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1. INTRODUCTION
The interior heat of the earth is transmitted to its surface
mainly by three mechanisms: radiation, advection, and conduction. In the earths lithosphere conduction of heat generally dominates amoung these mechanisms. However, there
are two exceptions:
(1) If the hydraulic permeability of crustal material is
sufficiently high, convection driven advection of heat can
be an equally or even much more efficient transfer mechanism, provided sufficiently strong driving forces are supplied by forced or free convection systems. This is often
the case in sedimentary basins. However, fluid driven heat
advection can be important also in crystalline rocks and on
a crustal scale (Etheridge et al., 1983, Torgersen, 1990,
Clauser, 1992).
2. BACKGROUND
2.1 Fouriers
Fouriers
E.Huenges,NiedersilchsischesLandesamtf~rBodenforschung,
Kontinentales
Tietbohrprogramm
(NLfB-KTB),
5 10 153 D-3063 1 Hannover, Germany
qi = ;li j . g
Geophysical
Union.
defines
heat flow
density
(1)
J
Survey),
Postfach
law
105
106
THERMAL
CONDUCTIVITY
OF ROCKS
AND
MINERALS
2.2 Measurement
techniques
2.3 Indirect
methods
Aari = C n;J.,
(2)
3Lgee= rI 3Lii
CLAUSER
AND
HUENGES
107
3. THERMAL
CONDUCTIVITY
OF ROCKS
of sedimentary,
rocks
volcanic,
im
n
12
10
04
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
3.5
25
h
(\\
IN
4.5
FZBB
Esssxss
highporosrly
low porosity
29
15
05
5.5
I<-')
3.5
K-)
h (W m-
92
234
32
4.5
07
:5.:
-s 70
2 60
F 50
5 10
:
30
20
10
0
05
10
15
20
25
X (W ml
30
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
K-)
100
syenite, syenite porphyry, and anorthosite. Data for variable, but generally lower feldspar content (i.e. less than
about 60 %) are from granite (including alkali granite,
plagiogranite, granodiorite, tonalite, quartz monzonite),
quartz- and quartz-feldspar-porphyry, diorite (including
monzonite), gabbro (including quartz and olivine gabbro),
porphyrite dykes (lamporphyre, diabase, quartz dolerite),
and ultramafic rocks (pyroxenite, peridotite, lherzolite,
hypersthenite, bronzitite, dunite, olivinite, homblendite,
cumberlandite).
(d). Thermal conductivity of metamorphic rocks, subdivided according to quartz content. Histogram for high
quartz content is made up of data fom quartzite. Data for
low quartz content are from quartz-mica schist, gneisses,
marble, serpentinite, talc, serpentinized peridotite, homfels,
4
h (W m-l
5
K-l)
110
THERMAL
CONDUCTIVITY
OF ROCKS
AND
MINERALS
*CT) = A + 35oB, T
where h is given in W rn- K-, T in C, and the empirical
constants A and B are determined from a least-squares fit
to measured data for different rock types (Table 1). Linear
relationships between temperature and the inverse of h, the
thermal resistivity, discriminate between temperaturedependent contributions and other factors, which are
independent of temperature (such as micro-cracks, grain
boundaries, pore volume, as well as mineralogical composition, shape and orientation of crystals and their fragments):
1
-=D+E.T,
KQ
where h is again in W rn- K and T is in K. By measuring
h and plotting the thermal resistivity versus temperature D
and E may be determined as intercept and slope of a linear
regression. Buntebarth (1991) determined D and E from
measurements on 113 samples of metamorphic rocks from
the KTB borehole (mostly gneisses and metabasites) in the
temperature range 50-200 C. The arithmetic means of 66
individual values for D and E determined for gneiss are D
= 0.16 _+0.03 m K W- and E = 0.37 _+0.14 . 10-j m W-.
The corresponding means of D- and E-values determined
on 36 metabasite samples are D = 0.33 + 0.03 m K W and
E = 0.22 _+0.14 . 10. m W-. Sass et al. (1992) likewise
distinguish between the effects of composition
and
temperature on thermal conductivity. They propose a quite
general empirical relation for h(T), the thermal conductivity
in W rn- K- at temperature T in C as a function of h(25),
the measured room-temperature thermal conductivity:
a(0)
a(T) =
PC)
ygf)l.
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
J
0
I (C)
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
T (T)
Fig. 2. Variation of thermal conductivity with temperature for various rocks. Two groups of data are
considered in each plot, and for various temperature ranges (half-way up and down to the next reference
temperature) median, mean, and standard deviation are computed. Full line, big symbols, and shading
correspond to means and standard deviations, broken line and small symbols to medians. The inset
illustrates the number of data available in different temperature ranges. Measurements were performed
either with a divided bar or a line-source apparatus in dry condition and at atmospheric pressure. Please
note that superposition of different domains results in new hatchure styles in some diagrams.
(a). Sedimentary rocks. Two curves are shown for carbonates (limestone and dolomite) and elastic
sediments, i.e. (quartz) sandstone and shale. Data taken from [23] and [ 141.
.(b). Volcanic rocks. Two curves are shown for rocks with weak (basalt, rhyolite (also altered or
porphyritic), dacite, tuff) and strong radiative component (basalt glass, obsidian, diabase dolerite). Data
taken from [23] and [ 141.
(c). Plutonic rocks. Two curves are shown for rocks which are rich in feldspar (syenite, anorthosite,
hypersthenite) and poor in feldspar (granite, alkali granite, diorite, quartz diorite, monzonite, tonalite,
gabbro, hornblende gabbro, peridotite, lherzolite, bronzitite, dunite, olivinite, granodiorite). Data taken
from [23], [ 141, and [46].
(d). Metamorphic rocks. Two curves are shown for quartzites and for rocks which are poor in quartz
(marble, serpentinite, eclogite, albitite, slate, amphibolite). Data taken from [23], [14], and [46].
-I- (C)
-2o- 40
-2.11
2960
(2) limestones
o- 500
0.13
1073
o- 1200
0.75
705
O-1400
0.64
807
50-l 100
1.18
474
20- 1400
0.73
1293
0- 800
0.70
770
rock type
(1) rock salt
after [57]
CLAUSER
AND
HUENGES
113
1.3
12
;L
q
r:
11
1 0
09
10
20
30
40
200
1 (MPa)
300
I- (MPa)
Fig. 3. Variation of thermal conductivity with uniaxial pressure for various rocks. For several temperature
ranges (half-way up and down to the next reference temperature) median, mean, and standard deviation
are computed. Full line, big symbols, and shading correspond to means and standard deviations, broken
line and small symbols to medians. The inset illustrates the number of data available in different
temperature ranges.
(a). Anhydrite, sandstone, dolomite, limestone, porphyry, diabasic basalt, basaltic lava, and granite. In
order to make results for such a diverse group of rocks comparable, thermal conductivity values are
normalized relative to the thermal conductivity measured at the lowest reported pressure level for each
specimen (O-4 Mpa). All data, taken from [23], [14], and [46], were measured either with a divided bar
or a line-source apparatus in dry condition.
(b). Two groups of crustal rocks. Two curves are shown, the upper curve for granite and the lower
curve for predominantly metamorphic rocks (amphibolite, serpentinite as well as gabbro). All data (taken
from [46] and Seipold: written personal communication 1993) were measured in dry condition with a
line-source apparatus.
00
10
20
30
40
porosity
50
60
(%)
70
80
90
OL
0
100
10
20
30
porosity
40
50
(%)
60
114
THERMAL
CONDUCTIVITY
OF ROCKS
AND
MINERALS
07
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
oil saturation
80
90
100
(%)
T<
were measured with a line-source apparatus at room temperature and atmospheric pressure, both dry and partially
saturated with Soltrol C, an oil from Phillips Petroleum
Co. (Bartlesville, Ok.).
(b). Sandstone (18 % porosity). All data, taken from [39],
were measured with a half-space line-source apparatus at
room temperature and atmospheric pressure, both dry and
partially saturated with water. The degree of saturation was
- 0.7
30
4
0
10
20
30
water
40
50
60
saturation
70
60
90
100
- 0.6
(X)
1.0
3.g 5
32
r I
3 1
7
x
7
c
;
30
27
In
.+
29
28
26
0
10
20
30
wdtcr
40
50
saluration
60
70
80
90
1 9"
(%)
CLAUSER
nh
v.
A
3
4
h (W me K-)
-60
-:!I0
rixi
AND
0
rnul
30
HUENGES
60
115
90
11 (dr,gree)
Fig. 6. Thermal conductivity of two metamorphic rocks from the KTB-VB pilot hole, an amphibolite,
consisting mostly of low-conductivity, basic minerals and a felsic gneiss, made up mostly of highconductivity quartz. n is the number of data, m the median, p the mean, and o the standard deviation for
both data sets. All samples were measured with a half-space line-source apparatus at room temperature
and atmospheric pressure, in nearly fully water-saturated condition, i.e. 70-90 % [31]. Please note that
cross-hatchure results from superposition of different domains.
(a) The effect of anisotropy and of the dominant mineral phase on thermal conductivity. Components
parallel and perpendicular to foliation are determined from knowledge of dip and azimuth of foliation.
(b). Variation of thermal conductivity with direction of heat flow relative to foliation for a dry (broken
line) and an almost fully water-saturated (70-90 %) sample (full line). The gneiss sample (squares) is
from a depth of 1908.7 m, the amphibolite sample (circles) from 3839.5 m.
perpendicular and towards higher values for measurements
parallel to foliation.
This directional dependence is further illustrated for two
particular rock samples of amphibolite and gneiss in Figure
6b. It is quite apparent that thermal conductivity for the
same rock sample may vary from 100 % (parallel) to about
60 % (perpendicular), depending on the azimuth of the
measurement relative to the foliation. In contrast to this and
in spite of an existing slight anisotropy, the variation of
thermal conductivity in the amphibolite sample is less than
about f 5 %. It is interesting to note that the amount of
anisotropy is identical irrespective of the state of saturation
of the sample. In contrast to seismic velocity this indicates
that anisotropy of thermal conductivity does not seem to be
influenced by the pore-space or fracture geometry and the
saturation of this rock. This is valid as long as the fluids
thermal conductivity is less than the rocks.
Robertson (1988) discusses an empirical approach which
permits to account for the combined effects of porosity,
saturating fluid and dominant mineral phase. Plotting measured thermal conductivities of various rocks versus the
square of solidity y (where y is l-porosity), he finds linear
relationships whose slopes vary with the per cent content in
a specific mineral (e.g. quartz, olivine, etc). He proposes an
h = 3Lf+y2q(3LS+p*S)-a.J,
(4)
4. THERMAL
CONDUCTIVITY
Thermal conductivity
OF MINERALS
116
THERMAL
CONDUCTIVITY
TABLE
OF ROCKS
AND
MINERALS
2a. Constants h,, h,, and S from equation (4) for mafic igneous rocks.b
solidity y (-)
pore fluid
air
&- = 0.188
air
h, = 1.51
air
30
h, = 1.96
water
h, = 0.75
water
h, = 1.84
water
30
h, = 2.60
on tholeitic
0.015
0.025
content [40]
TABLE 2b. Constants &., h,, and S from equation (4) for felsic igneous rocks.
solidity y (-)
pore fluid
air
h, = 0.026
air
h, = 1.47
air
100
h.. = 5.23
0.038
TABLE 2c. Constants h,, h,, and S from equation (4) for sandstone.d
solidity y (-)
pore fluid
h (W rn- K-)
air
h, = 0.026
air
h, = 1.47
air
100
li, = 5.23
water
hf = 0.62
water
h, = 1.52
water
100
h. = 8.10
dafter [4l];
determined
S (W mm K %-I)
0.038
0.038
CLAUSER
AND
HUENGES
117
K-
3
P
*cp
state, 3L [25]
MISCELLANEOUS
graphite, C
h, ,: 355.0, hg89.4,
a: 155.0 [27]
A,,: 545.3
diamond, iso
Pyrex 774 glass
(T in C)
fayalite, FeJSiO,]
a: 3.16
(FOP%,,)
garnet group
(Mg,Fe,Mn,Ca),(Al,Fe),[SiO,/,
almandine, iso
? C, a: 3.56
grossularite, is0
? C, a: 5.32
h,,: 3.6
a: 3.31
a: 5.48 + 0.21 (3)
zircon group
zircon, ZrSiO,
a: 5.54
a: 2.34
AI,SiO, group
kyanite
a: 14.16
andalusite
a: 7.58
sillimanite
a: 9.10
CLAUSER
AND
HUENGES
TABLE 3. (continued)
mineral
state, 3L [25]
epidote group
epidote,
Ca,(A1,Fe),Si,O,,[OHl
pyroxene group
31 "C,I: 3.10
32 "C, 11:2.93
3 I C, a: 2.50 f 0.02 (2)
CHAIN SILICATES
(Na,Ca)(Mg,Fe~l)(Al,Si),O,
enstatite
diopside, augite
35
jadeite
34
amphibole group
NaCa,(Mg,FePI)(Al,Si),O,,(OH),
hornblende
20
SHEET SILICATES
mica group
muscovite,
KA~,[A~~~,O,,,IPW,
biotite, K(Mg,Fe,..),Al,
[AWJ,,IO-W,
33
32
chlorite
30
C, a: 3.06 k 1.18
serpentine,
talc, WGX,W~OW,
%W,%,1KW,
FRAMEWORK
SILICATES
feldspar group
orthoclase, K[AISi,O,]
a: 2.31
microchne, K[AISi,O,]
albite, Na[AlSi,O,]
25 C, a: 2.34 [43]
a: 2.0 f 0.1
anorthite, Ca[AlSi,O,]
25 C, a: 2.72 [43]
a: 2.1
119
120 THERMALCONDUCTIVITYOFROCKSANDMINERAJS
TABLE 3. (continued)
T, state, A, (n) [24]
state, h [25]
ci quartz
a: 7.69
c1 quartz I
(T in C)
mineral
350/3.31 [8]
T/A, x: 001.43, 50/9.38, 10017.95,
15Ol7.03, 20016.32, 25015.69, 3OOl5.15,
a quartz I/
(T in C)
350/4.73 [S]
silica glass
silica glass
(T in C)
a: 1.36
oxides
magnetite, Fe,O,, iso
h,,: 9.7
a: 5.10
hematite, Fe,O,
30
a: 11.28
ilmenite, FeTiO,
35
chromite,
(Fe,Mg)Cr,O,,
35
a: 2.52
iso
spine], MgAI,O,,
iso
rutile, TiO,
corundum, A&O,
A,,: 13.8
IL,,: 9.3
Xx3:12.9
A,,: 31.2
A,,: 38.9
a: 9.48
a: 5.12
A,,: 33.5
sulfies
pyrite, Fe&, iso
A,,: 37.9
a: 19.21
pyrrhotite, FeS
a: 4.60
galena, PbS
a: 2.28
CLAUSER
AND
HUENGES
TABLE 3. (continued)
mineral
state, h [25]
sulfates
a: 1.31
anhydrite, CaSO,
a: 4.76
gypsum,
CaSO, .2H,O
baryte, BaSO,
carbonates
calcite, CaCO,
calcite I
(T in C)
T/A,
a: 3.59
15012.52,20012.37,25012.25,30012.16,
350/2.09, 400/2.06 [8]
calcite II
(T in C)
aragonite, CaCO,
a: 2.24
magnesite, MgCO,
a: 5.84
siderite, FeCO,
35
a: 3.01
dolomite, CaMg[CO,],
15012.73,20012.55,25012.41,30012.29,
350/2.20, 4OOI2.13[8]
a: 5.51
phosphates
apatite, Ca,[PO,],(F,OH)
35
halides
halite, NaCl, iso
x: 016.11,5Ol5.02,7015.44,
100/4.21, 15Oi3.59, 20013.12, 250/2.76,
300/2.49, 35Oi2.30,400/2.09 [8]
T/A,
a: 6.5
121
122
THERMAL
CONDUCTIVITY
OF ROCKS
AND MINERALS
TABLE 3. (continued)
mineral
T/k:
state, A [25]
A,,: 6.4
A,,: 10.1
a: 9.51
minerals marked iso are isotropic. T is ambient temperature, and (n) is number of data for mean and standard deviation. x denotes
aggregates. Directions of anisotropy are specified in
measurements of unknown orientation on single crystals, a on monomineralic
one of three ways: (1) by the minerals optical a-, b-, or c-axes (100, 010, OOI), (2) by the diagonal elements of the thermal
conductivity tensor (A,,, h,,, A,,), where h,, is parallel to the crystals optical c-axis, and the optical a-axis lies within the plane defined
by h,, and hz2, (3) by the thermal conductivity components normal or parallel to the direction of maximum thermal conductivity
(19 II),
TABLE 4. Thermal conductivity h (W mm Km, lower, boldface number) and thermal diffusivity K (10e6m2 se, upper
lightface number) at different temperatures for quartz, fused silica, olivine, and synthetic periclase.
mineral
quartz (001)
quartz (010)
fused silica
olivine (001)
Fo,,Fa,,)
periclase, MgO
W1)
jadeite, a
300K
400K
500K
600 K
7.14
3.57
8.20
2.38
6.24
1.69
13.93
4.81
3.33
6.49
2.00
4.60
1.45
3.83
1.15
3.29
0.96
2.90
0.89
2.79
0.725
1.147
0.715
1.348
0.705
1.499
0.700
1.612
0.715
1.725
0.741
1.854
0.800
2.060
0.885
2.323
1.49
4.73
1.22
1.08
1.03
1.04
1.09
5.07
4.23
3.89
3.86
3.98
4.23
1.2
4.77
5.44
12.5
46.05
8.70
34.12
6.67
27.21
5.56
23.19
4.65
19.63
4.00
17.12
3.57
15.61
3.23
14.32
0.97
0.88
0.84
0.83
0.89
0.96
0.81
0.79
0.81
0.83
1.85
1.54
1.28
1.11
garnet, x
(mean of 2)
1.10
1.oo
-
0.91
0.85
700K
8OOK
900K
1000 K
11OOK
1.37
1.14
3.91
3.56
1.41
3.87
1.54
4.56
1.64
5.15
1.00
1.14
2.75
3.39
1.28
4.03
0.80
1.35
CLAUSER
TABLE
mineral
300K
400K
spinel, x
6.06
5OOK
600 K
700K
800 K
900K
3.45
3.13
2.86
2.56
2.44
4.55
HUENGES
123
4. (continued)
corundum, x
AND
1OOOK
2.25
1100 K
2.13
3.45
2.86
2.50
2.13
1.85
1.64
6.71
6.99
7.30
7.81
8.33
8.93
alkali feldspar, x
(moonstone1
7.09
6.67
6.49
5. CONCLUSION
T (Cl
D
(lo* m K W-)
E
(10-j m We)
NaCl
O-400
-52.55
0.788
MgO
100-800
-21.50
0.127
GO,
100-800
-28.66
0.155
SiO, (*)
100-400
62.10
0.387
W&O,
100-1000
19.11
0.122
ZrSiO,
100-800
131.37
0.093
Mg,ZrSiO,
100-600
85.98
0.282
(Mg.FejSiO,
100-300
200.63
0.222
metamorphic
7.7
W&K-
rocks
plutonic
rocks
feldspars
2 5
to
X =
W rn-K-
1.5
to
plagioclase
kalifeldspar
2.5 W m-K-
quartz
h = 7.7 wm-K-
uolcanzc
rocks
sedimentary
rocks
B
Fig. 7. Thermal conductivity of basic rock-forming minerals and compositional relationship with rocks.
(a) metamorphic and plutonic rocks, (b) volcanic and sedimentary rocks. Metamorphic and volcanic rocks
are in italics, plutonic and sedimentary rocks are not italicized. For volcanic and sedimentary rocks the
third mineral phase is air or water, due to the great importance of porosity for the thermal conductivity
of these rocks.
CLAUSER
AND
HUENGES
125
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2.
3.
4.
of fluid-bearing
rocks,
5.
6.
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VB core samples at
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Flow
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126
THERMAL
CONDUCTIVITY
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and H.
MINERALS
1959.
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von
Gesteinen auf die Messung der Whirmeleitfiihigkeit
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AND
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44.
45.
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47. Somerton, W. H., Thermal Properties
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Behaviour
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51. Torgersen,
T., Crustal-scale
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magnitude
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