Biol10005

Glossary

Fraser Wallace

Genetics Homologous: Chromosome pairs of approximately the same length, centromere

position and staining pattern, with genes for the same characteristic at
corresponding loci.
Trisomy: A type of polysomy in which there are three instances of a particular
chromosome, instead of the normal two.
Heterozygous: Having dissimilar alleles at corresponding loci.
Gene: The fundamental physical and functional unit of heredity, which carries
information from one generation to the next; a segment of DNA.
Genome: The genetic complement in a set of chromosomes.
Epigenetics: Changes in gene expression without changes in DNA sequence.
Mutation: A change in genetic material which can be passed from cell to cell or
parent to offspring. A somatic mutation will occur in a somatic cell and hence will
not be passed on to the next generation, compared to a germline mutation which
can be passed to offspring.
Recessive lethal: Results in death only in the homozygous state.
Dominant lethal: Results in death when heterozygous or homozygous.
Lethal allele/genotype/mutation: An allele/genotype/mutation which results
in death (may occur at different stages of development.
Locus: The position of a gene on a chromosome.
Diploid: Two of each type of chromosome the two similar chromosomes are
described as homologous.
Homozygous: When both alleles of an organism are the same at a specific
locus.
Dominant: Relationship between alleles of a single gene, in which one allele
masks the phenotypic expression of another allele at the same gene locus.
Haploid: One copy of each chromosome.
Autosome: A chromosome not involved in determining the sex of the organism.
Sex chromosome: Chromosome involved in determining the sex of the
organism.
Allele: One of a number of alternative forms of the same gene or same genetic
locus.
Thymine: Nucleic base, pyrimidine
Recessive phenotype: A phenotype not expressed in the heterozygote.
Multiple alleles: A situation where an organism has multiple forms of the same
gene.
Pleiotropy: A single mutation which simultaneously affects several apparently
unrelated aspects of the phenotype.
Polypeptide: Long, continuous and unbranched peptide chain.
Deoxyribose: Monosaccharide derived from the sugar ribose by loss of an
oxygen atom.
Peptide bond: Covalent chemical bond formed between two molecules when
the carboxyl group of one molecule reacts with the amino group of another
molecule.
Anti-parallel: Two biopolymers which run parallel to each other but with
opposite alignments.
5: The end of the polynucleotide that terminates with a phosphate attached to
the 5-C of the sugar.
3: End of a nucleotide which terminates with a hydroxyl group attached to the 3C of the sugar.

Phenocopy: A phenotype that results from an environmental factor that mimics

a genetically cause phenotype mutation.
Variable expression: When a phenotype is expressed to a different degree
among individuals with the same genotype.
Dominant phenotype: A phenotype expressed in the heterozygote.
Phenotype: The morphological, biochemical and behavioural properties of an
organism resulting from a specific genotype and its interaction with the
environment.
Ligase: Enzyme which joins sequences of DNA
Mitosis: Process by which a cell, which has previously replicated each of its
chromosome, separates the chromosome in a cell nucleus into two identical new
cells.
Complimentary base pairing: Nucleotides or nucleotide sequences that are
able to base pair.
Pyrimidine: One of the two types of nitrogenous base compounds found in
nucleotides C,T
Purine: one of the base pair types G,A
Helicase: Enzyme that uses energy from ATP to unwind the DNA.
Chromosome: Organised structure of DNA, protein and RNA found in cells.
Primer: Strand of nucleic acid that serves as a starting point for DNA synthesis
required for DNA replication because the enzymes that catalyse this process,
DNA polymerases can only add new nucleotides to an existing strand of DNA.
Locus: Specific location of a gene or DNA sequence on a chromosome.
Reciprocal cross: Breeding experiment where parent organism are true
breeding.
Semi conservative replication: The method of DNA replication where the new
molecule of DNA has one strand which comes from the parent molecule and one
strand which is newly synthesised.
DNA polymerase III: Main polymerase which adds nucleotides to template in a
complementary way.
DNA polymerase I: Enzyme which adds nucleotides to gaps when primers are
removed.
Telomerase: Ribonucleoprotein enzyme that adds DNA sequence repeats to the
3 end of DNA strands in the telomere regions.
Polynucleotide: A polymer consisting of nucleotide subunits.
Leading strand: Strand of DNA that is synthesised continuously.
Lagging strand: Strand of DNA synthesised in a discontinuous fashion.
Okazaki fragment: One of the RNA-primed short segments of DNA synthesised
during replication of the lagging strand of the double helix.
Incomplete dominance: Phenotype of the heterozygous genotype is distinct
from and often intermediate (in between) the phenotypes of the homozygous
genotypes.
Topoisomerase/Gyrase: Enzyme which can relax DNA by cutting and reforming
the polynucleotide backbones.
RNA primer: Sequence of RNA to make a stretch of double stranded DNA on
which DNA polymerase III can work.
Phosphodiester bond: A chemical bond that links the adjacent nucleotides in a
polynucleotide.
Primase: A type of RNA polymerase which creates an RNA primer which is used
by DNA polymerase to replicate DNA.
Polyploidy: Organisms containing more than two paired sets of chromosomes.
Guanine: Nitrogenous base, purine
Segregation of alleles: Theory which states that allele pairs separate or
segregate during gamete formation.

Genotype: The specific allelic constitution of an organism, either of the entire

organism or for a certain set of genes or a certain gene.
Adenine: Nucleotide, purine
Chromatid: One copy of a duplicated chromosome.
S phase: Period of the cell cycle during which DNA replication occurs.
Aneuploidy: Addition or deletion of a single chromosome or sometimes extra
single chromosomes.
Euploidy: Addition or deletion of complete haploid sets of chromosomes.
Meiosis: Cell division leading to the production of gametes.
Back cross: Crossing a heterozygous species with its parent or individual similar
to parent to achieve offspring with a genetic identity closer to that of the parent.
Topoisomerase: Enzyme that regulate the overwinding or underwinding of DNA.
Single stranded binding proteins: Protein that attaches to single stranded
regions of DNA and prevents the reformation of base pairs, particularly in the
region of the replication fork.
Telomere: The ends of a eukaryotic chromosome.
PCR: Amplify a single or a few copies of a piece of DNA across several orders of
magnitude, generating thousands to millions of copies of a particular DNA
sequence.
Monohybrid cross: A crossing involving one gene where one parent is
homozygous recessive, the other homozygous dominant, the F1 is heterozygous
and the F2 is in a ratio 1:2:1 or 3:1
Auxotroph: A mutant organism which requires a compound to be added to
minimal media to grow and divide.
Prototroph: With reference to bacteria/fungi an organism that can grow and
divide on a substrate of minimal medium which contains inorganic salts, a
carbon source for energy and water.
Taq polymerase: Form of DNA polymerase used in PCR
Complete dominance: The homozygous dominant and the heterozygote have
the same phenotype.
Codominance: The effect of each allele can be seen in the heterozygote.
Incomplete dominance: The heterozygote is a blended phenotype.
Hemizygous: A sex linked trait where only one copy of the allele is present.
Heterogametic: Produces two different types of gametes with respect to sex
chromosomes.
Homogametic: Produces one type of gamete with respect to the sex
chromosomes.
Pseudoautosomal region Homologous regions on the ends of the X and Y
chromosomes
Heterogametic sex The sex which has two type of sex chromosome
Homogametic sex The sex which has one type of sex chromosome
Hemizygous In XY or ZW genotype the description of the genotype compared
to homozygous/heterozygous
Hermaphrodite Having both a male and female gonad
Mosaic A mixture of phenotypes
Barr body An inactivated X chromosome
Sex influenced trait A usually autosomal trait seen in both sexes but more
commonly in one
Sex limited trait Usually autosomal trait seen in one sex however can be
transmitted by either sex
Dihybrid cross: A cross involving two gene loci
Test cross: A cross to a homozygous individual
Back cross: A cross back to a parent

Recessive epistasis: Interaction between two genes affecting the same

phenotypic trait, where the homozygous recessive genotype at one locus masks
the effect of the alleles at the other locus
Dominant epistasis: Interaction between two genes affecting the same
phenotypic trait, where the allele for the dominant trait at one locus masks the
effect of the alleles at the other locus
Antiserum A: Serum containing antibody A
Agglutination: The association of blood cells resulting from the interaction of
the antigen on the surface of the red blood cell and the corresponding antibody
Electrophoresis: Movement of charged molecules in an electric field
Evolution and Zoology Evolution: The change in the inherited characteristics of biological populations
over successive generations.
Biodiversity: The variety of life in the world or in a particular habitat or
ecosystem
Bacteria: Kingdom of unicellular micro-organisms lacking organelles, can cause
disease
Archaea: Kingdom of unicellular micro-organisms
Eukaryotes: Organisms constituted of cells with organelles and an organised
nucleus
Snowball earth: Hypothesis that the earths surface became entirely or nearly
frozen during history
Cambrian explosion: Rapid appearance of most animal phyla around 542
million years ago
Classification: Method of scientific taxonomy used to group and categorise
organisms into groups such as genus or species known as taxa
Phylogeny: Study of evolutionary relationships among groups of organisms
Taxonomy: Description, identification, nomenclature and classification of
organisms
Cyanobacteria: Phylum of bacteria which obtain energy through
photosynthesis, responsible for creation of the oxygen rich atmosphere which
supports life
Primary endosymbiosis: Engulfment of a bacteria by another free living
organism
Secondary endosymbiosis: When the product of primary endosymbiosis is
itself engulfed and retained by another free living eukaryote
Protistan pirates: Organism which engulf other protists
Cryptomonad: Chloroplast containing algae which live in freshwater
Flagellates: An organism with one or more whip-like organelles called flagella
Chlorarachniophytes: Group of algae which ingest bacteria and smaller
protists and conduct photosynthesis, may form flagellate zoospores
Euglenids: Group of flagellates which often have chloroplasts and produce
energy through photosynthesis, thought to have descended from an ancestor
that took up green algae by secondary endosymbiosis.
Coccolithophorid: Unicellular, eukaryotic phytoplankton (algae) belonging to
kingdom Protista. Distinguished by special calcium carbonate plates of uncertain
function called coccoliths.
Coccolith: Individual plates of calcium carbonate which surround
coccolithophorids.
Ciliates: Unicellular protists characterised by cilia on outer surface of cell
responsible for movement and food accumulation
Macronucleus: Large type of nucleus in ciliates that undergo direct division,
controls non-reproductive cell functions

Micronucleus: Smaller nucleus in ciliates, divides by mitosis, in conjugation

furnishes the pairing of gamete nuclei
Choanoflaggelates: Unicellular flagellate eukaryotes considered to be the
closest living relative of animals
Oomycetes: Filamentous, microscopic, absorptive organisms that reproduce
sexually and asexually, often aquatic
Slime moulds: Organisms that reproduce via spores, most commonly
myxomycetes, some part of lifestyle appear as gelatinous slime
Dictyostelids: Group of slime moulds, or social amoebae.
Apicomplexa: Protists which possess an apicoplast and an apical complex
structure involved in penetrating a hosts cell, form spores
Plasmodium: Genus of apicomplexan parasites, responsible for malaria
Malaria: Infectious disease caused by parasitic protozoans of the genus
plasmodium
Gametophyte: The haploid phase of the life history, produces the male and
female gametes.
Heteromorphic: Refers to algal or plant life histories in which the haploid
gametophytic and diploid sporophytic phases are different in size and structure.
Phragmoplast: The mitotic process in higher-plant organisms in which the
nuclear envelope is non-persistent during division, and the mitotic spindle
remains intact, keeping the daughter nuclei relatively far apart during cell plate
formation.
Phycoplast: The mitotic process in algal organisms in which the nuclear
envelope is persistent throughout division, and the collapse of the mitotic spindle
results in the close proximity of the daughter nuclei during cell-plate formation.
Sporophyte: Diploid phase of life history. Meiosis takes place here within
sporangia to produce haploid spores in plants that have an alternation of
generations.
Tracheids: Water conducting cells of plants, secondarily thickened and dead
when functioning, form conducting channels in the vascular cylinder.
Vascular system: Water and food conducting tissues, consist of xylem and
phloem.
Xylem: Water-conducting tissues consisting of tracheids and associated
strengthening cells (fibres) and parenchyma.
Coleochaete: Genus of green algae, haploid, produce asexually
Cuticle: Protective waxy layer covering the epidermis of a plant
Stomata: Gas exchange cells on the surface of plant leaves
Vascular tissue: Conducting tissue of food and water within advanced plants
Secondary growth: Growth adding to the width of a plant stem/trunk, providing
additional vascular capacity
Pollination: Transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma of another plant
Sporophyte dominance: History of life characterised by diploid sporophyte
Moss: Small flowerless plant lacking vascular tissue and a root system,
primitive.
Fern: Have stems, leaves, roots and a vascular system
Angiosperm: A plant that has flowers and produces seeds enclosed within a
carpel
Flower: Seed bearing part of a plant, consisting of stamens and carpels
sexually reproductive organs
Vessel: Water conducting cell with perforated or degraded ends and thin walls
Tracheid: Water conducting cell that lacks perforations in the cell wall
Sieve cell: Tissue of the phloem responsible for transport of carbohydrates
Companion cell: Tissue of phloem containing nucleus and capable of producing
RNA

Fiber cell: Plant cell with thickened wall that performs structural role
(Xylem/Phloem)
Xylem: Water conducting vessels of an angiosperm
Phloem: Carbohydrate conducting cells of a plant
Sporophyte dominance: Dominance of the sporophyte cell type in a plants life
Carpel: Female reproductive organ of a plant
Ovule: The part of the ovary of seed plants that contains the female germ cell
and after fertilisation becomes the seed
Stamen: Male reproductive organ of a flower (anther/filament)
Fruit: Fleshy part of a plant that contains the seed
Endosperm: The part of a seed that acts as a food store for the developing
plant embryo
Double fertilization: Joining of female gametophyte with two male sperm to
produce an embryo and an endosperm
Pollination: Transfer of pollen from anthers to the stigma
Dicot: A plant with two cotyledons
Monocot: A plant with one cotyledons
Engineering biodiversity: Altering the biogenetics of a plant
Nucellus: Central part of an ovule
Integument: A tough protective outer layer
Micropyle: A small opening in the surface of an ovule, through which the pollen
tube penetrates
Megaspore: Spore which germinates into the female gametophyte
Funiculus: The stalk of a plant ovule or seed
Embryo: Multicellular diploid eukaryote in its earliest stages of development
Evolution + Animal Kingdom
Annelida: Phylum of segmented worms living in aquatic and moist terrestrial
environments
Arthropoda:
Compound:
Exoskeleton:
Ganglion:
Nerve Cord:
Segmentation:
Exopterygotes: Develop through a series of larval stages or nymphs
Moulting/Ecdysis: Shedding the exoderm or exoskeleton between each larval
nymphal stage
Cnidaria: Radially symmetrical, diploblastic phylum of animals including
jellyfish.
Coelom: Principal body cavity in most animals, located between the intestinal
canal and the body wall.
Diploblastic: Having a body derived from two embryonic layers (ectoderm +
endoderm) as in sponges and coelenterates.
Triploblastic: Having a body derived from three embryonic cell layers.
Germ layer: Primary tissue layer formed during embryogenesis.
Metazoa: Major division of animal kingdom that includes all animals other than
protozoans and sponges.
Phylum: Taxonomic category above class and below kingdom.
Platyhelminthe: Flatworm phyla, unsegmented, bilaterally symmetrical,
invertebrate, acoelomate
Protostome:
Deuterostome:
Symmetry:

Cephalochordata:
Chordata:
Echinodermata:
Mantle:
Mollusca:
Notochord:
Radula:
Torsion:
Tube feet:
Urochordata:
Vertebrata:
Cambrian:
Permian:
Cretaceous:
Tertiary:
Quarternary:
Mass extinction:
Trilobite:
Anthropoid:
Eutheria:
Hominid:
Prosimian:
Primate:
Australopithecus:
Bipedalism:
Cranial capacity:
Homo:
Neanderthal:
Adaptation:
Density dependent selection (positive or negative):
- Positive: Survival of the population increases with increasing population
size. Small population susceptible to allee effect, reduced reproductive
rates or survival leads to danger of further decline.
- Negative: Survival of population declines with increasing population size.
Natural selection: Process whereby individuals best able to adapt to their
environment will be the fittest and survive.
Sexual selection: Process where individuals evolve traits that provide them
with a competitive advantage over mating results in fewer offspring
Heritability: