Sharjah Indian School, Sharjah (Boys Wing)

Notes on Dual

Nature of radiation and matter

Photon theory of radiations

According to Max Planck, radiations are emitted as packets of energy called photons.
The energy of each photon is directly proportonal to the frequency of radiations.
i.e. E

or E = h

Electron emission
There are three types of emission of electrons from a metal surface:(i)
(ii)
(iii)

Thermionic emission: - Due to heating of a metal.

Field emission: - by the application of a strong electric field.
Photo-electric emission: - By the incidence of radiations on the surface.

PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
It is the phenomenon of emission of electrons from a metal surface when radiations of
suitable frequency fall on it. The minimum energy required to emit an electron from a metal
surface is called the work function () of the metal.

Hertzs observations
Hertz, during the experiment on the production of e.m.waves, observed that high
voltage sparks across the detector loop were enhanced when the emitter plate was
illuminated by ultraviolet light. This is due to the emission of electrons from the metal
surface by gaining sufficient energy from the incident light.

Experiment to demonstrate photoelectric effect (Lenards observations)

Lenard observed that when ultraviolet radiations were allowed to fall on the emitter
plate of an evacuated glass tube enclosing two electrodes (metal plates), current flows in the
circuit. As soon as the ultraviolet radiations were stopped, the current flow also stopped.
.
These observations indicate that
when ultraviolet radiations fall on the
emitter plate C, electrons are ejected
from it which are attracted towards the
positive, collector plate A by the electric
field. Thus, light falling on the surface of
the emitter causes current in the circuit.
This demonstrates photoelectric effect
The photoelectric current (in A)can be
measured using different accelerating
potentials, intensities of light and
frequencies.

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Einstein s photoelectric equation

Let E = h be the energy of the incident radiations on a metal surface of work
function . Then the energy of the radiation is used to overcome the work function and to
provide kinetic energy to the photoelectrons.
Hence,
h = + mvmax2.
The minimum frequency of radiations required for the emission of electrons from a
metal is called threshold frequency (o).
Thus, if = o,
ho = + 0
i.e. =ho
2
So, h = ho + mvmax .
Or

mvmax2 = h ( - o)

Graphs showing the variation of different physical quantities associated with photoelectric
effect.
1. Current with intensity of light ( > o)
At constant frequency

2. Current with frequency

at constant intensity

Current

o
3. Kinetic energy with frequency
At constant intensity

K.E

frequency

4. K.E with intensity of light

at constant frequency

K.E

Frequency

Frequency

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5. Photo electric current with voltage

Current

The minimum retarding potential

required to stop even the most
energetic photoelectrons from a
metal surface is called stopping
potential (Vs).
Hence

eVs = mvmax2

So

eVs = h ( - o)

Vs
Voltage
6. Current with voltage for different intensities
frequencies
(but with the same frequency)

Current

7. Current with voltage for different

(but with the same intensity)

Current
3>2>1
L3>L2>L1

Voltage
Laws of Photo electric emission

Voltage

1. The photoelectric emission is an instantaneous process without any apparent time lag
even when the incident radiation is made exceedingly dim.
2. For a given photosensitive material and frequency of incident radiation (above the
threshold frequency), the photoelectric current is directly proportional to the
intensity of incident light, but doesnt change with frequency.

3. For a given photosensitive material, there exists a certain minimum cut-off frequency
of the incident radiation, called the threshold frequency, below which no emission of
photoelectrons takes place, no matter how intense the incident light is.
4. Above the threshold frequency, the stopping potential and hence the maximum
kinetic
energy of the emitted photoelectrons increases linearly with the frequency of the
incident radiation, but is independent of its intensity.

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Verification of Einsteins photoelectric equation (By Milikan)

According to Einstein,
eVs = h ( - o) Dividing throughout by e
Vs = (h/e) - (ho/e)
This equation is in the form of y = mx + c, equation for a straight line with +y intercept.
Hence the graph between Vs and can be drawn as,
Hence the slope of the graph is h/e.
So,

Vs

h = e x slope ..(1)

Millikan performed experiment on

photoelectric effect and plotted a graph
between different stopping potentials and
the corresponding frequencies as given
beside. The value of h determined from
frequency the graph using the equation (1) is found
to be the same as its theoretical value.

This verifies Einsteins photoelectric equation.

Photocell
It is a device used to convert light energy into
electrical energy. It consists of a semi-cylindrical
photosensitive plate (emitter) on which the light
radiations of suitable frequency fall. The emitted
electrons are attracted by the anode (collector). This
produces a current in the circuit, giving an output.
Uses: - In automatic controlling of street light,
reproduction of audio in motion pictures, burglar
alarms, for detecting minor flaws or holes in metal
sheets etc.

WAVE NATUTE OF MATTER

Nature itself exists in two forms- matter and radiation. Radiation possesses dual
nature. Hence de-Broglie argued that matter also should possess dual nature. i.e. particle
and wave.
Further, he determined the wavelength associated with a particle of mass m moving
with a velocity v , using Einsteins mass-energy relation and Plancks quantum theory as
follows:
E = mc2 [ Einsteins relation]
E = h
[Plancks relation]
Hence, h = mc2
i.e. hc/ = mc2
For a particle, c = v
h
Thus we get = h/mv
or
, where K is the K.E of the particle.
2mK
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h
.
2meV
12.27
A
Putting the values of h, m and e we get, =
V

For an electron accelerated under a p.d V,

.It implies

1
V

DAVISSON AND GERMER EXPERIMENT

It is the first experimental set up to establish the wave nature of matter and hence to
verify de-Broglies relation.
It is based on the principle of diffraction of electron beam when scattered by crystals.
The experimental arrangement shown below:

The high energetic electron beam from an

electron gun is made to fall on a Nickel
target. The electrons are scattered in all
directions by the atoms of the crystal. The
intensity of the scattered electron beam is
measured for different values
of angle of scattering ,using a movable
detector. The experiment is repeated using
different accelerating
voltages, from 44V to 68V. It was noticed
that a strong peak appeared in the
intensity (I ) of the scattered electron for
an accelerating voltage of 54V.

The appearance of the peak in the graph

is due to the constructive interference of electrons
scattered from the different layers of the crystal.
This verifies the wave nature of matter.
From the electron diffraction measurements,
the wavelength of matter waves was found to be 1.65 Ao.
12.27
A . Hence at 54V,
According to de Broglie, =
V
we get, = 1.67Ao. Thus, there is an excellent
agreement between the theoretical value and
the experimental value. This verifies de Broglies relation.
Note: - The wave properties of electrons have been utilised in the design of electron
microscope which is a great improvement, with higher resolution, over the optical microscope.
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