristics
particularly with A C welding. However, rutile electrodes produce weld metal
14
deposits with high oxygen contents (eg. 835ppm) and correspondingly low fracture
toughness (5 8).
capacity for overhead welding. Lancaster(61) cites the conclusion of Wegrzyn and
Beker in that "even low hydrogen electrodes depend for their effective use on the
presence of a certain amount of water in the flux hence hydrogen in the arc plasma".
The first two digits indicate the approximate tensile strength of the
15
deposited weldmetal in units of lOMPa. For the above example, E4816 electrodes
have an approximate tensile strength of 480MPa.
The third digit indicates the welding positions the electrodes can be used
in, 1 indicates all positions, 2 indicates flat and horizontal vertical fillet only, in the
example E4816 m a y be used in all positions.
The final digit indicates the type of electrode flux coating; 0 and 1 indicate
cellulosic electrodes, 2 and 3 indicate rutile electrodes, and 5,6,and 8 mdicatefcfcpw
hydrogen basic electrodes. L o w alloy electrodes have an additional digit which may
be used to denote chemical composition. Morgan(143) has presented a complete
description of the behaviour of welding electrodes to American Welding
Specifications, which are very similar to the Australian Specification and hence serve
as a usefull guide to assess suitability for specific welding applications.
From the discussion in Section 2.2, fusion welding can be likened in some
respects, to a miniature steelmaking process. However, the short times and high
temperatures associated with the melting and refining stages does not allow
thermodynamic equilibrium to be achieved. The thermal cycle causes very steep
temperature gradients, such that solidification processes in the weldmetal and phase
transformations in the heat affected zone of the parent plate depart significantly from
those that occur nearer to equilibrium conditions.
16
proposed, although most generally tend to be modifications to the analysis
originally proposed by Rosenthal in 1935(62). H e assumed that the energy of a heat
source that moves with a constant velocity v , can be given by
nVI
eqn. 2.4
n
AT
where V is welding voltage, I is welding current and n is the arc efficiency ( for
manual metal arc welding n=0.8 ). The differential equation for heat flow expressed
in the coordinates identified in Fig2.2 is given by eqn. 2.5 where T is temperature
(K), t is time, and X is the thermal conductivity.
eqn 25
'
e = x - vt eqn. 2.6
For bead on plate welds where heat flow is three dimensional the solution
of eqn. 2.7 becomes
o*
isotherms
soo
1OO0
Temp., C
17
and for thin plates, where heat flow is essentially two dimensional
+ y 2 + z 2 ).
18
'////////^
low
19
nucleation in the molten weld pool, does not present a significant energy barrier.
Additionally, it has been found that for both f.c.c. and b.c.c. metals, preferred
columnar growth usually occurs in the <100> direction closest to the direction of
the m a x i m u m thermal gradient. D u e to the moving heat source, the columnar grains
become curved and often do not survive to the centre of the weld pool, before n e w
grain are nucleated, see Fig. 2.5.
al(48), and later in more detail, Savage et al. (44,45), observed columnar to cellular
and cellular to dendritic growth patterns. It was found that it was possible to
generate a range of growth structures in a solidifying weldmetal simply by varying
the welding conditions. Alloy additions also promoted the formation of the dendritic
region which is shown schematically in Fig. 2.5 and Fig. 2.6. Qualitatively, at
least, this is in agreement with the isotherms predicted from the Rosenthal equations.
ferrite, Widmanstatten side plates, fine lath ferrite (often referred to as fine acicular
ferrite ) and bainite. It is generally agreed that fine lath ferrite with reduced
proeutectoid ferrite is desireable in order to obtain optimum mechanical properties,
20
ferrite" and found that the morphology was in fact lath shaped and not needle shaped
as the term "acicular" implies and that the laths were often associated with oxide
inclusions which led them to conclude that the inclusions were the primary
nucleation sites. This had been proposed previously by Abson and Dolby(54) and
Cochrane and Kirkwood(55), but from an examination of nucleation efficiency(57)
inclusions were energetically less favorable than austenite grain boundaries as
nucleation sites. Ricks et al. (53) proposed that nucleation at inclusions occurred
because of a reduced energy barrier suggesting that the particles acted as "an inert
substrate". After initial precipitation at oxide inclusions the continued ferrite
precipitation was achieved by sympathetic nucleation which led to the interlocking
morphology of fine lath ferrite
~S5 N/mm?
98CN/mm:
CL1 !4U
S 120
C
20'
u
21
which is not consistent with the proposition that nucleation of fine lath ferrite is
enhanced by the presence of oxide particles.
voltages, hence high heat inputs and thus reduced solidification and cooling rates,
and it could be argued that heating effects influenced the microstructure produced.
content which would tend to suggest enhanced nucleation for fine lath ferrite rather
than the transition to coarse ferrite precipitation at the higher oxygen contents. The
dilatometry studies of Ito et al.(52) indicated that precipitation of fine lath ferrite
occurred below 500C, whereas the formation of grain boundary and Widmanstatten
ferrite occurred at approximately the same cooling rate, in the higher oxygen alloys
between 700C and 500C. In all of the studies, although the increase in inclusion
content w a s related to the increase in oxygen content and ferrite morphology, no
c o m m e n t was m a d e about the preferred location of oxide particles relative to oxygen
content. It would be expected that the larger of the inclusions would be on grain
boundaries because of, a) the pinning of the grain boundary by the inclusion and/or
b) the increased growth rate brought about by the higher rates of grain boundary
diffusion. It would be expected, therefore, that at the higher oxygen concentrations
the grain boundaries would contain a high proportion of large oxide particles.
Higher diffusion rates at grain boundaries, coupled with a possible lowering of
activation energy for nucleation due to the grain boundary / inclusion surface energy
configurations, would promote the early nucleation and growth of grain boundary
ferrite at a higher temperature before the size of intragranular oxides became critical
with respect to nucleation.
22
23
case it has been suggested(80) that transformation strains could have an effect on
accelerating primary recrystallization and grain growth.
Where precipitate stability is maintained it has been found(65) that grain size
is proportional to the m e a n distance between particles and can be related empirically
24
d = Kr eqn.2.11
In the region adjacent to the fusion line, the type of particle will determin
temperature and rate of dissolution. A s a general rule the stability of precipitates
increases with reduced or more negative values of free energy of formation(81).
Furthermore, many particles are complex, particularly when a number of alloying
elements are present so that an analysis of dissolution is difficult. Nevertheless
Ashby and Easterling (66) have been able to develop an analysis for the dissolving
behavior of simpler carbides and nitrides in the H A Z and display them as
"dissolution contours" and functions of peak temperature and time.
Both the analysis of Albury et al. (66) and Ashby and Easterling(67)
assume that grain growth is controlled and requires no nucleation, is driven by
surface energy, and obeys an Arrhenius type relationship. Albury et al. equated the
grain growth equation that was empirically derived by Hannerz and D e Kezinzy(39)
25
where d f is the final grain size, d4 is the initial grain size, t} is the initial time, tf
is the final time, T is the temperature, Q is the activation energy for grain growth,
and n is a grain growth exponent determined by Albury et al. to be equal to 2.73.
df =
eqn.2.14
The constants A and Q in eqn. 2.14 were evaluated from isothermal experiments.
Temperature isotherms were calculated from the Rosenthal equations so that at
various locations in the H A Z it was possible to calculate the grain size and compare
the results with those measured over a range of heat inputs.
A.
'<S<
|c?c/^- / ft \/t
eqn 2.15
/?C.
and integration yields a similar result to eqn. 2.14 except for the value of n=2 as
opposed to the measured value of 2.73. Ashby and Easterling avoided experimental
determinations of the constants in eqn. 2.15 by measuring grain size for one set of
PEAK TEMPERATURE C
900 1000 1100 1200 1300 MOO 1500
10
10*
14
10
OS Mariensite_
50-Manenstie
10"
Nr MiCROALLOYCD
T0 = 30OK
10"
tf 29
"% Nts C
D'SSOliil ion
50.*#l00
26
conditions of T and
to the measured values as shown in Fig.2.9. and the calculated values of T and At
related to heat input by using the Rosenthal equations.
27
have developed a wide range of C C T diagrams for structural steels using a high
austentising temperature so as to be specifically relevant to weld H A Z . They chose
a temperature of 1350C which was later found by Ronningen et al.(71) to coincide
with the peak temperature of an isotherm approximately 50 urn from the fusion line;
a point where dilution effects such as H A Z grain boundary liquation ceased. In
addition to the C C T curves, Inagarki and Sekiguchi produced diagrams relating
microstructure and hardness to the cooling time between 817C and 500 C. Such
diagrams are useful to explain the results observed after a particular welding
operation; however, difficulties arise in predicting preheat temperatures that would
be necessary to avoid deleterious microstructures.
Albury and Jones(84) used CCT curves in conjunction with the Rosenthal
equations to develop a diagram incorporating H A Z microstructure as a function of
heat input and joint thickness to predict suitable preheat temperature. Albury and
Jones did not present a range of microstructures that could be produced by the
various welding conditions. They determined the most desirable microstructure and
the diagram that was developed described the conditions appropriate for obtaining
the required microstructure.
equivalent is derived from the composition of the steel and is based on the principle
that other alloying elements in addition to carbon contribute to the hardness of a
28
quenched steel. The proposal was that above a certain critical value of C
which
The cooling time between 800C and 500C (denoted as^Tg/5) has also
been used to describe the role of the thermal cycle on H A Z microstructure.
Rose(193) proposed that the cooling rate in this temperature range controlled the
transformation behavior of austenite during welding of C - M n steels. Rose showed
that^Tg/5 could be correlated with an energy equivalent, L where,
L = E , eqn. 2.16
/rTTT
and E is the arc energy (see eqn. 2.4), h is the plate thickness, n is a heat transfer
factor( n=l for butt joints, 2 for bead on plate, 3 for fillet welds). Determinations
of AT g / 5 have also been attempted (194) using the Rosenthal analysis(62). Inagaki
and Sekiguchi(70) have combined AT g / 5 with C C T diagrams that were adapted for
welding.
Predictions of the volume fraction of phases present in the HAZ, and hence
the hardness of the H A Z has been attempted by Pavosker and Kirkaldy(73). They
used the Rosenthal equations to predict the peak temperatures and cooling rates in
the H A Z , then, modifying the hardenability formulae of Maynier et al.(74) the
volume fraction of martensite, bainite, ferrite and pearlite could be calculated from
the alloy composition. Similarly, the hardness of each phase could be calculated
from the composition using the linear regression formulae of Meynier et al. (74).
rr-i
1
/ '8
"
tncrvtting
1
r L9
/
/
/
/
'
-* "*~-^*
!
e
^*^/h-
E
-
3 10
*J^
FUSION
ZON
'
z
>
o
/ /
/ /
' Si**
LU O S
z
Ui
'
'
t
'
_/
?*?
/
/
ZOt
/
yS- .
PARENT
PLATE
'*} '
<
03
(
'
^eZ" \**^^
'
5
/ * N>
V-
3
DEPTH mm
15
_,
Increasing
2 10
FUSION
3
c
z
>
O 05
c
ZONE
r~.
'
'
/
' _
' '/ ioo-Dissolution
j>o-<
3
4
DEPTH mrr. "
FIG. 2.11. A diagram relating grain size and heat input for the H A Z
produced in a N b microalloyed steel. Full lines are isotherms, broken
lines are grain size contours, and the shaded region corresponds to the
zone for carbide dissolution.(75).
29
Thus the microstructure of the H A Z was predicted from the chemical composition
of the plate and the heat input of the welding process.
30
31
CHAPTER THREE
WELD DEFECTS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this Chapter is to review briefly several of the more commo
types of weld cracks, and in particular, to discuss in detail the formation of
hydrogen assisted cold cracks in the H A Z of welds.
Cracks may be produced in the weld and the adjacent weld zone during
service by a deterioration of physical properties, or by subjecting the welded joint to
service conditions beyond the design capacity. The types of cracks to be discussed
in this Chapter are those produced as a direct consequence of the welding process
and usually appear prior to the component being commissioned into service. These
cracks m a y occur in the lvspSftietl, such as solidification cracking (Sect.3.2),
liquation cracking (Sect.3.3), reheat cracking(Sect3.4), lamellar tearing,(Sect3.5)
chevron cracking(Sect.3.6), and as previously mentioned, H A Z cold cracking
(Sect.3.7). In all cases, there are two basic prerequisites for the formation of
cracks; namely, the prersence of a susceptible microstructure, and the imposition of
a stress, usually, but not always, brought about by the joint configuratio
32
S - s o d dus
R-- r'ecf ystollisoiion
xS
USUHG
UMP[tUlUn[
33
factor but rather it is both the strength of the phase produced due to segregation and
the extent of thermal contraction necessary to develop the fracture stress.
Examples of the deleterious precipitates or phases that can cause this type o
cracking are,
a) sulphide(lOO) andphosphide(lOl) inclusions,
b) carbides such as NbC(102), TiC(103), and Zr(CN) (104),
c) boron-carbides M ^ C B ^ (105),
d) borides M 3 B 2 (103), N i 4 B 3 (119), and
e) intermetallic phases as occur in some Al alloys (120)
Cracking need not necessarily be associated with existing grain boundaries, but can
occur at preexisting grain boundaries which, have been decorated by films or
precipitates (as shown in Fig.3.2). N e w grains m a y form by recrystallization but
the network remains and can lead to cracking when the thermal contractional stresses
are appropriately high.
j?
:#.'"*
**.*
?.*> >-V
' . '
Ca Ti
34
distance from the weldmetal interface and closely resemble the triple junction "wedge
type" cracking associated with creep rupture.
The case of ductility dip cracking shown in Fig. 3.3 was observed in the
same material as the liquation cracking shown in Fig.3.2. Diagramatically the
ductility of the H A Z related to the temperature reached at various locations away
from the weld fusion line could have the form shown in Fig.3.4. Close to the
fusion boundary, the reduced ductility is associated with liquation cracking,
previously discussed (see Sect.3.3). Ductility cracking usually occurs under
conditions in which a section of the H A Z reaches a temperature approximately one
half of the absolute melting point. The stress developed and imposed on the H A Z is
accommodated by grain boundary sliding and often results in cracks being formed at
grain boundary triple junctions. At positions closer to the fusion boundary where
temperatures are higher grain boundaries migrate away from any cracks that m a y
form and thus limit crack growth.
t/
35
Lamellar tearing can also be time dependent and it is thought(95) that both
the possibility of hydrogen diffusion to the crack, and reduced ductility due to strain
aging, could contribute to the crack propagation mechanism.
Since inclusions provide nuclei for lamellar tearing, any increase in steel
cleanliness, or modification to inclusion shape and distribution, would be beneficial
in minimising lamellar tearing. Continuously cast steels have increased resistance
to lamellar tearing presumably because of the smaller inclusion size and uniform
distribution produced as a direct consequence of the melt turbulence and rapid
solidification during casting. This effect, and small additions of calcium to
spheroidise sulphide inclusions, has reduced the occurrence of lamellar tearing.
^-'^
'?-*r.
36
faceted indicating that the crack surfaces had been exposed to high temperatures.
Hydrogen assisted cracking is normally associated with temperatures between
200C and ambient at which thermal faceting is not known to occur. However
In Chapter 1 it was pointed out that the factors that contributed to HAZ col
behavior of hydrogen in the HAZ of welded steel joints. Owing to this comple
37
rt
K3 *QC
^W
c HYOPCOE.N DIS3CLVED
IN "?*? T^P MA7plA:-
CCNC.NT~^'ON
.oft
'
- ' -"II
' '
L 1 1 1,1111
1
'
i l i u m
i i .tt
.o
Mr
38
10
12
50-
<
05
10
15
1
HTDROCEN, cm /I00q
39
propagation by the particular fracture mechanism. O n the other hand for high
hydrogen concentrations the conditions described by curves 2,3,and 4 are proposed.
40
3.7.2 Microstructure.
It is evident, from Section 3.71, that, as a general observation, hydrogen
impairs the properties of steels. The work of Farell and Quarrel( 115), indicated that
the degree of impairment of mechanical properties increased with increasing strength
of the steel, see Fig.3.14. F r o m this, and other work, two deductions are possible.
First, strength and ductility have a direct relationship with microstructure so that it
could be concluded that some microstructures are more susceptible to hydrogen
embrittlement than others, and secondly, because strength and hardness are often
empirically related, measurements of hardness of the H A Z would be a convenient
means of categorising the relative susceptibilities of H A Z s to hydrogen assisted cold
cracking(116,117). Generally it has been found that cracking does not occur in
structures with a hardness below about 3 5 0 H V .
empirical rule, for cracking has been observed to occur in a H A Z having a hardness
as low as 2 5 0 H V , and other steels m a y be crack free in a H A Z with a hardness as
high as 4 5 0 H V . It would appear then that hardness and susceptibility to cold
cracking are not always directly related. Depending on the alloy composition and
cooling rate, different volume fractions of microsructural constituents m a y be
produced that can have the same overall value of hardness. BoniszevAski and
Watkinson (118) investigated the relationship between microstructure, hardness, and
susceptibility to hydrogen assisted cracking(HAC). and from their work the British
41
Welding Research Association adopted the concept of the Embrittling Index (EI)
where
MT5 H r
where N T S H F is the notch tensile strength in hydrogen free conditions, and L C S is
the lower critical stress applied in constant load rupture tests in the presence of
hydrogen ( Sect. 3.12). Clearly, the index can vary from 0 for steels with a low
susceptibility to hydrogen assisted cracking(HAC) to 1 for steels that are very
susceptible to H A C . Boniszeviski and Wilkinson used both their o w n results
(118,189), and those of previous workers( 119,120,121,123), to relate EI to
hardness for a number of C-Mn, Ni-Cr-Mo, Ni-Mo-V, and Cr-Mo steels. These
results are shown in Fig.3.15 from which it can be seen that for a particular
hardness value the steel composition can have a significant influence on the
susceptibility to cold cracking as indicated by the value of EL
Wela mptol
A C.Mn i
Sinair un
Reneated
b Ni:G:Mo
C Ni.MoV
~ D Ci:Mo
High 0-6%) Mn lte.1
-A~
*B rff^l
L)"^
j^^
Conventionol Heels
Mn,
Mo
. fir
200
300
400
500
HV
42
range of conventional C - M n , and Ni-Cr-Mo steels together with low carbon (0.1%),
Cr (up to 5%)-Mo(up to 1%) steels and a number of low carbon high M n and high
N i steels.
From the work of Boniszev^jki and Watkinson, it would appear that the
nucleation of cold cracking could be analysed from two approaches, namely, crack
nucleation in the presence of plate martensite, and crack nucleation in the abscence of
plate martensite. Normally, plate and lath martensites are associated with high and
low carbon content respectively. Martensites formed in commercial steels are
k n o w n to be complex, so that a complete description of the formation and properties
of martensites is yet unavailable(133). Nevertheless, it is recognised that plate
martensite is susceptible to the formation of microcracks. Davies and Magee(144)
43
working with high carbon steels observed microcracks, both along the edges and
across the martensite plates.
thought to be associated with the transformation strains, but the exact mechanism
has not been clearly defined. Davies and M a g e e found that both the density and size
of cracks increased with the martensite plate size. The plate size is a function of the
austenitic grain size which in the weld H A Z can be very large and consequently a
high density of microcracks could occur in the H A Z .
e n 3 2
iv?
<ti=7xi
i--
becomes
Cr2 + P H
[E)
e( n3 3
l -
where a is the average applied stress for crack growth without hydrogen, V
is
the surface energy andOT? is the average applied stress for crack growth with
hydrogen present. Fast(161) estimated that at 3 0 0 K the partial pressure of
hydrogen gas
44
pressure appears to be very high the evolution of hydrogen gas from cracks has been
observed by a number of investigators (145,146) so that pressure assisted growth
would, in part, account for the lower stress levels required to propagate cracking or,
when hydrogen content is high, crack growth could be entirely due to hydrogen gas
pressure. The presence of hydrogen gas is also k n o w n to reduce values of surface
energy and so further reduce the value of applied stress.
Boniszfia&ki and Watkinson(l 18) concluded that both upper and lower bainite were
equally susceptible to hydrogen cracking and that "granular" bainite was the most
desireable bainitic structure. Boniszeviski and Watkinson also concluded that it was
the geometric irregularity of the granular bainite that reduced its "capacity to nucleate
transgranular cleavage cracks along and across the bainite colonies". Because of the
irregular nature of granular bainite it would be expected that crack propagation
would be the controlling process and the presence of plate martensite would be
expected to aid the nucleation process.
The nucleation of HAZ cold cracking in the absence of plate martensite has
been attributed to non-metallic inclusions such as oxides and sulphides. A number
45
Changes to
3.7.3 Stress
Satoh et al.(155) pointed out that during fabrication of welded structures
two types of stresses are produced;
(1) residual welding stresses, and
(2) reaction stresses caused by external restraint.
Residual stresses
that arise from forming operations such as rolling, bending or shearing, can be
x-niriN<nunmiiA^aiiiiimnmiiin:
a) Butt weld
b) Distribution of a,along YY
I ?"
_-- Curve 2
-1
Reaction Tension
stress
IllUillll l!i!ll
Curve 1
,,:,
Compress i on
46
complicated by the residual stresses arising from welding and the accompanying
uneven temperature distribution so that in severe cases distortion of the component
can occur. For a simple butt joint, free from external restraint, the distributions of
residual stresses caused by welding are shown in Fig.3.17.
It is generally agreed,
that in the longitudinal direction of the weld, tensile stresses exist at the centre of the
joint and compressive stresses at the ends. The transverse distribution of stresses is
considered to be caused by the interaction of shrinkage, quenching and phase
transformation strains; however they need not always be additive and so lead to
high values of residual stress. O n the contrary, residual stresses have been found to
be approximately 5 0 M P a , which is relatively low in magnitude(185,186), and can
be considered to contribute
developed a theory of reaction stress produced in butt welds with external restraint.
H e introduced a parameter called the " restraint intensity", and denoted it K,
obviously derived from the lapanese word kosoki, meaning restraint. H e defined
K as, "the force per unit of weld length caused by the elastic change of a unit in root
gap, uniform along a butt welded joint". M o r e recently the symbol R F has been
used to symbolize restraint intensity to avoid confusion with stress intensity factor
K, used in fracture mechanics.
1& th
y^nw
; j^'
Contraction S
+~ p H
Reaction
b\ mm> fore. P
Xb
700
700 o h = 20mm
v h = 30mm
o/
_<*
600 - o h = 40mm
600
So -
500
400
r 4#-tr
1 = 20mm
'6 12 kJ/cm_
o 16 kJ/cm
-o- 18 kJ/cm_
-<>-20 Kj/cm
300
200
ICC
- z
v ,
3
1000c
32
HJ/CT-
a'
~ 400
*
to 300 200
qg/fc.
^
^
/
zee::
h = 15mm
o h=20mm
a h=25nm _
100
1
FJC'
1 500
z) :NTENS; TY
10000
2c:c:
OF RECTRA'.f.T -. f '.N/rr.r
47
Satoh and Matsui(157) considered a butt joint, as shown in Fig 3.18 where
the plate material was fixed at both ends. The hindered contraction on cooling
S =
vm
eqn.3.4.
In Fig.3.18b the line O Y M represents the relationship between P and X y^. The
line ON represents the relationship between P and X BM and the slope of the
O N is the restraint intensity R F
RF
tan 0
Eh_
eqn. 3.5.
L
where E is Youngs modulus, h is the plate thickness, and L is the restraining
length.
The relationship between final reaction stress
intensity was deduced by Satoh et al. (54) to be
ONET
CJNET
V / - V , '.'
<. <
21Zi
<
s 5>
*S-
ULLLLU
i/2S
ttt cr
tt M
0
>>>*
FIG. 3.20. Diagram showing free joint (left) and constrained joint
(right). The degree of constraint is the spring constant(158).
T A B L E 3.1.
Stress concentration factors at the root of welds for various joint
geometries and root angles(179).
Groove
:ypo
Groove
male
Root
ingle
9()
J()
E :centxicity
Th itkness
Throat
thick-
new
him m )
&w(mm)
30
30
' 5
40
60
1/2 V
60
90
Gnnive type
Rj.it
5.8
4.3
4.7
4.0
3.5
4.7"
120
80
AT.ZIC
Y
X
100
114
60
6.5
60
60
90
120
'12 1 grrcve
/ 3 re3v
^ - =>
r^
1 groove
4.2
3.7
X ; r ~ .*.
I i~M
5
5
0
0
30
30
,r
V /
.rf
y'
i_\
.'
i }
1 /<v.^
48
provided that
and
the weldmetal, H is the specific heat of the weldmetal, p is the groove angle,
the specific heat of the plate metal, Q is the net heat input, p is the density
metal, and
OYSWM
is the
yield
stre
clear that reaction stress is independent of plate thickness and heat input, as found
by Satoh et al. and shown in Fig.3.19.
The analysis of Satoh and Matsui(157) was reliant on the plate being rigidly
fixed at points A and A' (see Fig.3.18).
magnitude 8 occurs, and a uniform stress o per unit length of weld is developed
49
K be
defined as
is rarely rigidly fixed and some degree of elastic flexibility is always availa
Analyses based on the degree of constraint concept have been carried out for
various weld geometries(187). Weldability tests have also been developed to
provide a range of degrees of constraint 18 8).
In the mid 1970's Matsui et al. (159) and later Kalev(178) pointed out
that the risk of hydrogen cracking was also dependent on the groove geometry an
other geometric factors not taken into account by RF. Attention was thus direct
towards the nature of localized stresses in the crack initiation zone which is
the root of the weld. Previously, Stout etal.( 188) pointed to stress concentra
was not until 1978 that Satoh et al. (179) and Togoda (180) proposed the "appar
'D
=.r_
'L
RS-type
1
0
a)
90
60
30
9, ()
eL()|9L()
Ol 40 101120
A< 66 IV|13Q
DI90
0 HNr
0
60
90
b)
120
150
180
eo
1 -
0.5
0 LN^
0
c)
90
110
130
150
9L()
50
analysis of the local stress was determined under plain strain conditions and Kt wa
defined as the ratio of the local stress to the average net stress. Table 3.1 shows
various calculated values of Kt for a number of groove geometries.
et al(179) to define the stress field parameter, Fj. Karppi used FEM to determine t
stress field at the root notch of welds and so relate the stress component in the
loading direction s to the net stress, a by the relationship
where r is the distance from the notch tip to the point in the stress field relativ
a . The parameter Fr was also examined as a function of groove geometry, and
like Kt was found to vary as can be seen in Figs 3.21,a,b,c. Variability in both Kt
and Fj with root angle can have significant effects on the fracture stress and has
particular importance in analysis of results from various quantitative weldability
tests. This point will be considered in greater detail in Chapter 4.
51
52
The proposition that steels with a carbon equivalent higher than 0.35 are
difficult to weld without H A Z cracks is a generalization. A s can be seen from
Fig.3.15, susceptibility to cracking, as indicated in this case by EI, can vary for a
constant H A Z hardness depending greatly on the microstructural constituents that
contribute to the hardness value. T o cover wider ranges of steel compositions
numerous carbon equivalent values and formulae have been developed from the
basis that H A Z cracking m a y be detected by one of the m a n y weldability tests
available. It is generally implied that the cracking test results are related to the carbon
equivalent by some feature of the microstructure.
/5
which was derived from data using carbon and low alloy steels, and is generally
applied to such steels.
categorised the more widely used formulae into three broad groups. Group A , for
which the H W fomula (eqn 3.9) is generally used and can be generally applied to
53
carbon and low alloy steels, Group B, for low carbon(0.05-0.3%C) low alloy steels
for which the Ito-Bessyo carbon equivalent (P c m ) formula(168) is used:
P c m = C + Si + M n + C u + C r
so
+ V + M o + N i +5B
20
/o
eqn.3.10
60
Group C, where it is considered that there is an interaction between carbon and the
other alloying elements, an example is the formula for the carbon equivalent(CEN)
developed by Yurioka et al.(169).
&
ZO /$
I " e*P
eqn.3.11
,5
t'40
Q'
''*)\ ]
54
Furthermore, carbon equivalent does not take into consideration the other variables
involved in cold cracking, namely hydrogen content and stress, so that in some
situations it m a y be too conservative, so that unwarranted and costly welding
proceedures might be implemented, or alternatively, theriskof catastrophic failure
m a y be underestimated.
3000
o No crocking
t - 1 0 %
II- 5 0 %
* 51-100%
Weld crocking percentage
in section
E
E
\
\
E
E
OO
ci*3 9 CK>
\
\ OCH
1/1
*
c
2000
\
Y o o cno
*.
VI
0)
5
c
c
"Jo c\ o o
1000 ~
*4
\ * *
O
o \
o
\aMO A
\
**
1
02
_,. _ Si Mn
30 20
1
0.3
Cu Ni Cr Mo
20 60 20 15
1
0.1
10
56* 60 ' %
55
60
Fig. 3.22. From this relationship the cracking parameter, Pw, was determined:
Pw
60
400
where [H] is the hydrogen concentration determined by the IIW method, and Rf
the intensity of restraint.
formulae for a cracking parameter, usually denoted PH that have been develope
by the Japanese. These include
Ito et al.(173)
56
and Suzuki(176)
where HDis the effective value of diffusible hydrogen Rpy is equivalent intensi
restraint for the Tekken Test geometry and Pj^is the versatile cracking paramet
Suzuki (176) recently modified the PHA analysis (192), however it still contains
Pcm thus limiting the range of applications to low carbon alloy steels.
and restraint characteristics to cracking tests other than the Tekken test. The
proposition is that the more specific cracking parameters (such as PH) are deri
from the more general and versatile cracking parameter Pj^.
57
incorporates both the hardness of the H A Z and the percentage of martensite present
i.e.
The H A Z index they found to correlate well with the critical stress o . for H A Z
vl
=( H A Z Index)172
(Hydrogen Index)
cr
a c r =[ 1565-10(%M)-HV] 1 / 2
[31-15.51og[H]]
eqn3.19
WI
= a
fcalc.^ ,
cr
eqn3.20
6oO
was less than unity, the steel could be regarded as susceptible to cracking. Pavoskar
and Kirkaldy (73) used the experimantal data of Evans and Christensen(177), and
Ito and Bessyo(173) to verify the validity of the acr calculation which had been
derived from implant and restraint cracking tests . There are however difficult
58
cracking tests and the type of steel used in the determination of experimental dat
The relationships that the cracking tests have with welded structures is dubious.
Furthermore, being able to predict in detail the magnitude all of the intrinsic v
that contribute to critical conditions for HAZ cold cracking does not offer alter
for avoiding such conditions. Attempts have been made to develop predictive
equations for necessary preheat temperatures, however these are, again empirical,
and thus only apply to the range of alloys and welding conditions from which they
were derived.
of 4X103 MPa is equivalent to a decrease of 0.01% in Pc. thus it would appear that
chemical composition , Pcm of the parent plate is the most influential factor in t
Ashby and Easterling(67), Albury et al.(66) and Ions et al.(75), using fundamental
equations for heat flow and diffusion do not at present provide predictive equati
that encompass the three intrinsic parameters of stress, hydrogen content, and
59
The
ultimate aim is thus to select welding conditions to avoid the formation of crack
sensitive microstructures, or alternatively to asses the possibility of achieving
desirable structures.
60
CHAPTER FOUR
WELDABILITY TESTS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Weldability tests to assess cold cracking may be used for three purposes,
namely:
(i) to determine the predominant variables that govern cold cracking,
(ii) to compare the relative susceptibilities of steels to cold cracking, and
(hi) to develop proceedures to prevent cold cracking.
A large variety of tests have been developed to attain one or more of the
above uses and , in general, m a y be classified into one of the three following
categories:
(a) self restraining tests, such as the Controlled Thermal Severity (CTS) test, the
Lehigh Test, and the Tekken Test,
(b) externally loaded tests, such as the Implant Test, the Tensile Restraint (TRC)
Test, and the Rigid Restraint ( R R C ) Test, and
61
In Chapter 3 it was pointed out that cold cracking was caused by three
interacting intrinsic variables, microstructure, stress and hydrogen concentration.
The abovementioned categories of test attempt to incorporate these variables and the
results obtained from the tests should be interpreted strictly in terms of the variables.
With the self restraint tests the results are generally expressed in terms of the
welding conditions, heat input, and preheat, and the extent of cracking is often
expressed as a percentage of the weldment longitudinal cross-sectional area. The
external loading tests provide a means of changing and measuring the load
independent of the other variables. Hence, at least one intrinsic variable, namely
stress can be expressed quantitatively as a test result. The simulation tests are more
of scientific value. For example, using resistance heating, a simulated thermal cycle
m a y be used to produce a particular H A Z microstructure in a specimen of sufficient
size that can be hydrogen charged to a k n o w n concentration and the fracture stress
measured. The relationship between data generated by these tests has significance in
generating criteria for mathematical modelling rather than relating directly to real
welds in service.
There have also been numerous attempts to correlate the results of the
various tests with each other and with real weld situations, but the results of these
comparisons have often
For example,
Evans(127) suggested that a good correlation existed between the C T S test and the
Implant Test, whereas the opposite conclusion was drawn by Hart( 128). Satoh et
al. (129) indicated that a good correlation existed between Implant Test results
and those from R R C and T R C tests;
[_ff"
SPECIMEN
PLATE S H O W *
SECTONCD AT IM*LA*T
BAU. AMO
SOCKET JOWT
TO PNEUMATIC
LOAOIMC CTLWOCR
FI
62
Additionally, test results from the same weldability test often differ because of
different testing proceedures (131,132,134).
Chapter is to describe a number of the more widely used weldability tests and to
discuss their applicability to weldability and the development of weldability
equations. The external loading type tests, such as the Implant Test is discussed in
Section 4.2, the T R C Test in Section 4.3, and the R R C Test in Section 4.4. The
more c o m m o n self restraining tests such as the Lehigh Test is presented in Section
4.5, the C T S Test in Section 4.6 and the Tekken Test in Section 4.7.
concentrator, and because of the helical form, the location of the stress
concentration occurs at some point in the H A Z , see Fig.4.2. B y carrying out tests
\
m
50
\
K)0%
\\cradsHj
\ Oock
\inttiatlon
v. *0
M.
m
m
\
\
30
rv
20
t
c
10
Restroinad
oftr wtldlng
Rwlroind
during wtkling
00%
crock
Crock
initiation
o
,-\
A
&
IP"
*fc
0
t i . .1
10
20
! !!..!
50
1
1
Loading tun*
ICO
'
2
200
. ' 1 . ,|
,rM
!
3
IO' i t
20
i 1
2000
_1
30
hri
63
results available from various sources that are not readily comparable.
1=
lovable
r.hurk
Fixed
chuck
r-L
"*
G a g e length of
restraint l
100
StHCHB-A
2O0O ion RRC Ml
MOOTTt Mffpvohn
o -
RvJiuinf length I
L-300 mm
No cracking
so
Crocking
CRACKING ZOHC
l500mm
40
.' "
>'" v.*i?^1-120OJ5*.
V ' , - - .. -
_i--
"
I-1300m*
20
10
20
J
L_i_L
40 SO
too
i
200
400 600
tI
COO
2000
4000
TM
64
4.4 T H E R I G I D R E S T R A I N T C R A C K I N G TEST.
Introduced by Satoh et al. (157) the Rigid Restraint Cracking (RRC) test is
based directly on the concept of restraint intensity (see Section 3.73). A certain
restraining length is kept constant during the cooling cycle of the weld by means of
an automatic control mechanism.
Specimen size for the RRC Test depends primarily on the size of the
hydraulic test machine. The most powerful hydraulic R R C Test machine currently
in use is at Kawasaki Heavy Industries Ltd., and has a capacity of 2 0 M N so that
specimens 1 0 0 0 m m wide and 3 0 m m thick can be tested(135). Generally specimens
with a width of 1 0 0 m m are used(129,136).
"I
L-.f-1-f-l
Groove for
w*idng
PtatB
4" 900
65
4.5 T H E L E H I G H R E S T R A I N T T E S T .
metallographic sections that the Lehigh Test was preferable for examining weldmetal
properties rather than the steel plate properties. This conclusion was based on the
observation that for the Lehigh Tests cracking occurred almost exclusively in the
weldmetal. (see Fig. 4.8).
Bithtrmd
test weld
^ffh
' 7
Bottom plote
&
plote
KJ
L L J "i'd.otw*.
66
4.6 T H E C O N T R O L L E D T H E R M A L S E V E R I T Y TEST.
The CTS test was developed by Cottrell et al. (201,202,203) and consisted
of a fillet weld on two sides of a 75 m m square plate on a larger restraining plate,
Fig.4.9. The restraining welds were allowed to cool before the test fillet welds
were made on the remaining sides of the test plate which could be positioned so that
one test weld could be made near the end of the base plate, giving cooling by heat
conduction along two thicknesses of plate, a condition known as a bi-thermal weld.
The other test weld was placed near the center, so that heat was conducted along
three thicknesses ie., a tri-thermal weld. In this manner the cooling conditions of the
H A Z could be varied. After welding, and cooling for an extended period to allow
cracking to occur, the test pieces were sectioned, and assessed for cracking by
metallographic examination.
67
R = 1 eqn. 4.1
By correlating the TSN, and a carbon equivalent denoted CE), of the form
ZO
/S
/O
it was possible to grade a steel with a weldability index, and using tabulated data for
electrode size (heat input), the weldability of the complete configuration could be
determined, and, if necessary, preheat prescribed.
The objective of the total analysis was to predict the welding conditions
necessary for all joint configurations in a welded structure. Correlation of thermal
severity, composition and heat input with weld H A Z cracking was achieved from
C T S Test results; the C T S Test was also used as a means of checking the calculated
conditions for welding. Unfortunately the degree of constraint of the C T S test is
low and invariable. In welded structures the restraining stress is often high so that
the C T S test often underestimated the weldability of a steel in a practical joint
configuration.
Unit: m r a
2M
Section A A '
T viliH.**
Cootfrmin*
_ *
T"
X(((((
)))))))>
X
u-
B
I ^
_! !_
"V/ /
^
-60-
so
Colt. nun
1.A
:ii((!(((-^EiMgMgiii
68
magnitude of stresses in the test weld configuration and to compare these stresses to
those in the welds of a fabricated structure.
The suitability of the CTS test for weldability came into question after the
failure of the Kings Street Bridge in Melbourne in 1962. It was found that brittle
failure had originated from preexisting toe cracks at fillet welds across the ends of
cover plates on the tension flanges of girders. The C T S tests carried out did not
produce such toe cracks and it was only with considerable modifications to increase
the degree of constraint in the C T S test that such cracks could be formed(183).
This result cast considerable doubt on the C T S for assessing susceptibility to cold
cracking.
The Tekken Test was devised by the Technical Research Institute of the
Japanese National Railways(139). Initially, the test piece consisted of two parts,
each 3 3 0 m m long and 75 m m wide although the original version was subsequently
modified by Kihara et al.(140) in 1962, and incorporated as a Japanese Standard in
1966(141).
The test piece is shown in Fig. 4.10, and consists of two parts, each
2 0 0 m m X 7 5 m m which are joined by constraint welds to form a central V section
containing a 2 m m gap at the root for the deposition of a test weld. T w o methods of
depositing the test weld are available and these are shown in Fig.4.11. and the
specification(141) requires that at least 48 hours elapse after welding before the test
weld is examined for cracks. Three procedures shown in Fig 4.12, are described
for crack measurement and Cracking Index is expressed as the average of these
^restraint welds
rcrr.ovei)
Bool rr>"0
C r = tOORrt^l.
<jr\| 3S r>.qrl
4
Cooling
8
Rate at 300 C
12
1UU
-is-
fi iy ^
80
X
to
60
Ii
ion
STEEL
O 1022
1045A
'067
SAO
200
400
600
800
Maximum Vickers hardness in heat
affected zone . Vhn
FI
900
69
three measurements. Hensler et al. (23) found that by heat tinting the crack surfaces
at 400C, fracturing the specimen, then measuring the area of crack and expressing
this as a percentage of the weldmetal longitudinal cross sectional area, a value of CI
could be obtained equally as reliable as that obtained using the more laborious
techniques described in the Specification(141).
to examine four test welds to ensure consistency for a " go or no go test and that at
least eleven specimens were necessary in order that cracking percentage might be
estimated in detail"(25). Hensler et al.(23 ) quotes reproducibility of the order of
+
al. point out that heat energy input, E , (eqn. 2.4) must be maintained at +/- 5%.
Such close tolerances on E require that welding voltage be maintained within the
required range which in turn would require the arc gap to be maintained at +/0.15mm. This limit would be difficult to achieve consistently by a manual welder.
S 3 i -C
''I '-I.
LICLMO
FLJX
"E'AL
CASE n
FIG. 4.16.
Schematic representation of the effects of interfacial
energy on the Tekken test weldmetal geometry.
70
than stress, is important particularly in regard to crack nucleation in the region of the
weld root of the Tekken testpiece. The work of Satoh et al.(179) and Karppi et
al.(162) also indicate that the stress concentration can vary considerably with r
angle, (see Table 3.1 and Fig.3.21c). Such variations could contribute significant
to variability in crack nucleation conditions. The shape of the weld bead which ha
been found to be determined by the interfacial energy configuration^ 14),
determines the root angle. An analysis of the interfacial energy forces reveals t
the bead shape is not a function of one value of surface tension, but is determin
the balance of three such forces. This situation is illustrated for two cases in F
4.15 in which the three interfacial energies are: y the interfacial energy between
the molten flux and the solid metal, yr_- the interfacial energy between molten fl
and molten steel and, y the interfacial energy between molten steel and solid stee
For case l(see Fig.4.12)
Y. = Y cos a
'5\
*(!
Y cos B
V\
eqn4.4
Thus
Y cos B
n
Y cos 9
f
eqn4.
liquid flux/ solid metal interfacial energy would have on the weld beads formed in
the Tekken Test welds are shown schematically in Fig. 4.16a from which it can be
seen that high values of y5 cause small root angles and consequently high stress
(b)
71
bead, resulting in large root angles, and low stress concentrations, Fig.4.16b.
Amongst the various factors which can effect surface energy, the
composition of the weld slag is probably the most influential. Electrode flux
composition not only effects the nature of the gas shielding of the welding arc and
the metal/slag refining reactions that were discussed in Chapter 2, but also the
composition of the resulting slag and interfacial energy relationships. In this latter
respect it has been found that the flux composition can effect weldmetal penetration
into the parent plate(214) and weld bead shape(215) by variations to the interfacial
energy configuration. F r o m Table 2.2 it can be seen that the type of electrode is
based on the composition of the flux. Kihara et al.(212) found that bead shape and
cracking behavior changed with electrode type as can be seen from Fig.4.17a and b
but they proposed nb reason for the change in location of the crack w h e n the high
titania electrodes were used. It can be seen however, that there is a shift in the
location of the stress concentrator. It is generally accepted that cracking of the type
shown in Fig.4.17a is typical of Tekken Test cracks for low hydrogen electrode
welding. With modern electrodes of a particular type and conforming to a particular
specification, e.g. basic low hydrogen type, E4816 classification, differences in flux
coating composition can occur, particularly from different manufacturing sources.
Specifications for electrodes refer only to mechanical properties of the weldmetal,
not to penetration characteristics and weld bead geometry. Hence variations in flux
composition would be expected to contribute to variability in general weld bead
shape hence root angle and thereby could contribute to the determination of
weldability.
72
Although Ito and Bessyo(173) considered that test results were reliable
over the range 1.7kJ/mm to 3.0kJ/mm, Hensler et al. (23) found that close control
of heat input was necessary. Changes in welding conditions can also influence
weld bead geometry(234,235). Such changes are not a function of heat energy
input, but optimum weld geometries are achieved by correct combinations of
welding current, voltage and speed. T h e variations to weld bead geometry
presumably arise due to surface tension effects caused by differences in the arc
temperature causing higher temperatures in the molten weld pool. In Tekken Tests
that are performed by manual operators, variations to heat input energy(23) and weld
bead geometry(24) are likely to occur.
The variability of root angle and the consequent effect on the magnitude of
stress concentration would appear to have a significant effect on crack nucleation.
However these effects are complex and at present unpredictable not just in relation
to the Tekken Test but also in relation to welded structures.
73
Regarding crack propagation, it can be seen from Fig. 4.17a that the
crack follows a path, in general, normal to the tensile stress direction. For this to
occur the crack path necessarily passes through a portion of the H A Z in the plate
material, and then continues in the weldmetal. Therefore it would appear that
measured values of CI relate to the fracture characteristics of both the H A Z of the
plate, and the weldmetal. It is conceivable therefore, that a steel highly susceptible
to H A C , could register low values of CI, if welded with suitable electrodes, because
of the difficulty of crack propagation in the weldmt<3 /. The low value of CI in
such a situation would not indicate a true assessment of the weldability of that steel.
CI = 2C. eqn.4.5
As the crack grows in length the stress intensity factor K, at the crack tip, whi
given by
K = G J K C eqn4.6
also increases. However as the crack increases in length, the length of the weld
74
with the results shown in Figs. 4.13 and 4.14 indicating that very few CI results are
within the range 3 0 % to 7 0 % .
Tekken Test apparently incorporate a high level of scatter which could be related to
either or both crack nucleation and crack propagation. The extrinsic factors that can
effect these two phenomena in the Tekken Test have, as yet, not been fully
investigated. Furthermore, in the Tekken Test the crack follows a path involving
the H A Z and the weldmetal. It would therefore seem more appropriate to relate
weldability test results to the total weldment which incorporates both the weldmetal
and the H A Z .
With the above points in mind, it should be pointed out that workers have
tended to be conservative (e.g. see Fig. 3.22) in applying Tekken Test results to the
development of weldability formulae.
75
In this Chapter, the reasons for the choice of materials, the techniques used,
and in particular, w h y the Tekken Test was chosen as a topic for study, are
discussed. Although several weldability tests have been reviewed in Chapter 4, a
brief mention of some of the shortcomings of weldability tests will be considered to
serve as a background for a discussion of the proposed program of work.
commented that," the greatest part of these tests at present in use have been devised,
after a failure had occurred during welding or in actual service, in order to explain
these failures or prevent their recurrence. These failures are in most part the result
of a complex conjunction of circumstances and material properties; and the tests
themselves are difficult to interpret". If weldability tests were applied only to those
areas from which they originated, then problems could be minimized. However,
there is a tendency that the tests begin to be applied in areas for which they are not
suited. For example as pointed out in Chapter 4, Sect. 4.6 the C T S test was
envisaged to apply to steels with tensile strengths in the range 300 to 600MPa. The
construction of the Kings Street Bridge in Melbourne utilized material outside this
range (650MPa), but more to the point the C T S test did not reproduce restraint
conditions commensurate with those of the structural components of the
bridge(183).
76
The C T S test and the Kings Street Bridge failure indicate two points of
concern with weldability tests; first the relationship, if any between the test weld
configuration and conditions and the welds in the actual structure, and secondly, the
range of conditions over which test results are reliable.
77
The
Hensler et al. (23) carried out the investigation for the Institute of Materials
Research and examined a range of specimen dimensions and test procedures, and
m a d e specific recommendations in those respects. They also pointed out that, for
consistent, reproducible results, close tolerances of welding conditions were
necessary. Subsequent to the publication of the work of Hensler et al. (23) the
A W R A initiated an interlaboratory Tekken Test program which incorporated the
Tekken Test results from eight laboratories comparing two steels. Welding current
and speed were specified, and electrodes were supplied from the same
manufacturing source. The scatter of results that was obtained is indicated in Table
5.1., where it can be seen that between laboratories, the results ranged from 0 to
T A B L E 5.1.
The test results reported by the participating laboratories for Tekken
test welds carried out with a preheat of 50C.(24).
*
Preheat
50C
Labi
7
3
4
5 ,
g
7
86
71
0
0
23
38
0
0
55
25
0
43
0
0
1.5 0
PLATE B
88
0
. 54
0
79
0
75
100
86
0
100
0
94
0
25
100
78
From Fig. 5.1, it is apparent that not only were weld bead size and
geometries often different, but that cracking often occured in different locations
(compare A l and A 6 in Fig.5.1). If variations in welding conditions do influence
test results, then the influence is related by the intrinsic parameters of microstructure
and stress. This conclusion is based on the assumption that all electrodes have been
dried in an identical manner so that weld metal hydrogen concentrations were
constant. It was therefore proposed, that the aim of the research to be carried out
would be to examine, in detail, the effects that variations of welding current,
voltage, and speed had on measured values of CI.
T o maintain consistency, a
Welding Variables
Current Speed Voltage
JMtc rostmcture
Cracking Index g )
Stress
Significance
of
The Tekken Test
FIG- 5.2. Diagram showing the planned approach with which the
research was to be carried out The numbers indicate the Stages and
the sequence of the work.
79
in which can be seen that the work was divided into a number of Stages to ensure
programmed development. The Stages are identified numerically in Fig.5.2 and
were the basis of the sequence of the experimental work.
The electrodes chosen were also the same grade and type as those used in the
interlaboratory comparison, namely 4 m m E 4 8 1 6 basic low hydrogen, and from the
same manufacturing source. This choice also offered the advantages of use of
electrodes that are in general use and because they were of the type and grade used in
the Interlaboratory Comparison(24) results could be beneficial in developing an
interpretation of the results of the Interlaboratory Comparison.
By carrying out the research according to the plan shown in Fig. 5.2, it
was intended to relate CI to variations in the extrinsic parameters of current, voltage
and speed and interpret these in terms of the intrinsic parameters of microstructure
and stress. Another objective was to examine the scatter of results and to interpret
these in relation to the intrinsic parameters.
80
C H A P T E R SIX
EXPERIMENTAL
6.1 INTRODUCTION.
The general and specific aims of the research have been described in
Chapter 5. To facilitate such a programme of work; materials, equipment and, in
particular, techniques had to be developed in order to achieve reliable results.
the inhomogeneous nature of the MMA welding process and the reported, and often
conflicting, scatter in results from other investigators, reproducibility was
the difficulties that were encountered and how these were overcome or minimised.
work. For example, the majority of test welds were carried out using one grade of
electrode, from one manufacturing source. Similarly, the general research involve
only one grade of steel, however, two other steels, one with a higher and one wit
lower carbon equivalent were also examined. Nevertheless, the main thrust of the
research was directed along the lines set out in Fig. 5.2.
variables of current, voltage and speed, they were examined separately in two set
experiments. The overlap that occurred in the two sets of experiments was found t
be useful in examining reproducibility.
(a)
n. *
*~si r -.<<* * ,' 4, J-.. ^ ~ . 4
ssi iii^^^^^s^>^
r *
-^yf
x<>r*^-
, j> Z2~r-*^-^ ^
4*
^&^f^-^
(b)
>
% y
(c)
FIG. 6.1. Photo micrographs showing the microstructures of the
three steels used a) 0.3 C e q , 140HV(20), b) 0.36 C e q , 153 HV(20),
c) O.Ceq, 157HV(20). X150; etchant, 2.5% nital.
T A B L E 6.1
The three grades of steel used in the current investigation, showing the chemical
analysis, carbon equivalenuirW), and the mechanical properties.
Mechanical
Steel Grade Props.
Chemical Composition
Mn
Si
250
410 22%.3 0
AS 1204-250
.14
.96
.13
.025
.01
350
480 18%.35
AS 1204-350
.16 1.16
.23
.025
.01
520
16%
.41
AS 1204-400
.16 1.43
.40
.026
.005
T A B L E 6.2.
The chemical composition and the mechanical properties of the weld deposits produced
from the three grades of electrodes used in the present work.
Grade
Chemical Composition
C
Mn
Si
Ni
E4816
.12 .9
.60
E6218M
.07 1.0
.44
1.6
E7618M
07 1.5
.50
2.1
Cr
Mechanical Props.
Mo
480
.2
Y.S. T.S.
550
Elong
31%
.3
600
680
26%
.4
760
830
23%
81
6.2 MATERIALS.
The steel plate used for the research was a commercial grade C-Mn steel
covered by the Australian Specification, A S 1204-350 and the composition,
mechanical properties and carbon equivalent are shown in Table 6.1. A limited
number of test welds were also carried out using two other steels, the compositions,
mechanical properties and carbon equivalents of which are also shown in Table 6.1.
All plate was 2 0 m m thick in the rolled condition with microstructures comprising
ferrite and pearlite as shown in Fig. 6.1. Test specimens were cut from the plate in
such a way that the test welds were deposited transverse to the rolling direction.
RESTKAINT BOLTS
'[constrained piece)
'HIKIIM'ii-iilll'l.K
82
Two specimen configurations were used for Tekken Test pieces in the
current work. The standard Tekken Test piece ,( see Fig. 4.10) was used in Stages
1,2, and 3 (refer to Chapter 5) and a modified version of the Tekken Test piece was
used in the experimental work associated with the restrdning load measurements.
For the research in Stages 1,2 and 3 the two parts of the test piece shown
in Fig. 4.10 were machine sawn from the plate material so that the bevel edge was
transverse to the rolling direction. Prior to assembly, the two parts were deburred
and the bevel edge examined for accuracy using a set of profile gauges. Section
dimensions were also examined for conformity to the tolerances set d o w n by
Hensler et al. (23). Specimens that did not conform were rejected and, if possible,
subsequently machine milled to the correct dimensions. The technique described by
Hensler et al. (23) was used initially to construct the Tekken Test piece. This
involved placing the two parts of the test piece in a jig, Fig. 6.2, and setting the gap
using a 2 m m thick, flat strip of metal as a feeler gauge. The test piece parts were
clamped in position by tightening the the retaining nuts, see Fig.6.2, the jig and the
specimen were then heated in a furnace for lhour at 200C. U p o n removal from the
furnace the restraining welds were deposited using 4 m m E 6 2 1 8 M electrodes. It
was found that using this technique the specified 2 m m gap could be maintained
reliably. Cambell(218) had similar difficulties but, by machining the length of the
specimen where the restraining weld was to be deposited so that abutment of the two
83
parts occurred, closure of the 2 m m gap was eliminated w h e n the restraining welds
were deposited. Investigators at A.I.S. Port Kembla(217) inserted 2 m m thick and
5 m m wide pieces of steel in the gap at the two points where the gap between the
restraining welds and the test weld existed. This latter technique was found to be
satisfactory, mainly because it w a s convenient and required no extra costly
machining. Furthermore, it was possible to vary the thickness of the strip and so
investigate the influence of the root gap on cracking behaviour. Because of the
location of the steel strips at the beginning and end of the test weld, it was possible
to start the arc on a steel strip and finish the test weld on a steel strip so that defects
at the weld ends, such as crater cracking could be avoided, or at least minimised.
Midi Volts
84
found that the magnitude of the loads recorded were approximately 1 0 % of the load
measured w h e n the direct measuring technique was used. Furthermore, cracking
could not be induced under welding conditions that were k n o w n to produce
substantial cracking in the standard Tekken Test piece. It was therefore concluded
that the equipment was "soft" and the thermal contraction developed by the cooling
weld was being accommodated as flexure in the equipment and not as restraint on
the weld and the H A Z . It was considered that while the general concept was valid
there would need to be considerable time spent and cost involved in developing the
equipment to such a stage that reliable results could be achieved. Therefore the
third possibility was considered.
85
gauge manufacturer was l^m/m/K. Between test welds the load cells were checked
for conformity to the kN/ m V calibration.
For the deposition of test welds an automatic welder was used which was
developed by Steelmains Pty. Ltd. and is shown in Fig. 6.6. This equipment
allowed welding current, voltage and sp <$ed to be preset to desired values, and so
remove the possible variations that arise during the manual operation of covered
electrode welding.
200 -
20
25
VOLTS
30
86
the feed was accomplished through a screw drive from a D C servo motor controlled
by an electronic controller.
87
O n the electronic controller a recorder outlet enabled the voltage and current
signals to be displayed as a function of time on a recorder (E). Voltage and current
measured were true R M S values accurate to less than 0.5volt and 5 a m p respectively.
Both the table drive and the electrode feed could be operated independently
allowing the work and the electrode tip to be moved to any desired location for the
commencement of welding.
To carry out a test weld the following procedure was followed: the table
speed, welding current, and voltage were set to the required values after which the
specimen was placed in position such that the location of the electrode tip
corresponded with the edge of one of the metal strip used to set the specimen gap.
A small ball of steel wool (approx. 8 m m dia.) was placed immediately below the
electrodetipand the electrode was slowly moved d o w n to partially compress the
steel wool. B y pressing the "start" button the current flowed, the steel wool melted
and the arc started. A short ( and adjustable ) delay enabled the arc to stabilize
before the work table was activated, after which the automatic deposition of the test
weld commenced. W h e n the welding arc reached the second metal strip in the
specimen the "arc stop" push button caused the work table to stop and
simultaneously interrupted the welding current. Actual weld length was measured
using a vernier gauge on the test weld. F r o m the chart record produced, voltage,
current and welding time could be derived and welding speed calculated.
After deposition of the test weld, specimens were left on the table of the
88
automatic welding rig, undisturbed, for 24 hours. This period differs from that
specified in the Japanese Standard, JIS 3158, but is consistent with the work of
Hensler et al.(23) and that specified and used in the A W R A interlaboratory
comparison(24). A number of specimens that cooled in turbulent air were found to
have values of CI higher than those cooled on the table of the welding machine in
conditions of still air. The standardised condition given above was thereafter
adhered to. Following cooling the restraining welds were machine sawn from the
specimen, taking care not to add to or extend existing cracks which was achieved by
placing the specimen in the machine saw so that the clamping action of the vice
maintained a transverse compressive force on the weld during sawing. The saw cuts
were m a d e atrightangles to the weld line and passed through the metal strips that
had been inserted to set the root gap.
As pointed out in Chapter 4 the Japanese standard for the Tekken Test
offers several methods for determining and expressing quantitatively the degree of
cracking. These are shown in Fig.4.12. and include the surface crack ratio ( C s )
which involves measurement of cracking with the unaided eye, or another suitable
method, direct from the surface of the weld bead. Often, w h e n cracking is not
extensive, the crack will not propoagate to the upper surface of the weld bead. Bead
cracking, C B , can be measured from 5 cross sections of the weldment.
After
suitable metallographic preparation the average height of the bead root cracks can be
expressed as a percentage of the bead height. The third and fourth methods involve
dye penetration of the crack so that w h e n the remainder of the weldment was
fractured, either by bending or tensile loading, the extent of cracking can be
deduced. This can be expressed as root cracking C R or the section area cracking C A .
The average of C s , C B and C R , is usually defined as the cracking index, CI.
89
Hensler et al. (23) examined the probability of errors from each technique
and concluded that heat tinting the weld crack surfaces and measuring C A did not
differ from the more lengthy determinations of CI.
The technique chosen was that of heat tinting the fracture surfaces in a
manner similar to that described in A W R A
measuring C A after complete fracture of the weld. The advantages of using this
approach were that it was simple, and involved very little specimen preparation.
The process of determining CI involved:
(i) removing the restraining welds
(ii) heating in a furnace one hour at 400C,
(iii) fracturing the cooled test piece along along the weld line in the hydraulic press
shown in Fig. 6.8.
This procedure gave fracture surfaces of the type shown in Fig.6.9 consisting of a
darkened heat tinted area (A) which corresponded to the cold crack produced by
welding and a lighter fracture surface (B) caused by the overloading in the hydraulic
press.
90
6.6 M E T A L L O G R A P H Y .
91
Time
92
thermocouple were recorded prior to, during , and after the test weld on a three pen
recorder,
(vi) weld voltage and current /time and the temperature of the two load cells were
recorded on two separate two pen recorders.
A typical recording of the three pen recorder is shown in Fig.6.11,
in which it can be seen that the start and finish of the test weld are indicated by
pulses in the trace caused by the start and stop of the table motor drive. Under
normal test conditions the chart was allowed to record for 24 hours or until
fracture occurred. In Fig.6.11 the trace displays the first 100 seconds of the cycle.
Load cell A was located at the beginning of the test weld and load cell B was at the
finish end of the the test weld. From Fig.6.11 it can be seen that load cell A initially
recorded a compressive load followed by tensile restraint, however, more
importantly the load at the start end of the weld was always smaller than that
recorded at the finish end of the test weld (load cell B). Load / time relationships
recorded by strain gauges attatched directly to the Tekken Test piece were similar in
form and magnitude to those shown in Fig. 6.11.
To investigate this difference in restraint between the two ends of the test
weld a further series of welds were carried out without the imposition of restraint
using the experimental equipment shown in Fig. 6.3. The "constrained" section of
the test piece was set at 2 m m and any movement of this section was recorded at each
end by two displacement transducers. A typical result is shown in Fig.6.12 from
which it can be seen that greater displacement occurred at the finish end of the test
weld suggesting that previous load/time measurements were not a function of
instrumentation but rather that rotational stress were introduced during the welding
cycle and these ultimately led to a higher stress at the finish end of the test weld.
93
The distrubution of stresses along the length of the test weld was also
considered. Karppi et al. (238) found that the stress at the centre was higher than at
the ends in a R R C test weld. Ito and Bessyo (236,237) found that for Tekken Test
specimens the intensity of restraint was higher at the ends of test welds. In the
present work it was assumed that the load at the centre of the test weld was the
average of the two loads recorded by the the two load cells A and B. Transverse
sections were cut at the centre of the test weld length for metallographic preparation,
to locate the exact position of the thermocouple and to measure the weldment cross
sectional area from which the restraint stress at the centre of the weld was calculated.
94
CHAPTER 7
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
7.1 INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this chapter is to report and discuss the results of the
experimental work which was carried out according to the plan described in
5, Fig 5.2. For the sake of convenience Fig. 5.2 has been reproduced and is
included in this chapter for easy reference. Stage 1 of the work was aimed
influence the values of Cracking Index (CI) as measured by the Tekken Test.
same sequence. The results from Stage 1 of the work are presented in sectio
in which CI is related to variations in the welding parameters and some of
are discussed. However, the results of Stages 2, 3, 4 and 5 have been combi
Welding Variables
Current Speed Voltage
Microstructure
Stress
Significance
of
The Tekken Test
FI
95
This has been achieved by treating each parameter separately so that the effects of
welding voltage in Section 7.3.2, current in Section 7.3.3, and speed in Section
7.3.4, relate the respective single extrinsic parameter to the intrinsic factors of
microstructure and stress and to measured values of CI.
approach w a s to present an overview
T h e purpose of this
considered as relating only to the steel plate and consumables used in the current
research program. In the small number of experiments where different materials,
particularly electrodes, were used the results were not entirely consistent with those
results obtained using the electrodes chosen for the main experimental work. It
m a y be that the results reported and the mechanisms discussed cannot be considered
as necessarily universal to the Tekken Test w h e n applied to other plate materials and
electrodes.
96
7.2 T H E E F F E C T O F W E L D I N G V A R I A B L E S O N C R A C K I N G I N D E X
7.2.1 Introduction.
100
^
P60
e>30
40
U3
M
20
20
Voltage
to
3'
25
100
90
80
^.70
| 60
-60
40
u
30
20
10
100
FIG
120
140
Current
160
amps
180
97
from 20 to 30volts is shown in Fig. 7.1. It can be seen that over this very narro
range weld cracking increased from approximately 30% at 20.5 volts to 100% at 27
volts. It was found that below 19 volts the arc length was reduced to the extent
the electrode dragged on the specimen groove and rendered the results unreliable.
Above 30volts, because of the increased arc length, unstable arc conditions occur
with an associated intermittent weld deposition.
The welding speed was set at 160mm/min and the welding voltage at 20.5
volts and a series of test welds was carried out at currents ranging from 140amps
190amps. The measured CI as a function welding current is shown in Fig.7.2. It
can be seen that as welding current was increased from 150amps to 190amps CI
progressively decreased from 100% to 30%. This general decline is not without
considerable scatter of results.
By maintaining the welding voltage and the welding current constant the
effect of welding speed on CI was determined. Two series of welding speed/CI
experiments were carried out, one at 180amps and a second at 170amps both at
20.5volts and with welding speeds ranging from 130mm/min to 220mm/min. The
100
v.
90
60
v. 70
\.
60
/
^*
-a
50
"
i0
/'
2 30
10
"
-
120
^
y ^
U
20
f.
N * 0 ^
/
/
140
Weldinq
L .. 1. .,L, .,
180
160
Speed
^
200
mm/
/ m in
20 0
100
Welding
F K
Speed
mm
/n;n
results of these two series are shown in Fig 7.3 in which it can be seen that
increasing welding speed, for both welding currents, w a s associated with an
increase in CI.
From the results of Sections 7.2.2, 7.2.3 and 7.2.4 it would appear that
the three extrinsic parameters have an effect on CI. However, as each of these
parameters changes with the other two constant it can be seen from equation 7.1 that
heat energy input (E) varies:
E = 60 V I
103S
eqn. 7.1
where V is the voltage, I is the current (amps), and S is the welding speed
(mm/min).
A series of test welds was therefore carried out in which heat energy
input was maintained constant at 1.38kJ/mm ( which corresponded to the reference
conditions) over the range of voltages, currents and speeds previously investigated.
The value of each of the parameters was appropriately varied to maintain heat energy
input constant. The results of this series are shown in Fig.7.4 in which the CI has
been superimposed on the current-voltage/ speed relationship of 1.38kJ/mm.
Sound welds were produced at low welding speeds, currents and voltages.
However, at higher values of welding current and speed susceptibility to cracking
increased, ultimately to a CI of 100%.
99
A possible
explanation could be derived from the relationship between arc length (1) and
welding voltage(V), provided in equation 7.2 (6)
V = K +1 d P eqn 7.2
10
100
The effect of welding speed(S) on CI is shown in Fig 7.3 and suggests the
existence of a linear relationship of the form
CI = kS eqn 7.3
Allowing for the scatter of results observed, the value of the proportionalit
constant (k) increases with decreasing welding current. Thus, if welding speeds are
reduced towards a minimum, CI will also tend toward a minimum. However, for
low currents (150amps) CI would be very sensitive to increases in welding speed. It
would appear that the influence of welding speed on C I is beyond the scope of the
effects of heat energy input alone. Nevertheless, as a general rule the beneficial
effects of increasing welding current to to reduce CI (Fig 7.2) can be be offset by
increasing welding speed and voltage (at constant E, Fig 7.4).
The scatter of results recorded (see, for example, Fig 7.2 ) raises
doubts regarding the reliability of quantitative data derived from the Tekken Test.
Masubuchi (164) has shown that with restraint type weldability tests, once a crack
101
has reached a critical size, unstable crack growth follows; so that measurements of
cracking in the 40 to 7 5 % region would be unreliable. In the present work the
scatter of results occurred in this region.
7.3.1 Introduction
The results reported and discussed in this section relate the extrinsic
parameters of welding voltage (Section 7.3.2), current (Section 7.3.3), speed
(Section 7.7.4) and heat input (Section 7.3.5), to the intrinsic parameters of
weldment microstructures and contractional stress.
102
weldment
High
From Figs 7.5 and 7.6 it can be seen also that the geometry of the
weldmetal changed with increases in welding voltage. For the higher voltage
(Fig.7.6), considerably greater penetration of the parent plate occurred and the
weldment had an increased width to height ratio compared with the weldment
produced at lower voltage (Fig. 7.5). Similarly the H A Z extended further into the
parent plate for welds deposited at higher voltages.
103
electron microscope(TEM).
cracking of welds produced at high voltages was entirely ductile, Fig 7.7, with the
classical "dimple" structure indicating a microvoid coalescence mechanism. At 20.5
volts fracture occurred in the HAZ by intra- and trans-granular cleavage, Figs 7.8a
and 7.8b respectively, whilst crack propagation in the weldmetal occurred by quasi
cleavage and microvoid coalescence, Figs 7.9a and 7.9b respectively.
HAZ Microstructure
From a metallographic examination of the weldments it was determined that
the microstructure of the HAZ adjacent to the fusion boundary was different in
weldments produced at low voltages compared with that produced at high welding
voltages. At low voltages the microstructure consisted of lath martensite with a
grain boundary network of ferrite and some Widmanstatten ferrite, Fig 7.10.
Higher welding voltages resulted in a HAZ with a larger grain size, compared to the
lower voltage welds, see Fig 7.11, and with an increased amount of grain boundary
k
proeutectoid ferrite and fine lath ferrite (often referred to as acicular ferrite),
7.14. Weldmetal deposited at high welding voltage (28volts) contained a
104
FIG. 7.17. Diagram showing the stress-time relationships for two Tekken
test welds performed at (a) 20.5volts, 180 amps ,and 160mm/min. and (b)
28volts, 180amps, and 160mm/min.
IX>C-
ccx-
aoc-
60C-
arjO-
jpo
(a) X 3
(b)X3
FIG. 7.19.Photomacrographs of the tips of electrodes formed during
welding at 180amps and 160mm/min. and at (a) 20.5volts and (b) 28volts.
ico80-
60
40
20
0
15
20
Volis
FI
105
By comparing Fig. 7.21 with Fig. 7.5 and Fig7.22 with Fig. 7.6 it can
be seen that a distinct weldmetal geometry is associated with electrodes from each
manufacturing source. Source B electrodes produced a weldmetal deposit with a
distinct protruberance in the centre of the top surface and deeper penetration into the
plate material. Furthermore, the root angle measured on a number of welds was
(a)X3
(b)X3
FIG.7.23. Photomacrographs of the tips of electrodes from manufacturing
source B after welding at (a) 21 volts, 180amps, and 160mm/min (b)
28volts, 180amps and 160mm/min.
_______
T A B L E 7.1.
Analysis of flux coatings of E48T6 type electrode from two different
manufacturing sources, denoted A'and B.
ELEMENT
Mg
Si
Ca
Mn
Fe
1.8
Ti
10.1
14.1
59.7
7.7
106
approximately 130 which was larger than that measured for welds produced using
source A electrodes, (105).
The geometry of the tips of the electrodes was also examined and
photomacrographs of sections of these are shown in Fig.7.23a and 7.23b for low
and high voltages respectively.
same as for the source A electrodes(Fig.7.17a and 7.19b), the cone of source B
electrodes used at low voltages was found to be consistently longer (compare
Fig.7.23a and Fig.7.19a).
400-
300-
I
5
w
a
I 200
FI(
107
fusion line the hardness values measured for source B electrodes are approximate
100 hardness points below the measured hardness values for source A electrodes.
the major elements present in the electrode fluxes were determined. These results
are shown in Table 7.1.
Discussion.
From the photomacrographs shown in Figs.7.5 and 7.6 it is apparent
that cracking in weldments produced at high and low welding voltages occurred in
two distinctly different locations. For welds produced at low voltages cracks th
had propagated in the HAZ were arrested when they entered the weldmetal, Fig 7.5.
Cracks that formed in the weldmetal after welding at high voltages propagated
entirely in the weldmetal, Fig 7.6, and subsequently led to high values of CI,
Fig.7.1.
The microstructure of both the HAZ and the weldmetal was found to
be different in weldments produced by welding at high and low welding voltages.
Microstructures in the HAZ (Figs 7.10 and 7.11) were found to differ in that high
voltage welding produced a HAZ microstructure with both increasing grain size and
content of proeutectoid ferrite. The increased heat energy input at high voltages
(equation 7.1) was found to be associated with reduced cooling rates (see Fig 7.1
and would have two effects: first, the increased time above 200C would enhance
the diffusion of hydrogen from the weldment and secondly, the increased time
108
less susceptible to hydrogen assisted cold cracking(l 18). These factors are refl
in the absence of HAZ cracking in weldments produced at high welding voltages.
Weldments produced at the lower welding voltages cooled at a higher rate, contain
less proeutectoid ferrite and were cracked in the HAZ.
Although the reaction stress varied little with increased welding voltage
(Fig 7.17 ) the root angle was observed to be different for welds produced at hig
and low voltages. The measured root angle increased from 110 at 20.5 volt to
130 at 25.7 volts( see Fgs.7.5 and 7.6). From the analysis of Karppi (216) the
stress field parameter F1 would decrease from 0.75 to 0.4mm1/2 (see Fig. 3.20c),
corresponding to a 46% reduction in the stress concentration on the HAZ when
welding voltage was increased from 20.5 volts to 25.7 volts. Therefore, in
weldments deposited at higher voltages,the HAZ has a microstructure with a
present and the reduced hydrogen content (both being attributable to lower coolin
rates), and a geometry which reduced stress concentrators for possible crack
nucleation.
From Fig.7.14 and Fig 7.15 it is evident that welding voltage also
affected the microstructure of the weldmetal. The microstructure of coarse grain
M
oxygen content in the weldmetal, the increased inclusion content and the coarse g
109
had a microstructures of fine lath ferrite and that weldmetal with this microstructure
was more resistant to fracture than weldmetals containing higher oxygen content
(800ppm) and coarse ferritic microstructures. Results of the present work which
relate qualitatively the n u m b e r and size of oxide particles, oxygen content,
microstructure and weldmetal fracture are in general agreement with the results of
the previous work of Kirkwood(51) and others (52,54).
alone that
110
crack propagation mechanism by enhancing the nucleation of microvoids which
could be significant in contributing to the increased value of CI.
In Section 7.22 it was proposed that lengthening of the welding arc due to
increased welding voltage caused atmospheric gases to be absorbed in the arc plas
and incorporated finally, in the solid weldmetal. Because of the high weldmetal
oxygen content and the large numbers of oxide particles in the weldmetals,
contamination of the arc plasma with atmospheric oxygen appears to have occurred.
Considering the geometry of the electrode tips, additional mechanisms to simply
increasing the arc length would seem to be involved. For low welding voltages
(20volts) the tip of the electrode was found to be cone shaped (Fig.7.19a) while
higher welding voltages the flux cone was absent and a frozen metallic tip protru
beyond the flux coating ( Fig 7.19b). Essers et al (226) in a study of flux
cone at the electrode tip coincided with optimum welding conditions. This occurre
for two reasons: first, high melting rates were achieved by a process of early "
pinch" effects producing small droplets, and secondly, the cone shape aided in
directing and containing the arc plasma in a dense column. In the absence of this
cone (as with electrodes operating at high welding voltages) a diffuse arc plasma
increased length would allow atmospheric gases to penetratethe arc column.
Formation of large metal droplets was also found by Essers et al to reduce meltin
rate by acting as a barrier to heat transfer to the unmelted metal core of the el
which resulted in overheating of the droplet. Transfer of large overheated metal
droplets could account for the increased penetration of the parent plate and the
changes in geometry of the weldment. It could also be argued that it was the
higher temperatures that caused the lower rates of cooling that contributed to th
111
formation of the type of microstructures observed for both the H A Z and the
weldmetal.
The effect of high welding voltage on the microstructures of both the HAZ
and the weldmetal was found to be independent of electrode flux composition.
Consequently, the high voltage deposition of weldmetal with a microstructure
susceptible to fracture occurred using both source A and source B electrodes and
produced welds with a C I of 100%. However, at low welding voltages the use of
source B electrodes was found to be associated with welds having a CI of 0%.
The reduction in CI can be related to the nature of the H A Z .
Source B electrodes
formed a H A Z with a reduced hardness. In Table 7.1 it can be seen that differences
exist in the flux composition, particularly in relation to Si, K, C a and Ti.
Although the compounds which contained these elements were not determined, it is
k n o w n that variations to the content of various elements in the flux not only
influence the arc characteristics, but can also effect the recovery rate of the metal
deposited(214,215) and the weld bead morphology (214) .
It can be seen in
Fig.7.5 and Fig.7.21 that, for source B electrodes, the recovery rate (mass of metal
deposited) is higher and a more convex weldmetal profile is produced.
flux and the liquid metal increased, the liquid tended to minimise surface area to
112
form a more rounded bead. T h e result of this type of behavior is to confine the
weld bead and so to contain the heat input and, in general, to increase penetrati
work, bead on plate test welds were deposited using electrodes from sources A and
B and photomacrographs of transverse sections of these are shown in Fig7.26 and
Fig.7.27. It can be seen that depth of penetration (determined as the width to
depth ratio) is greater for type B electrodes which suggests that, although the f
composition is different, the situation is similar to that for the previously des
work of Schwemmer et al. (213). The containment of the heat input to increase
penetration would also be expected to affect the cooling cycle in a manner simila
that brought about by high heat energy input welds. This would cause the
formation of microstructures with a reduced susceptibility to cold cracking. The
microstructure shown in Fig.7.24 and the hardness measurements shown in
Fig.7.25 are in agreement with this hypothesis.
weldments produced by the two electrode types, the root angle was also found to b
larger in weldments produced from source B electrodes. It can also be argued that
this arose due to the differences in the flux/metal interfacial energy relationsh
were developed 6y the different electrode fluxes. This was most probably brought
about by the restrictions imposed by the flux upon liquid metal movement on the
straight face of part B of the Tekken Test piece joint
113
interfacial energies between the slag and both the liquid metal and the parent plate. If
the weld bead is contained, high localized heat input causes the formation of a H A Z
microstructure less susceptible to cracking as was found for source B electrodes.
The shape of the resultant weld bead can also reduce the stress field parameter and
the combined effect of both of these factors can lead to a reduction in cracking as
was found for weldments produced using source B electrodes.
4&H9MI
FIG.7.31. Photomicrograph of the microstructure of weldmetal
produced by welding at low currents (150amps,
20.5volts,160mm/min.) X50; etchant, 2.5% nital.
114
H A Z Microstructure
Metallographic examination of the weldments indicated that the microstructure
of the HAZ adjacent to the fusion boundary was different in weldments produced at
low welding currents compared with that produced at high welding currents. At
low currents the microstructure consisted of lath martensite with a very fine gr
boundary network of ferrite, Fig 7.29. The grain size produced in the HAZ of
these weldments was also small compared with that produced at higher currents,
Fig. 7.30. It can also be seen in Fig.7.30 that the grain boundary ferrite network
was thicker and Widmanstatten ferrite was present.
Weldmetal Microstructure.
The microstructures of the weldmetals were found to be different when
produced using different welding currents. At low welding current the
microstructure contained very fine grain boundary ferrite (Fig. 7.31) and a
distribution of fine ferrite laths within grains of bainite. High welding currents
produced weldmetals with a microstructure containing grain boundary ferrite,
Widmanstatten side plates and fine lath ferrite, Fig.7.32. It was also found that
weldmetals produced at the lower welding currents(150amps) were harder
(approx.295HV20) than those weldmetals deposited under other welding conditions
(approx. 220HV20).
From the measured thermal cycles the cooling time over two temperature
ranges, namely 800C to 500C and 500C to 200C were determined for
various welding currents. The results of these measurements are recorded in
Fig.7.33 which shows that reduced welding current resulted in shorter cooling
times in both temperature ranges (i.e. higher cooling rates).
5 u5'-
Speed
uo
180
170
150
Current
amps
a-
500 - 200 C
800-500 C
115
Welding Stress
Measured values of restraint stresses that were developed and imposed on
the test weld during cooling were subject to considerable scatter. The average stress
over the range of welding currents investigated (130 to 195amps) was calculated to
be 220 +/_ 20 M P a . It was found however, that restraint stress measurements from
repeat specimens welded at higher welding currents (180amps) were more consistent
and the scatter was only +/_ lOMPa.
Discussion.
F r o m equation 7.1, the general effects of increased welding current are to
increase heat energy input into the weldment and to increase the mass of metal
deposited according to a relationship of the form(6),
m = a_I eqn7.4
116
susceptibility to H A C of the H A Z .
117
predominantly martensitic
118
developed in both the H A Z and the weldmetal with the reduced hydrogen content in
the weldment resulted in the lower measured values of CI.
119
and Widmanstatten ferrite and had a smaller prior austenitic grain size, Fig.7.35.
Weldmetal Microstructure
Typical microstructures of the weldmetal produced over the range of the
welding speeds investigated (130 to 220mm/min.) are shown in Figs.7.36, 7.14
and 7.37 . It can be seen that for low welding speed, Fig.7.36, the microstructure
is essentially fine lath ferrite with a grain boundary network of ferrite and some
Widmanstatten side plates. At the highest welding speed Fig.7.37, the weldmetal
had a microstructure consisting of grain boundary and Widmanstatten ferrite with
the cooling times have been shown as a function of the inverse of welding speed in
Fig.7.33. It can be seen that the relationship between reduced welding speed and
increased cooling time is similar to that for increased welding current and cooli
time.
Welding Stress.
The manner in which restraint stress varied with welding speed is shown
in Fig.7.39 and although considerable scatter exists at the higher welding speeds
'
.wt
240
5
220
(A
200
IPO
14o
160
180
20C,
220
/min
120
there appears to be a general increase in the restraint stress generated with increase in
welding speed.
Discussion
F r o m Fig.7.3 it can be seen that CI increased as welding speed was
increased. A s with welding current, welding speed also affects both heat input to
the weldment and the mass of weldmetal deposited. Equations 7.1 and 7.4 indicate
that inverse relationships exist between welding speed and both heat input and
weldmetal mass. Increased welding speed, therefore, reduced both the heat input
to the weldment and the mass of weldmetal deposited. Using a similar approach to
that presented for welding current (see Section 7.41) it can be argued that reaction
stress should remain constant and independent of welding speed. Equation 3.6
predicts such a result. However, it can be seen from Fig. 7.39 that as welding
speed was increased there was a general increase in reaction stress. The increase in
stress with welding speed shown in Fig. 7.39 is not in agreement with the predicted
behavior. It is k n o w n that the arc fusion constant, a, (see equation 7.4) can vary
with welding conditions (6) so that as welding speed was increased, any decrease in
a would result in a disproportionate reduction of the mass of metal deposited relative
to the weld heat input. The necessary reduction in weldmetal cross sectional area
could lead to an increase in the restraint stress.
It can be seen in Fig 7.33 that as the welding speeds was increased from
1 3 0 m m / m i n to 2 2 0 m m / m i n (1/S=7.7xl0"3 to 4.5X10- 3 min/mm) there was a
121
decrease in the cooling rate of the weldment, expressed as time in the temperature
ranges 800C to 500C and 500C to 200C. The influence that the increased
cooling rate had on the microstructures of the H A Z can be seen in the comparative
photomicrographs of Fig.7.34 (130mm/min), Fig.7.10 (160mm/min) and Fig.7.35
(220mm/min): there was a decrease in proeutectoid ferrite content of H A Z
microstructure as the welding speed increased.
hydrogen in the weldment was constant, the rate at which hydrogen diffuses from
the weldment depends on time and temperature. The effect of increasing welding
speed would cause a reduction in diffusion time above 200C and a higher
concentration of hydrogen retained in the structure of the H A Z .
speeds, high heat input and low cooling rates would enhance the formation of a
coarse ferritic microstructure. The reverse is in fact observed, as can be seen by
comparing the fine lath ferrite in Fig.7.14 (160mm/min) and Fig.7.36 (130mm/min)
122
in which the lath size is smaller after formation at lower speeds. L o w welding
speeds are k n o w n to enhance weldmetal turbulence(80), which would be expected to
reduce segregation of non metallic inclusions and increase the number of nucleation
sites for fine lath ferrite.
content in the weldment. Together these two conditions are consistent with the high
values measured of CI.
123
Cracking in weldments
deposited at high currents, voltages, and speeds, showed evidence of both ductile
fracture and trans-crystalline cleavage.
Weldmetal Microstructure.
Weldmetal deposited at low current, voltage and speed was found to have a
microstructure similar to that shown in Figs.7.14 and 7.36, which consisted of
400-
300-
200 -
180amps, 25.5volts,200mm/min.
124
grain boundary and fine lath ferrite. At higher welding current, voltage and speed,
and the same heat input, the weldmetal contained a microstructure similar to that
shown in Fig. 7.41: grain boundary ferrite, Widmanstatten sideplates and coarse
intragranular lath ferrite. At the highest current, voltage, and speed the weldmetals
had a microstructure similar to that shown in Fig.7.15.
H A Z Microstructure.
Microstructures in the H A Z of weldments produced at constant heat input
were also found to differ with different values of the welding parameters. At low
current, voltage and speed the H A Z microstructure contained a mixture of
martensite, bainite and ferrite, Fig.7.42.
increased, at constant heat input, the variations in the microstructure of the H A Z are
typified by Figs.7.10 and 7.43. which show
Discusion
The cracking behaviours of the weldments produced by varying the
extrinsic welding parameters can be classified into three groups. The first group is
that for which cracking did not occur or for which low values of CI were
125
180amps, 20.5volts and 160mm/min. In the third group, high values of CI were
recorded, and typical of this group were weldments produced at
180amps,
Weldment cracking in the second group is typified by Fig. 7.5 and it can
be seen to involve cracking of the H A Z in a direction normal to the stress direction,
followed by propagation into the weldmetal. Hardness of the H A Z for this group
was measured to be higher than for the H A Z in either of the other two groups. In
Fig.7.5 it can be seen that the section of H A Z normal to the stress direction
constituted approximately 2 5 % of the weldment cross sectional area so that cracking
measurements above 2 5 % was
The third group, which had high values of CI, was associated
predominantly with cracking in the weldmetal (Fig.7.40).
126
performed under conditions of high current, voltage and speed so that it would be
expected that the combined effects of both high voltage and speed would be to the
detriment of the weldmetal microstructure ( see Sections 3.7.2 and 3.7.4).
The
^c
IXZT
\-. .'i.e.
-V
/
%l
LU
Q -O
2
<S e D
2
c
u
40
30
SO
lO
1
2d
GAP fmmj
127
7.4 O T H E R F A C T O R S A F F E C T I N G C R A C K I N G I N D E X .
7.4.1 Introduction
In addition to the general program of work relating to the welding
variables of current, voltage and speed on CI, several other aspects of the Tekken
Test were examined. A s mentioned earlier, these were not directly related to the
main aim of the research and were therefore were not examined in depth. The
results obtained, however, are pertinent to the Tekken Test as a weldability test in
general but detailed explanations of the results have not been developed.
The areas examined include the influence of root gap on CI, the results of
which are described and discussed in Section 7.4.2, the effect of plate composition
on CI, Section 7.4.3 and the effect of electrode classification on CI in Section 7.4.4.
128
the root of the weld, but instead of propagating in such a way as to maintain a path
close to 90 to the tensile direction as shown in Fig.7.40, crack propagation was
closer to 45 to the tensile direction.
Examination of the weldment crack surfaces revealed that for test specimens
with a root gap less than 2 m m fracture of the weldments occurred in a manner
similar to that shown in Fig.7.8 and 7.9. However with 3 m m root gaps the
fracture surfaces contained a dimple structure characteristic of ductile failure.
Furthermore, the
129
Obviously the above model for thermal contraction and generated stresses
ignores the influence that the observed metallurgical factors have on the Tekken
Test results. The decrease in cross sectional area must have an influence on cooling
rate of the weldment by reducing the area of the heat path. This is reflected in the
microstructures of both the weldmetal and the H A Z . The effect of decreased cooling
rate on the H A Z has been to increase the amount of proeutectoid ferrite, Fig.7.47.
This result has been beneficial in reducing H A Z cold cracking.
However, the
A precise model for describing the relationship between root gap and CI is
not yet available. However, the limited results obtained in this investigation do
point to a relationship between changes in stress and mechanical properties of the
weldment components.
The Tekken Test specimens were prepared from steel plate having the
compositions and C
conditions chosen for the previous work, (180amps, 20.5volts, and 160mm/min)
Carbon
130
were used because of the acceptable weld profiles produced and the tolerable scatter
in CI results obtained previously.
chosen.
Weldment Fracture
Macroscopic examination of the weldments confirmed the CI measurements;
however, it was observed that for the steel with the highest C
(0.41) cracking
occurred entirely in the H A Z , Fig.7.50, and not in the manner previously observed
w h e n test specimens had a CI of 1 0 0 % (see Fig.7.28). Cracking of the 0.35Ceq
steel is shown in Fig. 7.5 and characteristics of the weldment fracture are shown in
Figs. 7.8 and 7.9. The fracture surfaces of cracks produced in the H A Z of the
0.41Ceq steel were predominantly intergranular, with some transgranular cleavage,
Fig.7.51. At the root of the weld, a band of crack surface was often observed
which contained a "dimple" structure characteristic of ductile fracture and extended
for the length of the test weld, Fig.7.52.
Weldment Microstructure
Metallographic examination of transverse sections of weldments
indicated that the microstructures of the weldmetals were similar to that shown in
Fig.7.14. Microstructures of the H A Z were found to contain reduced contents of
proeutectoid phases as the C e q of the plate material became higher (compare
Fig.7.53 with Fig.7.10 and Fig.7.54). The hardness of the H A Z was measured for
each of the three steels and found to be 264HV(10) for 0.3Ceq, 300HV(10) for
0.36Ceqand 330HV(10) for 0.41C
131
0.4C
weldmetal,Fig.7.55, and at the root of the weld the crack had occurred in the
weldmetal to a depth which corresponded to that of the ductile fracture band shown
in Fig. 7.52.
A range of test welds were carried out using Tekken pieces prepared from
the three steels at a constant voltage of 20.5volts, but varying welding current and
speed. It was found that for conditions of 165amps and 220mm/min 1 0 0 % CI was
recorded for test welds using all three steels. At 195amps and 140mm/min all
welds recorded a CI of 0 % .
Discussion.
It can be seen in Fig.7.49 that CI appears to be linearly related to the
C
eq
132
that crack nucleation could have occurred at two possible sites. First, crack
nucleation could have occurred at the surface in the weldmetal at a suitable stress
concentration site, with
The direction of the crack path in the HAZ of the 0.41 C steel is also of
interest, (see Fig.7.55). Termination of the crack path in the weldmetal and the
continuation in the H A Z indicates the relative fracture strengths of the H A Z and the
weldmetal. F r o m this it could be concluded that the fracture strength of the H A Z o>,Hfl
was below cos300Cy#, where <xis the tensile stress developed by thermal contracti
Using a similar argument it is proposed that for the 0.36C eq steel, because crack
propagation was terminated the fracture strength of the HAZ, a , would be in the
range,
H ) <w> Vos3
133
7.4.4 E L E C T R O D E T Y P E A N D M A N U F A C T U R E R .
The purpose of these investigations was to examine the effects that
electrodes of different classifications and from different manufacturing sources had
on the value of CI.
Although a detailed investigation was not carried out for the E6218M and
E 7 6 1 8 M electrodes, energy dispersive x-ray analysis of the flux coatings revealed
that the compositions were different in electrodes obtained from the two sources,
Table7.2. It was also noted that cracking of the weldment produced using the
E 7 6 1 8 M electrodes, source B , was entirely in the weldmetal.
100 -
c-o
-A
-B
BO
70
60
-^50
c
_
2 'O
u
0
(J 30
20
"
1
500
00
700
ftoo
W|dmtal U T S M P a
T A B L E 7.2
Analysis of flux coatings from electrodes, grades E6218M and E7618M
derived from two manufacturing sources denoted type A and B
Electrode
Analysis
Ni
Na
Si
Ca
Ti
Mn
2.2
20.1
14.0
54.0
2.1
1.9
4.7
12.8
21.0
50.0
3.3
1.3
2.2
15.1
9.8
51.0
5.9
3.1
5.7
11.9
20.0
=6.0
'
1 c
...
1.5
E5218M
E7618M
B
...
134
Discussion
supporting evidence, that the relationships they observed were based on weldmeta
steel plate strength compatibility. In the case of the E4816 electrodes (Section
evidence indicates that weld bead geometry resulting from flux coating and
consequent slag surface energy relationships were involved. From the differences
in flux analysis shown in Table 7.2 a similar situation could exist for the othe
electrode types. However, at this stage and without further evidence, any
proposition would be speculative.
135
CHAPTER 8
DISCUSSTON
For the steel plate and electrodes used in the greater part of the
investigation (AS-1204-350 plate and E4816 electrodes) the crack in the weldment
had one of two possible forms. Depending on the welding conditions (current,
voltage and speed), cracking occurred entirely in the weldmetal, Fig 7.4, or had a
form similar to that shown in Fig. 7.28, in which nucleation occurred at the root of
the weld, followed by crack propagation, first in the H A Z , and then in the
weldmetal. If crack propagation terminated in the weldmetal, as shown in Fig. 7.5,
then the value of CI was low. Whether or not weldmetal cracking commenced in
the weldmetal or, propagated into the weldmetal from the H A Z , depends on three
main factors: stress level, hydrogen content and microstructure.
136
initially. This assumption was based on the proposition that since all welding
were baked in an identical manner, moisture content of the flux would be const
and hence the initial hydrogen content of the weldpool would be identical.
Measurements of hydrogen content of the final weldment were not made to
hydrogen content after weldment cooling can be difficult. Teraski (230) develo
empirical equations of the form;
where A is a numerical factor, equal to 95 for first pass butt welds, HR100 is
remaining diffusible hydrogen in the weld at 100C and H0 is the initial hydrog
content of the weldpool. The term (X D .AT) is the thermal factor and is deriv
200
500
T CO
137
The significance of the Teraski equations (230) is that they relate cooling
rate to the ratio of final and initial hydrogen concentrations, so that although
absolute values of hydrogen content are not known, cooling rate data does yield an
indication of the relative hydrogen content present. Equation 8.2 was derived
directly from experimental data and points to the importance of the low temperature
of the thermal cycle. F r o m Fig. 7.18 it can be seen that, although large differences
occur for ATg_5, differences in time lapse between 200C and 100C are small.
Hence significant differences in hydrogen content as a consequence of variations to
the welding parameters would not be expected. It should also be mentioned that
while the hydrogen content m a y not vary with welding conditions, the manner in
which a constant hydrogen content affects different microstructures can be related to
mechanical properties, see Fig.3.15. Therefore hydrogen cannot be ignored and can
contribute to a greater or lesser extent depending on microstructure.
138
will occur and vice versa. F r o m Fig. 7.5 and Fig. 7.28 it can be seen that the
m a x i m u m contribution to the total CI m a d e by the H A Z was approximately 2 5 % .
The additional 7 5 % of crack growth needed to produce the 1 0 0 % CI figure shown
in Fig. 7.28 was attributable to weldmetal cracking. For propagation of the crack
from the H A Z into the weldmetal the fracture strength of the weldmetal relative to the
stress concentration at the crack tip would be the determining factor. From the
geometry of the weldbead and the test piece configuration it is obvious that the
length of the crack as it enters the weldmetal would be approximately constant so
that values of C I above approximately 2 5 % can be considered to be a measure of
weldmetal susceptibility to cracking.
speed
(rnm/f
220
160
133
m
150amp
mG
180amp
195amp
139
Figure. 8.2 does not appear to be totally applicable to the results for
variations of welding current and speed. In Fig. 8.3 the various microstructures
produced by increasing the welding speed (vertical) and by increasing the welding
current (horizontal) are shown. All welds were m a d e using 20.5volts and are the
accumulated results of Sections 7.3.3 and 7.3.4. The heat input (in kJ/mm) to each
weldment is shown on the photomicrograph.
140
The resistance to fracture of fine lath ferrite has been investigated by Ohkita
et al. (232) w h o presented evidence to indicate that the interlocking laths and the
large angles between the laths caused resistance to the propagation of cleavage
cracks. The numerous changes in direction of the crack propagating in fine lath
ferrite would cause cleavage cracking to be more difficult than the propagation of
cleavage cracks along large ferrite plates or grain boundaries. For the latter
structure, reduced fracture strength and low fracture toughness was observed (51).
In the present work it was found that under conditions of high voltage welding,
microstructures with large ferrite precipitates fractured in a ductile manner, (see
Section 7.2, Fig. 7.7). Such fracture is normally considered to involve plastic
strain energy; however, as proposed in Section 7.3.2 the high oxide content could
141
be responsible for the greater ease and larger numbers of microvoids nucleated and
hence the lower fracture strength.
142
ferrite, Fig 7.42. It was suggested that tempering of the martensitic H A Z had
occurred, Section 7.5. W e l d bead morphology was also found to change with
welding current: rounded and more globular weld beads being related to low
welding currents. Shoda and Doherty (234) pointed to the relationship between
welding parameters and bead geometry, and M c G l o v e and Chadwick(235) have
been able to to develop predictive equations for weld bead geometry based on
welding current, voltage and speed. These equations are empirical and do not relate
to the H A Z . Electrode flux coating was also found to influence weld bead geometry
and a similar H A Z microstructure, hardness and reduced CI value was observed, see
Section 7.3. Relative interfacial energies appear to be the important c o m m o n factor
in both the cases of different electrode fluxes and the low current welds. In the
latter case it could be proposed that the reduced arc temperature (see equation 2.1)
could influence the surface energy configuration and by restricting the weld bead to a
more globular shape cause tempering of the H A Z . Obviously this proposal is
speculative, but it is clear that a causal relationship exists between weld bead
geometry and autotempering of the H A Z , even though the exact relationship is not
clear at this stage.
The variability of root angle, stress intensity factor, Fx, and unstable
crack growth have been proposed as possible causes of the scatter in the results.
The hypothesis of Karppi(162) for the stress intensity factor would suggest that
scatter of results was related to the nucleation of the crack, whilst the analysis of
Masubuchi (164) suggests unstable crack growth. During the course of the present
work it was found that root angle varied considerably, but could not be related to the
scatter of results. For welding conditions leading to low or zero values of CI little
scatter of results was observed, see Fig. 7.2. However, for CI values
above
approximately 3 5 % it can be seen from Fig. 7.2 that scatter was large. This
143
were within the range of conditions normally associated with the electrodes used. It
is significant that welds performed using the reference welding conditions caused
weldment cracking entirely in the H A Z for both the 0.36 C _ steel and the 0.41 C
steel. The C I values measured did not incorporate a contribution from weldmetal
fracture. T h e results for the three steels, under the reference welding conditions,
could thus be considered comparable. However, under other welding conditions
which produce a C I of 1 0 0 % for 0.41 C
The results of the present work have shown that not only can welding
conditions change the results obtained from the Tekken Test but that specifying
constant heat input cannot guarantee reproducible results. Although each of the
welding parameters contributes to the heat input, they also have independent effects
on weldability test results. It appears that the concept of welding being a process of
heat and mass transfer oversimplifies the situation w h e n the final mechanical
properties of the weldment are considered. Welding voltage variations can cause
changes to the weldmetal chemistry and can increase the oxygen content of the
weldmetal, current variations influence the weld bead geometry by affecting the arc
144
temperature, and welding speed contributes to weld pool stirring. The added
complications brought about by such factors as variations to electrode flux
composition developed by different commercial manufacturing sources restrict the
Tekken Test results to the exact welding conditions and materials used in the test
welds.
145
CONCLUSIONS
[1] For the conditions and materials used in the present investigation,
quantitative measurements of weld cracking, as defined by the Cracking Index (CI),
using the Tekken Test can vary with welding conditions and can scatter
considerably.
[2] In the present work CI was found to increase with increased welding voltage
and speed and decrease with increased welding current.
[4] Because of the relative fracture susceptibilities of both the HAZ and the
weldmetal the value of CI measured m a y relate to weldmetal cracking only, H A Z
146
cracking only, or incorporate contributions from both the H A Z and the weldmetal.
[5] Because the CI measured in the Tekken Test can involve cracking of both
the H A Z and the weldmetal, comparisons of the susceptibilities of steels to H A C of
the H A Z is difficult.
[6] Additional factors such as root gap of the test piece, electrode flux
composition and electrode classification were also found to have an effect on the
Tekken Test results and so add further doubt to the reliability of test results.
The purpose for which weldability tests are intended as outlined in Chapters 1
and 4 are;
(i) to determine the factors that determine good weldability,
(ii) to develop procedures to obviate defects in the welded joint, and
(iii) to compare the relative weldability of various steels
However, the ultimate objective of a test is prediction of the reliability of a
welded structure.
From the results of the present work weldment cracking in the Tekken Test
appears to be sensitive to small variations in welding conditions and parameters with
considerable scatter of results. Thus there is considerable doubt whether the Tekken
Test is a reliable test for H A Z cracking and for determining weldability.
147
APPENDIX 1
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Manion and A.L. Wingrove, Jnl. Aust. Inst of Metals, 17,158, (1972).
(9) Some Aspects of Relating Structure to Properties of Heavily Deformed
A.L. Wingrove, Jnl. Inst. Metals, 100, 313, (1972).
(15) The Tekken Test- The Influence of Welding Variables , A.L. Wingrove,
Dunne and N.F. Kennon, Aust. Weld. Res., 14, 8, (1985).
148
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