Answers

1. Signal T ransduction Pathway

2. Yes. Those in yeast and mammals are strikingly similar and there are other
similarities between signaling systems in plants and bacteria.
3. Paracrine signaling and Synaptic signaling
4. Hormonal Signaling - also called Endocrine Signaling
5. C irculatory System
6. G ap Junctions in animal cells; Plasmodesmata in plant cells; Interaction of
cell surface molecules (glycoproteins) in cell-cell recognition
7. Reception ± T ransduction ± Response
8. A small molecule that specifically binds to a larger molecule
9. G ± protein-linked receptors, T yrosine-kinase receptors, and ligand-gated
ion-channel receptors
10. T hey are protein with seven alpha-helices spanning the cell membrane.
11. See below:
a. signal molecule binds to cell membrane receptor
b. receptor binds inactive G-protein and causes G T P to replace G DP on protein
thereby activating G-protein
c. activated G-protein binds another protein (usually an enzyme) and alters the
activity of the enzyme
d. get cell response
12. Before the signal binds to the receptor the receptors exist as individual
polypeptides. E ach polypeptide has an intracellular tail containing a number
of tyrosine amino acids, and a single alpha-helix in the cell membrane.
13. W hen the signal binds to the receptor two receptor polypeptides aggregate
forming a dimer, this aggregation activates the tyrosine-kinase parts of both
polypeptides and these phosphorylate the tyrosines on the tail of the other
polypeptide.
14. Inactive proteins within the cell bind to the phosphorylated tyrosine residues,
the phosphate is transfer red to the proteins, and the proteins become active.
15. Protein pores in the membrane that open or close in response to a chemical
signal, allowing or blocking the flow of specific ions, such as Na+ or C l-.
16. No, some are proteins located in the cytoplasm or the nucleus of the cell.
O nes that are small enough to pass between membrane phospholipids or ones
that are lipid soluable.
17. T estosterone and Estrogen
18. Genes
19. transcription factors
20. Phosphorylation of proteins.
21. A molecule that transfers phosphate groups from A T P to proteins. M any of
the molecules in signal-transduction pathways are protein kinases.
22. See F igure 11.11
23. T hese are enzymes that remove phosphate groups from proteins; they
reverse the action of protein kinases.
24. T hese are small, nonprotein, water-soluble molecules that are components of
the signal-transduction pathway.
25. Because they are small and water-soluble.
26. G-protein-linked receptors and tyrosine-kinase receptors
27. C yclic-A M P and C alcium ions
28. A membrane-bound enzyme, adenylyl cyclase, converts A T P to c A M P
29. C yclic-A M P activates protein kinase A. T his activated protein kinase then
activates other proteins within the cell depending upon the cell type.
30. A nother enzyme, Phosphodiesterase, converts c A M P to A M P which is not
active.
31. Bacteria obtained from contaminated water gets into our intestine. A protein
produced by the bacteria modifies the G-protein so that the G-protein does
not function properly. Salt and water exit the cells into the lumen of the
digestive tract and this material is lost from the body in profuse diar rhea.
32. Y es, by interacting with an inhibitory G-protein instead of a stimulatory G-
protein. T his causes a decrease in the amount of c A M P within the cell.
33. G-protein-linked pathways and tyrosine-kinase pathways.
34. Because the concentration of C alcium ions within the cytoplasm of the cell is
very low. Small increases in the level of cytoplasmic C alcium can stimulate
certain processes. Most of the C alcium ions are inside the E ndoplasmic
Reticulum.
35. See below:
- signal molecule binds to membrane receptor
- G-protein is activated
- Phospholipase C enzyme converts a membrane lipid into D A G
(diacylglycerol) and IP3 (inositol triphosphate)
- IP3 binds to ion-gated protein in E R membrane, which allows release of
C alcium ions from the E R.
- C alcium ions interact with proteins to activate them
36. Special proteins within the nucleus called Transcription Factors can be
phosphorylated (activated) by protein kinases. The Transcription Factor can then
bind to a specific region of the DNA and initiate the process of mRNA production
from the DNA strand.
37. At each catalytic step the number of activated products is much greater than in the
preceding step. The amplification effect depends on the fact that these proteins
persist in active form long enough o process numerous molecules of substrate
before they become inactive again.
38. Different kinds of cell have different collections of proteins.
- signal proteins
- relay proteins
- proteins needed to car ry out the response