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Typically, the measured signal is the change in polarization as the incident radiation (in a known state) interacts with the material structure of interest (reected,
absorbed, scattered, or transmitted). The polarization
change is quantied by the amplitude ratio, , and the
phase dierence, (dened below). Because the signal
depends on the thickness as well as the materials properties, ellipsometry can be a universal tool [1] for contact
free determination of thickness and optical constants of
lms of all kinds.
1 Basic principles
Ellipsometry measures the change of polarization upon
reection or transmission and compares it to a model.
Typically, ellipsometry is done only in the reection
setup. The exact nature of the polarization change is determined by the samples properties (thickness, complex
refractive index or dielectric function tensor). Although
optical techniques are inherently diraction limited, ellipsometry exploits phase information (polarization state),
and can achieve sub-nanometer resolution. In its simplest
form, the technique is applicable to thin lms with thickness less than a nanometer to several micrometers. Most
models assume the sample is composed of a small
number of discrete, well-dened layers that are optically homogeneous and isotropic. Violation of these
assumptions requires more advanced variants of the technique (see below).
3 DEFINITIONS
Light source
Detector
Polarizer
Compensator
(optional)
Analyzer
Compensator
(optional)
Sample
of the compensators, some ellipsometers use a phasemodulator in the path of the incident light beam. Ellipsometry is a specular optical technique (the angle of incidence equals the angle of reection). The incident and the
reected beam span the plane of incidence. Light which
is polarized parallel to this plane is named p-polarized
(p-polarised). A polarization direction perpendicular is
called s-polarized (s-polarised), accordingly. The s is
contributed from the German senkrecht (perpendicular).
(See also Fresnel equations)
2.2
Data acquisition
rp
= tan()ei
rs
3 Denitions
Modern ellipsometers are complex instruments that incorporate a wide variety of radiation sources, detectors,
digital electronics and software. The range of wavelength
employed is far in excess of what is visible so strictly these
are no longer optical instruments.[6]
4.1
3.2
Imaging ellipsometry
Standard vs. generalized ellipsometry strate. The lm and the substrate have dierent refractive indexes. In order to obtain data about lm thickness,
(anisotropy)
Standard ellipsometry (or just short 'ellipsometry') is applied, when no s polarized light is converted into p polarized light nor vice versa. This is the case for optically isotropic samples, for instance, amorphous materials or crystalline materials with a cubic crystal structure. Standard ellipsometry is also sucient for optically
uniaxial samples in the special case, when the optical axis
is aligned parallel to the surface normal. In all other cases,
when s polarized light is converted into p polarized light
and/or vice versa, the generalized ellipsometry approach
must be applied. Examples are arbitrarily aligned, optically uniaxial samples, or optically biaxial samples.
3.3
There are typically two dierent ways of mathematically describing how an electromagnetic wave interacts with the elements within an ellipsometer (including the sample): the Jones matrix and the Mueller matrix formalisms. In the Jones matrix formalism, the
electromagnetic wave is described by a Jones vector with
two orthogonal complex-valued entries for the electric
eld (typically Ex and Ey ), and the eect that an optical
element (or sample) has on it is described by the complexvalued 2x2 Jones matrix. In the Mueller matrix formalism, the electromagnetic wave is described by Stokes vectors with four real-valued entries, and their transformation is described by the real-valued 4x4 Mueller matrix.
When no depolarization occurs both formalisms are fully
consistent. Therefore, for non-depolarizing samples, the
simpler Jones matrix formalism is sucient. If the sample is depolarizing the Mueller matrix formalism should
be used, because it also give the amount of depolarization.
Reasons for depolarization are, for instance, thickness
non-uniformity or backside-reections from a transparent substrate.
Where A and P are the angles of the analyzer and polarizer under null conditions respectively. By rotating the
analyzer and polarizer and measuring the change in intensities of light over the image, analysis of the measured
data by use of computerized optical modeling can lead to
4.1 Imaging ellipsometry
a deduction of spatially resolved lm thickness and comEllipsometry can also be done as imaging ellipsometry plex refractive index values.
by using a CCD camera as a detector. This provides a Due to the fact that the imaging is done at an angle, only
real time contrast image of the sample, which provides in- a small line of the entire eld of view is actually in focus.
formation about lm thickness and refractive index. Ad- The line in focus can be moved along the eld of view by
vanced imaging ellipsometer technology operates on the adjusting the focus. In order to analyze the entire region
principle of classical null ellipsometry and real-time el- of interest, the focus must be incrementally moved along
lipsometric contrast imaging. Imaging ellipsometry is the region of interest with a photo taken at each position.
based on the concept of nulling. In ellipsometry, the All of the images are then compiled into a single, in focus
lm under investigation is placed onto a reective sub- image of the sample.
Advanced
proaches
experimental
ap-
4.2
In situ ellipsometry
4.3
Ellipsometric Porosimetry
REFERENCES
4.4
6 See also
Polarimetry
Spectroscopy
7 References
[1] http://www.jawoollam.com/tutorial_1.html
[2] P.Drude, Ueber die Gesetze der Reexion und Brechung
des Lichtes an der Grenze absorbirender Krystalle,
Annalen der Physik, Volume 268, Issue 12, 1887,
Pages: 584625, DOI: 10.1002/andp.18872681205;
Ueber Oberchenschichten. I. Theil, Annalen der
Physik, Volume 272, Issue 2, 1889, Pages: 532
560, DOI: 10.1002/andp.18892720214; Ueber Oberchenschichten. II. Theil, Annalen der Physik, Volume 272, Issue 4, 1889, Pages: 865897, DOI:
10.1002/andp.18892720409 (in German)
[3] A. Rothen, The Ellipsometer, an Apparatus to Measure
Thickness of Thin Surface Films, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 16,
No. 2, 26 (1945)
Further reading
R. M. A. Azzam and N. M. Bashara, Ellipsometry
and Polarized Light, Elsevier Science Pub Co (1987)
ISBN 0-444-87016-4
A. Roeseler, Infrared Spectroscopic Ellipsometry, Akademie-Verlag, Berlin (1990), ISBN 3-05500623-2
H. G. Tompkins, A Userss Guide to Ellipsometry,
Academic Press Inc, London (1993), ISBN 0-12693950-0
H. G. Tompkins and W. A. McGahan, Spectroscopic
Ellipsometry and Reectometry, John Wiley & Sons
Inc (1999) ISBN 0-471-18172-2
I. Ohlidal and D. Franta, Ellipsometry of Thin Film
Systems, in Progress in Optics, vol. 41, ed. E. Wolf,
Elsevier, Amsterdam, 2000, pp. 181282
M. Schubert, Infrared Ellipsometry on semiconductor layer structures: Phonons, Plasmons, and Polaritons, Series: Springer Tracts in Modern Physics,
Vol. 209, Springer (2004), ISBN 3-540-23249-4
H. G. Tompkins and E. A. Irene (Editors), Handbook of Ellipsometry William Andrews Publications,
Norwich, NY (2005), ISBN 0-8155-1499-9
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