MNOGU VAZNO - 2006-Combined Cooling, Heating and Power - A Review PDF

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Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 459495

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Combined cooling, heating and power: A review

D.W. Wu, R.Z. Wang
Institute of Refrigeration and Cryogenics, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Dongchuan Road 800, Shanghai 200240, China
Received 25 July 2005; accepted 28 February 2006
Available online 21 August 2006
Abstract
Combined cooling, heating and power (CCHP) systems, including various technologies, provide an alternative
for the world to meet and solve energy-related problems, such as energy shortages, energy supply security,
emission control, the economy and conservation of energy, etc. In the rst part of this paper, the denition and
benets of CCHP systems are claried; then the characteristics of CCHP technologiesespecially technical
performancesare presented, as well as the status of utilization and developments. In the third part, diverse
CCHP congurations of existing technologies are presented, particularly four typical systems of various size ranges.
The worldwide status quo of CCHP development is briey introduced by dividing the world into four main
sections: the US, Europe, Asia and the Pacic and rest of the world. It is concluded that, within decades, promising CCHP
technologies can ourish with the cooperative efforts of governments, energy-related enterprises and professional
associations.
r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Combined cooling, heating and power; Technologies; Developments worldwide
Contents
1.
2.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
Status and developments of CCHP technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
2.1. Prime movers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
2.1.1. Steam turbines [1,18,19] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
2.1.2. Reciprocating internal combustion engines [1,6,7,18,2022]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
2.1.3. Combustion turbines [1,6,18,2124] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
2.1.4. Micro-turbines [1,6,7,15,18,20,24,25]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
2.1.5. Stirling engines [1,6,18,20] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
2.1.6. Fuel cells [1,6,7,15,18,20,22,24,26,27] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
2.2. Thermally activated technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
2.2.1. Absorption chillers [13,22,2831] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
2.2.2. Adsorption chillers [3238] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
2.2.3. Desiccant dehumidiers [3,13,31] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
2.2.4. Other options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
Corresponding author. Tel.: +86 21 34206776; fax: +86 21 34206056.
E-mail address: rzwang@sjtu.edu.cn (R.Z. Wang).

0360-1285/$ - see front matter r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.pecs.2006.02.001
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D.W. Wu, R.Z. Wang / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 459495
460
3.
4.
5.
Typical CCHP systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473

3.1. Diverse congurations of CCHP systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
3.2. Representative CCHP systems in use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
3.2.1. Micro systems (under 20 kW). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
3.2.2. Small-scale systems (20 kW1 MW) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
3.2.3. Medium systems (110 MW) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
3.2.4. Large-scale systems (above 10 MW) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
Development of CCHP around the world . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
4.1. United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
4.2. Europe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
4.2.1. Austria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
4.2.2. Denmark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
4.2.3. Finland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
4.2.4. The Netherlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
4.2.5. France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
4.2.6. Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
4.2.7. Hungary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
4.2.8. Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
4.2.9. Poland. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
4.2.10. Spain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
4.2.11. Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
4.2.12. UK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
4.3. Asia and the Pacic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
4.3.1. China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
4.3.2. Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
4.3.3. India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
4.3.4. Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
4.4. Other countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
Discussions and conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
1. Introduction
Combined cooling, heating and power (CCHP), is
derived from combined heat and power (CHP, also
called cogeneration1)a proven and reliable technology with a history of more than 100 years, which was
utilized mainly in large-scale centralized power plants
and industrial applications. The conventional way to
provide electricity and heat is to purchase electricity
from the local grid and generate heat by burning fuel in
a boiler. But in a CHP system, by-product heat, which
can be as much as 6080% of total primary energy in
combustion-based electricity generation, is recycled for
different uses. Typically, CHP is dened as the
combined production of electrical (or mechanical),
1
Most literature lists statistics of CHP/cogeneration instead of

CCHP. In fact, data of CHP/cogeneration with cooling options
count these statistics in most cases, though these applications
only take a small fraction of the gross. For a better description of
these systems, the term CHP/cogeneration is substituted by
CCHP in most part of this article.
and useful thermal energy from the same primary

energy source [1]. A slight difference between CCHP
and CHP is that thermal or electrical/mechanical
energy is further utilized to provide space or process
cooling capacity in a CCHP application. In some
literature, CCHP systems are also referred to as trigeneration and building cooling heating and power
(BCHP) systems [24]. CCHP can be dened as a more
extensive concept than CHP is. In winter, many CCHP
systems can be seen as CHP units, when there is no
cooling demand of building air-conditioning. In other
words, CHP system is CCHP without any thermally
activated equipments for generating cooling power,
though this difference will change the structure of
systems to some extent.
In general, recent development of CCHP systems
is related to the emergence of DER2 (distributed/
2
Other similar abbreviations in the literature are DP (distributed/decentralized power) and DG (distributed generation/
decentralized generation), which is slightly different from DER.
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Nomenclature
Tri-generation
CCHP combined cooling heating and power
461
BCHP building cooling heating and power

DER distributed/decentralized energy
resources
DP
distributed/decentralized power
DG
distributed generation/ decentralized
generation
Cogeneration
CHP
combined heating and power
decentralized energy resources)a novel technical

concept in energy supply. DER is dened as an
electricity-generation system located in or near user
facilities, which provides electrical and thermal energy
simultaneously to meet local users in top-priority.
Certain factors, such as various rated capacities,
ownership of systems, technologies employed and types
of connection with utility grids, are not critical in a
consensus denition of DER. According to some
reports, DER can be divided into two major sections
[5,6]. The rst section is high-efciency CHP or CCHP
systems in industry and buildings throughout the
world, using prime mover technologies as reciprocating
engines, gas turbines, micro-turbines, steam turbines,
Stirling engines and fuel cells. The second major area of
DER is on-site renewable energy systems with energy
recycling technologies, including photovoltaic and
biomass systems, on-site wind and water turbine generators, plus systems powered by gas pressure reduction,
exhaust heat from industrial processes, and other lowenergy content combustibles from various processes.
Due to the relationship between traditional CHP
and novel DER (Fig. 1), CCHP systems are
classied into two categories:
1. Traditional large-scale CCHP applications (predominantly CHP systems without cooling options) in centralized power plants or large
industries;
2. Relatively small capacity distributed CCHP units
with advanced prime mover and thermally
activated technologies3 to meet multiple energy
demands in commercial, institutional, residential
and small industrial sections.
3
Thermally activated technologies: technologies that are able to
use waste heat as a fuel and offer the chance to replace electric air
conditioning and/or dehumidication loads with thermal loads,
such as absorption chiller, adsorption chiller and desiccant
dehumidiers.
Fig. 1. Categories of CCHP and DER.
There is no clear borderline between two categories. CCHP systems can cover a wide range of
capacity from 1 kW to 500 MW. Most centralized
power plants and industries applying cogeneration
exceed 1 MW. The capacity of distributed CCHP
systems ranges from less than 1 kW in domestic
dwellings to more than 10 MW in hospitals or
university campuses, and as much as 300 MW to
supply energy to a district of a city [7,8]. One report
denes everything under 1 MW as small-scale.
Mini usage is under 500 kW and micro use is
under 20 kW [9].
A typical CCHP system is showed in Fig. 2. It is
comprised of a gas engine, a generator and an
absorption chiller. The engine is driven by natural
gas and the mechanical energy is further changed
into electricity power by the generator. At the same
time, the absorption chiller to generate cooling
power in summer and heating power in winter
utilizes exhaust gas and jacket water derived from
the engine. If waste heat from engine is not enough
for users, a combustor in absorption chiller can
burn natural gas as a supplement. Thus, the energy
demands of cooling, heating and electrical power in
a building or a district can be met by this system
simultaneously.
Compared with the energy supply mode of large
centralized power plant and local air-conditioning
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462
Fig. 2. Typical CCHP system.
system, distributed CCHP systems will receive more

attention, becausealong with the developing
tendency and promising prospectsthey possess
some advantages, which traditional energy supplies
do not share [1,913].
First, overall fuel energy utilization has dramatically improved, ranging from 70% to more than
90% compared with 3045% of typical centralized
power plants. In general, less primary energy is
needed to obtain the same amount of electricity and
thermal energy. In addition to the saving in primary
energy, vast reductions in net fuel costs, transmission and distribution savings can be achieved.
A theoretical calculation of prime energy utilization
based on traditional energy supply mode and typical
CCHP system as Fig. 2 can be seen in Figs. 3 and 4. If
end user needs 33 units of electrical power, 40 units of
cooling power and 15 units of heating power in a
summer day, 148 units of prime energy are consumed
in a traditional way. Centralized power plant runs at
the efciency of 33% and 100 units of prime energy
are used to generate 33 units of electrical power.
Traditional boiler burns 18 units fuel to heat 15 units
of domestic hot water at the efciency of 85%.
Electrical air-conditioner driven by 10 units of
electrical power can generate 40 units of cooling
power at COP of 4. However, consider the efciency
of electricity generation in power plant, 30 units of
prime energy is needed in all for space cooling.
Based on a typical CCHP system shown in Fig. 2,
only 100 units of prime energy are needed for 33
units of electrical power, 40 units of cooling power
and 15 units of heating power in a summer day. The
electricity generation efciency of CCHP system is
similar to centralized power plant, because electricity is consumed locally without loss on distribution
lines, though small-scale prime mover is less efcient
than large prime mover in power plant. The
keystone of full energy utilization of CCHP system
lies on the recovery of waste heat from prime mover.
Fig. 3. Energy ow of traditional supply mode.
Fig. 4. Energy ow of typical CCHP system.
Thirty four units of waste heat in the form of

exhaust gas and machine coolant are used to drive
an absorption chiller at COP of 1.2, thus 40 units of
cooling power can be obtained. And another 18
units of waste heat can be recovered to heat 15 units
domestic water at the efciency of 85% similar to
the efciency of a boiler. Compared with traditional
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energy supply mode, CCHP system can save 48

units of prime energy to meet the same demand of
cooling, heating and power.
The second benet of distributed CCHP systems
is emission reduction; viewed from two aspects and
sorted by different prime movers. Some prime
movers with new technologies, like fuel cells and
micro-turbines exhaust much less emissions (including NOx, CO2), than do traditional technologies
from centralized power plants. Other prime movers,
equipped in CCHP systems with smaller capacity
than their larger counterparts in centralized power
plants, emit somewhat more NOx and CO2 per
kW electricity generated. Nevertheless, the promotion of energy efciencyCCHP systems should
be encouraged at this time: burning signicantly
less fuel to meet the same demand results in
signicant emission reduction, which surely overrides the additional emissions caused by the slight
decrease in converting efciency in small-scale
prime movers.
Last, but of equal importance, CCHP systems
increase the reliability of the energy supply network.
Obviously, generation/distribution systems can malfunction: weather and terrorism are fatal threats to
centralized power plants. A smaller, more exible
and dispersed system, CCHP might prevent these
threats from becoming reality, and controlled
repercussions and fast recovery could be achieved
if these situations occurred. A study following the
11 September attacks suggested that a system based
more on distributed generation plants may be ve
times less sensitive to systematic attack than a
centralized power system [14].
A typical CCHP system consists of ve basic
elements: the prime mover; electricity generator;
heat recovery system; thermally activated equipment and the management and control system.
According to current technologies, options in prime
movers can be steam turbines, reciprocating internal
combustion engines, combustion turbines, microturbines, Stirling engines and fuel cells; the last three
prime movers are relatively new technologies developed in last decade. Any of these options can be
selected to meet diverse demands and limitations
from site-to-site, especially local heat and electricity
proles, regional emissions and noise regulations
and installation restrictions. Thermally activated
equipment is another part of CCHP systems, to
provide cooling or dehumidication. Commercialized thermally activated technologies include absorption chillers and desiccant dehumidiers;
463
moreover, novel adsorption chillerscurrently almost entirely for commercial usecan be another
choice for small CCHP systems. Some existing
systems also apply electric chillers, or engine-driven
chillers integrated with prime movers, to fulll
cooling demands, which, combined with thermally
activated technologies, are the cooling or dehumidication options of CCHP systems in some of the
literature.
Different prime movers, connecting with different
cooling or dehumidication options, can result in
various kinds of CCHP systems in theory, but only
several modes of combination are widely adopted in
commercial markets; other promising possibilities
are being investigated to overcome technological or
economic problems.
In the next two parts of this paper, brief reviews
of prime mover technologies, cooling and dehumidication options and various CCHP system modes,
with four typical examples are presented in
sequence, to present a clear picture of current
CCHP technologies.
Although governments worldwide, experts, manufacturers and users have acknowledged that CCHP
systems are the current development trend in energy
supply, the share of decentralized power generation
(including CCHP systems) in the world market
remains at around 7%unchanged between 2001
and 2003 [14]. The distributed CCHP market of the
US grew signicantly until 2002, but since then it
has slowed sharply in the face of high natural gas
prices and persistent regulatory barriers. The
European distributed CCHP market was at in last
4 years. Although some developing country markets
are beginning to emerge, including China, Brazil
and India, it is presumed that the boom in these
burgeoning markets will take much more time and
effort than markets in developed countries. The
obstacles come from every direction: technology
performance, costs, policies, regulations and market
demands. The year 2004 can be viewed as a turning
point of low growth in CCHP market worldwide.
A WADE survey, forecasts that growth will be
reinforced by the probable introduction of the
European Union Emissions Trading Scheme in
January 2005, which is expected to further increase
power prices. In the fourth chapter of this paper, the
status of CCHP system development worldwide is
presented; the world is divided into the US, Europe,
Asia and the Pacic and other countries, for a
review of existing or potential markets, and to
present a forecast and analysis.
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464
2. Status and developments of CCHP technologies

CCHP technologies include components relating
to energy conversion, recovery and management.
Among these technologies, prime movers obviously
play a critical role; they are the keystones of CCHP
systems and, to some extent, they determine
possibilities and availability of other related technologies. As for the importance of thermal activated
options, these alternative technologies dramatically
shift the energy utilization of energy conversion
systems compared to conventional electrical power
systems. Therefore, the following paragraphs focus
on these two major aspects of CCHP systems,
especially the advantages, drawbacks and developing trends of these technologies.
2.1. Prime movers
There are several ways to classify prime mover
technologies, based on fuel used, technical maturity,
market shares or capacity range. Although quite a
few newly emerging technologies appear to be
promising, reciprocating internal combustion engines, steam turbines and combustion turbines that
can be considered conventional prime movers still
make up most of the gross capacity being installed
[9,15]. In addition, fuel cells, Stirling engines and
micro-turbines, mainly gas driven, present a promising future for prime movers [9,1517]. Brief
introductions follow and major parameters and
performance of these prime movers can be referenced in Table 2, at the end of this section.
2.1.1. Steam turbines [1,18,19]
Steam turbines are the most common technology
used in power plants and industries. Depending
upon the exit pressure of the steam, steam turbines
fall into two types: backpressure turbines and
condensing turbines. Backpressure turbines operate
with an exit pressure at least equal to atmospheric
pressure, and are suitable for some sites with a
steam demand of intermediate pressure. Condensing
turbines have the advantage of changing electrical
and thermal power independently and they work
with an exit pressure lower than atmospheric
pressure. In theory, steam turbines equipped with
a suitable boiler can be run on any kind of fuel. As a
mature technology, steam turbines have an extremely long life and, with proper operating and
maintenance, are very reliable. However, several
problems limit their further application, which
include low electrical efciency, slow start-up time,

and poor partial load performance. As a result,
steam turbines are more popular in large central
plant utilities or industrial cogenerations than in
distributed energy applications, although some
claims are made that future plug and play
turbines will operate with fractional kW outputs,
wherever steam pressure is reduced [6].
2.1.2. Reciprocating internal combustion engines
[1,6,7,18,20 22]
Two types of internal combustion engines are
currently in use; spark ignition engines, which are
operated mainly with natural gas (although biogas
or landll gas can also be used); and compression
ignition engines, which can use diesel fuel, as well as
other petroleum products, such as heavy fuel oil or
biodiesel. Reciprocating engines are a proven
technology with a range of size and the lowest rst
capital costs of all CCHP systems. In addition to
fast start-up capability and good operating reliability, high efciency at partial load operation give
users a exible power source, allowing for a range of
different energy applicationsespecially emergency
or standby power supplies. Reciprocating engines
are by far the most commonly used power generation equipment under 1 MW.
Although they are a mature technology, reciprocating engines have obvious drawbacks. Relatively
high vibrations require shock absorption and
shielding measures to reduce acoustic noise. A large
number of moving parts, and frequent maintenance
intervals, increase maintenance costs, strongly offsetting fuel efciency advantages. In addition, full
utilization of the various heat sources with diverse
temperature levels in CCHP applications is difcult.
Moreover, high emissionsparticularly nitrogen
oxidesare the underlying aspect of this technology, which need improvement. Major manufacturers around the world continuously develop new
engines with lower emissions; at the same time,
emissions control options, such as selective catalytic
reduction (SCR), have been utilized to reduce
emissions.
2.1.3. Combustion turbines [1,6,18,21 24]
Combustion turbines are frequently used prime
movers in larger-scale cogenerations due to their
high reliability and large range of power. Sets
smaller than 1 MW have so far been generally
uneconomical because of their low electrical efciency and consequent high cost per kWe output.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Combustion turbines are easier to install than steam

turbines and they have the added benet of being
less area intensive, with lower capital costs; maintenance costs are slightly lower than reciprocating
engines, but so is their electrical efciency. Emissions are somewhat lower than that of reciprocating
engines, and cost-effective NOx emissions-control
technology is commercially available.
Combustion turbine exhausttypically around
540 1Ccan be used to support the combustion of
additional fuel. This technology is called supplementary ring, and it can raise the temperature of
exhaust gas more than 1000 1C and increase the
amount of high-pressure steam produced. Using
produced steam to power a steam turbine is known
as a combined-cycle gas turbine (CCGT), with
higher net electrical efciency (3555%), which is
appropriate for public utility companies and industrial plants.
The major disadvantages of combustion turbine
are described below. Combustion turbines require
premium fuels, especially natural gas, which historically has high price volatility. The high temperatures involved lead to demanding standard of
materials with higher production costs. Additionally, turbine performance is signicantly reduced at
higher altitudes or during periods of high ambient
temperatures.
2.1.4. Micro-turbines [1,6,7,15,18,20,24,25]
Micro-turbines extend combustion turbine technology to smaller scales. They are primarily fuelled
with natural gas, but they can also operate with
diesel, gasoline or other similar high-energy fuels.
Research on biogas is ongoing. Micro-turbines have
only one moving part; they use air bearings and they
do not need lubricating oil, although they have
extremely high rotational speed, up to 120,000 rpm.
A striking characteristic is their exibility that
small-scale individual units can be combined readily
into large systems of multiple units. Additionally,
there are environmental advantages, such as lower
combustion temperatures assuring low NOx emissions levels and less noise than an engine of
comparable size.
This technology has been commercialized only
recently and is offered by a small number of
suppliers. The main disadvantages at this stage are
its short track record and high rst costs compared
with reciprocating engines. Other issues include
relatively low electrical efciency and sensitivity of
efciency to changes in ambient conditions.
465
Micro-turbines can be used as a distributed

energy resource for power producers and consumers, including industrial, institutional, commercial
and even residential users of electricity in the future.
Moreover, the heat produced by a micro-turbine
can be used to produce low-pressure steam or hot
water for on-site requirements.
2.1.5. Stirling engines [1,6,18,20]
Compared to conventional internal combustion
engine, Stirling engine is an external combustion
device. The cycle mediumgenerally helium or
hydrogenis not exchanged during each cycle, but
within the device, while the energy driving the cycle
is applied externally. Stirling engines can operate on
almost any fuel (gasoline, alcohol, natural gas or
butane), with external combustion that facilitates
the control of the combustion process and results in
low air emissions, low noise and more efcient
process. In addition, best in class machines fewer
moving parts compared to conventional engines
limit wear on components and reduce vibration
levels.
Stirling engine technology is still in its development; no statistical data on availability is therefore
available. High cost also prevents popularization of
this technology. Nevertheless, the promising prospects of Stirling engines stimulate further research,
especially for CCHP applications. Small size and
quiet operation mean that they will integrate well
into residential or portable applications. Some
literature indicates the possibility of using a solar
dish to heat the Stirling engine, thus potentially
eliminating the need for combustion of a fuel.
2.1.6. Fuel cells [1,6,7,15,18,20,22,24,26,27]
Fuel cells are quiet, compact power generators
without moving parts, which use hydrogen and
oxygen to make electricity and; at the same time,
can provide heat for a wide range of applications. In
general, fuel cells show high electrical efciencies
under varying load and; thus, result in low
emissions. The transportation sector is the major
potential market for fuel cells. Power generation,
however, seems to be another promising market in
which fuel cells could be quickly commercialized.
Five major fuel cell technologies listed below have
the most attractive prospects. In reality, with the
exception of PAFC, no fuel cells are yet completely
commercially viable; a total capacity of over 40 MW
PAFC having been installed worldwide. A detail
ARTICLE IN PRESS
466
Table 1
Characteristics of fuel cells [6,20,18,26]
PEMFC
AFC
PAFC
MCFC
SOFC
Charge carrier
Type of electrolyte
H+ ions
Polymeric membrane
H+ ions
Phosphoric acid
solutions
CO3 ions
Phosphoric acid
(immobilized
liquid)
O ions
Stabilized zirconia
ceramic matrix with
free oxide ions
Typical construction
Plastic, metal or
carbon
OH ions
Aqueous
potassium
hydroxide soaked
in a matrix
Plastic, metal
Carbon, porous
ceramics
Ceramic, high temp

metals
Catalyst
Oxidant
Platinum
Air or O2
Platinum
Puried air or O2
Fuel
Hydrocarbons or
methanol
Clean hydrogen
or hydrazine
Platinum
Air or O2enriched air
Hydrocarbons or
alcohols
High temp
metals, porous
ceramic
Nickel
Air
Operational
temperature
Size range
Electrical efciencya
Primary
contaminants
50100 1C
6080 1C
3250 kW
3050%
CO, sulfur and NH3
10200 kW
3270%
CO, CO2 and
sulfur
Parasites
Air
Natural gas or
propane
100200 1C
Clean hydrogen,
nature gas,
propane, diesel
600700 1C
100200 kW
4055%
CO41%, sulfur
250 kW5 MW
5557%
Sulfur
110 MW
5060%
Sulfur
6001000 1C
Electrical efciencies are based on values for hydrogen fuel and do not include electricity required for hydrogen reforming.
comparison of the characteristics of these fuel cells

appears in Table 1.
2.1.6.1. Proton exchange membrane fuel cell
(PEMFC). PEMFCs are quite simple and can be
made very small to adjust to variable power
demands. They are easier to start up and they apply
solid electrolyte that reduces corrosion. At the same
time, the low operating temperature requires the use
of an expensive platinum catalyst, and limits
cogeneration potential. As for the fuel sources, this
fuel cell technology is highly sensitive to fuel
impurities and hydrogen storage; delivery and
reforming technology has yet to evolve. PEMFCs
appear to be the choice for automotive applications.
The advantage of being small allows application for
laptops, mobile phones and other portable appliances. With relatively low-quality waste heat, the
PEMFC is unlikely to be widely used for high
voltage stationary power generation; but small-scale
domestic CCHP applicationsthe simplest thermal
load of which is hot waterwould be considerable.
2.1.6.2. Alkaline fuel cell (AFC). AFCs were the
rst fuel cells used on spacecrafts and space shuttles.
The technology has obvious merits, such as low
operating temperature, rapid start-up time, readily
available non-precious metal electrodes, and high

efciency, up to 70%. However, the primary
disadvantage is the tendency to absorb carbon
dioxide, converting the alkaline electrolyte to an
aqueous carbonate electrolyte that is less conductive. Thus, the fuel input must be restricted to pure
hydrogen, which limits applications to those in
which pure hydrogen are available. If the CO2 is
removed from fuel and oxygen streams, the operating costs are much greater. Although the attractiveness of AFC has declined substantially with the
pursuit of improved PEMFC technology, recent
developers still believe that AFC can be used for
many applications, such as stationary power generation, and mobile applications including both
marine and road vehicles.
2.1.6.3. Phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC). PAFCs
are the most mature of the technologies in
commercial production, although its costs remain
uncompetitive with other non-fuel cell technologies.
Hydrogen is still the ultimate fuel for the reaction in
the PAFC, but various fuels, including natural gas,
LPG and methanol, can be used as raw input
converted by a reformer. Other advantages are
resistance to fuel impurities, and the ability to use a
less expensive catalyst. The drawbacks of this fuel
ARTICLE IN PRESS
cell include a lower efciency than other fuel cell

technologies and corrosive liquid electrolyte. In
2002, over 200 commercial units were manufactured, delivered and operated in the US, Europe and
Japan. In the near future, with lower operating
temperatures, PAFC would be ideal for small and
mid-size power plants, replacing large electrical
generators and other types of CCHP utilities in
hospitals, hotels and airports.
2.1.6.4. Molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFC). A
MCFC uses a molten carbonate salt mixture as its
electrolyte. The composition of the electrolyte
varies, but usually consists of lithium carbonate and potassium carbonate, which is chemically aggressive and puts strain on the stability
and wear of the cell components. As a result,
MCFC is more expensive than either SOFC or
PEMFC in terms of capital cost. Fuel reforming of
MCFC occurs inside the stack and tolerates
impurities; therefore, this technology may use a
variety of fuels. In addition, the high operating
temperature allows for combined heat and power
generation and high fuel-to-electricity efciency.
Nevertheless, the long start-up time to reach
operating temperatures, and poorer exibility in
output, make MCFC ideally suited to base load
power generation where continuous operation is
necessary, such as heavy industries and national
electrical grid networks.
2.1.6.5. Solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC). Due to allsolid-state ceramic construction, SOFCs share
important characteristics, such as stability and
reliability. A variety of hydrocarbon fuels can be
used, like gasoline, methanol and natural gas. As
another asset, the high operating temperature
makes internal reforming possible and removes
the need for a catalyst, and also produces highgrade waste heat suited well to CCHP applications.
But the high temperature also creates some difculties: expensive alloys for components are required, a very long time is needed for the electrolyte
to heat and exible small applications are difcult. Start-up time is less of an issue for stationary
and continuous applications. SOFCs generally
achieve around 60% efciency in an average
5 MW plant, compared to around 30% for a
traditional gas turbine. The last critical problem
that prevents its commercialization is the comparatively high costs of SOFC.
467
2.2. Thermally activated technologies

An important difference between CCHP systems
and conventional cogenerations is that CCHP
systemsincluding some cooling or dehumidication componentsprovide not only electricity and
heating but also cooling capacity for space airconditioning or process. These cooling or dehumidication options can employ advanced thermally
activated technologies as well as traditional technologies. But recent research indicates that thermally activated technologies are favored, as the
overall efciency of CCHP systems is enhanced by
their application. In addition to high primary fuel
efciency, other benets such as low emissions and
net cost reduction are also achieved with thermally
activated technologies (Table 2).
Major thermally activated technologies include
absorption chillers, adsorption chillers and desiccant dehumidiers. These cooling and dehumidication systems can be driven by steam, hot water or
hot exhaust gas derived from prime movers.
However, waste heat from various prime movers
falls into different temperature ranges; at the same
time, cooling and dehumidication systems have
their own suitable working temperature. As a result,
best pairing of recoverable energy streams with
thermally driven technologies is shown in Table 3.
2.2.1. Absorption chillers [13,22,28 31]
Absorption chillers are one of the commercialized
thermally activated technologies widely applied in
existing CCHP systems; they are similar to vapor
compression chillers, with a few key differences. The
basic difference is that a vapor compression chiller
uses a rotating device (electric motor, engine,
combustion turbine or steam turbine), to raise the
pressure of refrigerant vapors, while an absorption
chiller uses heat to compress the refrigerant vapors
to a high pressure. Therefore, this thermal
compressor has no moving parts.
Basic absorption cycle is illustrated in Fig. 5.
After the evaporator of absorption chiller generates
cooling power, vapor generated in the evaporator is
absorbed into a liquid absorbent in the absorber.
The absorbent that has taken up refrigerant with
spent or weak absorbent is pumped to the generator. The refrigerant is released again as a vapor
by waste heat from steam, hot water or hot exhaust
gas, and vapor is to be condensed in the condenser.
The regenerated or strong absorbent is then led
back to the absorber to pick up refrigerant vapor
20
3401000
0.00750.015
2535
10002000
0.004
0.00750.015
20
8001600
95
Good
0.21.0
Loud
500620
0.00450.0105
20
450950
9698
Fair
0.30.5
Loud
580680
6587
0.20.8
Up to 540
250 kW 50 MW
Gas, propane,
distillate oils,
biogas
2542
Combustion
turbines
0.010.02
10
9001500
98
Fair
0.1
Fair
720
6085
1.21.7
200350b
15300 kW
Gas, propane,
distillate oils,
biogas
1530
Micro-turbines
N/A
10
13002000
N/A
Good
0.23d
Fair
672d
6585
1.21.7
60200
40
1 kW1.5M W
Any (gas, alcohol,
butane, biogas)
Stirling engines
0.0070.05
1020
25003500
9095
Good
0.0050.01
Quiet
430490
8590
0.81.1
260370
5 kW2 MW
Hydrogen and
fuels containing
hydrocarbons
3760
Fuel cells
a
Up to a third of the fuel energy is available in the exhaust at temperatures from 370 to 540 1C; other rejected heat is low temperature, often too low for most processes. (Jacket
cooling water at 8095 1C, lube oil cooling at 70 1C and intercooler heat rejection at 60 1C, all difcult to use in CHP.)
b
650 1C without recuperator.
c
Emissions associated with a steam turbine are dependent on the source of the steam. Steam turbines can be used with a boiler ring any one or a combination of a large variety of
fuel sources, or they can be used with a gas turbine in a combined cycle conguration. Boiler emissions vary depending on fuel type and environmental conditions.
d
Stirling engine emission characteristics / STM 4260. Gas-red distributed energy resource technology characterizations.
95
Good
10
9095
Poor
Loud
650
6080
0.10.5
Up to 540
Loud
7092
0.50.7
6590
0.82.4
720
Efciency electrical
(%)
Efciency overall (%)
Power to heat ratio
Output heat
temperature ( 1C)
Noise
CO2 emissions (kg/
MWh)
NOx emissions (kg/
MWh)
Availability (%)
Part load
performance
Life cycle (year)
Average cost
investment ($/kW)
Operating and
maintenances costs ($/
kWh)
3 kW6 MW
Gas, biogas,
liquid fuels,
propane
2543
5 kW20 MW
Gas, propane,
distillate oils,
biogas
3545
Spark ignition
engines
50 kW500 MW
Any
Diesel engines
Capacity range
Fuel used
Steam turbines
Table 2
Characteristics and parameters of prime movers in CCHP systems [1,6,11,15,16,18,20]
468
ARTICLE IN PRESS
ARTICLE IN PRESS
469
Table 3
Recoverable energy qualities with matching technologies [28]
Power source
Temp. (1C)
Matching technology
Gas turbine
Solid oxide fuel cell
Micro-turbine
Phosphoric acid fuel cell
Stirling engine
IC engine
PEM fuel cell
540
480
320
120
90
80
60
Triple-effect/ double-effect absorption

Double-effect/ single-effect absorption
Single-effect absorption, adsorption or dehumidication
Fig. 5. A single-effect absorption refrigeration system [30].
anew. Heat is supplied to the generator at a

comparatively high temperature and rejected from
the absorber at a comparatively low level, analogously to a heat engine.
The most common working uids for absorption
chillers are water/NH3 and LiBr/water, although
there are 40 refrigerant compounds and 200
absorbent compounds available in the literature
[30]. Lithiumbromide/water absorption chillers
play a predominant role in the absorption chiller
market in Asia-Pacic countries like China, Japan,
Korea and in the US. In contrast, ammonia/water
absorptions chillers are more popular in Europe.
Depending on how many times the heat supply is
utilized within the chiller; absorption chillers can be
divided into single-effect, double-effect and tripleeffect. A single-effect absorption refrigeration system is the simplest and most commonly used design.
Fig. 5 shows a single-effect system using nonvolatility absorbent such as LiBr/water. When
volatility absorbent such as water/NH3 is used, the
system requires an extra component called a
rectier, which will purify the refrigerant before
entering the condenser. The parameters and characteristics of different absorption chillers can be
viewed in Table 4.
Absorption chillers can also be used in chilled

water storage systems to produce chilled water
during off-peak electric load periods when the cost
of electricity is low and the demand for cooling is
low. The stored chilled water is then drawn upon
during the peak cooling periods when electricity
costs are high, to supplement the chiller operation.
The storage system helps to reduce the chiller
capacity requirement and total installed cost of
chillers. The installed cost of absorption chillers
varies from 140 to 290 US$/kW, with the decrease
of overall capacity. The O&M cost is in the range of
4.59 US$/kW/yr [31].
2.2.2. Adsorption chillers [32 38]
Adsorption-cooling technology is a novel, environmentally friendly and effective means of using
low-grade heat sources. An adsorption refrigeration
system is similar to vapor compression systems
except that heatinstead of workprovides the
energy needed for compression. Unlike conventional vapor compression systems which require a
mechanical compressor assembly, this new technology uses a thermally driven static sorption bed,
saving as much as 90% of the required input power
typically used to drive a mechanical compressor.
The functioning of the basic cycle of adsorption
cooling can be presented as comprising four phases
as shown in the schematic Fig. 6 and described as
follow:
1. A heating-pressurization 12, during which the
adsorber is isolated from both the condenser and
the evaporator. The pressure inside the adsorber
then increases until reaching the condensation
pressure, thanks to the heat supplied by an
external heat source.
2. An isobaric condensation 23, during which the
adsorber is connected to the condenser, allowing
80110
120150
120150
120150
200230
Single effect cycle
Double effect (series

ow)
Double effect (parallel

ow)
Triple effect cycle
Heat source
LiBr/water
Water/NH3
o0
510
LiBr/water
Water/NH3
o0
510
LiBr/water
Working uid
510
Cooling
Operating temp. ( 1C)
Single effect cycle
System
Table 4
Characteristics of absorption technologies [30]
N/A
Up to 1000
2001500
31000+
101500
Cooling
capacity (ton)
1.41.5
0.81.2
More than 1.2
0.5
More than 0.7
COP
Computer
model and
experimental
unit
Experimental
unit
Large water
chiller
Commercial
Large water
chiller
Current status
Rectication of refrigerant required

Working solution is environmental friendly
Operating pressure as high as with NH3
No crystallization problem
Suitable for use as heat pump due to wide
operating range
1. High complexity control system

2. Likely to be direct-red, as input temp is
very high
3. Requires more maintenance as a result of
high corrosion due to high operating
temperature
1. Heat release from rst stage absorber used

for second stage generator
1. High performance cycle, commercially

available
2. Heat of condensation from rst effect used
as heat input for second stage
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
1. Simplest and widely used

2. Using water as a refrigerant, cooling
temperature is above 0 1C
3. Negative system pressure
4. Water cooled absorber required to prevent
crystallization at high concentration
Remark
470
ARTICLE IN PRESS
ARTICLE IN PRESS
471
Fig. 6. Standard Clapeyrons lnp-1/T diagram of basic cycle.
the refrigerant vapor to ow the adsorber to the

condenser and condenses therein as the heating is
still continuing. This simultaneity of heating and
vapor ow and condensation makes the process
isobaric. The condensation heat is absorbed by
the cooling medium or could be used to provide
heating if the purpose of the system is heat
pumping. The condensate is then expanded and
drained into evaporator at lower pressure.
3. A cooling-depressurisation 34, during which the
adsorber is isolated from both the condenser and
the evaporator. The adsorber is cooled down and
the pressure decreases back to the value of
adsorption condition.
4. An isobaric adsorption, during which the adsorber is connected to the evaporator and
isolated from condenser. The low-pressure liquid
water contained in the evaporator is evaporated
by extracting latent heat of evaporation from the
space when being cooled down, and, simultaneously, the evaporated vapor is adsorbed anew
by the reactivated adsorbent contained in the
adsorber.
The system takes advantage of the ability of
certain adsorbent material, stored in an adsorber, to
soak up a relatively large quantity of refrigerant
vapor at some low temperature and pressure. At this
stage, cooling capacity is achieved in the evaporator
because of the evaporation of the refrigerant. The
refrigerant is subsequently released to the condenser
at a higher pressure simply by applying heat to the
sorption bed. The basic cycle is the cycle without
neither heat nor mass recovery. When operated with
a single bed, the cold production of this cycle is
intermittent. One step forward in the path of
Fig. 7. Schematic of two-bed adsorption refrigeration systems

[37].
improvement of this cycle has been the invention

of the two beds quasi-continuous cooling production system, shown in Fig. 7. In addition to the
quasi-continuity of the cold production, the system
offers the possibility for heat recovery and mass
recuperation from one bed to anther, thereby
helping to improve cycles efciency. A heat
regeneration uid also can be used to increase
system efciency by transferring heat from a hot to
a cold bed. As a critical part of this technology, the
characteristics of various adsorbentadsorbate
working pairs are listed in the Table 5.
Since there are no moving parts, except for valves,
the sorption system is considerably simpler, requiring no lubrication and thus, little maintenance.
Other advantages include quiet operation and
modularity so it is readily scalable for increased
heating and cooling capacity by additional beds.
Furthermore, any heat source, such as waste heat or
renewable energy resources, can be used, so energy
saving can be potentially signicant.
Based on these merits of the adsorption system,
active research in China, Europe, Japan and the US
has resulted in the breakthrough of this technology.
The adsorption refrigerators rst appeared on the
market in 1986, which were produced by the
Nishiyodo Kuchouki, Co. Ltd. The silica gelwater
adsorption chillers produced by this company are
sold in the American market by the HIJC USA Inc.
This company estimated the payback of this chiller
to about 23 years. The chiller is driven by hot
water from 50 to 90 1C, and the temperature of
chilled water is close to 3 1C. The COP can reach 0.7
ARTICLE IN PRESS
472
Table 5
Characteristics of adsorption working pairs [32,35,36]
Adsorbent
Adsorbate
Heat of
adsorption
(kJ/kg)
Toxicity
Vacuum level
Release
temp. ( 1C)
Heat sources
Applications
Silica gel
H2O
CH3OH
2800
10001500
No
Yes
High
High
70100
Space cooling,
refrigeration
Zeolite
H2O
NH3
C2H5OH
CH3OH
33004200
40006000
12001400
18002000
No
Yes
No
Yes
High
Low
Moderate
High
4150
100
110
Solar energy, lowtemperature waste

heat
High-temperature
waste heat
Solar energy, lowtemperature waste
heat
42000
Yes
High
120
1368
N/A
Yes
Yes
Low
Low
95
Activated
charcoal
Charcoal
ber
CaCl2
NH3
CH3OH
Space cooling,
refrigeration
Low temperature,
ice making
Solar energy, low- Low temperature,

temperature waste ice making
heat
when the chiller is power by hot water at 90 1C.

Another company producing silica gelwater adsorption is Mayekawa Co. The chillers from this
company can be powered by hot water at 75 1C and
yield chilled water at 14 1C with a reported COP of
0.6. In China, a series of adsorption chillers are
commercially available with the cooperation of
Shanghai Jiao Tong University and Jiangsu Shuangliang Air Conditioner Equipment Company. The
products are rated at 10, 20, 50, 100 kW, etc. and the
costs in US dollars could be $10,000, $15,000,
$30,000 and $50,000, respectively.
There are two typical CCHP applications with
adsorption chillers. The CCHP system installed at
the beginning of 2000, in the St. Johannes hospital is
composed by a fuel cell, solar collectors, a heat
storage vessel, a mechanical compression chiller, an
adsorption chiller, an ice-storage tank and cooling
ceilings. The hot water derived from solar collector
and waste heat of the fuel cell drives a 105 kW
Mycom ADR 30 adsorption chiller, manufactured
by the Japanese company, Mayekawa. Another
example is the CCHP systems set up at Shanghai
Jiao Tong University, which will be specied in later
section.
the desiccant material (such as silica gel, activated

alumina, lithium chloride salt, or molecular sieves)
to a moisture-laden process air stream, retaining the
moisture of the air in desiccant and regenerating
desiccant material via a heated air stream. System
capacity is often expressed in volume of airow or in
moisture removal rate. Table 6 shows some
specications and costs of desiccant dehumidication systems.
Dehumidication technology is divided into two
major types, solid desiccant dehumidiers and
liquid desiccant dehumidiers; both are useful for
the mitigation of indoor environmental quality and
health problems and for humidity control in
buildings. Liquid desiccant technologiesparticularly those with air washing and biocidal capabilitiesare viewed as a critical path toward ensuring
indoor environmental security under extraordinary
circumstances and reducing indoor air pollution in
general.
Dehumidication technology in the commercial
sector remains a young technology with a premium
price. To date, commercial desiccant technologies
have not been designed for integration into CCHP
systems.
2.2.3. Desiccant dehumidifiers [3,13,31]

Desiccant dehumidiers can work in concert with
sorption chillers or conventional air-conditioning
systems to signicantly increase overall system
energy efciency by avoiding overcooling air and
precluding oversized capacity to meet dehumidication loads. The desiccant process involves exposing
2.2.4. Other options

Although thermally activated technologies indicate the trend in cooling and dehumidication
options in CCHP systems, electric vapor-compression refrigeration systems still play an important
role for their maturity and reliability. Therefore,
quite a few CCHP systems in research and practical
ARTICLE IN PRESS
473
Table 6
Costs and performance of desiccant dehumidication systems [31]
Flux (m3/min)
Cost (US$/m3/min)
Thermal input (W/m3/min)
Maximum latent removal (W/m3/min)
40140
140280
280+
280630
210390
210320
3001000
3001000
3001000
300600
300600
300600
Table 7
Costs and performance of engine-driven chillers [31]
Capacity (kW)
Electric use (kWe/kW)
Cost (US$/kW)
Maintenance cost (US$/kW/yr)
35350
3501760
17607030
0.0140.020
0.0030.014
0.0010.003
230300
180270
130210
12.828.4
10.021.3
7.117.0
utilization still employ these conventional technologies as their cooling options. Nonetheless, it is
unwise for a CCHP system to drive chillers using
electricity generated by prime movers, since smaller
prime movers have lower efciency than larger types
used in power plants.
Engine-driven chillers have emerged as a substitute for electric chillers in CCHP units, avoiding
the losses in energy conversion. Engine-driven
chillers, including reciprocating, centrifugal and
screw types, are conventional chillers driven by an
engine, in lieu of an electric motor. They employ the
same thermodynamic cycle and compressor technology used in electric chillers, but an engine or
other prime mover drives the compressor directly.
In engine-driven chillers smaller than 700 kW,
reciprocating compressors are typically packaged
with the engine. In applications ranging from over
700 kW to less than about 4220 kW, both screw and
centrifugal compressors are used. In the largest,
over 4500 kW, centrifugal compressors are the only
option [22]. An advantage of engine-driven chillers
is better variable speed performance, which improves partial-load efciency. Engine-driven chillers
can also operate in a CCHP system for hot water
loads when the waste heat produced by the engine is
recovered. Table 7 shows the costs and performances of various engine-driven chillers (Table 8).
In general, mechanical vapor compression (typically by electric compression chillers and enginedriven chillers) is not a characteristic part of CCHP
systems. It can be added to increase redundancy,
diversity, reliability and economics of CCHP
systems.
Table 8
Natural gas demand forecast (10 million m3) [84]
Sector
Year 2005
Year 2010
Power generation
Chemicals
Industrial material
Domestic fuel
174
120
168
106
484
180
257
230
Total
568
1151
3. Typical CCHP systems

3.1. Diverse configurations of CCHP systems
CCHP systems, including both existing units and
experimental models in laboratories, vary from site
to site, with diverse prime movers, cooling options,
connecting forms, rated size ranges, heat-to-power
rates, user demand limitations and similar characteristics. Based on CCHP technologies and their
characteristics described earlier, this section will
discuss practical and potential CCHP systems and
their development.
Regarding the classication of CCHP systems in
the Introduction, traditional large-scale systems,
predominantly CHP systems without cooling options in centralized power plants or large industries,
account for large portions in installed CHP capacity
in many countries. The technologies used in this
type of CHP approach have developed for several
decades and these systems are relatively mature. For
these CHP systems, there are two common congurations [39]: one is based on boiler and steam
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turbine, shown as Fig. 8; the other system is based

on combustion turbines, shown as Fig. 9.
The steam boiler/turbine approach has always
been the most widely used CHP system. In this
approach, a boiler produces high-pressure steam
that is fed to a turbine to produce electricity.
However, the turbine is designed so that there is
steam left over to feed an industrial process. Thus,
one fuel input to the boiler supplies electrical and
thermal energy by recovering waste heat from the
steam turbine electric generator. Typically, two
thirds of the energy in a conventional power plant
is lost when waste steam is condensed in the cooling
tower. This type of system typically generates about
ve times as much thermal energy as electrical
energy [39]. Thus, this kind of system is suit for heat
plants in which electricity power is generated as
byproduct.
In newer, large, centralized CHP systems, a
combustion turbine (a diesel reciprocating engine
can also be used) is used to generate electricity, and
thermal energy is recovered from the exhaust stream
to make steam for other thermal uses. In these
Fig. 8. CHP system with backpressure steam turbine [1].
Fig. 9. CHP system with combustion turbine [1].
systems (Fig. 9), the thermal energy is typically one

to two times the electric energy generated [39].
An improved system model called combined cycle
gas turbine system (CCGT) combined combustion
turbine with steam turbine in one conguration
(Fig. 10), which is the most widely used model in
large central power plants today. The reliability of
combined cycle systems is 8085%, the annual
average availability is 7785% and the economic life
cycle is 1525 years. The electrical efciency is in the
range 3545%, the total efciency is 7088% and
the power to heat ratio is 0.62.0. The electrical
efciency can be increased further.
As for other categories of CCHP systems,
relatively small-capacity-distributed CCHP units
are the trend in future applications. In this category,
novel technologies such as fuel cells, micro-turbines,
Stirling engines, adsorption chillers and dehumidiers are emerging in some research models and
practical applications, which possess some promising characteristics, including low emission, high
efciency and low-grade thermal energy recovery.
Reciprocating engines, combustion turbines, electrical chillers and absorption chillers are predominant in the recent distributed CCHP market, for the
maturity and stability of these technologies.
Reciprocating engines plus absorption or electrical (engine driven) chillers are popular for small
utilizations. Jacket cooling uids, lubricating oil
systems, and engine exhaust are three heat recovery
options which can produce hot water using exchangers, for heat demands and other cooling and
dehumidication usages. This conguration, shown
in Fig. 11, represents a large percentage of CCHP
systems with reciprocating engines as prime mover.
Reciprocating engines with engine driven chillers
have fewer applications with low on-site electricity
demands. This small-scale engine-based CCHP
(CHP) system was a research issue addressed in
Fig. 10. Combined cycle CHP system with backpressure steam

turbine [1].
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much of the literature. Maidment [40,41], mentioned energy management of an engine-based

CCHP system with the application of an absorption
chiller. Riley [42], examined the emission from this
type of small CCHP system. Talbi [43], examined
the interfacing of the turbocharged diesel engine
with an absorption refrigeration unit in a CCHP
system and estimated the performance enhancement. Miguez et al. [44,45], illustrated design and
performance of a CCHP system with engine and
heat pump equipment. Smith [46], also analyzed a
similar system in his articles. Reciprocating engines,
as the most mature prime mover technology used in
distributed CCHP systems, made new improvements in some recent research. Moss et al. [47],
attempted to combine the Joule-cycle used in gas
turbines with an internal-combustion engine and
formed a reciprocating Joule-cycle engine-based
CHP system. A project at Shanghai Jiao Tong
University [48], experimented with novel adsorption
chillers, using heat recovered from engines, to
generate cooling capacity because of the relatively
low byproduct heat temperature of small engines in
CCHP systems. Research on engine-based CCHP
systems is active and the literature is extensive.
Micro-turbines became available commercially in
2001 and 2002, and they immediately became an
ideal prime mover for small-scale distributed CCHP
systems. Absorption chillers and desiccant dehumidiers driven by byproduct heat of micro-turbines
are employed to meet cooling demands of users.
A number of the same micro-turbine units can be
connected to fulll any electricity range in practice.
This conguration of CCHP systems is applied in
many locations, especially in the US, where micro-
turbine-based units have become serious competitors with engine-based units in the small-scale
CCHP market. With rising awareness of microturbine-based systems, more research has been
focus on this method in recent years [49,50].
Fig. 12 illustrates a typical schematic diagram of a
micro-turbine CHP system.
In this category of CCHP systems, the Stirling
engine is viewed as a promising prime mover in
small commercial and residential applications for
their low emissions, fewer moving parts, low noise,
small-scale availability and relatively low byproduct
heat. Only a few commercial Stirling engine units
can be found on the market, but research on Stirling
engines in some companies and laboratories has
advanced to a near-commercial stage, both in the
US and in Europe. There has also been research on
the feasibility of CCHP driven by Stirling engines
[51]. Some possible cooling and dehumidication
options for Stirling engines are absorption chillers,
dehumidiers and adsorption chillers. Fig. 13 shows
an STM 4-120 Stirling engine system [18], which is
the rst commercialized Stirling engine in the world;
until now it has had limited applications.
It is envisioned that fuel cell systems will serve a
variety of CCHP applications in the future, but
there is limited experience to validate potential
applications. Since most fuel cells are still in an early
stage of development and commercial use, fuel cells
CCHP systems carry high capital costs and higher
project risk due to unproven durability and
reliability. Simpler CHP systems based on PAFC
systems have been deployed in commercial practice.
Although difculties remain, some fuel cell CCHP
systems have already emerged in the US; Fig. 14
demonstrates a solid polymer fuel cell plant [52].
Tokyo Gas Co., Ltd. will market the rst domestic
polymer electrolyte fuel cell in 2005 [53]. In
addition, Hamada et al. [54] eld-tested the
Fig. 11. Schematic of reciprocating engine heat recovery [7,22].
Fig. 12. Schematic diagram of micro-turbine [7,22].
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performance of a polymer electrolyte fuel cell for a

residential energy system. According to the fuel cell
characteristics illustrated earlier, different fuel cells
can produce various temperature levels of byproduct heat to drive certain cooling and dehumidication equipment.
One major challenge of CCHP systems is the lack
of integrated systems [22]. In the US, seven
industrial teams have announced research, development and testing of rst generation integrated
CHP and absorption chillers with controlssome
with desiccant units as well. This program holds
promise for the building market for CHP, offering
multiple benets, such as lower integration costs
Fig. 13. STM 4-120 power unit packaged DG system [18].
and risks. In addition, it is a positive step forward

for the use of thermal cooling with CHP in the
industrial sector.
3.2. Representative CCHP systems in use
In terms of rated sizes, CCHP applications are
categorized into micro, small-scale, medium and
large-scale systems, while the size range of these
categories are under 20 kW, from 20 kW to 1 MW,
from 1 to 10 MW and above 10 MW, respectively.
In the following sections, four typical CCHP
applications, selected to represent these four categories, are discussed in detail for a close look at
various size CCHP systems currently in use.
3.2.1. Micro systems (under 20 kW)
In this category, there are limited examples in the
current market for a relatively small capacity,
although micro systems show great potential for
commercial, institutional and residential utilization.
As regards their technological feasibility, reciprocating engines, fuel cells and Stirling engines are
regarded as prospective prime movers. At Shanghai
Jiao Tong University, a micro CCHP system,
comprised of a 12 kW gas-red reciprocating
engine, a 10 kW adsorption chiller, a oor radiate
heating system, a waste heat recovery, a hot water
tank and a cooling water tower, has been set up
Fig. 14. Typical conguration of a solid polymer fuel cell plant [52].
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(Fig. 15), which is one of the smallest CCHP

applications currently in use [48].
Fig. 16 shows the conguration of the microCCHP system at SJTU. Natural gas or LPG is used
to drive the engine. Engine jacket cooling water
passes through the heat exchanger and is reheated
by exhaust gas that is up to 580 1C. Reheated water
then passes through an adsorption chiller to
produce chilled water for space cooling in summer;
or through the heat exchanger to produce hot water
for a oor radiate heating system in winter. After
that, the jacket water enters water tank to produce
domestic hot water and nally returns to the engine
jacket. The generator at rated power (electricity
efciency is about 21.4%) recovers 13.6 and
14.4 kW heat from exhaust gas and cylinder jacket
cooling water, respectively.
The highlight of this micro CCHP system is its
practical utilization of an adsorption chiller developed by SJTU with the cooperation of Jiangsu
Shuangliang Air Conditioner Equipment Company
(Fig. 17), which makes possible the recovery of low-
Fig. 15. Test facility view of the micro CCHP.
477
grade thermal energy [55,56]. In the tests, the COP

of silica/gelwater adsorption chiller reaches 0.30.4
with a heat source of 6095 1C. With the help of this
thermal-activated technology, the overall thermal
and electrical efciency of the micro CCHP system
is more than 70%. After an analysis was executed
based on this micro CCHP system [48,55], it was
concluded that the payback period is between 2.1
and 3.2 years for commercial buildings, or between
1.7 and 2.4 years for hotels, while the natural gas
costs from 0.193 to 0.230 US$/Nm3.
In recent years, many other new developments
have been achieved to commercialize water
chillers with small cooling capacities. Examples of
these are:
1. WaterLiBr absorption chillers
EAW in Westenfeld, Germany (lowest available cooling capacity 15 kW)
Phonix Sonnenwarme in Berlin, Germany
(10 kW)
University de Catalunya in Terrassa, Spain:
air-cooled system (10 kW)
Rotartica in Spain: air-cooled system with
rotating absorber/generator (10 kW)
2. Ammonia water systems with mechanical solution pump
Joanneum Research in Graz, Austria (10 kW,
operation temperature 2010 1C)
AOSOL in Portugal: air-cooled machine
(6 kW)
3. Ammonia water systems without mechanical
solution pump
University of Applied Research in Stuttgart,
Germany (approximately 25 kW)
SolarFrost in Graz, Austria
Fig. 16. Schematic diagram of the micro-CCHP [48].
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These products are not yet well established in the

market, but promise to open new market segments
for CCHP in small commercial buildings (e.g.,
ofces, small hotels, etc.) and even residential
buildings.
College Park. Fig. 18 shows the CCHP package at

the University of Maryland.
The small-scale CCHP system is located in
Chesapeake Building of the University of Maryland. This 4900 m2 building is representative of the
medium-sized commercial buildings accounting for
23% of all buildings in the US [58]. The prime
mover is a Capstone C60 micro-turbine that
generates 60 kW electricity at 90,000 rpm and
exhausts ue gas at 310 1C after recuperation [59].
The average efciency of the micro-turbine is
26.9%, when operating at full output capacity and
an average air inlet temperature of 7 1C. However,
the partial-load efciency drops to a low of 11% at
9 kW output power. Waste heat from the microturbine exhaust powers a Broad BD6.4NF-15 single
effect absorption chiller, which achieves 65 kW of
cooling power at the COP of 0.65. The absorption
chiller assists the RTU (316 kW direct expansion
electric rooftop cooling units) in providing air
conditioning for cooling zone two, seen in Fig. 19.
Chilled water produced by the absorption chiller is
supplied at 7 1C and returns at 12 1C [49]. Flue gas
from the chiller powers the ATS solid desiccant
dehumidier. The dehumidier dries the supply air
for the building, a function normally performed by
the roof top unit and the absorption chiller,
reducing the need for grid-based electrical power.
Together, these interactive components efciently
supply air conditioning for cooling zone two and
supplement the power requirement for the entire
building. The overall fuel utilization of this CCHP
system is as much as 72%. Compared with the
conventional energy supply for this building, annual
savings of applying the new CCHP system are
forecasted to be $25,000, with a 40% reduction in
CO2 [49].
3.2.2. Small-scale systems (20 kW 1 MW)

In this group of size ranges, a large number of
applications are constructed for different uses, such
as retail stores, supermarkets, hospitals, ofces,
schools, small industry, etc. This sector is the most
active and mature market for CCHP, since almost
every prime mover and cooling/dehumidication
technology above can nd their particular market.
Micro-turbines are strong competitors of internal
combustion reciprocating engines in this stage.
Following the example of small-scale CCHP systems, one of the rst CCHP applications with
micro-turbines is located at University of Maryland,
3.2.3. Medium systems (1 10 MW)

Generally, existing applications ranging from 1 to
10 MW are set up for industrial sites, where no
cooling demand is needed. As an example, the
system in the Domain Plant of Austin is equipped
with a combustion turbine for electricity demands
as well as an absorption chiller for cooling and
heating.
This plant is powered by a 4.6 MW Solar Turbine
Centaur 50 gas turbine (Fig. 20), which generates
4.3 MW net outputs for full-load continuous duty
with 28.6% electrical efciency and 510 1C exhaust.
The exhaust from the gas turbine is ducted into a
two-stage indirect-red Broad Co. absorption chil-
Fig. 17. Adsorption chiller prototype.
4. Solid sorption
Sortech in Halle, Germany: adsorption heat
pump (10 kW, working pair water/silica gel)
ClimateWell AB in Hagersten, Sweden
(10 kW, working pair lithium chloride/water;
includes thermo-chemical storage)
SWEAT b.v., in the Netherlands (working
pair sodium sulde/water; includes thermochemical storage)
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ler (Fig. 21) via a diverter valve, which produces

8918 kW of cooling power at chiller water volumetric ow rate of 1390 m3/h. The chilled water is
supplied to users at 6.7 1C and returns to the chiller
at 12.2 1C [6063]. The overall schematic layout of
the CCHP system is illustrated in Fig. 22.
The CCHP plant was constructed by Burns &
McDonnell partnered with the municipal utility
Austin Energy, in an existing building that is the
right size to house the modular package layout.
A remarkable characteristic of this system is its
modularization, which enables ease of construction.
Austin Energy owns and operates the CCHP system
as part of an existing central utility station that
generates power for the grid and sells chilled water
to industrial tenants and a downtown district
cooling system. Overall system integration is controlled by Allen Bradley software, which provides
programmable logic remote monitoring capacity for
Fig. 18. The CCHP package at the University of Maryland [57].
479
the complete system. The system is intended to run

in continuous duty operation at full base load
output 24 h a day [62,63].
After beginning commercial service, the CCHP
system operated at overall fuel efciency of 76.8%
with less than 15 ppm NOx and no catalyst exhaust
treatment. The system is expected to cut equipment
and installation costs by 1530% and achieve 3
million m3 in natural gas saving annually, depending on the amount of infrastructure available at the
site [62,63].
3.2.4. Large-scale systems (above 10 MW)
Large-scale CCHP systems with capacity above
10 MW are the ideal energy supply scheme for large
industries or institutional/commercial/residential
districts. Although large cogenerations can be found
everywhere, large systems that provide vast cooling
capacity simultaneously have limited applications similar to micro CCHP systems. The
57.4 MW CCHP plant at the University of Illinois
at Chicago is a successful model for large-scale
CCHP applications.
This CCHP system provides service to the entire
campus of about 744,000 m2 and a student population of over 27,000 [64]. This application consists of
two sections: the East Campus system and the West
Campus system, which were established from 1993
to 2002. The CCHP plant on the campus is shown in
Fig. 23.
Equipment utilized in the East Campus system
includes: two 6.3 MW Cooper-Bessemer dual-fuel
reciprocating engine generators; two 3.8 MW Wartsila 18V-28SG gas reciprocating engine generators;
Fig. 19. Schematic diagram of the CCHP application at the University of Maryland [49,58].
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Fig. 20. Solar gas turbine package [60].
Fig. 21. Broad absorption chiller.
a 3.5 MW Trane two-stage absorption chiller; two

7 MW York International electrical centrifugal
chillers; and several remote building absorption
chillers activated by the hot water loop (4.7 MW
maximum cooling capacity). The system generates
20.2 MW of electricity total, to cover nearly 100%
of the entire electrical demand of the East Campus.
The recovered heat from the CCHP system offsets
the heating and cooling requirements of 29 east
campus buildings, more than 353,400 m2. The
conguration of this complex system is illustrated
in Fig. 24. The overall installed cost is 25.7 million
US dollars and estimated payback is less than 10
years. It is estimated that the CCHP application
provides an overall source energy reduction of
14.2%, an estimated 28.5% reduction in CO2, a
52.8% reduction in NOx, and an 89.1% reduction in
SO2, along with approximately three million US
dollars in annual operating saving [65].
Fig. 22. Schematic layout of the CCHP system in Austin [62].
After the success of CCHP system in the East

Campus, a second system began operation on
the West Campus, with an additional 37.2 MW
electricity power to offset the heating and cooling demands of the several hospitals and other
buildings on the West Campus. At the heart of
the West Campus CCHP system are three
5.4 MW Wartsila gas engine generators and three
7.0 MW Solar Taurus turbines. The cooling components of the system are several Carrier absorption chillers, totaling 7 MW cooling capacity.
The schematic conguration of the West Campus
CCHP system is illustrated in Fig. 25. The installation cost of the system was 36 million US
dollars; annual savings of 7 million US dollars are
expected, with an estimated simple payback of 5.1
years [66].
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4. Development of CCHP around the world

4.1. United States
The beginning of CCHP development in the US
dates back to 1978, when Public Utility Regulatory
Policy Act of 1978 (PURPA) was enacted to require
utilities to purchase electricity generated by independent suppliers and thus, stimulate the development of renewable energy and CCHP (CHP or
cogeneration). In 1995, the installed capacity of
CCHP systems in the US was 45 GW compared to
Fig. 23. CCHP plant at the University of Illinois at Chicago [66].
481
12 GW in 1980 and; in this period, the average

increased capacity annually was about 2.2 GW
[6769].
However, in the mid 1990s; a liberated market
concept was introduced into the electricity generation industry by government; during this time,
intense competition and instability in the electricity
market blocked the rapid development of CCHP
applications. The installed capacity of CCHP
increased very slightly from 45 GW in 1995 to
46 GW in 1998. Subsequently, the US government
took a series of measures to promote CCHP
development again. First, the US Department of
Energy (DOE), with the cooperation of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Combined Heat & Power Association (CHPA), put a
CHP Challenge into effect in 1998. The aim of
this challenge was to boost the installed capacity of CCHP from 46 GW in 1998 to 92 GW
in 2010. Then, in 1999, Combined Cooling Heating
& Power for Buildings 2020 Vision was published by the DOE, which presented a timetable of
CCHP development. It was recommended that
obstacles to connect distributed CCHP applications with utility grids be eliminated, and that
parameters be established to achieve change before 2005. By 2010, CCHP is to be applied in 25%
of new constructions and 10% of existing commercial and institutional buildings; CCHP will substitute in 50% of CHP buildings. By 2020, 50% of
new construction and 25% of existing commercial/
institutional buildings will be equipped with
CCHP [67,69].
Fig. 24. System conguration of the East Campus [64,65].
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482
Fig. 25. System conguration of the West Campus [64,66].
In 2001, President George W. Bush established the National Energy Policy Development
(NEPD) Group, directing it to develop a national energy policy designed to help the private
sector, and, as necessary and appropriate, State and
local governments, promote dependable, affordable,
and environmentally sound production and distribution of energy for the future. CHP policy
recommendations contained in The National
Energy Policy of 2001, set forth by the NEPD
Group included [7074]: encouraging increased
the use of these cleaner, more efcient technologies CHP projects by shortening the depreciation
life for CHP projects or providing an investment tax
credit.
As mentioned in the Introduction, CCHP is
divided into traditional large-scale CCHP applications (CHP non-DG) and relatively small capacity
distributed CCHP (CHP DG). These two parts of
recent CCHP capacity additions can be seen in
Fig. 26. The overall electricity capacity addition
(20012003) in the US presented on the left below,
including both utility and non-utility, interconnected and non-interconnected, capacity additions
of all sizes. The 15.5 GW change in CCHP reects
incentives to build after the California crisis and
other market changes. It should be noted that 87%
of new CCHP is non-DG, which is traditional largescale CCHP applications.
The installed capacity of CCHP in 2001 was as
large as 56 GW and about seven percent of overall
installed capacity that year. Examined from the aspect
of electricity generation, 310 billion kWh was
generated by CCHP systems that yearup to nine
percent of the overall electricity generated in the US.
The US CCHP market grew signicantly through

2002 but has since slowed sharply in the face of high
natural gas prices and persistent regulatory barriers.
The major blackout of 2003 in North America
brought about major review of options to minimize
such disruption in future. CCHP, especially DG
CCHP, can reduce vulnerability to such outages,
and to the threat of terrorist attack on power systems
[14,75,76]. Fig. 27 shows 35.2 GW non-DG CCHP
capacity was added from 1990 to 2003, including
many merchant plants and 7.2 GW DG CCHP
capacity was added the same period, creating a total
CHP DG capacity of 22 GW [69].
The overall electricity capacity of CCHP in the
US reached 80 GW in 2004. There were 1540
existing commercial CCHP applications, with
9024 MW and 1189 industrial CCHP sites with
65,621 MW in the US [77]. Capacities of various
application sectors are compared by years (1995,
2000 and 2004), shown in Figs. 28 and 29.
The future of CCHP markets in the US is
promising; though there are still certain factors that
inuence the potential outcome. Key motivators
and barriers to CCHP development are listed as
follows [14]:
Key motivators

Need for higher quality power supply.

Congested transmission and distribution lines.
Concerns about system vulnerability.
State/national energy policy support for cogeneration and renewable energy. (States currently
represent a more important policy leader than
does national government.)
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483
Fig. 26. Capacity additions 20012003 (GW) [69].

Fig. 27. CCHP capacities in all sizes by 1st year installed [69].
Key barriers

High gas prices (with delayed impact on power

prices) and energy price volatility.
Non-standardized grid access and interconnection requirements across the USA.
Continuing monopoly of energy utilities.
Emissions standards that do not reect the
efciency of cogeneration and other DE.
Continued ban on private wires and prohibitions
against third party sales in 15 states.
It is estimated that the potential US CCHP

market could be as large as 209.9 GW, based on the
analysis of overall capacity data in 1999. The
industrial CCHP potential could be another 88
and 75 GW of the commercial sector. Moreover, the
existing 22 GW of CCHP/DG could double to
42 GW, even under high gas price conditions
[14,77]. CCHP applications would dominate overall
DG industrial and commercial market potential,
comprising over two-thirds of all DG base case
market potential and over half of the future case
market potential. Also, CCHP is currently underutilized in the commercial building sector, where
there is great potential.
4.2. Europe
In the European Union, the most important
legislative initiatives of CCHP development are the
Cogeneration Directive, the Emissions Trading
Directive, the New Electricity and Gas Directives,
and the Energy Performance of Buildings and
Taxation of Energy Products Directives. EU policies both recognize the importance of CCHP for
Fig. 28. Industrial CCHP applications [77].
achieving climate change commitments and dene

possible instruments to promote the technology at
the EU level. When the strategy was issued in 1997,
the share of electricity produced from CCHP in the
EU was about 9%. The strategy sets a target of 18%
by 2010 [67,78,79]. However, possible measures and
instruments to achieve this target have so far not
been dened in depth.
The development of CCHP in the EU is
characterized by a wide diversity, both in the scale
and nature of the development. This diversity
reects differences in policy priorities, natural
resources, history, culture and climate and has it
close links to the structure and activity of electricity
markets. Obviously, the main reason for this
diversity has been the different political choices
made by governments in energy matters. Fig. 30
portrays, as nearly as possible, the situation of
CCHP development in EU countries and the
projected scenario in 2010 [1,9,16].
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484
cular supportive policies are undertaken.

Nevertheless, CCHP was recognized as the economic means of generating electricity. Other reasons for
the healthy development of CCHP have been the
high demand for heating, subsidies for new technologies and an absence of barriers [9].
4.2.4. The Netherlands
Success in the Netherlands has been achieved
through strong promotional activities and a clear
positive policy framework:

Fig. 29. Commercial CCHP applications [77].

In the diagram, it can be concluded that Austria,
Denmark, Finland and the Netherlands are the four
leading countries in the popularization of CCHP
utilization.
4.2.1. Austria
Austria has strong environmental policies, and
CCHP technology has always been encouraged.
Industrial and district heating sectors have developed relatively well; the former through the benets
that the technology brings to high-energy intensity
users and the latter as a response to energy price
rises in the 1970s and central state support [9].
4.2.2. Denmark
At the time of the oil crisis, in the beginning of the
1970s, Denmark was 90% dependent on foreign oil.
Today, Denmark is self sufcient in oil and gas, one
of several factors, which led the government to
promote CHP technology. The popular use of wind
energy in Denmark is also a contributing factor.
The existence of district heating networks and the
environmental concerns of the society also propelled
CHP development. The success of CHP development in Denmark has been largely due to government policy resolved to ensure that the technology
can ourish, and has been achieved through
signicant subsidy and grant provisions [1,16,78].
4.2.3. Finland
Finland has always been one of the most liberal
energy markets in Europe. The development of
CCHP in Finland has not been largely a consequence of specic political action, since no parti-
fuel (gas) tax exemption for fuel used to generate

CHP electricity;
investment in highly-efcient CHP units, partly
scally deductible;
eco-tax exemption for heat supplied by CHP.
The unofcial national long-term target for CHP is

to achieve CCHP capacity of 15 GW by 2010.
The development in other countries in the EU
follows [1,9,14,16,8083].
4.2.5. France
The major electricity demands of France are
fullled by nuclear energy, which comprises more
than 70 percent of overall capacity. Thus, the
capacity of CCHP is responsible for a small fraction
of electricity. As shown in Fig. 31, after the boom in
CCHP installation in 1998, a sharp decline occurred
the next year, which remains unchanged in recent
years [16,80].
4.2.6. Germany
In Germany, liberalization has had negative
effects on CCHP due to price wars between the
utilities that have caused electricity to be sold below
its production cost. Although the price of electricity
has begun to rise again, about 20 GW CCHP
capacity was closed down before 2001. Thus, the
government has taken several measures [1,14,16]
listed below. First, ecological tax reform was
undertaken: cogeneration with a global efciency
of 70% or more is exempt from electricity and gas
taxes. The second measure was the Emergency Plan
making it compulsory to buy electricity from
cogeneration with an extra subsidy of 0.03 DM/
MWh [1]. In addition, a quota model was introduced, mandating that every company supplying
electricity to a nal consumer must supply a certain
percentage from cogeneration. New projects under
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485
Fig. 30. Percentage of CCHP in 1999 and 2010 [80].
the new CCHP law in Germany can be seen in

Fig. 32.
4.2.7. Hungary
As one of the European Unions accession
countries, the statistics for CCHP in Hungary are
incomplete. However, the government and electricity company each take measures to promote CCHP
development. Cogenerated electricity of 2004 in
Hungary is 5600 GWh, about 15.6% of total
generation, and cogenerated heat is 46,335 TJ,
about 71% of total generation. It is hoped
cogenerated electricity will reach 9.09.5 TWh
about 2022% of total generationby 2010 [81].
4.2.8. Italy
The annual electricity demand supplied by CHP
is about 15%. Industrial sector applications are
more important than district heating or smaller
public or private utilization. A series of policies have
been set forth by the government to establish low
tax rates on gas used for district heating; tax
reductions on gas for industrial CHP schemes
proportional to their electrical efciency; carbon
tax exemptions for CHP; dispatch priorities for
CHP in the transmission network and more [16,78].
4.2.9. Poland
There are over 1000 CCHP installations in
Poland, but no specic legal framework is established. General provisions in the 1997 Energy Law
apply. Although there is no obligation upon
distribution companies to purchase electricity from
CCHP, in general, they do purchase it. The
generator-producing electricity from cogeneration
must be licensed if the installed capacity of the unit
exceeds 50 MW. For the promotion of CCHP,
KOGEN Polska, has been created, which is the
national member for COGEN Europe in Poland
[1,16].
4.2.10. Spain
Approximately 12% of electricity production is
from CHP, generated mostly in the industrial sector
and with no district heating. Natural gas fuels half
of the existing CHP installations. A special regime
for new CHP units meeting certain criteria was
introduced in 1998; it included mutual obligations
by CHP producers and distribution companies.
Some funding for small-scale CHP installations was
made available from the Institute for Energy Saving
and Diversication [16,78].
4.2.11. Sweden
CHP represents about 6% of the total electricity production, mostly in district heating and
ARTICLE IN PRESS
486
Fig. 31. CCHP projects in France 19912002 [80].
CCHP from the renewable obligation base. During

the 1990s, installed CHP capacity in the UK more
than doubled [83]. However, this buoyant trend
has been interrupted by recent market conditions.
Fig. 33 shows the trend in installed CCHP capacity
and how it relates to the 10 GW target [1,16].
Attempts have been made in many European
Union countries to remove the barriers and
promote cogeneration. Various incentives have been
used, such as relatively high prices for exported
electricity sold to the grid, and grants on investments. Other measures have included spreading
related information, energy auditing and analysis of
data, and support of research and development.
Most of these measures were designed at a time
when many of the barriers to the development of
CCHP derived from the existence of monopolistic
electricity and gas markets. The most frequently
mentioned barriers to CCHP in the EU were:

Fig. 32. New projects under the new CCHP law in Germany
(February 2002) [80].
industrial use. The low CHP share is not the

result of regulatory obstacles, but rather of the
abundance of low-priced electricity. In Sweden,
more than 90% of electricity is hydro or nuclear
power [16,78].
4.2.12. UK
Since the year 2000, the government has introduced a wide range of measures to support the
growth of CCHP capacity. These measures fall into
several categories: scal incentives, grant support,
regulatory framework, promotion of innovation
and government leadership and partnership. The
main support measures favored by the CCHP
industry in their response to the strategy consultation were a CCHP obligation, and exempting
low price paid for the surplus of electricity

exported to the grid;
high fees for top-up and back-up supplies;
no possibility of third party access;
predatory pricing against possible competition.
The share of CCHP in the electricity production

in Europe is currently about 10%. This is far from
its full potential, which COGEN Europe estimates
to be at least 30%. This can be supported by the fact
that three countries have achieved this share
[1,9,16]. As previously mentioned, in its 1997
Strategy to Promote Combined Heat and Power,
the European Commission (EC), set a target of 18%
by 2010. In the current situation, uncertainties
caused by incomplete liberalization of electricity
markets in Europe make it unlikely that this target
will be reached without a reorientation of the policy
framework. Political support for CCHP, and energy
saving technologies from various national governments is a proven necessity. A possible estimate of
future CCHP capacity by sectors in Europe is
shown in Fig. 34.
4.3. Asia and the Pacific
4.3.1. China
In the 1980s, China became concerned about
CCHP (CHP/cogeneration) development for the
rst time. The government emphasized that size and
type of these systems should be determined by heat
demands of users, (called as heat-match mode).
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During that period, many single systems with 3

12 MW steam turbines were constructed. In the late
1980s and early 1990s, when China experienced
electricity supply problems, the government set
forth a series of policies which included tax
exemption, investment tax credit and direct subsidy
for energy saving projectsespecially CCHP systems. The rapid development of CCHP systems
slowed at the end of the 1990s, as preferential
policies were abolished with several factors, such as
an abundance of temporary electricity, reform of
the national accounting system and monopolization
in the electricity market [67,84,85].
After the National Energy Conservation Law
took effect in 1998, China encouraged the development of general energy-saving technologies and
projects; energy grade utilization and overall
efciency was promoted. Through the end of 1999,
there were as many as 1402 cogeneration units with
individual capacity over 6 MW in China. The
overall capacity of these units was 28,153 MW,
consisting of 12.6% fuel-combustion electricity
generation [14,84,86]. Fig. 35 shows the capacity
of different size ranges CCHP systems in 1999.
However, most systems were fueled with coal and
applied boilers and steam turbines as prime movers.
In 2001, the government enacted the regulation of
CHP for better management of CHP (including
CCHP) projects; it stressed the heat-match mode
and prescribed the lowest efciency limitation and
heat-to-power ratio of different systems. This
487
measure sparked development not only of centralized cogeneration plants, but also small-scale
distributed CCHP systems. In recent years, CHP
units with cooling capacity developed rapidly, and
several cities have coal-combustion CHP plants
with cooling capacity supply. Jinan has 49.6 MW
cooling supply CCHP system, and in Hangzhou
there are two systems of more than 120 MW cooling
capacity each. CCHP systems based on gas-combustion turbines or engines also emerged; typical
examples are Shanghai Huangpu Central Hospital,
Pudong International Airport, the Beijing Gas
Company building and the system used in Tsinghua
University [67,84,85].
Current CCHP development in China has some
unique characteristics. Following the heat-match
mode, users select the system size based on practical on-site heat demands; as a result, there are
many more small-scale units than large ones. In
small and middle size cities of north China,
cogeneration plants supply steam for both industrial processes and domestic space heating, while
the heating connections and distributions are quite
complex and require a large investment. In big
cities of the north, cogeneration plants consist of
large steam turbinesmore than 100 MW per
unitwhich can supply space heating of 10 million
m2. Most CHP systems in large industries are set
up solely for the power and heat demands of
that industry. Although these systems connect with
utility grids, they sell very little of the electricity
Fig. 33. CCHP installed capacity and targets in UK [83].
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488
Fig. 34. Future possible scenario for CCHP capacity [80].
generated. Most CCHP systems supported by the

government generate cooling capacity for process utilization in textile mills, chemical industries or large institutional buildings. Domestic
space cooling by CCHP systems cannot be addressed, as the problem of metering and charge
remains. In general, more than 95% of CCHP
or CHP systems are fueled with coal and there
are limited combined-cycle projects in China, since
the production capacity of nature gas in China is
low and the price of natural gas is relatively
expensive [84].
To further CCHP applications in China, several
measures should be taken [86]:
1. Distributed CCHP generators should be permitted grid access on transparent and nondiscriminatory terms.
2. Emerging industry structures should not maintain market control in the hands of incumbent
utilities.
3. The transmission and distribution costs associated with central generation should be fully
accounted for in any system planning.
4. Fuel and power pricing should be determined by
markets as much as possible.
5. Private and foreign investors should face no
undue commercial, legal or regulatory barriers in
carrying out their business.
6. The overall output efciency (including usable
heat), of utility plants should be rewarded.
7. The clean development mechanism should be
encouraged to contribute signicantly to Chinas
power demand requirements.
Fig. 35. The capacity (GW) of different size range CCHP systems
in 1999 [84].
Fuel diversication for future CCHP development is likely to be signicant with biomass, biogas
and natural gas providing new opportunities for
developers. Natural gas-driven combined cycle
CCHP systems will play an important role in future
markets. Although gas-driven systems cannot compete with coal-driven cogenerations in the north,
they can become a strong competitor with 600 MW
units using coal in the south. It is believed that
about 1 GW combined cycle CCHP systems using
gas will be put into production in 2005 and even
more in the next several years [84].
The capacity of CCHP applications in China is
predicted to grow at a high rate in coming years,
with an estimated potential increase of 3.1 GW
annually, comprising 620 MW for industries,
2000 MW for cities in north China and 500 MW
for new industrial area in south China [84]. At the
same time, the increase in annual capacity is about
4.5 GW. By 2006, CCHP capacity could reach
45 GW. If some, or all of measures listed above,
can be achieved, the scale of DER (most are CCHP)
development in China could exceed that of central
power and go beyond 100 GW by 2010 [14].
4.3.2. Japan
At the end of March 2003, there were 2915 CCHP
(including cogeneration) units, totaling 1429 MW
installed for commercial applications and 1600 units
totaling 5074 MW for industrial usages [87]. The
accumulated data of installation numbers and total
capacity are illustrated in Fig. 36. The number of
installations as well as the capacity has been steadily
increasing over the last decade, which can be seen in
Fig. 37. After a sharp rise in 1990, the growth rate
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slowed in 1992, due to recession and decline in

energy prices. There has been a renewed interest in
CCHP, proven by the fact that over 850 MW was
added between March 1996 and 1998 [88].
In recent years, development of CCHP application in Japan restarted with the emergence of new
CCHP technologies. Data of commercial and
industrial cogeneration by type of activity, including
number of installations and generating capacities,
are summarized in Table 9.
Among commercial applications, commercial
stores rank rst in terms of number and total
capacity, followed by hospitals, hotels and ofces.
The main features of these sites include long and
continuous operating hours, constant demand on
thermal energy for hot water, steam and chilled
water. Although few in number, the district heating
and cooling network projects, with much larger
average sizes, represent an important application in
Japan. Among industrial uses, gas and oil industries
have the largest share in terms of capacity. Other
sectors having large capacities are pulp and paper,
chemical pharmaceutical, iron and metals, and
glass, soda and ceramics industries. In contrast,
the food industry uses many smaller systems.
Since the 1980s, the support extended by government for promoting CCHP may be classied into
four categories: special taxation, low interest loans,
investment subsidies, and subsidies for new technology development. The Law Concerning Promotion
of the Use of New Energies was enacted in June
1997, as a framework for encouraging the introduction of renewable and non-conventional fuels
(including CCHP/cogeneration). The budget in
1998 allocated 74.8 billion JPf (up from 56 billion
JPf in 1997) for new energy promotion [89].
Other detailed measures taken by the government
are listed as follows: CCHP system investors may
choose either 30% depreciation on the installation
cost or 7% of tax exemption in the 1st year of
acquisition of cogeneration plant; low interest loans
(2.3% per year) can be obtained for 4070% of the
total investment cost.
Additionally, electricity market reform also has
an obvious effect on CCHP development. Under
the former Electricity Supply Law, nine regional
electric utilities had the monopoly to supply
electricity in the whole country. This law was
revised in 1995, which now helps in further
propagation of cogeneration. The law allows the
private sector to sell self-generated electricity to the
electric utilities or supply self-generated electricity
489
to third parties. Such action, or even the credible

possibility of such action, would put competitive
pressure on the utility to change its prices and
reduce its costs to those customers who can credibly
self-generate.
In addition to this encouragement for CCHP
development, the obligation of environmental protection also plays a critical role. Following the Third
Conference of Parties held at Kyoto in December
1997, Japan set itself a target of reducing greenhouse gas emission by 6% by the year 2010, taking
1990 as the base year. An Environmental White
Book was released in June 1998 wherein CCHP
appears as one of the important measures to reduce
CO2 emission [89,93].
In the Energy Policies of IEA Countries: Japan
1999 Review [89], the target of cogeneration set by
the Japanese government concludes that total
installed cogeneration capacity is expected to
increase from 3.85 GW in 1996 to 10 GW in 2010
(cogeneration is regarded as a demand side new
energy in Japan).
4.3.3. India
With continuing economic growth, the Indian
electricity system is in need of urgent investment
and development. DER (mainly CCHP systems)
capacity is only 4.1 GWabout 3.6% of total
electricity capacity in India. High priced and
unreliable electricity supply, government capital
grants and soft loans are the key drivers for CCHP
development. At the same time, some barriers exist,
such as lack of adequate policy framework, lack of
technical knowledge and support services, shortage
Fig. 36. The cumulative capacity of CCHP in each scal year

[87].
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490
Fig. 37. The number and generating capacity of CCHP in each scal year [87].
Table 9
CCHP commercial and industrial applications at the end of March 2003 [87,93]
Commercial sectors
Number of
sites
Generation
capacity (MW)
Store
Hospital
Hotel
Ofce
Sports facility
Welfare facility
Public bath
Training center/ sanatorium
497
460
440
289
236
214
169
124
264
213
219
193
94
11
23
43
Gasoline station
School
District heating and cooling
86
77
21
5
42
81
Industrial sectors
Number of
sites
Generation
capacity (MW)
Food
Chemical pharmaceutical
294
279
1333
4344
Machinery
Electric equipment
223
158
2865
2981
Iron and metal

Textile
Pulp and paper
Gas, oil and other energy
141
90
73
66
4078
2433
4657
9500
Glass, soda and ceramics
44
4091
Other
302
242
Other
232
1806
Total
2915
1429
Total
1600
3171
of investment nance and limited natural gas

network for cogeneration [14].
In the CCHP market, there is tremendous
potential in industrial sugar cane. Bagasse-based
cogenerations in sugar mills are the main form
of CCHP development in India [90,91]. A distributed generation revolution began in India with
87 new local power projects, producing 710 MW
from sugar cane waste. In September 2001, the
Ministry of Power estimated that there was a
total potential for some 15 GW of cogeneration

capacity, of which 2 GW had been implemented
to date.
4.3.4. Association of South East Asian Nations
(ASEAN)
There is huge potential for CCHP systems in
ASEAN but market conditions differ from one
country to another. The driving force for industry
to invest in CCHP is lower energy cost, which is
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independent of overcapacity present in some countries. Financing is the largest obstacle to investment,
despite market liquidity. Most countries have an
indirect biomass cogeneration policy through biomass power and energy efciency policy, legislation
and support programs. However, none of the
ASEAN countries have any particular policy,
legislation or support program for coal and natural
gas cogeneration presently [92,93].
The huge difference between developments in
the electricity supply industry in ASEAN Countries is illustrated in Table 10. Typically, CCHP
(cogeneration) policy is part of national energy
policy, which is often scattered between different
agencies.
The EC-ASEAN COGEN Program is an economic cooperation program between the EC and
ASEAN; about 15 million EURO is funded by the
EC. The program lasted for 3 years from January
2002 to December 2004. As a result, 24 full-scale
demonstration projects (FSDP) candidates selected
ranges from 0.3 to 41 MW, and the total capacity is
174 MW. With assistance from developed countries
and organizations, the potential will become a
realistic market of CCHP applications in ASEAN
[92,94,95].
4.4. Other countries
In addition to the above three sections of the
world, many other countries develop their own
CCHP applications by different means.
Russia leads in the development of CCHP (most
are cogeneration) around world. About 30% of
electricity generation is from cogeneration, mostly
in association with municipal use, which generates
65 GW annually. The very cold temperature holds
great potential for district heating as a whole.
Widespread supply of natural gas and its low cost
compared to Europe are additional drivers for
development of cogeneration applications. However, lack of nancial support and a strong
monopoly-based market structure block further
increase in cogeneration. Once this situation
changes, there could be rapid market growth
based on growing demand and abundant natural
resources [14].
In the Middle East, profuse crude oil resources
seem to offer no need for developing an efcient
power supply, such as CCHP systems. But environment and economy make CCHP applications
valuable. Jaber [96] proposed a commercial-sized
491
oil shale integrated tri-generation system (OSITGS)

in his article. The proposed plant will probably be
located close to the vast naturally occurring oilshale deposits, which will be nancially attractive
compared with conventional utilization methods, as
well as an environmentally acceptable technique for
producing synthetic (liquid and gaseous) fuels and
electricity from oil-shale. Other literature indicates
that countries with abundant energy resources are
well aware of CCHP [97].
Large-scale hydropower plays an important role
in Brazils electricity structure, and the overall DER
capacity of this big country is 2.8 GWabout 3.8%
of electricity capacity [14]. Several articles reveal
that Brazil hopes to join the trend of CCHP
development around the world. In his article, Szklo
[98,99] applied a COGEN model to two cases in
Brazila chemical plant and a shopping mall
showing the highest economic potential for gas-red
cogeneration in Brazil. Another article, by Silveira
and Gomes [100], presents a study of technical and
economic feasibility for the installation of cogeneration systems utilizing fuel cells, connected to an
absorption refrigeration system for a building of the
tertiary sector, subject to conditions in Brazil.
Furthermore, a recent discovery of natural gas near
the State of San Paulo has at least tripled Brazils
reserves, although it will take a few years to develop.
Brazilian gas companies have announced a major
move towards increasing distributionthe CCHP
market being their main target [14].
The potential CCHP market is also signicant in
Mexico, where petrochemical renery sites can
operate with onsite power generation. Although
state-owned companies dominate the power market,
changes are being made to electricity regulations,
opening areas of the market to the private sector.
The government is promoting investment in DER/
cogeneration. In January 2004, the Energy Secretary
announced possible additional investments of
1000 MW by 2010. DER is expected to account
for 20% of growth in the power market from 2004
to 2010, according to a survey of WADE [14].
In Africa, CCHP development remains in a
primary stage. The foremost problem of many
countries is the promotion of electricity supply
infrastructures nation-wide. To some extent, smallscale distributed CCHP systems provide another
power supply method to remote areas, rather than
large centralized power plants. Joseph and RoyAikins [101] investigated the potential economic
benets that can be accrued by installing gas turbine
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492
Table 10
Present differences in ASEAN electricity supply [94]
Country
Present situation
Installed capacity
(MW)
Forecasted annual
growth of power
demand (%)
Policy on
cogeneration
Cambodia
No national grid
160
10
Preparing phase
Indonesia
Govt.56% IPP4%
Captive power 40%
23,425
Malaysia
Govt.85%
Private15%
13,760
610
SREPb,
cogeneration
Philippines
Govt.55%
Private45%
14,700
9
Renewable energy
Singapore
Thailand
Power pool
Govt.60%
Private40%
8140
24,500
10
SPPc, VSPPd,
renewable
Vietnam
Govt.90%
Private10%
3296
13
Preparing phase
IPPa, conservation
captive power
IPPindependent power producers.

SREPsmall renewable energy power.
c
SPPsmall power producers.
d
VSPPvery small renewable power.
b
cogeneration sets along an oil pipeline in a rural

area of one sub-Saharan country. South Africa
predominantly fueled by coal (93% of overall
electricity capacity) and the capacity of DER is
only 0.5 GWabout 1.4% of total capacity [14]. In
summary, prospects for CCHP and renewable DER
in Africa are hopeful, inspite of many barriers.
5. Discussions and conclusions
1. Combined cooling, heating and power systems
are derived from the CHP category, which shares
some merits with CHPespecially energy conservation. Small-scale distributed CCHP applications, an important part of novel DER
technologies, are the issue of CCHP recently.
Generally, CCHP indicates large-scale technologies and applications that appear complicated to
some government ofcials, investors and end
users. Thus, the denition, benets and classication of CCHP systems should be made
known universally, since the lack of education
and awareness about CCHP remains the foremost barrier to progress. Lack of understanding
about CCHP concepts, benets and technologies have halted its further popularization;
wait and see is the attitude of both investors
and users.
2. Existing and potential technologies of CCHP are

available. These technologies contain both improved conventional approaches, like steam
turbines, reciprocating engines, combustion turbines and electric chillers, as well as relatively
new technologies such as fuel cells, microturbines, Stirling engines, sorption chillers and
dehumidiers. Most prime mover technologies
are still based on fossil fuel combustion, since
renewable energy technologies cannot totally and
economically replace traditional technologies in
the near future. Therefore, CCHP technologies
provide the world with a transitional system of
reliable and stable energy supply. There may be
grounds for the argument that there are too
many alternative technologies and modes of
congurations existing, confusing potential users
about a particular CCHP unit. However, it is
believed that the more choices available, the
more possibilitiesexist for CCHP utilization in
diverse circumstances. Better understanding of
user demands, careful selection of technologies
and full consideration of revenue are the keystones to a successful CCHP application.
3. The CCHP world market has grown rapidly in the
last decade, despite the fact that development levels
differ from country to country. CCHP development
in the US and Europe restarted recently, after a
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short period of slow growth. Nonetheless, barriers

to development still exist in these countries, such as
limited liberated electricity market, gas price volatility, high initial cost, etc. Development in Japan
seems to be steady; the number of sites and the total
capacity are gradually increasing. The two newly
emerging markets, China and India still are a long
way from a boom in CCHP applications. Other
developing countries have begun to encourage
development of CCHP in their domestic energy
supply market, and the governments of these
countries follow various strategies according to the
unique characteristics of their countries. From
analysis of the world market, section by section, it
is apparent that government policies, liberation of
the electricity market and price of electricity and
fuels are critical in the development of CCHP.
Many countries have set a short-term target for
CCHP applications, so the capacity share of DER is
planned to double from 7% currently to 14% in
2012, with the combined efforts of governments,
entrepreneurs, energy professionals and end users.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the Research Fund
for the Doctoral Program of Higher Education
under contract no. 20040248055 and the National
Science Fund for Distinguished Young Scholars of
China under contract no. 50225621. The support
from the Key Research Program of MOE China
regarding Distributed Energy Systems is also
appreciated.
The authors thank Elsevier for the kind permission to use the Figs. 5, 7 and the Tables 1, 2, 4, and
5, from the references [20,30,35,37].
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
[17]
[18]
[19]
[20]
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ARTICLE IN PRESS

Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 459495

Combined cooling, heating and power: A review

Corresponding author. Tel.: +86 21 34206776; fax: +86 21 34206056.

E-mail address: rzwang@sjtu.edu.cn (R.Z. Wang).

Typical CCHP systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473

Most literature lists statistics of CHP/cogeneration instead of

and useful thermal energy from the same primary

BCHP building cooling heating and power

combined heating and power

decentralized energy resources)a novel technical

Fig. 1. Categories of CCHP and DER.

Fig. 2. Typical CCHP system.

system, distributed CCHP systems will receive more

Fig. 3. Energy ow of traditional supply mode.

Fig. 4. Energy ow of typical CCHP system.

Thirty four units of waste heat in the form of

energy supply mode, CCHP system can save 48

2. Status and developments of CCHP technologies

include low electrical efciency, slow start-up time,

Combustion turbines are easier to install than steam

Micro-turbines can be used as a distributed

Ceramic, high temp

comparison of the characteristics of these fuel cells

available non-precious metal electrodes, and high

cell include a lower efciency than other fuel cell

2.2. Thermally activated technologies

Triple-effect/ double-effect absorption

Fig. 5. A single-effect absorption refrigeration system [30].

anew. Heat is supplied to the generator at a

Absorption chillers can also be used in chilled

Single effect cycle

Double effect (series

Double effect (parallel

Triple effect cycle

Operating temp. ( 1C)

Single effect cycle

More than 1.2

More than 0.7

Rectication of refrigerant required

1. High complexity control system

1. Heat release from rst stage absorber used

1. High performance cycle, commercially

1. Simplest and widely used

Fig. 6. Standard Clapeyrons lnp-1/T diagram of basic cycle.

the refrigerant vapor to ow the adsorber to the

Fig. 7. Schematic of two-bed adsorption refrigeration systems

improvement of this cycle has been the invention

Solar energy, lowtemperature waste

Solar energy, low- Low temperature,

when the chiller is power by hot water at 90 1C.

the desiccant material (such as silica gel, activated

2.2.3. Desiccant dehumidifiers [3,13,31]

2.2.4. Other options

Thermal input (W/m3/min)

Maximum latent removal (W/m3/min)

Electric use (kWe/kW)

Maintenance cost (US$/kW/yr)

3. Typical CCHP systems

turbine, shown as Fig. 8; the other system is based

Fig. 8. CHP system with backpressure steam turbine [1].

Fig. 9. CHP system with combustion turbine [1].