Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
AUTOMOTIVE
Reverse Flow
Catalytic Converter
Heats Up
POLYMER
PROCESSING
A Computational
Cure for Tires
PRODUCT NEWS
FLUENT for CATIA:
Rapid Flow
Modeling for PLM
SPORTS
Dr. Ice and his
Skeleton Crew
ARIANE 5
SUPPLEMENT INSIDE!
Weather
Wise
EDITORS NOTE
U
LIZ MARSHALL
fluentnews@fluent.com
ON THE COVER:
Pathlines and surface temperatures on a building at
Michigan Technological University, computed using
RadTherm and Fluent; temperatures from a thermal
imaging camera are shown across the middle
Courtesy of ThermoAnalytics and Monte Consulting
CONTENT S
14
26
12
ENVIRONMENTAL
Solar Loads in
Northern
Climates
FloWizard Conjures
up the Atomium
17
15
11
13
F E ATUR E S
5
16
11
APPLICATIONS
8
Cooling Tower
Drift
10
Research Activities
at Mto-France
12
Gauging Rainfall
14
WATER TREATMENT
Waste Water Treatment
Gets an Oxygen Boost
19
AUTOMOTIVE
Shape Optimization of
a Defroster Duct
16
SPORTS
Berlins Olympic
Goldsmiths
20
17
22
Incipient Cavitation in
a Steering Rotary Valve
18
24
POWER GENERATION
Lithium Jet Hydraulics
26
POLYMER
PROCESSING
A Computational Cure
for Radial Tires
CONTENT S
D EPART M E N T S
27
PRODUCT NEWS
FLUENT for CATIA: Rapid Flow
Modeling for PLM
28
FloWizard at MMA
30
PARTNERSHIPS
Quality & Reliability in
Engineering CFD Simulations
32
SUPPORT CORNER
Drag Laws 102
33
ACADEMIC NEWS
CFD for Future Engineers
34
36
35
27
32
29
34
36
32
AR I AN E 5 SU P P LE ME N T
S16
s2
INTRODUCTION
Ariane 5 Reaches
for the Skies
s4
CRYOGENICS
Space Engineering
Activities at
CRYOSPACE and
AIR LIQUIDE
s8
Cryogenic Flows
in Rocket Engines
S11
s10
S13
The Path to
Passivation
s12
HEAT TRANSFER
Ariane 5 Internal
Cavities Beat the
Heat
s14
SOLID ROCKETS
Pressure Oscillations
in Solid Rocket
Motors
ENVIRONMENTAL
Solar Loads
in Northern Climates
By Craig Makens and Amit Shah, ThermoAnalytics, Calumet, Michigan, USA
and Matthew Monte, Monte Consulting Company, Houghton, Michigan, USA
A cutting plane through the fluid domain shows the wind velocity magnitude; the building geometries are
colored by surface temperature with exterior walls ghosted to show internal rooms
Postprocessed in EnSight
ENVIRONMENTAL
More.info@
www.thermoanalytics.com
Particle trace of wind pathways colored by velocity magnitude. Note the high speed wind
canyon between the R.L. Smith Mechanical Engineering Building and the Chemical
Sciences Building to the east (right). In November 1994, several windows in the northwest
area of the Chemical Sciences building were cracked by high speed winds. The windows
had no mechanism to be opened, so it was not the result of them slamming shut, but
rather the intense flexing within their rigid frames. The Smith building was constructed
in the early 70s, and no wind analysis was done at the time. Wind canyons between these
buildings can be quite severe, as many students and professors can testify
Postprocessed in Ensight
Postprocessed in EnSight
ENVIRONMENTAL
Atomium
By Corine Chauvin, Fluent Benelux
ENVIRONMENTAL
Particle-laden exhaust flows in a typical urban setting where cooling towers emit 300 micron particles in an
8.5m/sec exhaust stream, using reference wind speeds of 5m/s at an angle of 240 from true North; pathlines
are shown at left, and particle tracks are shown at right
ENVIRONMENTAL
References
1
1000
Plume rise (m)
100
10
Briggs, 1975
FLUENT
Observed, 1977
1
1
10
100
X (m)
1000
10000
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
500
1500
1000
X (m)
1E-2
Deposition (Kg/m2-s)
1E-3
1E-4
1E-5
1E-6
1E-7
200
400
600
X (m)
800
1000
ENVIRONMENTAL
Research Activities at
By Philippe Nacass, Mto-France, Toulouse, France
10
ENVIRONMENTAL
Mto-France
The Aircraft Fleet at Mto -France
In cooperation with other French governmental organizations, Mto-France has
operated several research aircraft over the years, such as a Piper-Aztec, a MerlinIV, and a Fokker-27 [1]. For these aircraft, CFD has been used to correct in-flight
measurements made by sensors and instruments designed and mounted on the
fuselages prior to the introduction of CFD. In 2005, Mto-France, through
SAFIRE [2], began to operate two new instrumented aircraft, an ATR-42 (a biturboprop) and a Falcon-20 (a bi-turbojet). For these aircraft, CFD was used to
study the best position of the instruments, and to make sure that they, in turn,
have no harmful influence on the aircraft for all possible flight attitudes.
Pressure is used to
compute the
aerodynamic forces
and moments on
the pylons mounted
under each wing of
the ATR-42; the
pylons are used to
carry additional
instruments
For studies of aerosol particles in clouds, the trajectories of particles ranging from 0.1m (left) to 100m (right) in diameter must be measured accurately
Fluent News Fall 2005
11
ENVIRONMENTAL
Gauging
By Andrew J. Newman and Paul A. Kucera, Department of Atmospheric Sciences,
References:
1
Fokker-27 was co-funded by Mto-France, the National Center for Scientific Research
(CNRS), the French Space Center (CNES) and the National Geographical Institute (IGN).
12
ENVIRONMENTAL
Rainfall
University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, North Dakota, USA
References:
The flow around an instrument that is used to
image hydrometeors (raindrops or snowflakes, for
example) has also been studied. The instrument,
called a disdrometer or Rain Imaging System (RIS)
and developed at NASA/Wallops Flight Facility by
Dr. Larry Bliven, photographs hydrometeors that fall
through a sample volume located between the
camera and light source. The RIS is unique because
it can provide measurements with less wind interference than other instruments of similar capability [3].
In a FLUENT simulation of this device, roughly
Sevruk, B.: Wind Induced Measurement Error for HighIntensity Rains. Proc. International Workshop on
Precipitation Measurement, WMO Tech. Document
328, 199-204, 1989. [Available online at
http://www.wmo.ch.]
Contours of velocity for the Rain Imaging System with the worst case wind scenario, in which the wind blows
from behind the camera (left) towards the sample volume (right)
13
WATER TREATMENT
WasteWater Treatment
By Alban Poirier, Vincent Perrin, and Jrme Cluzeau, AIR LIQUIDE, Gaz Industriels Services, DAP, Les Loges en Josas, France
Recirculation
Effluent
VENTOXAL
VENTOXAL
TURBOXAL
Turbine aerator
Water outlets
Waste water treatment basin
Pathlines illustrate the flow field for high (top), nominal (middle), and low (bottom)
oxygen flow rates for VENTOXAL
14
In a recent project, FLUENT was used to characterize the hydrodynamic behavior of an industrial rectangular waste water tank in the presence of four
floating turbine aerators and two types of oxygen
transfer device: a TURBOXAL (floating at the basin
free surface) and a VENTOXAL (immersed in the
waste water basin). The goal of the project was to
simulate the initial performance of the basin, and
then to improve its performance before the installation of the equipment by optimizing two parameters: the location of the new equipment and the
flow rate distribution. Using a Lagrangian (DPM)
calculation, a discrete phase of oxygen bubbles was
coupled to the continuous phase of water, taking
into account the hydrodynamic effect of the oxygen
plume. Of particular interest were the oxygenation
homogeneity, the mixing efficiency, and the interaction of the plumes with the different equipment.
The presence of low velocity zones, which represent
a significant risk for sludge deposits (and the
development of filamentous bacteria) and shortcircuiting (hydrodynamic flows with low residence
time) were sought as well.
WATER TREATMENT
15
SPORTS
Berlins
Olympic
Goldsmiths
By Ralf Gollmick, FES, Berlin, Germany and Mathias Jirka, Fluent Germany
The realizable k- model with standard wall functions was relied upon for all of
the computations. Initial trials with the shear-stress transport (SST) k- model
were also successful. The realizable k- model had the advantage of being welladapted for simulating regions of stalled flow. In addition, the flow underneath
the sled is known to generate increased resistance due to the shear between the
floor (base layer) and the upper layers of the fluid that are moving faster. To
investigate the effect more precisely, a moving base layer was used in the simulations in conjunction with the oncoming air flow boundary condition. Such
detailed scenarios could not be properly reproduced in a wind tunnel.
The simulations of different sled variants at FES led to the development of design
modifications. One change gained prominence because it caused a significant
reduction in resistance. The modification involved the shape of the hood, and it
resulted in better formation of the wake area and a subsequent decrease in the
strongly turbulent area behind the sled.
16
As is done for Formula One (F1) race cars, the bobsled prototypes were tested in
wind tunnels at TU Dresden and the BMW plant in Munich. The results in those
cases were found to be in good agreement with the CFD simulations. After
having complied with all of the technical prerequisites for a good performance
in the Olympics, Germanys bobsleds should again be in peak position to return
from Turin with even more medals.
SPORTS
Dr. Ice
and his Skeleton Crew
Pressure contours on a
simulated skeleton slider, with
pathlines colored by velocity magnitude
Postprocessed by Ensight
By David Curtis, Sports Engineering Research Group (SERG), Sheffield University, Sheffield, UK
more.info@
www.ice-sport-tech.com
Fluent News Fall 2005
17
References
18
Linnhoff, B., Polley, G.T. and Sahdev, V.: General Process Improvements Through
Pinch Technology, Chemical Engineering Progress, June 1988.
N E W S L E T T E R
S U P P L E M E N T
Focus on CFD
For the Ariane 5 Launcher
s2
INTRODUCTION
Ariane 5 Reaches
for the Skies
s4
CRYOGENICS
Space Engineering Activities
at CRYOSPACE and
AIR LIQUIDE
s8
CRYOGENICS
Cryogenic Flows
in Rocket Engines
s10
CRYOGENICS
The Path to Passivation
s12
HEAT TRANSFER
Ariane 5 Internal Cavities
Beat the Heat
s14
SOLID ROCKETS
Pressure Oscillations
in Solid Rocket Motors
INTRODUCTION
ARIANE 5
Ariane 5
Reaches for
the Skies
By Vincent Canu and Gilles Lebiez, Fluent France
and Keith Hanna, Fluent News
UROPES ACCESS
ACCESS TO
TO SPACE
SPACE today
today
UROPES
depends on
on the
the Ariane
Ariane family
family of
of heavy-duty
heavy-duty
depends
(610 ton)
ton) launchers
launchers and
and the
the future
future Soyouz
Soyouz
(610
and Vega
Vega launchers
launchers for
for medium
medium and
and small
small
and
payloads (13
(13 tons).
tons). Since
Since their
their inception,
inception,
payloads
Ariane rockets
rockets have
have been
been the
the most
most successful
successful
Ariane
commercial satellite
satellite launcher
launcher systems
systems ever,
ever,
commercial
with Ariane
Ariane 44 alone
alone being
being responsible
responsible for
for the
the
with
launch of
of 182
182 satellites
satellites of
of all
all kinds
kinds in
in 14
14 years
years
launch
before its
its retirement
retirement in
in 2003
2003 over
over 450
450 tons
tons
before
in all.
all.
in
The space
space industry
industry in
in Europe
Europe today
today employs
employs
The
thousands of
of men
men and
and women
women in
in hundreds
hundreds
thousands
of companies
companies across
across the
the continent.
continent. SpaceSpaceof
related systems
systems contribute
contribute aa tremendous
tremendous
related
amount to
to our
our scientific
scientific knowledge
knowledge and
and
amount
technological development
development in
in the
the modern
modern
technological
world. They
They are
are responsible
responsible for
for the
the hundreds
hundreds
world.
of satellites
satellites launched
launched since
since the
the 1970s
1970s that
that
of
have paved
paved the
the way
way for
for global
global positioning
positioning
have
systems in
in our
our cars,
cars, improved
improved weather
weather foreforesystems
casting and
and global
global climate
climate monitoring,
monitoring,
casting
detailed mapping
mapping of
of our
our land
land masses
masses and
and
detailed
ocean depths,
depths, modern
modern high
high speed
speed telecomtelecomocean
munications, and
and increasingly
increasingly sophisticated
sophisticated
munications,
defense and
and security
security aids.
aids.
defense
S2
ARIANE 5
INTRODUCTION
The Ariane 5 rocket was first put on the drawing board in 1987 and subsequently had its first successful launch in 1997 from the Guiana Space Center near Kourou, French Guiana. Its success is
the result of a unique collaboration between many European companies who all make different
parts of the launcher system. Over the years, engineers have faced immense technological challenges, including cryogenic propulsion systems, aerothermodynamics, fluid-structure interaction,
thermal protection, and aeroacoustics to name a few. A variety of in-house and commercial CFD
codes, including FLUENT, have been used to successfully model these diverse phenomena. In fact,
CFD has been used to model nearly every part of the launcher and launch process [1], such as:
Time (sec)
Process
Prior to launch
0 to 7
30 to 50
Transonic flight
70
540 to 550
By comparison with the Ariane 4 rocket, which relied little on CFD, Ariane 5 has made widespread
use of this technology for understanding, refining, and ultimately accelerating the space
transportation design process, within the constraints of safety and quality assurance demanded
of such a unique system. Of the many companies involved with Ariane 5, CNES, the French
governmental space agency, led its technological development in association with commercial and
academic partners such as EADS Space Transportation, Air Liquide, Snecma, Sener, Fiat Avio Spa,
and Cryospace, among others. CNES was formed in 1962 to assist the French government in shaping Frances space policy. It leads the programs funded by the French government and represents
France at the European Space Agency (ESA) and in international space activities and partnerships.
It has about 2,500 personnel at four sites across the world, and in addition, it promotes and
encourages space applications and industrial space related R&D. For 40 years it has been involved
in driving the design and development of European Launchers with respect to safety, production,
quality assurance and launch ground facilities.
Real tests to validate or compare CFD results for Ariane 5 are expensive, hard
to do (especially for cryogenic liquids), and limited in generating useful data.
Actual Ariane flight data is best for CFD validation, but it, too, is very
expensive to generate. Thats why we need reliable CFD codes.
Currently, CNES uses some 90 different pieces of simulation software, most
of which need to be ISO 9001 certified. For future space systems, CNES is
interested in using validated software (including CFD codes) to evaluate
reusable launcher components; electrical, nuclear and solar propulsion systems in space; as well as miniaturization and nanotechnology, using lighter
materials with different compositions. Ultimately, performing virtual launches
with simulation software will be a challenge.
- Isabelle Rongier, CNES
The civil space industry has become highly competitive in the post cold war world and the Ariane
space program wants to keep its dominance in the satellite launching arena by constantly updating
its technology. However, as with NASAs recent space shuttle troubles, the modern Ariane 5-ECA rocket also had a failed mission. On December 11, 2002, the cooling tubes in the central Vulcain 2 liquid fuel rocket failed, ultimately leading to the rockets mission being aborted. This caused a major
reevaluation of the Ariane 5 launcher and CFD was used extensively for the next two years to
identify the source of the failure and fix the cooling problem. The changes, many of which were
simulated and later tested, led to a successful launch of a new rocket with enhancements to its third
stage in February, 2005. In honor of this achievement, all of the stories in this supplement focus on
Ariane 5 applications that have made use of FLUENT software. Cryogenics applications are featured
in stories by Air Liquide and Cryospace (page s4), Snecma (s8) and CNES (s10), and heat transfer in
pressure-controlled cavities is described in an article by EADS (s12). The complex flow characteristics
of gaseous combustion products in solid rocket motors are shown on the supplement cover, and
described in the article by Fiat Avio Spa on page s14.
EADS carries out most of the construction of the Ariane 5 Launcher, and uses
FLUENT for aerothermal analysis and
aerodynamics. Each Ariane launcher
is unique because each payload is
different. CFD is used to give technical
confidence and reliability to the design
team. In their planning it helps to cut
costs and it also yields technical insights
that would not otherwise be available.
However, senior engineering experience
also plays a major role in the design
process in terms of checking the CFD
predictions rigorously.
- Loic Cheriaux and
Jean-Marc Carrat, EADS
Reference
1
Launch-Vehicle Modeling, European Space Agency (ESA) Bulletin 120, November, 2004.
S3
ARIANE 5
CRYOGENICS
Space Engineering
at CRYOSPACE
By Jerome Lacapere, Air Liquide, Sassenage, France, and Mathieu Gardette, Cryospace, Les Mureaux, France
Payload
ESC
(upper stage)
Liquid
oxygen
(LOX)
tanks
Booster
rocket
EPC
(main stage)
Liquid
hydrogen
(LH2)
tanks
He sphere
Vulcain/Vulcain2 engine
Diagram of the Ariane 5 rocket, showing the cryogenic storage tanks
Courtesy EADS SPACE Transportation / SERGE WITTEMANN
S4
ARIANE 5
CRYOGENICS
Activities
and AIR LIQUIDE
3.0
Thermal Residuals
If the tank pressure is regulated at a constant value during the flight, the
NPSP depends mainly on the pressure loss in the engine feed lines between
the tank and the turbo-pump, and the temperature of the propellant that is
fed to the engine. The minimum acceptable NPSP value corresponds to a
maximum acceptable draining temperature. The mass of propellant with a
temperature exceeding this upper limit is unburnable. Since a launch vehicle
always needs to optimize the ratio of its used propellant mass to its loaded
mass, the residual mass should be minimized. It is therefore important to
limit the heating rate of the propellant by an adequate insulation design and,
if thermal stratification occurs, to be able to predict the draining temperature
and its evolution over the full propulsive phase.
One place where thermal stratification occurs is in the upper stage liquid
hydrogen (ESC LH2) tank. FLUENT was chosen to simulate this problem
because of its volume of fluid (VOF) model with heat transfer, and its unstructured mesh capability. The goals of the simulations included predictions
of thermal stratification and feed temperatures at the tank outlet with an
accuracy better than 0.1K. When deemed acceptable, the computations
were done with 2D axisymmetric geometries. However, the particular shape
and location of the feed line (tank outlet) sometimes required the use of a
180 3D problem domain, which made use of a symmetry plane. One of the
main concerns was the optimization of the mesh. In addition to capturing
the turbulent convective boundary layers and moving free surface, there
were local areas where the fluid velocity was known to be relatively high (in
the boundary layer and close to the tank outlet), and other areas that could
be considered dead zones with near zero velocity. Additional complexity was
due to the fact that almost all of the parameters were time-dependant
and many, such as heat fluxes on the walls, longitudinal accelerations, and
draining flow rates, were highly variable.
minimum NPSP
LH2 tank pressure (bar)
Thermal stratification
Before launch, but following the filling of the tanks, the cryogenic propellants
are thermally stabilized into a saturated state. Since the tank pressure values
are typically close to 1.1bar, the stabilized temperature values are 20K
(-253C) for LH2 and 90K (-183C) for LOX. A few minutes before launch,
the tanks are pressurized with helium and brought to the flight pressure
values. The pressurization process is aimed at stabilizing the tank structures,
which will have to withstand significant mechanical loads during the ascent
phase, and at providing a sufficient net positive suction pressure (NPSP, or
difference between the static pressure in the tank and the saturation pressure
in the pump) to prevent any cavitation in the turbo pumps during the draining (engine boost) phase.
2.5
Phase Description:
A:
initial saturated state
A to B: ground pressurization
B to C: waiting phase w/o draining
C to D: draining phase (engine on)
D:
engine cut-off)
2.0
1.5
20.8
21.2
21.6
22.0
22.4]
22.8
23.2
23.6
24
LH2 saturation curve over a range of temperatures, and the pressure evolution
prior to and during launch and ascent
S5
ARIANE 5
CRYOGENICS
Liquid sub-cooling
Although the more frequent concern is the heating rate of propellant inside the tanks, there are
also reverse situations in which problems result
from excessive sub-cooling. For the EPC tanks in
the main stage, the LOX and LH2 tanks share a
common bulkhead, and a strong thermal coupling occurs at the wall interface. At the bottom
of the LOX tank, heat is conducted toward the
LH2 side, which serves as heat sink. Locally, the
liquid oxygen is driven below its saturation temperature into a sub-cooled state. The main stage
engine must operate within a given temperature
range at the pump inlet, however, and this leads
to a requirement for a minimum sub-cooled temperature. Part of the functional studies performed
on the propellant tanks included modeling the
thermodynamic evolution inside the tanks and
verifying that the feed temperatures do not drop
below the allowable range.
A 2D axisymmetric simulation was performed for
the bottom of the LOX tank in the region of the
common bulkhead. In addition to the liquid volume, the surrounding metallic tank structure and
tank insulation were meshed as well. This allowed
the external thermal environment specifications
to be imposed directly as boundary conditions.
2D axisymmetric
model of the
insulated lower
skirt and ring of
the ESC LH2 tank
S6
Temperature stratification
in the cryostat during
sloshing, with the range
limited to 85K
ARIANE 5
CRYOGENICS
Diphasic Residuals
As the tank draining nears the end, some free surface disturbances may
occur, particularly for the LOX in the upper stage tank, leading to sudden
gas inclusion in the outflowing liquid. Because feed pump operation is not
recommended in such conditions, the engine must be stopped before any
gas ingestion occurs, and a residual mass of liquid will remain in the tank. The
quantity of diphasic residual mass depends on the dynamic conditions
during the draining process.
In quiet conditions, perturbations in the liquid surface are minimal, so gas
ingestion is small. However, rolling can be imposed to the stage and transmitted to the drained propellants by the launcher attitude control system,
and sloshing can occur. A vortex can form with an associated residual mass
that increases with the intensity of these disturbances. To compensate for this,
anti-vortex devices have been added to LOX tanks since the development
of the Ariane 4 upper stage in order to delay the ingestion of bubbles in
the collector and reduce the mass of the diphasic residuals. The impact of
these devices is now being computed for a number of different flight configurations with different degrees of rolling associated with different lateral
perturbations. These computations are being performed with the complete
3D geometry, starting from the very beginning of the launch phase and
finishing at the end of the upper stage thrust phase, when the tank is draining.
The computations focus on two periods of time. The first is dedicated to the
thrust of the first stage, and lasts about 10 minutes. The tank is not draining,
but the fluids are subjected to external perturbations, particularly spinning.
The second is dedicated to the thrust of the second stage, when the tank is
draining and subjected to external perturbations. Strong vortex formation
appears at the end of this phase with bubble ingestion. This phase lasts about
15 minutes.
Preliminary studies have included a comparison of numerical and experimental
results, with tests performed on sub-scale tanks filled with water and at
conditions with a similar Froude number. Very good agreement was
achieved, from quantitative and qualitative points of view. For example,
when the first bubble was ingested, the predicted residual mass of water was
within 10% of the measured value. In addition, the qualitative behavior of
the free surface in the numerical computations matched the observed behavior, both in terms of the time when dips in the surface were seen to occur and
the location and size of the subsequent vortices. Following the validations,
further computations were carried out using an actual flight configuration.
Anti-vortex devices
Stable vortex
and bubble
separation
Three seconds after the onset of a smooth dip in the surface, a stable vortex is
created as the free surface approaches the anti-vortex device. Some bubbles
escape from the free surface, and this instant corresponds to the end of the
engine feeding process; the remaining liquid in the tank corresponds to the
diphasic residual
Summary
FLUENT is now used intensively to compute the pressure and temperature
evolution in cryogenic tanks during all flight phases from pressurization on
the launch pad to the last droplet ingestion in the turbo-pump. In the future,
the tool will be adopted for use in a microgravity environment. For this
purpose, the development of new local models is needed, and validation
of these models will be a difficult task. Non-dimensional numbers will be
heavily used to recreate experiments correctly on earth, since cryogenic
experiments in true microgravity conditions are difficult and expensive to
perform. Despite the fact that transient 3D computations are CPU intensive,
the final goal is to perform them with complex internal geometry coupled
with thermodynamic analysis and heat and mass transfer at the wall and at
the liquid/gas interface. After complete validation of the relevant models,
computations such as these could be performed within a decade.
All these activities have been performed with support from CNES.
S7
ARIANE 5
CRYOGENICS
Cryogenic Flows in
By S. Zurbach and L. Ballester, Snecma, SAFRAN Group, Vernon, France
S8
Besides hot tests, validated simulation tools are being used more and more
to ensure the reliability of space propulsion equipment. CFD allows new technology to be evaluated without performing high cost tests. It is also a tool for
assessing development risks and production non-conformance. One important example of the potential of CFD simulation was illustrated during the
Flight Recovery Program (FRP) [1]. The FRP was set up after the maiden flight
of the Ariane 5 ECA in December 2002, during which the nozzle extension
lost its mechanical integrity. During the FRP, a reinforced concept for the
Thrust chamber with the helicoidal cooling system and a thermal map of the
helicoidal tube (supercritical hydrogen + solid)
ARIANE 5
CRYOGENICS
Rocket Engines
nozzle extension was defined, and the new design was produced and
qualified within a very tight time schedule.
As the thermal load of the nozzle extension is the major contributor to its
mechanical integrity, the efficiency of the dump cooling system has been
extensively studied using FLUENT. It consists of welded rectangular tubes
carrying supercritical hydrogen as a coolant. In the simulations, heat exchange
in the regenerative circuit is modeled with a coupled approach involving the
hot gas side and the coolant side, since very high heat fluxes are generated (10
- 100MW/m2). On the coolant side, real gas effects are accounted for and a
modified real gas equation of state is used. A 3D approach is necessary to fully
catch the three-dimensional nature of the flow inside the tubes, generated by
the helicoidal shape of the tube walls. The thermal methodology has been
validated on a subscale nozzle experiment, and on full scale nozzles, with dedicated thin thermocouples implemented on the tube walls. Post test expertise
of the tube and nozzle hardware has been systematically used to anchor the
CFD predictions to a metallographic analysis. The test results are in good
agreement with the CFD predictions. The 3D effects predicted in the flow of
hydrogen in the helicoidal tubes was confirmed by the test measurements. The
predicted wall temperature and the thermal gradients within the solid part
were in line with the measured thermal map as well.
In addition to the nozzle cooling analysis, Snecma has developed specific combustion models to predict the combustion efficiency in a rocket chamber [2]. For
cryogenic engines, the atomization of the reacting fluids is often performed by
coaxial injectors. Liquid oxygen at 90K flows at low speed through a tube, which
is surrounded by an annular high speed flow of gaseous or liquid hydrogen. In
order to guarantee sufficient atomization of the liquid oxygen and efficient
mixing of the combustion products, optimization of the injection plate and injectors is necessary. For this purpose, a balanced analysis of both experimental tests
and FLUENT predictions has been performed. One challenging component of
these calculations is the prediction of the turbulent combustion at very high
References
1
Ferrandon, O.; James, P.; Girard, P.; Terhardt, M.; Blasi, R.; Johnsson, R.; Damgaard,
T.: Vulcain 2 Nozzle Extension: Integrated European Team and Advanced
Computational Model to the Service of Nozzle Design; AIAA-2005-4535, July 10-13,
2005.
Vingert, L.; Zurbach, S.: LOX / Methane Studies for Fuel Rich Preburner; AIAA 20035063, July 20-23, 2003.
S9
CRYOGENICS
ARIANE 5
LH2 tank
LOX tank
Diagram of the
Ariane 5 ECA
cryogenic upper
stage (ESC)
T
Start of
simulation
X-axis force
X-axis momentum
0
Beginning of
passivation
phase
Spin of
45/s
End of
passivation
phase
X-axis force
Y & Z-axis momentum
X-axis force
200
400
3400
Time (s)
150,000
Mx
Torques (Nm)
100,000
My
Mz
50,000
0
-50,000
-100,000
-150,000
Torques (Nm)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Fx
Fy
Fz
S10
ARIANE 5
CRYOGENICS
momentum equation using angular and linear acceleration calculated at the previous time step
X Ang.Acc(rad/s2)
0.006
Loop
0.005
Laminar
0.004
Turbulent
0.003
0.002
0.001
0.0
-0.001
0
150
300
450
600
Time (s)
750
900
450
600
Time (s)
750
900
Y Ang.Acc(rad/s2)
0.03
0.02
Laminar
Turbulent
0.01
0.00
-0.01
-0.02
-0.03
0
At CNES, a turbulent approach was used, and the results were compared to
laminar calculations done by SENER, a Spanish consulting firm with scientific advisers from the University of Madrid. To achieve a comparable angular
speed after 150 seconds, the torque in the laminar case had to be stopped
10 seconds early, at 140 seconds. Turbulent effects make a full 150 second
spin-up period necessary, but the axial angular acceleration remains non-zero
following this time as it takes time to decay. The difference in behavior is due
to the increased viscous dissipation in the turbulent case. When a turbulent
approach is used, the liquid phase forms a nearly uniform layer that rotates
along the outer wall. The laminar calculation, on the other hand, predicts
that the fluid forms a rotating localized mass instead. The movement of this
mass back and forth inside the vessel gives rise to angular accelerations in the
non-axial directions, and these grow in amplitude, causing an instability
inside the vessel. For the turbulent case, small off-axis oscillations develop
only after 700 seconds, when additional thrusters of the attitude control
system are activated. This initiation time of oscillation development is very
close to the time seen during the first flight of the ESC-A stage in February
2005. The amplitudes of these turbulent oscillations remain considerably less
than when the laminar approach is used.
150
300
An examination of the liquid volume fraction in the tanks helps explain the
difference in the laminar and turbulent behavior. After the spin-up period has
ended, at 150 seconds, a side-view of the tanks shows that the turbulent
approach predicts a cohesive liquid domain, especially in the LH2 tank. When
laminar conditions are assumed, large pockets of liquid separate and flow
independently in the tank, reducing the off-axis fluid force components and
increasing the liquid moments. Thus turbulence acts to improve the kinetics
of fluid movement along the side walls under spin conditions. For both tanks,
the turbulent approach predicts a smoothly rotating mass of liquid at the
wall. For the laminar simulation, the perturbations early on develop into an
unstable rotation of a localized liquid mass inside the vessel. Essentially, the
laminar approach delays the time needed by the fluid to reach a smooth
rotation at the side walls under spin conditions, especially in the LH2 tank
where a huge fragmentation of the liquid occurs. By contrast, the effective
viscosity of the turbulent approach allows a well-behaved fluid mass to rotate
along the LH2 tank perimeter.
S11
ARIANE 5
HEAT TRANSFER
Ariane 5
ESC/VEB cavity
EPC/ESCA cavity
Engine
The geometry of the launcher cavities, with the LOX tanks in blue and the LH2
tank in yellow
There are two main ventilated cavities, both with helium conditioning. The
ESC/VEB cavity is between the third stage of the rocket (ESC-A) and the
payload compartment, with a size of about 30 m3. The EPC/ESC-A cavity is
between the two cryogenic stages, and is about 150 m3 in size, with a height
of nearly 6 m. There are many technical challenges associated with this
thermal configuration. First, an acceptable thermal environment is needed
for different types of equipment, such as the electronics and the engine.
Ventilation of the cavities with helium gas can provide the proper environment, but it is expensive and there is an associated constraint on the tank
pressure. Thus, the flow of helium in the cavities needs to be optimized.
Second, a compromise must be found that provides efficient thermal
protection to the tanks, but which is also lightweight and inexpensive.
Consider the EPC/ESC-A cavity. This cavity has two very cold walls on its floor
and ceiling, which are the upper and lower storage tanks for cryogenic fuels.
The liquid hydrogen (LH2) is at a temperature of 20K, and the liquid oxygen
(LOX) is at a temperature of 90K. The vertical side walls, on the other hand,
are exposed to the hot temperatures of French Guyana, the site of the Ariane
5 launch pad. In this environment, temperatures range from 273K (0C) to
313K (60C). The walls of the cavity are made from different materials, such
as aluminum and composites, which have different thermal conductivities.
Using a helium gas flow rate through the cavity, the challenge is to maintain
thermal equilibrium for several hours on the launch pad with the tanks filled!
Modeling the flow and heat transfer in the cavity poses a number of
challenges as well. In addition to the complex geometry and physics, the
numerical model must take into account several critical issues:
The overall cavity is large (several meters across), yet the walls can
be only a few millimeters thick, so this poses a meshing challenge.
Very high thermal gradients are anticipated, so this also impacts
meshing decisions. In addition to regions of refined mesh, a
smooth, high quality mesh overall is desired for the combined
calculation of conduction and convection.
The conjugate heat transfer needs to account for boundary layers,
turbulence, laminar/turbulent transitions, separation, a variety of
thermal boundary conditions, and the effects of phase change of
ambient water vapor.
S12
ARIANE 5
HEAT TRANSFER
The mixed convection that will occur will include forced and
natural components, and due to the height of the cavity, the
latter cannot be neglected.
The flow is compressible close to most of the ventilation inlets
(where the injections are nearly sonic), and incompressible in
the remainder of the cavity volume, especially in the many low
Mach number recirculation zones. While this impacts the mesh
refinement in the inlet regions, the choice of numerical solver
(segregated vs. coupled) is still an issue in this situation.
While steady-state flows provide much important information,
transient analyses are also needed.
The forced convection in the cavity is the result of the helium gas flow into
the volume. Natural convection results from the warm walls and cold floor
and ceiling. It gives rise to a circulation loop, with upward flow at the hot
lateral walls and downward flow, accelerated by the cold ceiling, through the
center of cavity. For this cavity, both the Rayleigh number (Ra) and Reynolds
number (Re) have the same order of magnitude: 109. The flow is therefore
highly turbulent and buoyant. For these conditions, a full 3D Navier-Stokes
simulation is required to understand and characterize the coupled convective
and conductive heat transfer phenomena.
Temperature (C)
Wall temperature
Measurement
FLUENT
Inter stage ambient temperature
Measurement
FLUENT
13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 0:00
GMT
1:00
S13
ARIANE 5
SOLID ROCKETS
Pressure Oscillations
in Solid Rocket Motors
By M. Telara, Avio Spa, Colleferro (Rome), Italy, and
F. Stella, F. Paglia, and M. Giangi, Dipartimento di Meccanica e Aeronautica Universit di Roma La Sapienza, Rome, Italy
S14
ARIANE 5
SOLID ROCKETS
180
160
140
Amplitude (mbar)
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0
20
40
60
80 100 120
Frequency (Hz)
140
160
180
200
S15
SOLID ROCKETS
ARIANE 5
2
4
5, 6
Presense of unstable
shear layer (1)
Vortex impingement
on a surface (3)
Acoustic wave
production (4)
Acoustic
feedback (5)
S16
References
1
AUTOMOTIVE
Shape Optimization
of a Defroster Duct
By Krithika Veluchamy, Detroit Engineered Products, Troy, Michigan, and Pepi Maksimovic, Fluent, Inc., USA
Courtesy of Hyundai-MOBIS
N AUTOMOTIVE DEFROSTER is designed to remove frost from the windshield while adhering to government regulations regarding the time to clear a
minimum specified area. Hot air is blown from the HVAC unit of the vehicle and
through a duct to the inner surface of the windshield, where the defrosters
performance is measured by the air temperature and velocity distribution.
Optimization of the defrosting pattern is commonly achieved by altering the
angle of the guiding grille at the windshield end of the duct to maximize the
velocity impinging on the glass. Such intuitive tuning of the grilles, however,
usually fails to produce flow patterns without some dead zones (areas of no air
flow). Furthermore, the current numerical methodology which involves making
design changes in the CAD system and remeshing prior to simulating the flow
field again and again is painstaking and time-consuming.
New techniques for design optimization have emerged that are based on
parameterization of the CFD model. They automate the analysis process and
greatly increase engineering through-put while reducing an engineers time and
effort. These techniques employ the integration of stand-alone software tools
and the automation of the simulation processes. In this approach, software such
as Meshworks/MORPHER from Detroit Engineered Products (DEP) is used for
parameterization of the CFD geometry and for morphing, or making rapid
changes to the shape of an object within an allowable range of geometric parameters. FLUENT computes the air flow pattern for each new geometry. iSIGHT from
Engineous Software enables the coupling (data exchange) between FLUENT and
Meshworks/MORPHER, and provides optimization tools. The process is set up to
run in a batch mode by executing a sequence of commands listed in script files.
The overall purpose is to optimize a so-called objective function. For the case
of a defroster duct from Hyundai-Mobis, the objective function is to optimize the
windshield air flow pattern so that uniform flow is achieved over the largest
possible windshield area. This highly automated procedure requires less time and
effort than that required to manually build new geometries and meshes for each
geometry change considered, and yields optimized and refined design in the
shortest development time.
Geometry of the automotive cabin with the defroster duct (red), windshield
(blue), and symmetry plane (purple).
Four shape design variables (DV) were defined for the defroster duct. These
geometric parameters governed the shape of the duct and the angle of three
of the grille vanes. A baseline FLUENT model was created, and subsequently
parameterized for the four shape design variables using MeshWorks/MORPHER.
A design of experiments (DOE) process was constructed and, to fully explore the
design space, a total of sixteen grille angle changes were studied. A parameter was
introduced to assess and compare the results. Called the Percentage Area,
it was defined as the percentage of total windshield area having velocity less
than 1 m/s. Thus the objective of the exercise was to minimize this parameter for
optimum performance. After the simulations were completed, an optimization
algorithm was used to determine which case resulted in the minimum Percentage
Area. In addition, a second optimization technique was performed in iSIGHT.
The study showed that the optimal duct design yielded a Percentage Area
value of 17%, which is significantly better than the 42% value recorded for the
baseline duct shape.
The baseline (original) geometry of the defroster duct (top) and the optimum
design (bottom)
More.info@
www.depusa.com
www.engineous.com
19
AUTOMOTIVE
20
Two approaches have been used to model the reactor. In the homogeneous model (the single zone
model, or SZM), the solid and fluid phase properties
are not differentiated, whereas in the heterogeneous
model (the dual zone model, or DZM) separate equa-
tions are used for the fluid and solid phases. In the
SZM, the catalyst sections are modeled as a porous
medium, with the bulk thermal properties being used
along with an apparent thermal conductivity. The
DZM uses two computational zones. The first zone
covers the entire reactor geometry, including the
monolith and empty sections, the wall, the insulation, and the fluid phase. The fluid phase is treated
the same as in the SZM; that is, the monolith sections
are modeled using the porous media option with
laminar flow. The second computational zone
accounts for the solid temperature. This zone is built
by duplicating the meshed domain of the porous
sections into a new domain, which is identified as a
solid in FLUENT. The density and thermal conductivity
for this solid are effective properties. The bulk
density and an anisotropic effective thermal conductivity are used to account for the porosity. A mesh of
64,500 cells is used for the SZM, and one of 90,710
cells is used for the DZM.
The conservation equations are solved in each
computational cell, and the two zones are coupled
by source terms. A matching process is done by a
user-defined function (UDF) before starting the flow
solution. The link between each pair of fluid and
solid cells is established. During the solution, relevant information is abstracted from each fluid cell
and its corresponding solid cell. Exchange terms are
computed and used as source terms during the next
iteration. The source terms include heat and mass
transfer terms, reaction rates, and thermal energy
generation terms, which are calculated using UDFs.
The boundary conditions imposed are mass flowrate
and temperature at the inlet, and heat loss from the
reactor by convection to the surrounding air. The
interface between the catalytic monoliths and the
inside reactor wall is treated differently for the two
approaches. In the case of an SZM, there is one
continuous phase throughout the domain, and thus
no need to impose a thermal boundary condition
between the monolith surface and the wall. For the
DZM, continuity of flux at the wall is achieved
AUTOMOTIVE
Converter Heats Up
through the fluid phase, and thus an adiabatic
boundary condition is imposed at the surface of the
catalyst sections.
The only curve-fit parameters in the model are the
kinetic rate constants, which were obtained from
ten steady-state uni-directional flow experiments
conducted in the University of Albertas engine lab.
The model was then tested against transient
uni-directional flow experiments, also performed
in the lab. In the latter experiments, the engine
operating conditions were gradually changed,
producing a transient response. The outlet temperatures and methane conversion predicted by the
two models were found to be in good agreement
with measurements, even though the DZM
temperature and conversion were both predicted
to be higher than the SZM values. Furthermore,
the outlet temperature was found to be higher
than in the experiment, while the methane conversion at the outlet was found to be slightly lower.
This result indicates a discrepancy between the
model and experiments in the calculation of heat
loss. The numerical results for the uni-directional
flow also show that there is not a large difference
in the predictions of the SZM and the DZM.
Considering the experimental error, the observed
Temperature (K)
950
900
850
Dual zone model
Single zone model
Experiment
800
100
580
90
80
Temperature (K)
750
70
60
50
560
540
Dual zone model
Single zone model
Experiment
520
500
100
200
300 400
Time (s)
500
600
200
400
600
Time (s)
800
21
AUTOMOTIVE
Incipient Cavitation
By Jess Esarte, Centro Multidisciplinar de Innovacin y Tecnologa de Navarra CEMITEC, Noain-Navarra, SPAIN, and
Miguel Marcotegui, TRW Automotive, Pamplona-Navarra, SPAIN
rotor
chamber
stator
divergent
convergent
HE STANDARDS FOR COMFORT in the automotive industry have reached such a high level that any
noise detected by the components can cause them
to be rejected. In particular, manufacturers of
hydraulic steering systems, in their ongoing drive
towards technological specialization and perfection,
have faced noise problems that usually must be
solved through experimental means. Among the
different kinds of noises generated within a
hydraulic steering system, that coming from the
rotary valve has been of special interest. It is well
known that this noise appears as a result of the
cavitation that the oil suffers when flowing through
the narrow, convergent and divergent sections of
the valve. In a recent project, the Research and
Technological Center of Navarre, Spain (CEMITEC),
in collaboration with TRW Automotive, have
developed a 2D steering valve model in order to
better understand the cavitation phenomenon and
be able to predict if, where, and when cavitation is
going to take place.
A TRW rotary valve was used for the investigation.
The valve has twelve chambers machined on its
outer surface, six on the stator and six on the rotor,
chamber
Cavitation predictions by the model (left and center) and by experiments (right) in the divergent section
22
AUTOMOTIVE
84000
83000
82000
K
No cavitation
81000
Ki
Cavitation
80000
79000
78000
.260
.265
.270
Fluid velocity (m/s)
.275
References
1
Cavitation predictions by experiments (left) and the model (center and right) in the convergent section
23
POWER GENERATION
Nozzle
Back wall
Vacuum
Outlet
24
POWER GENERATION
References
A calculation of that part of the jet volume occupied
by the liquid is also of great interest to researchers.
Described by the function F, F=1 corresponds to the
case when all the volume is filled with liquid, and F=0
to the case when the given volume is empty. The
results show that there is no vacant space in the bulk
of the jet volume or adjacent to the wall. At the jet
free surface, however, a significant drop in F occurs in
a 1-2 mm thick layer, which is associated with wave
generation. The perturbations at the jet surface in this
region develop as a result of the curvilinear path that
the jet is forced to take. The curvature in the wall
www.jaeri.go.jp/english/index.cgi
25
POLYMER PROCESSING
A Computational Cure
for Radial Tires
By Christophe Waucquez and Antoine Dozolme, Fluent Benelux
1 min.
4 min.
Bladder
Compound A
Compound B
Mold
URING IS THE FINAL STEP in tire manufacturing whereby a green tire built from layers of rubber compounds is formed to the desired shape in a
press. Heat is transferred to the tire from the surroundings, which are maintained at a higher temperature. The added heat causes a curing reaction
(vulcanization) of the rubber compounds to begin,
converting the layers of compounds into a strong
elastic material and binding them with internal reinforcing cords.
The curing process is energy-consuming and has a
strong impact on the final tire properties. Given the
temperature history, the cure cycle may be optimized to minimize capital and energy expenditures.
The conventional method is to directly measure
profiles of the temperature as a function of time
using thermocouples inserted into various parts of
the tire, and then to use the measured profiles to
predict the quality of the final product. This method
is costly and time-consuming however, so computer simulations are now being performed by engineers in this industry as an effective alternative. The
ample data provided by numerical simulations can
be used to assess the structural characteristics of the
finished tire and to optimize the process.
26
6 min.
8 min.
12 min.
PRODUCT NEWS
Knowledge-based design
optimization
O YOU OFTEN WONDER how to better integrate CFD into your companys product development process? How to manage the simulation data?
How to integrate not just CAD and CFD, but also
stress analysis, optimization software, and more?
The answer may lie in the use of a Product Lifecycle
Management (PLM) solution. PLM software tools are
used to document and support the complete life
cycle of industrial products and to manage related
services, such as product maintenance. PLM products
are usually integrated with engineering software,
such as CAD, and other enterprise management
tools, such as project planning, resource scheduling,
cost estimation, and knowledge capture software.
Fluents large customer base includes many worldleading manufacturing companies who share the
need for tight integration of their engineering and
business processes. Most of these companies are
making significant investments in PLM to further
streamline their operations. To meet their growing
needs, Fluent and Dassault Systmes of Paris, France
formed a partnership to develop the first CFD software that resides completely inside the CATIA PLM
solution product. FLUENT for CATIA (FfC) is more
than CFD embedded into CAD: it is CFD absorbed
optimizers. Some of these components were actually optimized conjointly by Dassault Systmes and
Fluent to enable a tighter relationship between the
two codes.
With FfC, the rapid flow modeling concept first
introduced by Fluent with FloWizard, is now fully
integrated in the PLM process. Rapid flow modeling
is an approach to CFD simulation aimed at reducing
overall time and increasing efficiency. It allows for
quick engineering design validation throughout the
product lifecycle. FfC embraces the high level of
automation that is key to successful rapid flow modeling. Tasks that often require a lot of manual intervention, such as meshing, solution steering, and
reporting, are fully automated. FfC allows PLM companies to reduce their development time, while continuing to produce competitive and innovative
products.
FLUENT for CATIA has already been tested extensively at global industrial companies. The overwhelmingly positive response it receives has further
strengthened the partnership between Fluent and
Dassault Systmes. FLUENT for CATIA is scheduled
to be available for general distribution within the
next few months.
27
PRODUCT NEWS
28
PRODUCT NEWS
FloWizard at MMA
V
ERSION 2 OF FLOWIZARD rapid flow modeling software was released in August. It offers many new features,
including improved CAD connections and the ability to calculate remotely. While presenting FloWizard 2 at the
Scandinavian UGM in Gothenburg, Sweden, Andr Bakker, FloWizard Product Manager, spoke with Ivan Bublik,
Design Engineer and FloWizard user in the R&D Department at MMA.
We use FloWizard in combination with experimental testing. We perform pressure drop tests
both for prototypes and serial manufactured
valves. The testing liquid is usually water at room
temperature, which is easy. There is a growing
demand, however, for cooling systems that use a
variety of viscous media at very low temperatures.
We need information about how our valves
operate in such conditions, but experimental
testing is very difficult for that. FloWizard gives us
the ability to predict how the flow is altered when
we use low temperature viscous liquids. It allows
us to analyze real-life situations for which we
cannot perform tests.
AB:
IB:
29
PARTNERSHIPS
TM:
KH:
30
KH:
PARTNERSHIPS
KH:
from all industry sectors and a range of countries. Eighty percent were using commercial
CFD packages and most used CFD for over
60% of their working hours. The majority had
over one year of experience with CFD. Many
of the respondents wanted more information
on validations of CFD simulation results, the
assessment of solution quality, the theory of
CFD, and basic meshing and CFD solver
guidelines. They also requested more
workbooks of CFD examples, specialist and
advanced CFD publications, and basic or
introductory CFD information. The survey also
identified the most useful format through
which the material should be made available,
that is, via booklets and online website
delivery.
KH:
More.info@
www.nafems.org
31
SUPPORT CORNER
N THE LAST ISSUE OF FLUENT NEWS, we presented an overview of the basic drag laws in FLUENT. These laws are appropriate for many
applications of the discrete phase model (DPM) and the standard or granular multiphase models, using either the Eulerian or mixture
formulation. Drag contributes to the momentum exchange between different phases in a system. The momentum exchange term, which
appears in each component of the momentum equation, is proportional to the velocity differential between phases and a drag function,
which is obtained empirically for a specific system and flow regime.
Most drag laws make the assumption that the particles are spherical and that drag is largely dependent on the particle diameter and
relative Reynolds number. There are many applications, however, where these simplifying assumptions cannot be made. In this article, we
present some of the alternative drag laws available in FLUENT and the special circumstances that require them.
Non-spherical particles
For non-spherical particles, a special drag law is available for the DPM. Called the
non-spherical drag law, it uses the diameter of a particle with the equivalent
volume to compute the relative Reynolds number [1], which is computed from
the relative velocity between the phases. The drag function makes use of this
spherical relative Reynolds number and a shape function, which is defined as the
ratio of the surface area of the sphere of equivalent volume to that of the actual
particle. In a study of high aspect ratio switchgrass in a co-fired coal burner [2],
the results showed that by modeling the cylindrical particles using these modifications, more accurate predictions of particle trajectories and residence times
were obtained, and predictions of other combustion-related aspects of the
process were improved as well.
Sub-micron particles
Sub-micron particles are so tiny that they can respond to the random motions of
a fluid, in addition to the bulk flow. In FLUENT, a drag law is available for
sub-micron particles [3] that differs from most other drag laws in that it does not
depend on the relative Reynolds number. Instead, it is a modified form of Stokes
drag law for flow over a stationary sphere that depends on the fluid viscosity, the
particle diameter and density, and a Cunningham correction factor that depends
on the mean free path. In laminar flows with sub-micron particles, a Brownian
motion option is available for the DPM, and this so-called Stokes-Cunningham
drag law is the most appropriate choice for modeling momentum exchange.
Liquid sprays
Numerical models for the spray of liquid droplets into a gas involve complex
physics, such as droplet collisions and breakup as well as the formation of sprays
through atomization. These phenomena can be modeled only through careful
consideration of how a droplet or larger liquid region responds when it is
subjected to the external forces applied by the surrounding gas. An accurate
description of drag is also critical to the success of any spray model. In FLUENT,
the dynamic drag law is available for this purpose. It computes the drag for a
sphere and for a disk of equivalent volume. An equation is solved to assess the
degree of distortion of the drop, and based on the result, a linear interpolation is
done between the spherical and disk drag limits to obtain an appropriate drag
on the drop [4]. This calculation is done dynamically during the trajectory
calculation routine.
32
ACADEMIC NEWS
CFD for
Future
Engineers
By Leon Liebenberg, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa,
and Danie de Kock, Qfinsoft, Pretoria, South Africa
Solid-liquid mixtures
Multiphase mixtures of granular (particulate) material and a turbulent
liquid can sometimes be modeled using the basic Schiller-Naumann (SN)
drag law in FLUENT. The success of this model depends on how much the
fluid turbulence influences the drag. The ratio of the particle diameter, dp,
to the Kolmogorov length scale of the flow, , an approximate measure of
the size of the smallest turbulent eddies, provides a good measure of the
importance of this effect. For dp/ < 0.2 (or thereabouts) the role of turbulence is weak and the SN drag law should suffice. For larger values of dp/,
a modified drag law should be used that takes the turbulence into account.
One law that was first proposed by Magelli [5], and later published by
Pinelli [6] has demonstrated very good results. Whereas the SN drag law is
derived from the settling velocity of a particle in a still fluid column, the
Magelli law computes the settling velocity of a particle in a turbulent fluid,
and uses this to compute a corrected drag function. While not available in
the standard release of FLUENT, this custom drag law can be obtained by
contacting your local Fluent office.
References
1
Haider, A.; Levenspiel, O.: Drag Coefficient and Terminal Velocity of Spherical and
Nonspherical Particles. Powder Technology 58, p. 63-70, 1989.
Gera, D.; Mathur, M.P.; Freeman, M.C.; Robinson, A.: Effect of Large Aspect Ratio
of Biomass Particles on Carbon Burnout in a Utility Boiler, Energy & Fuels, 16(6),
p. 1523-32, 2002.
Liu, A.B.; Mather, D.; Reitz, R.D.: Modeling the Effects of Drop Drag and Breakup
on Fuel Sprays. SAE Technical Paper 930072, SAE, 1993.
Magelli, F.; Fajner, D.; Nocentini, M.; Pasquali, G.: Solid Concentration Profiles in
Slurry Reactors Stirred with Multiple Impellers: Recent Results. Engineering
Foundation Conference Mixing XI, Henniker, NH 1987.
Pinelli, D.; Nocentini, M; Magelli, F.: Solids Distribution in Stirred Slurry Reactors:
Influence of Some Mixer Configurations and Limits to the Applicability of a Simple
Model for Predictions. Chem. Eng. Comm. 118, p. 91-107, 2001.
Montante, G.; Rondini, A.; Bakker, A.; Magelli, F.: CFD Predictions of Solid
Concentration Distributions in a Baffled Stirred Vessel Agitated with Multiple PBT
Impellers. CHISA 2002, Prague, August 25-29, 2002.
Danie de Kock, Fluent representative for South Africa, presented a two-hour lecture
to 20 top students on the rudiments of CFD; thereafter, each of the students
simulated the flow around an airfoil using FlowLab
Annually, during South Africas winter school holidays, the University of Pretoria
presents a space and aviation camp for a select group of students in grades 11
and 12. The camps main goal is to stimulate interest in careers in mechanical
and aeronautical engineering by using the excitement of aviation technology
and space travel.
To qualify for the 2005 four-day camp, students had to make a conceptual design
of an unmanned combat aerial vehicle. They also had to demonstrate distinctions
(+80% averages) in at least four subjects, including math and science.
Only twenty of the candidates were selected to participate in this unique and
prestigious event, which included the following activities: lectures on aeronautics, space travel and space medicine; practical sessions on designing, building
and testing model rockets and a device to measure rocket altitude; subsonic wind
tunnel testing of airfoils; lectures and tutorials on flow simulation using FlowLab;
flight in a military cargo plane during which in-flight refueling with two Cheetah
fighter jets was simulated; two aircraft factory visits; flying a simulator of a
locally manufactured unmanned aerial vehicle; spinning in a centrifuge to three
and a half Gs, and simulating high-altitude flight in a hypobaric chamber.
33
ACADEMIC NEWS
Airfoil Noise in a
By Lilla Edit Koloszr, Patrick Rambaud, Jrme Anthoine, von Karman Institute for Fluid Dynamics (VKI), Rhode-Saint-Gense 1640, Belgium
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4
0.56
FLUENT 6.1.22
FLUENT 6.2.3
Analytical
Implemented UDF
34
The new acoustic module takes into consideration only the noise induced by
vibrating body forces on a surface, namely the dipole source. It was first validated
through a basic acoustic test case: a transversely oscillating rigid sphere that serves
as a pure dipole source. The results were compared to the analytical solution of the
problem and to the acoustic module in FLUENT (6.1.22 and 6.2.3). The implemented
module showed good agreement with the analytical solution and with the solution
obtained with FLUENT in the far-field region where the method is valid. It revealed
however that the user should be careful to define the listener position to guarantee
ACADEMIC NEWS
Turbulent Jet
that it lies in the far field, a position that depends on the distance from, and the
frequency governing the sound source. Otherwise the predictions of pressure
fluctuations were found to be questionable. This is due to the fact that the FW-H
method assumes plane wave propagation while, in the mid field, the wave
propagation is between the ideal spherical and plane wave forms.
The unsteady aerodynamics of airfoils involves two phenomena. One is the flow
separation, either at the trailing edge or, if the wing is stalled, on the suction side.
The other is the interaction with oncoming vortical, periodic, or random
disturbances. Such effects influence the sound field. This basic investigation of
airfoil-vortex interaction can be used in two major areas of industrial applications.
First, such a phenomenon governs the noise propagation from a helicopter rotor
blade. The second major application of airfoil induced noise propagation is
related to turbomachinery. Here the blades are always submerged in a turbulent
flow, so sound production due to the fluctuating pressure is encountered.
For the jet flow over the wing, the noise is primarily due to the interaction of
large eddies with the body, so the pressure fluctuations on the body surface are
needed for the acoustic module. The flow calculation in the source region is
performed using the large eddy simulation (LES) approach in FLUENT. The mesh
is refined near the solid boundaries, in order to reach y+ values less than 5. A very
fine mesh is used at the leading edge where most of the vortex dynamics occurs,
to give enough resolution for noise prediction. The number of faces on the wing
surface is 12,000 and the total mesh size is about 913,000. Because of the large
number of cells, statistically fully converged data are not yet available, since only
five flow-through calculations have been performed to date.
The results at one instant in time show that the wing has a strong effect on the
flow field and that the leading edge plays a key role in the evolution of the
incoming coherent structures. These structures either have to deviate from their
original path in order to bend away from the wing or impact the leading edge,
which tears them apart. Such a vortical flow induces pressure fluctuations on the
wing surface. The fluctuating pressure level at the leading edge is around 100
times higher than that at the trailing edge, so the strongest acoustic source is
likely to be found near the airfoil leading edge.
Instantaneous flow field from the jet outlet to the leading edge of the wing;
coherent structures visualized with Q = 30000 colored by pressure
(Q is the second invariant of the velocity gradient tensor)
0.008
Adimensional pressure fluctuations
Once the implemented acoustic module was validated, it was applied to the case of
a wing in a turbulent jet flow of Mach number M = 0.1. A 2D NACA0012 wing is
placed into the jet flow at a distance of 6 times the jet diameter downstream of the
jet outlet. The chord of the wing profile is equal to the jet diameter, so the Reynolds
number based on either the jet diameter or the wing chord is the same (36,000).
0.006
0.004
0.002
0.000
-0.002
-0.004
Implemented UDF
FLUENT 6.2.3
-0.006
-0.008
0.20
0.21
0.22
0.23
Time (s)
0.25
90
120
60
150
Radiation
angle (deg)
30
180
210
330
240
0.24
300
270
More.info@
www.vki.ac.be
Fluent News Fall 2005
35
ACADEMIC NEWS
Fluent Worldwide
Corporate Headquarters
studentFLUENT
Goes to College
By Shane Moeykens, studentFLUENT Product Manager
Fluent Inc.
10 Cavendish Court
Lebanon, NH 03766, USA
Tel: 603 643 2600
800 445 4454
Fax: 603 643 3967
Email: info@fluent.com
Austin, TX 78746
Tel: 512 306 9299
Evanston, IL 60201
Tel: 847 491 0200
36
can setup, converge, and postprocess CFD problems away from campus-based computer facilities
using this tool. All activities except geometry
modeling and meshing can be performed with
studentFLUENT. Students will access GAMBIT on
campus or be provided geometry and mesh files
by a professor for use in their class.
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
(VT) decided to use studentFLUENT in the Fall 2005
Fluids-Heat Transfer Design course. This is a required
class for all undergraduate mechanical engineers,
and is typically offered to 250 senior-level students
each year. Dr. Karen Thole, Assistant Department
Head of the Mechanical Engineering Department at
VT, commented studentFLUENT provides students
with a useful tool for their design projects. In addition, employers of VT students have voiced the need
for BSME students to have some CFD experience.
The use of studentFLUENT in a required course is
vital in that it represents a modernization to the VT
ME curriculum; we believe this modernization will
help our students gain fundamental knowledge and
increased skills.
Distributors
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China
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C.V.(CIM) Mexico, Venezuela, Argentina,
Chile, Colombia
FEM++ Israel (POLYFLOW only)
Flowmen Technology Co., Ltd. Taiwan
Fluid Codes Ltd. UK (serving the Middle East)
Fluvius Pty. Ltd. Australia & New Zealand
INNOTECH Ltd. Hungary
J-ROM Ltd. Israel
PlasmaVenture Ltd. Russia & CIS
Process Flow Finland & Baltics
Qfinsoft South Africa
Regional Technologies Corp. Ukraine
SimTec Ltd. Greece (serving Southeastern Europe)
SMARTtech Services & Systems, Ltd. Brazil
SymKom Poland
Techsoft Engineering s.r.o. Czech Republic &
Slovak Republic
TENSOR srl Romania