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2. The Siwaliks:
The relatively low outermost hills of the Himalayas along its whole
length from the Indus to the Brahmaputra are known as the Siwaliks.
The Siwaliks are conspicuously well developed for a distance of about
200 km between the Ravi and the Jhelum rivers in the state of Jammu
and Kashmir.
The width of the Siwaliks is between 20 to 50 km and height above the
sea level between 600 to 1220 m in the state of Jammu and Kashmir.
The rocks of the Siwaliks are disposed in parallel folded zones. The
outer most ranges of the Himalayas rise from the plains of Punjab,
commencing with a gentle slope from Jammu, attain about 600 m in
altitude, and then end abruptly in steep, almost perpendicular
escarpments inwards.
Then follows a succession of narrow parallel ridges hill, their strike
persistent in a N.W.-S.E. direction, separated by more or less broad
longitudinal or strike valleys (the basin of subsequent streams). These
valleys are known as duns. In the Jammu Hills the extensive,
picturesque duns of Udhampur, and Kotli are quite typical. The Siwaliks
are made of the younger Tertiary rocks.
The southern slopes of the Siwaliks are gentle, covered with deciduous
forests, evergreen bushes and numerous scrubs. The northern slopes
are steep with thin cover of vegetation. In the Siwaliks to the east of
Jammu City are situated the Mansar and Saruinsar lakes at an altitude
of about 600 m above the sea level.
In its course the river Jhelum, below the town of Anantnag (Islamabad),
flows through a plain of low level recent alluvium: the width of this plain
varies from two to fifteen miles. It appears level to the eye having in the
first 60 km (36 miles) a fall of 51 m (165 feet) but only 17 (55 feet) in the
lower four and a half miles. This alluvium has been formed by the river
in flood, and its formation may still be locally observed, though the
operations of natural agencies have been greatly impeded by artificial
embankments.
It is chiefly composed of loam and clay, and it would be difficult to distinguish it from the deposits now forming in the lakes of the valley,
though the latter may be more distinctly stratified. There is no evidence
to show that any change of level has taken place since the deposition of
this alluvium, which contains in many cases pottery and other works of
art, of a comparatively modern date.
The oval shaped Valley of Kashmir is filled with thick deposits of alluvium which have blanketed even the lower slopes of the surrounding
ranges. On the borders of the Kashmir Valley and even in the valley
floor occur extensive elevated plateaus of alluvial and lacustrine
material. These deposits are locally known as karewas (Fig.1.7).
The karewas adjoining the mountains have their surfaces inclined from
the latter with decreasing slope. On the south-eastern side of the valley
the karewas reach upwards to an elevation of about 2,000 m (6,500
feet) or 400 m (1,300 feet) above the lowest part of the plain of the river
alluvium (Fig.1.7).
The flat-topped karewas always consist of horizontal beds, and in the
neighbourhood of Anantnag (Islamabad) attain a thickness of about 92
m (300 feet). The sloping karewas are found along the flanks of Pir
Panjal Range, where they form a continuous series, reaching from
Shalura in the northwest to below Shopian in the south-east (Fig.1.7).
At the mouth of the Sind Valley, on the north-eastern side of the Kashmir
Valley, there are thick lacustrine deposits, consisting of conglomerates,
sand and gravel. They have a similarity with the deposits of Anantnag
(Islamabad) and the Pir Panjal.
Side Valleys:
Within the Valley of Kashmir, there are three important side valleys,
namely:
(i) The Liddar Valley
(ii) The Sind Valley, and
(iii) The Lolab Valley.
A brief description of these valleys has been given below:
(i) Liddar Valley:
pine, and other fruit trees. The famous lakes of Vishansar, Krishnsar
and Gangabal are within the catchment of Sind River which attract large
number of tourists every year.
(iii) Lolab Valley:
This fertile oval shaped valley is situated in the north-west side of
Kashmir; it is about 25 km long and 5 km wide. It is traversed by the
Lahwal Stream which flows down from the surrounding hills. The valley
is covered by thick forest of deodar. The extensive pasture lands in the
valley are the excellent grazing grounds. It is also famous for apple,
cherry, peach and walnut.
5. The Greater Himalayas or Inner Himalayas:
To the north of Pir Panjal and Dhauladhar ranges are the more lofty
mountain ranges of the innermost zone of the Himalayas rising above
the snow-line into peaks of perpetual snow. In the north, Kashmir Range
is an offshoot of the Zanskar Range, which forms the north-eastern
border of the Valley of Kashmir.
In the Zanskar Range there are a few peaks which have heights
between 4,500 to 6,100 m above the sea level. Beyond this range, the
country, with the exception of the deep gorges of the Middle Indus, is a
high- level plateau-desert, utterly devoid of all kinds of vegetation. Here,
one may observe the elevated plateaus and high mountain ranges
separated from one another by great depressions, with majestic peaks
towering to 7,300 m.
The altitude steadily increases farther north, till the Peak K2 on the
mighty Karakoram or Mustang Range, attains the culminating height of
8,621 m, the second highest peak in the world. Farther north is the
Karakoram Range which makes a watershed between India and
Tajkistan.
The valleys of these regions show varying characters. In the south-east
is the Changchenmo whose width is from eight to ten km with an
average height of 4,270 m above the sea level. From that to the northwest the height of the valley beds descends, till in Gilgit on the very
flanks of the gigantic peak of Nanga Par- bat, Diyamir (8,120 m), the
rivers have cut so deeply through the bare, bleak mountains that the
streams flow at an elevation of only 1,525 m above the sea level.
At places in north and north-east Kashmir, there are extensive flat, wide
plains or depressed tracts among the mountains, too wide to be called
valleys, of which the most conspicuous are the plateaus of Deosai, 3965
m. high, and Lingzhitang, 4,880 m.
The physical features of this extremely rugged, wind-swept and frostbitten region very much in character. They present an aspect of
desolate, ice-bound altitudes and long dreary wastes of valleys and
depressed lands totally different from the soft harmony of the Kashmir
Mountains, green with the abundance of forest, pastures and cultivation.
6. Ladakh Plateau:
Ladakh is one of the loftiest inhabited regions of the world, (3,6004,600m). Its short but warm summers enable a few grain and fruit crops
to ripen. Owing to the great aridity of the atmosphere, the climate is one