&OLPDWH&KDQJH

IB 12 

%ODFN%RG\5DGLDWLRQ

Factors that affect how an object absorbs, emits (radiates), and reflects EM radiation incident on them:

1) Nature of the surface: material, shape, texture, etc.

2) Color:

a) Light-colored or silvery objects: absorb little energy,

reflect most energy

b) Dark objects: absorb most energy, reflect little energy

When the object is in

thermal equilibrium with
its surroundings,

energy absorbed = energy radiated 

Pin = Pout

Iin = Iout

An object that acts as a black-body will . . . absorb all incoming radiation, not reflect
any, then radiate all of it.
%ODFNERG\UDGLDWLRQ: radiation emitted by a perfect emitter
When heated, a low-pressure gas will . . .emit a discrete spectrum

When heated, a solid will . . . emit a continuous spectrum

(PLVVLRQ6SHFWUDIRU%ODFN%RGLHV
1. Not all wavelengths of light will be emitted with
equal intensity.
2. Emitted wavelength with highest intensity (max ) is
related to . . . temperature.

3. Area under curve is proportional to . . . total power

radiated by body
4. As body heats up, max . . . decreases
and total power . . . increases
1 

<RXU7XUQ

IB 12

max 1/T
(Wiens law)

Use the axes at right to sketch the

emission spectra for a black-body
radiating at low and high temperature.
Be sure to label the axes and indicate
which curve represents which
temperature.

7KH6WHIDQ%ROW]PDQQ/DZ
RI5DGLDWLRQ
relates intensity of
radiation to the
temperature of the body

1. How does the energy radiated by

an object change if its

temperature doubles?

, V7 4
3
V7 4
$
3 V$7 4

where V=Stefan-boltzmann constant

:
V=5.67 x 108 2 4
P . 

3D 7 4
27 o 163

2. The supergiant star Betelgeuse has a surface temperature of about 2900 K and a radius of 3 x 1011 m.
a) Determine how much energy Betelgeuse radiates each second. 4 x 1030 W

b) What is the intensity of Betelgeuses radiation at its surface?

c) What is the intensity of Betelgeuses radiation at a location that is 3 x 1011 m from its surface?

2 

IB 12 

d) What major assumption was made in calculating the power radiated by Betelgeuse?
That it acts as a black-body

(PLVVLYLW\Hratio of power emitted by an object to the power emitted by a black-body at

the same temperature.

Formula:

H 

3
3%%

3 H3%%
3 HV$7 4
e) Compute the power radiated by Betelgeuse if its emissivity is measured to be only 0.90.

3. Calculate the power emitted by a square kilometer of ocean surface at 100C if its
emissivity is 0.65.

4. Calculate the power radiated by the Earth if it is taken to be

a) a black-body at 300 K.

b) at 300 K with an effective emissivity of 0.62.

3 

6RODU5DGLDWLRQ

IB 12

1. Calculate the power radiated by the Sun if it is taken to be a black

body at 5778 K and a mean radius of 6.96 x 108 meters.

2. What is the intensity of the solar radiation at the Suns surface?

See pg. 3 of data booklet for 1.5 x 1011 m

3. What is the intensity of the solar radiation that reaches the upper
atmosphere of Earth?

Solar constant:
1360-1370 W/m2
Rounded 1400

4. How much solar energy is incident on the Earth every second?

Take solar constant and multiply by

area of disc as cross-section
1.75 x 1017 W

4 

IB 12 

5. What is the average intensity of the solar energy absorbed by the Earth?
Average 1.75 x 1017 W over whole
surface area of Earth = 4 pi r2
340 W/m2

$OEHGRratio of total solar power scattered to total solar power incident

D 
Formula:

total scattered power

total incident power
3
D  UHIOHFWHG
3LQ

Meaning: fraction of the total incoming solar radiation that is

reflected back out into space
6. What is the albedo of a black-body? 0

What is the emissivity of a black-body? 1

7. Use the diagram at right to determine the Earths average albedo.

Atmosphere, clouds, and ground 

Global annual mean albedo on Earth: 0.30 = 30% 

The Earths albedo varies daily and is dependent on: 

1. season
2. cloud formations
3. latitude
8. How much energy is actually absorbed by the Earth each second?
0.70 x 1.75 x 1017 W = 1.23 x
1017 W

5 

IB 12 

9. Use the results of your prior calculations to estimate the equilibrium temperature of the Earth
and comment on your answer.
Assume black-body emiss=1
Pin=Pout
Use SB T= 255 k = -18oC too cold

10. At present, the average temperature of the Earth is measured to be 288 K.

a) Calculate the average emissivity of the Earth.

b) Comment on why this might be.

Actually warmer since atmosphere

absorbs some of the radiation
emitted by Earth surface
Start to separate Earth into its parts
atmosphere vs. ground

6 

7KH*UHHQKRXVH(IIHFW

IB 12

*UHHQKRXVH*DVHV each has natural and man-made origins

1) Water Vapor (H2O): evaporation

2) Carbon Dioxide (CO2): product of photosynthesis in plants, product of fossil fuel combustion
3) Methane (CH4): product of decay and fermentation and from livestock, component of natural gas
4) Nitrous Oxide (N2O): product of livestock, produced in some manufacturing processes
*UHHQKRXVH(IIHFW

a) Short wavelength radiation (visible and short-wave infrared)

received from the Sun causes the Earths surface to warm up.
b) Earth will then emit longer wavelength radiation (long-wave
infrared) which is absorbed by some gases in the atmosphere.
c) This energy is re-radiated in all directions (scattering). Some is
sent out into space and some is sent back down to the ground
and atmosphere.
d) The extra energy re-radiated causes additional warming of the
Earths atmosphere and is known as the Greenhouse Effect.

1. What is the molecular mechanism by which greenhouse gases absorb infrared radiation?

5HVRQDQFH a transfer of energy in which a system is subject

to an oscillating force that matches the natural frequency of the
system resulting in a large amplitude of vibration
$SSOLFDWLRQWRWKHJUHHQKRXVHHIIHFW

The natural frequency of oscillation of the molecules of the

greenhouse gases is in the infrared region (1 300 m)

2. What do the following transmittance and absorption

graphs show about the atmosphere?
Sun radiates in visible

Earth radiates in infrared

Water vapor absorbs incoming solar radiation and

outgoing IR radiation

CO2 absorbs outgoing IR radiation

IB 12 

2XWJRLQJHQHUJ\

The average albedo (reflectivity) of the Earth is about 0.3, which means that 30% of the incident 

solar energy is reflected back into space, while 70% is absorbed by the Earth and reradiated as 

infrared. The planet's albedo varies from month to month, but 0.3 is the average figure. It also 

varies very strongly spatially: ice sheets have a high albedo, oceans low. The contributions from

geothermal and tidal power sources are so small that they are omitted from the following 

calculations.

So 30% of the incident energy is reflected, consisting of:

x
x
x

6% reflected from the atmosphere 

20% reflected from clouds 

4% reflected from the ground (including land, water and ice) 

The remaining 70% of the incident energy is DEVRUEHG:

x

51% absorbed by land and water, then emerging in the following ways:
R 23% transferred back into the atmosphere as latent heat by the evaporation of water, called
latent heat flux
R 7% transferred back into the atmosphere by heated rising air, called Sensible heat flux
R 6% radiated directly into space
R 15% transferred into the atmosphere by radiation, then reradiated into space 
x 19% absorbed by the atmosphere and clouds, including: 

R 16% reradiated back into space

R 3% transferred to clouds, from where it is radiated back into space

When the Earth is at thermal equilibrium, the same 70% that is absorbed is UHUDGLDWHG:
x
x

64% by the clouds and atmosphere 

6% by the ground 

Some energy balance climate models for the Earth

8 

IB 12 

Predict increase in planets temp using SB law like test question

IB 12 
6XUIDFH+HDW&DSDFLW\&6energy required to raise the
temperature of a unit area of a planets surface by 1 K.

Formula:

Units:

4
$'7
4  $&6'7

P2 .

&6
6XUIDFHKHDWFDSDFLW\RI(DUWK CS = 4.0 x 108 J m-2 K-1

1. How much solar energy is needed to increase the surface temperature of one square kilometer 

of Earths surface by 2 K? 

7HPSHUDWXUH
FKDQJHIRUPXOD:

$'7
3 'W

$'7

&6 
&6

&6 
'7

(, LQ  ,RXW)'W

'7

(,LQ  ,RXW)'W

&6

2. If the Earth is in thermal equilibrium, it will emit as much radiation as is incident on it from the
Sun (344 W/m2). Suppose a change causes the intensity of the radiation emitted by Earth to
decrease 10%.
a) Suggest a mechanism by which this might happen.
Increased amounts of greenhouse gases cause more solar radiation to be trapped in
atmosphere
b) Calculate the new intensity of radiation emitted by Earth. 0.90(340) = 306 W/m2

c) Calculate the amount by which Earths temperature would rise over the course of
a year as a result.

'7

(, LQ  ,RXW)'W

&6

(340  306)(365)(24)(3600)
4.0 x 108
'7 2.7.
'7

10

*OREDO:DUPLQJ

IB 12

*OREDO:DUPLQJ records show that the mean temperature of Earth has been increasing in recent years.
Global mean surface temperature anomaly
relative to 19611990

In specific terms, an increase of 1 or more Celsius degrees in a period of

one hundred to two hundred years would be considered global warming.
Over the course of a single century, an increase of even 0.4 degrees
Celsius would be significant. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC), a group of over 2,500 scientists from countries across the
world, convened in Paris in February, 2007 to compare and advance
climate research. The scientists determined that the Earth has warmed .6
degrees Celsius between 1901 and 2000. When the timeframe is advanced
by five years, from 1906 to 2006, the scientists found that the temperature
increase was 0.74 degrees Celsius.

The global average surface temperature range for

each year from 1861 to 2000 is shown by solid red
bars, with the confidence range in the data for each
year shown by thin whisker bars. The average
change over time is shown by the solid curve.

3RVVLEOHPRGHOVVXJJHVWHGWRH[SODLQJOREDOZDUPLQJ

1. changes in the composition of greenhouse gases may increases amount 

of solar radiation trapped in Earths atmosphere 

2. increased solar flare activity may increase solar radiation

3. cyclical changes in the Earths orbit may increase solar radiation
4. volcanic activity may increases amount of solar radiation trapped in 

Earths atmosphere 

A column of gas and ash rising from

Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines on June
12, 1991, just days before the volcanos
climactic explosion on June 15.

In 2007, the IPCC report stated that:

0RVWRIWKHREVHUYHGLQFUHDVHLQJOREDOO\DYHUDJHGWHPSHUDWXUHVLQFHWKHPLGWK FHQWXU\LV
YHU\OLNHO\GXHWRWKHLQFUHDVHLQDQWKURSRJHQLF>KXPDQFDXVHG@JUHHQKRXVHJDVFRQFHQWUDWLRQV.
(the HQKDQFHGJUHHQKRXVHHIIHFW)
(QKDQFHG$QWKURSRJHQLF*UHHQKRXVH(IIHFW Human
activities have released extra carbon dioxide into the atmosphere,
thereby enhancing or amplifying the greenhouse effect.

Major cause: the burning/combustion of fossil fuels

Possible effect: rise in mean sea-level
Outcome: climate change and global warming

11 

(YLGHQFHOLQNLQJJOREDOZDUPLQJWRLQFUHDVHGOHYHOVRIJUHHQKRXVHJDVHV

IB 12

7KH.HHOLQJ&XUYH: Named after American climate

scientist Charles David Keeling, this tracks changes in the
concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2) in Earths
atmosphere at a research station on Mauna Loa in Hawaii.
Although these concentrations experience small seasonal
fluctuations, the overall trend shows that CO2 is increasing
in the atmosphere.

,QWHUQDWLRQDO,FH&RUH5HVHDUFK Between 1987 and 1998,

several ice cores were drilled at the Russian Antarctic base at
Vostok, the deepest being more than 3600 meters below the
surface. Ice core data are unique: every year the ice thaws and
then freezes again, forming a new layer. Each layer traps a
small quantity of the ambient air, and radioactive isotopic
analysis of this trapped air can determine mean temperature
variations from the current mean value and carbon dioxide
concentrations. The depths of the cores obtained at Vostok
means that a data record going back more than 420,000 years
has been built up through painstaking analysis.

Inspect the graphical representation of the ice core

data and draw a conclusion.
There is a correlation between Antarctic temperature and atmospheric concentrations of CO2
0HFKDQLVPVWKDWPD\LQFUHDVHWKHUDWHRIJOREDOZDUPLQJ

1. Global warming reduces ice and snow cover, which in turn reduces the albedo. This will result in an
increase in the overall rate of heat absorption.
2. Temperature increase reduces the solubility of CO2 in the sea and increases atmospheric concentrations.
3. Continued global warming will increase both evaporation and the atmospheres ability to hold water
vapor. Water vapor is a greenhouse gas.
4. The vast stretch of permanently frozen subsoil (permafrost) that stretches across the extreme northern
latitudes of North America, Europe, and Asia, also known as tundra, are thawing. This releases a
significant amount of trapped CO2.
5. Deforestation results in the release of more CO2 into the atmosphere due to slash-and-burn clearing
techniques, as well as reduces the number of trees available to provide carbon fixation.

Smoldering remains of a plot of deforested land

in the Amazon rainforest of Brazil. Annually, it is
estimated that net global deforestation accounts
for about 2 gigatons of carbon emissions to the
atmosphere.

12

5LVHLQ6HDOHYHOV

IB 12

Generally, as the temperature of a liquid rises, it expands. If this is applied to water, then as the
average temperature of the oceans increases, they will expand and the mean sea-level will rise.
This has already been happening over the last 100 years as the sea level has risen by 20 cm. This
has had an effect on island nations and low-lying coastal areas that have become flooded.
&RHIILFLHQWRI9ROXPH([SDQVLRQfractional
change in volume per degree change in temperature

Formula:

'9
E 
9R '7
'9

Units:

1
.

E 9R '7

1. The coefficient of volume expansion for water near 20o C is 2 x 10-4 K-1. If a lake is 1 km

deep, how much deeper will it become if it heats up by 20o C? 0.4 m

Precise predictions regarding the rise in sea-levels are hard to make for such reasons as:
D $QRPDORXVH[SDQVLRQRIZDWHU: Unlike many liquids, water does not expand uniformly.
From 00C to 40C, it actually contracts and then from 40C upwards it expands. Trying to
calculate what happens as different bodies of water expand and contract is very difficult, but
most models predict some rise in sea level.
E 0HOWLQJRILFH: Floating ice, such as 

the Arctic ice at the North Pole, 

displaces its own mass of water so 

when it melts it makes no difference. 

But melting of the ice caps and 

glaciers that cover land, such as in 

Greenland and mountainous regions 

throughout the world, causes water to 

run off into the sea and this makes the 

sea level rise. 

Glaciers on land melting:

raise sea level
Sea ice glaciers melting:
dont raise sea level
13 

3RVVLEOHVROXWLRQVIRUUHGXFLQJWKHHQKDQFHGJUHHQKRXVHHIIHFW

IB 12

3. Greater efficiency of power production.

To produce the same amount of power would require less fuel, resulting in reduced CO2 emissions.

4. Replacing the use of coal and oil with natural gas.

Gas-fired power stations are more efficient (50%) that oil and coal (30%) and produce less CO2.

5. Use of combined heating and power systems (CHP).

Using the excess heat from a power station to heat homes would result in more efficient use of fuel.

6. Increased use of renewable energy sources and nuclear power.

Replacing fossil fuel burning power stations with alternative forms such as wave power, solar power, and wind power would
reduce CO2 emissions.

1. Use of hybrid vehicles

Cars that run on electricity or a combination of electricity and
gasoline will reduce CO2 emissions.

2. Carbon dioxide capture and storage (carbon fixation)

A different way of reducing greenhouse gases is to remove CO2
from waste gases of power stations and store it underground.

,QWHUQDWLRQDOHIIRUWVWRUHGXFHWKHHQKDQFHGJUHHQKRXVHHIIHFW

1. ,QWHUJRYHUQPHQWDO3DQHORQ&OLPDWH&KDQJH,3&& Established in 1988 by the World Meteorological

Organization and the United Nations Environment Programme, its mission is not to carry out scientific research.
Hundreds of governmental scientific representatives from more than 100 countries regularly assess the up-to-date
evidence from international research into global warming and human induced climate change.

2. .\RWR3URWRFRO This is an amendment to the United Nations Framework

Convention on Climate Change. In 1997, the Kyoto Protocol was open for
signature. Countries ratifying the treaty committed to reduce their greenhouse
gases by given percentages. Although over 177 countries have ratified the
protocol by 2007, some significant industrialized nations have not signed,
including the United States and Australia. Some other countries such as India
and China, which have ratified the protocol, are not currently required to
reduce their carbon emissions.

3. $VLD3DFLILF3DUWQHUVKLSRI&OHDQ'HYHORSPHQWDQG&OLPDWH$33&'& This is a non-treaty

agreement between 6 nations that account for 50% of the greenhouse emissions (Australia, China, India, Japan,
Republic of Korea, and the United States.) The countries involved agreed to cooperate on the development and transfer
of technology with the aim of reducing greenhouse emissions.

14 

'LJLWDO7HFKQRORJ\
'HFLPDO1XPEHUV

Example:

IB 12 

0=
1=
2=
3=
4=
5=
6=
7=
8=
9=
10 =
11 =
12 =
13 =
14 =
15 =
16 =
17 =
18 =
19 =
20 =

452 = 4 x 100 + 5 x 10 + 2 x 1

Symbols: 0-9
Place Values: multiples of ten

%LQDU\1XPEHUV

Examples: 10011 = 1 x 16 + 0 x 8 + 0 x 4 +
1 x 2 + 1 x 1 = 19

Symbols: 0 and 1
Place Values: multiples of two

Least-significant bit (LSB)

Most-significant bit (MSB)

'LJLWDOVLJQDO: potential difference is either High (1) or Low (0)

$QDORJXHVLJQDO: potential difference varies continuously with time

0HWKRGRIVWRUDJH

7\SLFDO
LQIRUPDWLRQ

2YHUYLHZRISURFHVV

$QDORJXHRU
'LJLWDO

Photocopying

Text or
pictures

Optics and electrostatics used to fix

powder to paper

Analogue

LPs (vinyl)

Music or
speech

Sound variations stored as grooves

in vinyl

Analogue

Cassette tapes

Music or
speech

Sound variations stored in magnetic

fields on tape

Analogue

Floppy disks
Hard disks

All forms

Bits stored as variations in magnetic

fields on disk

Digital

CD, DVD

All forms

Bits stored as series of optical

bumps to be read by laser

Digital
1 

0
1
10
11
100
101
110
111
1000
1001
1010
1011
1100
1101
1110
1111
10000
10001
10010
10011
10100

6WRULQJ,QIRUPDWLRQRQ&'V

IB 12 

A CD is a fairly simple piece of plastic, about four

one-hundredths (4/100) of an inch (1.2 mm) thick.
Most of a CD consists of an injection-molded piece of
clear polycarbonate plastic. During manufacturing,
this plastic is impressed with microscopic bumps
arranged as a single, continuous, extremely long spiral
track of data. Once the clear piece of polycarbonate is
formed, a thin, reflective aluminum layer is sputtered
onto the disc, covering the bumps. Then a thin acrylic
layer is sprayed over the aluminum to protect it. The
label is then printed onto the acrylic. A cross section
of a complete CD (not to scale) looks like this:

The elongated bumps that make up the track are each

0.5 microns wide, a minimum of 0.83 microns long
and 125 nanometers high. (A nanometer is a billionth
of a meter.) Looking through the polycarbonate layer
at the bumps, they look something like this:
You will often read about "pits" on a CD instead of
bumps. They appear as pits on the aluminum side, but
on the side the laser reads from, they are bumps.
The incredibly small dimensions of the bumps make
the spiral track on a CD extremely long. If you could
lift the data track off a CD and stretch it out into a
straight line, it would be 0.5 microns wide and almost
3.5 miles (5 km) long.

Reflection from bump or pit:

Constructive interference
Interpreted as 0

Reflection from edge of pit:

Destructive interference
Interpreted as 1
Condition for destructive interference: height of bump/depth of pit = /4
So path difference between two light beams is /2

Example: What wavelength of laser

light should be used to read the data
shown encoded at right? 600 nm

2 

$GYDQWDJHVRIGLJLWDOVWRUDJHRILQIRUPDWLRQRYHUDQDORJXHVWRUDJH
'LJLWDO
4XDOLW\

Output can be virtually

indistinguishable from input

5HSURGXFLELOLW\

Use of laser ensures that each retrieval

is virtually identical since light does
not damage surface
Very high speed different section can
be accessed randomly

5HWULHYDOVSHHG
3RUWDELOLW\RI
VWRUHGGDWD
0DQLSXODWLRQRI
GDWDHGLWLQJ

Miniaturization techniques ensure that

large quantities of data can be stored in
a small device (eg. flash drives)
Easily achieved with little corruption
of data (eg. Photoshop)

IB 12

$QDORJXH
Output can be virtually
indistinguishable from input but is
more liable to damage or corruption
(eg. scratches on LPs)
Process of retrieval often affects
quality of future retrievals (eg. needle
may scratch LP)
Slow retrieval speed data needs to be
retrieved in sequential order
Storage devices usually take up much
more space
All manipulation increases possibility
of data corruption

,PSOLFDWLRQVIRUVRFLHW\RIHYHULQFUHDVLQJGDWDVWRUDJHFDSDELOLWLHV

0RUDO(WKLFDO

6RFLDO

x Information that is potentially problematic can easily be shared (eg. terrorism,

crime)
x Issues concerning ownership of electronic data (eg. piracy)
x Privacy concerns
x Use in documenting abuses of human rights
x Unequal access to the Internet
x Control of information and opinions

(FRQRPLF

x Quicker access to information needed to make economic decisions (eg. price

comparisons)
x Rise of new businesses and decline of older ones

(QYLURQPHQWDO

x Reduction in use of paper and other materials used traditionally to stored

information
x Recycling of electronic junk is problematic due to more dangerous materials
used in their manufacture

3 

'DWD&DSWXUHXVLQJ&&'V

IB 12

&KDUJH&RXSOHG'HYLFH&&' a silicon chip

divided into small area called pixels. Each pixel can
be considered to behave as a capacitor (a device that
stores charge). The CCD is used to electronically
record an image focused onto its surface.
,PDJHFDSWXUH Incident light causes charge to build
up within each pixel due to the photoelectric effect.
An electrode then measures the potential difference
developed across each pixel and converts it into a
digital signal. The position of the pixel is also stored.
,PDJHUHWULHYDOSince both the location and potential
difference of each pixel are recorded, all the
information needed to store and reconstruct the image
is saved. Each p.d. can be converted to a digital signal
and the digital signals can be converted to an image.
The intensity of the light at each pixel, and thus the
image, can be reconstructed.

&DSDFLWDQFH: the ratio of charge to potential difference

Formula:

C = Q/V

Units: C/V or farad (F)

Type: Scalar

1. The potential difference measured across a 100 pF pixel is 25 mV. Determine the charge and
number of electrons stored in the pixel.

4XDQWXP(IILFLHQF\ ratio of the number of photoelectrons emitted to the number of

photons incident on the pixel

2. If the quantum efficiency of the pixel described above is 90%, how many photons were 
incident on it?

4 

IB 12 

0DJQLILFDWLRQratio of the length of the image on the CCD to the length of the object

3. A digital camera is used to photograph an object that is 3.0 x 10-1 m2 in area. The image that is
focused onto the CCD is 4.5 x 10-3 m2. What is the magnification of the camera?

5HVROXWLRQ: the ability to distinguish between two sources of light

Applied to CCD: two points on an object may be just resolved on a CCD if the images 

of the points are at least two pixels apart

4. The CCD of a digital camera has a square image collection area that measures 25 mm on each
side and a resolution of 5.0 megapixels. An object that is photographed by the camera has an
area of 4.6 x 10-3 m2. The image formed on the CCD has an area of 1.0 x 10-4 m2.
a) Calculate the magnification.

b) Estimate the length of a pixel on the CCD.

c) Two small dots on the object are separated by a distance of 0.20 mm. Deduce whether the
images of the dots will be resolved.

5 

IB 12 

(IIHFWRQTXDOLW\RISURFHVVHGLPDJH
4XDQWXP
HIILFLHQF\

The greater the quantum efficiency, the greater the sensitivity of the CCD.

0DJQLILFDWLRQ

A greater magnification means that more pixels are used for a given
section of the image. The image will be more detailed.

5HVROXWLRQ

The greater the resolution, the greater the clarity of the image and the
amount of detail recorded.

Some advantages of using CCDs compared with the use of film:

a) Each photo does not require film and is thus cheaper and uses less resources/produces
less waste.
b) Traditional film has a quantum efficiency of less than 10% while CCDs can have
quantum efficiencies of over 90%. This means that very faint images can be
photographed with CCDs.
c) The image is digital and can be stored and edited more easily.
d) Images can be viewed immediately with no processing time delay. 
e) Storage, archiving, and retrieving a large number of photos is easy and efficient. 
CCDs are used for image capturing in a large range of the electromagnetic spectrum (not just
visible light).

'LJLWDO
FDPHUDV

Very convenient to take and share photographs, but image quality can be less
than that of traditional film unless the camera is of high quality (more
expensive).

Digitized images are usually better quality than analogue images stored on
magnetic videotape and are easier to store and transport. It is possible to
9LGHR
continuously record video without interruption during playback. Searches are
FDPHUDV
faster and easier to perform. Digital storage is fast and utilizes re-usable media,
an advantage for security cameras.
Sensitivity of CCDs is better than traditional film and allows for detailed
analysis over a range of frequencies. CCDs also allow for remote operation of
7HOHVFRSHV telescopes, both ground-based and in orbit, like the Hubble space telescope.
0HGLFDO
;UD\
LPDJLQJ

Digital X-rays have better contrast and can be processed, allowing for
enhancements and detailed study. Information can be quickly shared between
hospitals and more easily stored and retrieved.

(OHFWULF&LUFXLWV

IB 12 

In the electric circuit shown below, energy is transferred from the battery to the light bulb by charges
that move through a conducting wire because of a potential difference set up in the wire by the battery.
The circuit shown contains a typical 9-volt battery.
a) What is the emf of the circuit?

b) How much energy does one coulomb of charge carry around the circuit?

Schematic
c) How much energy do two coulombs of charge carry around the circuit?

d) How much energy does each coulomb of charge have at point B?

e) How much energy does each coulomb of charge have at point C?

f) What is VB?

What is VC? 

mark potentials at each spot

g) What is VBC?

What is VCD?

What is VDA? 

(OHFWULF&XUUHQW
Formula:
I = q/t

Units:
A (ampere) = C/s

Type:
Scalar

Unofficial definition: rate of flow of electric charge

2IILFLDO'HILQLWLRQRI2QH$PSHUH$RIFXUUHQWDIXQGDPHQWDOXQLW
One ampere is the amount of current flowing in each of two infinitely-long parallel wires of negligible cross-sectional area
separated by a distance of one meter in a vacuum that results in a force of exactly 2 x 10-7 N per meter of length of each wire.
6KRUWIRUP Current is defined in terms of the force per unit length between parallel current-carrying conductors.

Closed circuit: complete pathway

for current

Open circuit: incomplete pathway for current

break in circuit infinite resistance

Short circuit: circuit with little to no

resistance extremely high current
overheating

sketch
sketch

1 

5HVLVWDQFH

IB 12

5HVLVWDQFH: ratio of potential difference applied

across a piece of material to the current through the
material

Formula:

For a wire conductor:

Formula:

A short fat cold wire is the best conductor

R = L/A

Units:

R=V/I

Type:

ohm () = V/A

scalar

A long hot skinny wire has the most resistance

Unit: W = J/s

Power: energy per unit time

Mechanical Power:

Electrical Power:
P = E/t = (q V)/t

Alternate Formulas:
Substitute V = IR

P=IV

P = I (IR) = I2 R

P = W/t = F s/t = F v

Type: scalar

P = (V/R)V = V2/ R

Meters in a circuit

Ammeter: measures current

Placement: Must be placed in series to allow

current to flow through it
Circuit must be broken to insert ammeter

Ideal ammeter: has zero resistance so it will not

affect current flowing through it

Schematic diagram

Voltmeter: measures potential difference

Placement: Must be placed in parallel to measure

potential difference between two points
circuit does not to be broken

Ideal voltmeter: has infinite resistance so it will not

allow any current to flow through it and disrupt circuit

2

6HULHVDQG3DUDOOHO&LUFXLWV

&KDUDFWHULVWLF

IB 12

6HULHV&LUFXLW

3DUDOOHO&LUFXLW

one

More than one

Current

Same everywhere same for all

devices

Current splits shared among devices

Potential Difference
(Voltage)

Voltage shared among devices

voltage splits

Same for all devices

Overall resistance

high

low

Power

low

high

Number of pathways
for current

Formulas:

VT = V1 + V2 +

VT = V1 = V2 = . . .

IT = I1 = I 2 =

IT = I1 + I 2 + . . .

RT = R1 + R2 +

1/RT = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + . . .

PT = P1 + P2 + . . .

PT = P1 + P2 + . . .

6HULHV &LUFXLWV

3DUDOOHO &LUFXLWV

Voltage Ratio

Current Ratio

Power Ratio

Power Ratio

$QDO\]LQJ&LUFXLWV

IB 12 

Determine the current through and the voltage drop across each resistor in each circuit below.

1.

2.

3.

4.

3RWHQWLDO'LYLGHU Resistors in series act as a potential (voltage) divider. They split the potential of the source between them.
5. A 20device requires 40 V to operate properly but no 40 V source is available. In each case below, determine
the value of added resistor R1 that will reduce the voltage of the source to the necessary 40V for device R2.

$

&

'

6. A mini light bulb is rated for 0.60 W at 200 mA and is placed in series with a variable resistor. Only a 9.0 volt battery is
available to power it. To what value should the variable resistor be set to power the bulb correctly?

Bulb needs only 3 V

Bulb has resistance of 15 at rated
power
Added resistance should be 30
ohms

4 

7KH8VHRI6HQVRUVLQ&LUFXLWV

IB 12

1. /LJKW'HSHQGHQW5HVLVWRU/'5 or /LJKW6HQVRU: A photo-conductive cell made of

semiconducting material whose resistance decreases as the intensity of the incident light increases.
Describe how the LDR activates the light switch.

$XWRPDWLFOLJKWVZLWFK

As ambient light decreases, resistance of LDR increases

Potential difference across LDR increases
Switch needs minimum PD to turn on
When light intensity drops to desired level, PD is high
enough to turn on switch

2. 1HJDWLYH7HPSHUDWXUH&RHIILFLHQW17&7KHUPLVWRU or 7HPSHUDWXUH6HQVRU: A sensor

made of semiconducting material whose resistance decreases as its temperature increases.
Describe how the NTC thermistor activates the fire alarm.

)LUHDODUP

As external temperature increases, resistance of NTC

decreases
Potential difference across R2 increases
Switch needs minimum PD to turn on
When temperature increases to desired level, PD is high
enough to turn on switch

3. 6WUDLQ*DXJH or)RUFH6HQVRU: A long thin metal wire whose resistance increases as it is

stretched since it becomes longer and thinner.
Describe how the strain gauge can measure the strain put on a 

section of an airplane body. 

As strain increases, resistance of strain gauge increases 

Potential difference across R2 decreases 

Voltmeter can read change in voltage which can be used

to determine amount of strain on part

5 

&RPELQDWLRQ6HULHV3DUDOOHO&LUFXLWV

IB 12

1. Determine the current through and the voltage drop across each resistor.

2. The battery has an emf of 12 V and negligible internal resistance and the voltmeter has an internal resistance of 20 k.
Determine the reading on the voltmeter.

3. A cell with negligible internal resistance is connected to three resistors as shown. Compare the currents in each
part of the circuit.

IB 12 

4. Determine the current through and the voltage drop across each resistor.

5. A battery with emf ( and negligible internal resistance is connected in a circuit with three identical light bulbs.
a) Determine the reading on the voltmeter when the switch is open and when it is closed.
b) State what effect closing the switch has on the current through each bulb and the brightness of each bulb.

2KPV/DZ

IB 12

5HVLVWDQFH: ratio of potential difference applied across a piece of material

to the current through the material

Formula:
R=V/I

2KPV/DZ: for a conductor at constant temperature, the current flowing

through it is proportional to the potential difference across it

Relationship:

VI

2KPLF'HYLFH a device that obeys Ohms law for a wide range of potential differences

Meaning: a device with constant resistance

Example: resistor

1. On the axes at right, sketch the ,9FKDUDFWHULVWLFV for a resistor.

Resistance: 

a) R = V/I at any point 

b) related to slope of graph 

(Reciprocal = resistance) 

2. A resistor is connected to two 1.5 volt cells and has 0.40 ampere of current flowing through it.
a) Calculate the resistance of the resistor.

R = V/I 

R = 7.5 

b) If the voltage is doubled, what is the new current?

V = IR for resistor 

Resistance is constant so double current

8 

1RQ2KPLF'HYLFH a device that does not obey Ohms law

Meaning: resistance is not constant

IB 12 

Example: filament lamp

1. On the axes at right, sketch the ,9FKDUDFWHULVWLFV for a filament lamp.

Resistance:

a) R = V/I at any point 

b) as current increases, wire filament heats up and

resistance increases

c) Resistance is NOT related to the slope

d) except in initial linear region

2. A flashlight bulb is connected to two 1.5 volt cells and has 0.40 ampere of current flowing through it.
a) Calculate the resistance of the bulb.

R = V/I 

R = 7.5 

b) If the voltage is doubled, what is the new current?

V = IR for bulb but resistance is not 7.5 ohms any

more R increases with T so less than double current

3. Discuss how the resistance varies with increasing potential difference for devices X, Y, and Z.

X: resistance increases - ratio V/I increases

Y: resistance is constant ratio V/I is
constant
Z: resistance decreases ratio V/I
decreases

9 

8VLQJD3RWHQWLRPHWHUWR0HDVXUH,9&KDUDFWHULVWLFV

IB 12 

3RWHQWLRPHWHU a type of variable resistor with three contact points

Common use: as a potential divider to measure the I-V characteristics of a device
The schematic shows how a potentiometer can be used as a potential divider to measure the I-V characteristics of a
filament lamp. It is placed in parallel with the lamp and the slider (center contact point) effectively splits the
potentiometer into two separate resistors AB and BC. By moving the slider, the ratio of the voltage drops across the
resistors AB and BC is varied.
Redraw the schematic with an ammeter and a voltmeter correctly
placed to measure the I-V characteristics of the filament lamp.

Comment on the circuit characteristics as the slider is moved from A to B to C.

Slider at A:

Slider at B:

Slider at C:

10 

IB 12

,QWHUQDO5HVLVWDQFHRI%DWWHULHV

A 6 volt battery is connected to a variable resistor and the current in the circuit and potential difference
across the terminals of the battery are measured over a wide range of values of the resistor. The results
are shown in the table.
5HVLVWDQFH

3UHGLFWHG
&XUUHQW$

$FWXDO
&XUUHQW$

9ROWDJHDFURVV
EDWWHU\9

2000
200
20
2
0.2
0.02
0.002
0.0002

0.003
0.03
0.3
3
30
300
3000
30000

0.003
0.03
0.29
2.4
8.8
11.5
12.0
12.0

6.00
5.99
5.85
4.80
1.71
0.23
0.02
0.00

Why does the current seem to be limited to a maximum of 12.0 amperes and why does the voltage
across the battery not remain constant at 6.0 volts?
The battery has some internal resistance. As the 

external resistance decreases, more and more of the 

energy supplied by the battery is used up inside the 

battery. 

(OHFWURPRWLYHIRUFHHPI total energy per unit charge supplied by the battery

Symbol: RU(
Units: V = J/C

7HUPLQDO9ROWDJH9WHUP potential difference across the terminals of the battery

Ideal Behavior: Vterm always equals emf since no internal resistance

Real Behavior:
1) Think of battery as internal E and tiny internal resistor r

2) Vterm only equals the emf when no current is flowing

3) E is split between R and r
4) When R>>r, Vterm emf

5) As R decreases, Vr increases and VR decreases

11 

IB 12
5HODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQHPIDQGWHUPLQDOYROWDJH
Treat internal resistance as a series resistor

= I RT 

= I (R + r) 

= IR + Ir 

Note that in the absence of internal resistance, = Vterm

1. A resistor is connected to a 12 V source and a switch. With the switch open, a voltmeter reads the potential difference
across the battery as 12 V yet with the switch closed, the voltmeter reads only 9.6 V and an ammeter reads 0.40 A for the
current through the resistor. Sketch an appropriate circuit diagram and calculate the internal resistance of the source.

2. Discuss the expected I-V characteristics for this battery and how they can be
experimentally determined.
R can be adjusted from 0 to its max value 

A graph of Vterm vs. I can be drawn 

Specific equation of graph can be compared to math model to derive

internal resistance
Emf = Vterm + Ir
Vterm = -Ir + emf

so slope = -r and y-intercept = emf

12 

(OHFWURPDJQHWLVP

IB 12

Direction of magnetic field lines: the direction that

the North pole of a small test compass would point if
placed in the field (N to S)

Magnetic Field
around a Bar
Magnet

What is the cause of magnetic fields? Moving electric charges

Therefore: current in a wire will produce a magnetic field

The Right Hand Rule

for the Magnetic Field
around a Wire

7KXPEdirection of conventional current

)LQJHUWLSV direction of magnetic field tangent to circle

a) head-on view

b) side view

Draw concentric circles

with increasing spacing and
arrows in circular fashion.

Alternate Right Hand Rule for Loops

)LQJHUWLSV direction of current

Component fields

Draw concentric
circles around wire.

Resultant field

c) side view

Draw dots and crosses

Your turn

7KXPEpoints North
Note that a wire
loop acts like a:

bar

magnet

Solenoid: coil of wire many loops

Note that a solenoid bar

magnet
acts like a:

Draw the magnetic field around this solenoid.

Use alternate RHR to find North.

1

0DJQHWLF)RUFHRQD:LUH
If a wire with current flowing
through it is placed in an external
magnetic field, it will experience
a force. Why?
The Right Hand Rule for the Magnetic
Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor
in a Magnetic Field

IB 12 

Two magnetic fields around wire and from

external magnet will either attract or repel

)ODW+DQG thumb and fingers at right angles

)LQJHUV external B field north to south
7KXPE current
3DOP force palm pushes
Maximum force occurs when: current is perpendicular to B field
No force occurs when: current is parallel to B field

Use the right hand rule for forces to confirm the direction of the force in each case.

0DJQLWXGHRI
WKHPDJQHWLF
IRUFHRQDZLUH
'HILQLWLRQRIPDJQLWXGH
RIPDJQHWLFILHOG
B = F / (IL sin )

Find the magnitude

and direction of the
force on the wire
segment confined to
the gap between the
two magnets as
shown when the
switch is closed.
The strength of the
magnetic field in the
gap is 1.9 T.

Magnetic field strength

Magnetic field intensity
Magnetic flux density

) %,/VLQ
Where is angle between current
and B field

Units: Tesla (T)

The ratio of the magnetic force on a wire to the product of the current
in the wire, the length of the wire and the sine of the angle between
the current and the magnetic field

0.62 N up

2 

0DJQHWLF)RUFHRQD0RYLQJ&KDUJHG3DUWLFOH
Why is there a magnetic force on a
charged particle as it moves through a
magnetic field?

The Hand Rule for the

Magnetic Force on a Charge
moving in a Magnetic Field

IB 12 

Moving charged particle creates its own magnetic

field two magnetic fields interact

)ODW+DQG thumb and fingers at

right angles

)LQJHUV external B field

north to south

5LJKW+DQGpositive charge

7KXPE velocity

/HIW+DQGnegative charge

3DOP force palm pushes

Maximum force occurs when: velocity is perpendicular to B field

No force occurs when: velocity is parallel to B field
Find the direction of the magnetic force on each particle below as each enters the magnetic field shown.

0DJQLWXGHRIWKHPDJQHWLFIRUFH
RQDPRYLQJFKDUJHGSDUWLFOH
'HILQLWLRQRIPDJQLWXGH
RIPDJQHWLFILHOG

) TY%VLQ
Where is angle between v and B

The ratio of the force on a charged particle moving in a magnetic field to the
product of the particles charge, velocity and sine of the angle between the
direction of the magnetic field and velocity.

B = F / (qv sin )

A proton in a particle accelerator

has a speed of 5.0 106 m/s. The
proton encounters a magnetic
field whose magnitude is 0.40T
and whose direction makes an
angle of T = 30.0 with respect to
the proton's velocity. Find the
magnitude of the magnetic force
on the proton and the protons
acceleration. How would these
change if the particle was an
electron?

a) 1.6 x 10-13 N
b) 9.6 x 1013 m/s2
c) 1.8 x 1017 m/s2, same
force but opposite
direction
3

0RWLRQRID&KDUJHG3DUWLFOHLQD0DJQHWLF)LHOG

IB 12 

1. A charged particle will follow a circular path in a magnetic

field since the magnetic force is always perpendicular to the
velocity.

2. The magnetic force does no work on the particle since the

magnetic force is always perpendicular to the motion.

3. The particle accelerates centripetally but maintains a constant

speed since the magnetic force does no work on it.

5DGLXVRI&LUFXODU3DWK

a) Sketch the paths of a slow and a fast

moving proton at constant speed.

b) Sketch the path of a proton that is slowing

down and one that is speeding up.

F = m ac
FB = m v2 /r
Q v B = m v2 /r
r = mv/ qB

c) How would the radius of

the path change if the
particle were an alpha
particle?

&RPSDULQJ(OHFWULFDQG0DJQHWLF)LHOGVDQG)RUFHV

(OHFWULF)LHOG

0DJQHWLF)LHOG

draw paths for stationary, parallel and perp charges

(OHFWULF)LHOGVDQG0DJQHWLF)LHOGV
1. A proton is released from rest near
the positive plate and leaves through
a small hole in the negative plate
where it enters a region of constant
magnetic field of magnitude 0.10T.
The electric potential difference
between the plates is 2100 V.

IB 12 

a) Describe the motion of the proton while in the electric field

constant acceleration in a straight line

b) Describe the motion of the proton while in the magnetic field

constant acceleration and constant speed circular path

c) Find the speed of the proton as it enters the magnetic field.

Use conserv. Of energy 

a) 6.3 x 105 m/s

d) Find the radius of the circular path of the proton in the magnetic field.

b) 6.6 x 10-2 m

2. A 9HORFLW\6HOHFWRU is a device for measuring the velocity of a charged particle. The device operates by applying
electric and magnetic forces to the particle in such a way that these forces balance.
a) Determine the magnitude and direction of an electric field that will apply 

and electric force to balance the magnetic force on the proton. 

perp to v and B from bottom to top of page

F = 0 

FB Fe = 0 

FB = Fe

qvB = Eq

E = vB 

b) What is the resulting speed and trajectory of the proton?

v = E/B in a straight line

5 

7KH0DVV6SHFWURPHWHU

IB 12 

A PDVVVSHFWURPHWHU is a device used to measure the masses of isotopes. Isotopes of the same element have the same charge
and chemical properties so they cannot be separated by using chemical reactions but have different masses and so can be
separated by a magnetic field. A common type of mass spectrometer is known as the %DLQEULGJHPDVVVSHFWURPHWHU and its
main parts are shown below.

Ion Source: source of charged isotopes same

charge different mass

Velocity selector: so all ions have the same

speed

Magnetic deflection chamber: radius is

proportional to mass

1. A singly charged ion with mass 2.18 x 10-26 kg moves without deflection through a region of crossed magnetic and electric
fields then is injected into a region containing only a magnetic field, as shown in the diagram, where it is deflected until it
hits a photographic plate. The electric field between the plates of the velocity selector is 950 V/m and the magnetic field in
both regions is 0.930 T. Determine the sign of the charge and calculate where the ion lands on the photographic plate.

Sign: could be either

in velocity selector
Only positive in
deflection chamber 

velocity selector
v = E/B 

v = 1.0 x 103 m/s

magnetic chamber 

r = mv/qB 

r = 1.5 x 10-4 m
d = 3.0 x 10-4 m

2. A hydrogen atom and a deuterium atom (an isotope of

hydrogen) move out of the velocity selector and into the
region of a constant 0.10 T magnetic field at point S, as
shown below. Each has a speed of 1.0 x 106 m/s.

Calculate where they each hit the photographic plate at P. 

Hydrogen = 0.20 m
Deuterium = 0.41 m

6 

(OHFWURPDJQHWLF,QGXFWLRQ

IB 12 

In 1819, Hans Christian Oersted discovered that a magnetic

compass experiences a force in the vicinity of an electric
current that is, that electric currents produce magnetic fields.
Because nature is often symmetric, this led many scientists to
believe that magnetic fields could also produce electric
currents, a concept known as HOHFWURPDJQHWLFLQGXFWLRQ.

Why does moving a wire through

a magnetic field induce a current
in the wire?

Free electrons in the wire are charged particles moving through

a magnetic field so there is a qvB force on them causing them to
move resulting in a current.

'HULYDWLRQRIIRUPXODIRU(0)LQGXFHGLQDPRYLQJZLUH
A straight conductor is moved at constant velocity perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field.
1. Electrons in the moving conductor
experience a downward magnetic
force and migrate to the lower end of
the conductor, leaving a net positive
charge at the upper end.

FB = qvB

2. As a result of this charge separation, an

electric field is built up in the
conductor.

3. Charge builds up until the downward

magnetic force is balanced by the
upward electric force due to the
electric field. At this point, the
charges stop flowing and are in
equilibrium.

FB = Fe
qvB = Eq
E = vB

4. Because of this charge separation, a

potential difference is set up across the
conductor.

LHR for electrons to show

direction of force

V = E d = E 
V= vB 
%Y

If the conductor is connected to a complete circuit, the induced emf will produce an induced current.
is equivalent to

$PRXQWRI&XUUHQW

'LUHFWLRQRI&XUUHQW

The amount of induced

current in the circuit is
given by

The direction of the induced emf

and induced current can be found
from the right hand rule for forces
to find the force on a positive
charge in the conductor.

%Y
=IR
I = Bv/R

7 

,
IB 12

7ZR2SSRVLQJ)RUFHV
,

Y

3DOPSXVKHVFXUUHQWXS
)% TY%
An applied force (Fapp) in the
direction of the velocity induces an
emf which causes current to be
pushed upwards. 

The magnetic force

acts to oppose the
applied force, like drag
or friction.

)%

3DOPSXVKHVEDUEDFN
)% %,O

At a constant speed,
Fapp = FB = BI

The induced current now

generates a magnetic field around
the moving bar that causes a
magnetic force (FB) on itself. 

Suppose a rod is moving at a constant speed of 5.0 m/s in a direction

perpendicular to a 0.80-T magnetic field as shown. The rod has a length
of 1.6m and negligible electrical resistance. The rails also have
negligible resistance. The light bulb, however, has a resistance of 96 :.
Find:
a) the emf produced by the motion of the rod 6.4 V

(b) the magnitude and direction of the induced current in the circuit

e) How much external force is applied to keep the rod

moving at this constant speed? 0.086 N

0.067 A CCW

c) the electrical power delivered to the bulb 0.43 W

f) How much work is done by the applied force in 60.0

seconds? 26 J

d) the energy used by the bulb in 60.0 s. 26 J

g) What happens to this work? Converted to electrical

energy

8 

0DJQHWLF)OX[

IB 12 

0DJQHWLF)OX[

6\PERO:

Number of field lines

8QLWVWeber (Wb)

)RUPXOD: B = / A

0DJQHWLF)OX['HQVLW\
ILHOGVWUHQJWKLQWHQVLW\

or

=BA

number of field lines per unit area

= T m2

6\PERO: B
8QLWV
Wb/m2 = T (tesla)

$QJOH'HSHQGHQFHRI)OX[ What is the amount of magnetic flux if the field lines are not perpendicular
to the cross-sectional area? Only the perpendicular component of the magnetic field contributes to the magnetic flux.
1RUPDOOLQH: line perpendicular to plane of cross-sectional area

)RUPXOD: = (B cos ) A = B A cos 

$QJOH: = angle between normal line and field lines

0DJQHWLF)OX[ product of the magnetic field strength and a cross-sectional area and the
cosine of the angle between the magnetic field and the QRUPDO to the area

)RUPXOD %$FRV

8QLWV7P

0DJQHWLFIOX[OLQNDJHPDJQHWLFIOX[OLQNLQJDFRLOproduct of magnetic flux through a coil

of wire and the number of turns of the wire
)RUPXOD1 1%$FRV

8QLWV7P

1. A single loop of wire whose cross-sectional area is 0.50 m2 is located in a 0.20 T

magnetic field as shown. Calculate the flux through the loop in each case.

a) 0.10 T m2

b) 0.050 T m2

c) 0
2. If the coil of wire in the above example consisted of 50 turns of the wire, calculate the amount of flux linking the coil in each case.

a) 5.0 Tm2

b) 2.5 T m2 c) 0
9 

(0),QGXFHGE\D7LPH&KDQJLQJ)OX[

Moving a magnet towards a coil will

increase the magnetic flux linking
the coil and will induce an emf and
a current in a certain direction.

Holding the magnet stationary will not

change the amount of magnetic flux
linking the coil and so will not induce
an emf or current.

IB 12 

Moving the magnet away from the coil

will decrease the magnetic flux linking
the coil and will induce an emf and a
current in the opposite direction.

Methods of inducing an EMF by a time-changing flux

2. Move magnet or coil

2. Rotate coil

1. Vary magnetic field

)DUDGD\V/DZ an induced emf is proportional to the rate of change of the flux linkage

)RUPXOD = - N (/t)
1. A coil of area 0.030 m2 with 300 turns of wire rotates as shown in 0.10 second in a
magnetic field of constant 0.25 T strength.
a) What is the magnitude of the induced emf? 11.3 V

b) What is the magnitude of the induced emf if the coil were stationary at 00 but the field
strength changed from 0.25 T to 0.60 T in 0.10 second? 22.5 V

10 

IB 12 

2. A 50 turn coil of wire of area 0.20 m2 is perpendicular to a magnetic field that varies
with time as shown by the graph.
a) Determine the emf induced in the coil during each time interval. 3 V, 0 V, -1.5 V

b) Sketch a graph of the induced emf vs. time. Emf = - derivative of flux

/HQ]V/DZ)LQGLQJWKH'LUHFWLRQRIWKH,QGXFHGHPI
/HQ]V/DZ  The direction of an induced emf is such that it produces a magnetic field whose flux
opposes the flux change that induced it.

(An emf will be induced so as to keep the net flux constant.)

a) Original flux change an increasing

flux induces an emf and current.

b) Induced flux opposes increasing

flux by pointing in opposite direction
thus current is in direction shown.

1. If the magnetic field linking this coil is decreasing

with time, in which direction is the induced current?

c) Result - two magnetic fields

acting to keep net flux constant.

2. The diagrams show a conducting ring that is placed in a uniform

magnetic field. Deduce the direction of the induced current in each
case if there is

(a) an increasing B field

(b) a decreasing B field

11

IB 12
3. If the current in the wire is increasing, in which
direction will there be an induced current in the
rectangular wire loop?

4. If the wire loop moves away from a steady current

in the straight wire, in which direction will there be
an induced current in the loop?

5. A conducting loop moves at a constant speed into and through a uniform magnetic field as shown in the diagram. Indicate
the direction of the induced current. Graph the flux through the loop and the induced emf as a function of time.

6. If a clockwise current through the primary

coil is increasing with time, what effect
will this have on the secondary coil?

7. Determine the direction of the

current in the solenoid in
each case.

8. Determine the direction(s) of

the induced current as the
magnet falls through the loop.

12 

$OWHUQDWLQJ&XUUHQW*HQHUDWRUV

IB 12 

Basic Operation:
1. coil of wire is turned by mechanical means in an external magnetic field

2. emf and current are induced in coil as coil cut flux lines

3. current varies in magnitude and direction as flux linkage changes

current and emf variations are sinusoidal
4. brushes and rings maintain contact with external circuit without getting
tangled

5RWDWLRQRID&RLOLQD8QLIRUP0DJQHWLF)LHOGLQGXFHVDQ(0)

As the coil rotates, the flux

linking it changes

3RVLWLRQ

0D[LPXP(0)DQG&XUUHQW
1. sides of coil cut field lines perpendicularly

2. plane of coil is parallel to field lines

3. normal to coil is perpendicular to field lines (900)

0LQLPXP(0)DQG&XUUHQW

3RVLWLRQ

Mark when the coil is in

positions 1 and 2.

Sketch the graph of the

induced current.

1.

sides of coil do not cut field lines perpendicularly

(move parallel to them)

2.

plane of coil is perpendicular to field lines

3.

normal to coil is parallel to field lines (00)

Sketch a graph of the induced emf for a coil with:

twice the frequency of rotation.

half the frequency of rotation.

13 

$OWHUQDWLQJ&XUUHQW
The output of an AC generator is an emf
that varies sinusoidally with time.

IB 12 

V0 = peak/ maximum voltage I0 = peak/ maximum current

V = Vo sin t

(where = 2f)

I = V/R so
I = (Vo/R) sin t = Io sin t

The power output of an AC generator

P=IV
P = (Io sin t)(Vo sin t)
P = Io Vo sin2 t

Maximum Power
Pmax = Io Vo

Average Power
Pav = Io Vo
= (Io/ rad 2)(Vo / rad2)

Pmax = 2 Pav

Root-Mean-Squared
values (RMS):

RMS Values
Irms = Io / rad 2
Vrms = Vo / rad 2

= Irms Vrms

The rms value of an alternating current (or voltage) is that value of the
direct current (or voltage) that dissipates power in a resistor at the same
rate.

1. In the USA, most household voltage is stated as 120 V at 60 Hz. This

is the root-mean-square voltage and the frequency of the AC voltage.
Calculate the maximum voltage and mark Vo, Vrms, on the graph.
Vo = 170 V

2. In Europe, the mains electricity is rated at 230 V. What is

the peak household voltage in Europe?

14 

IB 12
Rating: rms values are given as the AC values to be used in calculations, as if they were DC values

Formula:

R = V0/I0 = Vrms/Irms

1. A stereo receiver applies an AC voltage of 34 V to a speaker. The speaker behaves

approximately as if it has a resistance of 8.0 :, as the circuit figure indicates. Determine
a) the maximum voltage,

b) the rms current,

c) the average power for this circuit.

a) 48 V

b) 4.25 A

c) 145 W

2. A 100 W light bulb is designed to operate from a

120 VAC mains. Determine:

3. A maximum alternating voltage of 170 V is applied

across a 50 resistor. Determine:

a) the maximum power of the light bulb

a) the maximum current through the resistor

b) the maximum current drawn by the bulb

b) the average power dissipated by the resistor

a) 200 W

b) 1.2 A

a) 3.4 A

b) 289 W
15

7KH7UDQVIRUPHU

IB 12

According to Michael Faradays original experiment that first produced

electromagnetic induction, an emf and current were only induced in the
secondary coil when the switch in the primary coil was being opened or
closed, that is, when the current in the primary coil was changing (increasing
or decreasing).
No emf or current was induced in the secondary coil while the switch was
stationary in the open or closed position, that is, when the current was steady
or off.
Therefore, emf can only be induced in the secondary coil when the magnetic
field from the current in the primary coil is building up or dying down, that
is, while the magnetic flux is changing.

7UDQVIRUPHUa device that increases or decreases AC voltage.

6WUXFWXUHDQGRSHUDWLRQRIDWUDQVIRUPHU

<RXU7XUQ

1. An alternating potential difference (VP) applied across the primary coil creates an alternating current in the primary coil.
2. This creates an alternating magnetic field (time-changing flux) in the primary coil.

3. The soft iron core concentrates the magnetic flux from the primary coil and links it with the secondary coil.

4. The time-changing flux in the secondary coil induces a secondary alternating emf (VS).

7UDQVIRUPHUIRUPXOD

P = VP = -NP (/t)

6WHS8S7UDQVIRUPHU:
If NS > NP, then VS > VP and voltage increases
from primary to secondary

S = VS = -NS (/t)
since flux changes are identical

93 96 1316

6WHS'RZQ7UDQVIRUPHU:
If NS < NP, then VS < VP and voltage decreases
from primary to secondary
16

Voltage and turns in same ratio

IB 12
How can the voltage increase or decrease without violating the conservation of energy principle?
The power input at the primary equals the power output at the secondary. (This assumes 100% efficiency

and such a transformer is termed an LGHDOWUDQVIRUPHU.)

,GHDO7UDQVIRUPHU)RUPXOD
PP = PS
VP IP = VS IS
VP/ VS = IS / IP
Voltage and current in inverse ratio

1. A 120 VAC wall outlet is used to run a small electronic appliance with a
resistance of 2.0 , as shown in the diagram.
a) Is the transformer a step-up or step-down transformer? Cite evidence for
your answer.

b) How much voltage does the device need?

c) If the current in the primary coil is 150 mA, how much

current does the device use? Assume an ideal transformer.

a) down b) 6 V c) 3 A
Real Transformers

Reasons for power losses in real transformers

1. resistance of wires in P and S coils causes heating of coils

Ps < PP
eff = Ps / PP

2. not all flux from P coil is linked to S coil

3. core warms up as result of cycles of flux changes (hysteresis)

Modern transformers are

up to 99% efficient

4. small currents are induced in core (eddy currents) reduce by lamination

17

IB 12 

2. The figure shows a step-down transformer used to light a

filament lamp with a resistance of 4.0 under operating
conditions. The secondary coil has an effective resistance of
0.2 and the primary current is 150 mA. Calculate:
a) the reading on the voltmeter with switch S open 12 V

d) the power taken from the mains supply 36 W

b) the current in the secondary coil with switch S closed 2.86 A

e) the efficiency of the transformer 95%

c) the power dissipated in the lamp and the secondary coil

3.27 W and 1.6 W

+HDOWKDQG6DIHW\&RQFHUQVDVVRFLDWHGZLWK+LJK9ROWDJH3RZHU/LQHV
1. Extra-low-frequency electromagnetic fields, such as those produced by electrical appliances and power
lines, induce currents within a human body.
Just as AC can induce emfs and currents in secondary coils, so to can they be induced in the human

body since it is a conducting medium

Changing magnetic field induces current in human body

2. Current research suggests that low-frequency fields do not harm genetic material.

f = 60 Hz individual photons of this frequency do not have enough energy to cause ionization in the body
childhood leukemia clusters are suspected to have a link to living near overhead power cables
3. The risks attached to the inducing of current in the human body are not well-understood.
Risks are likely to be dependent on current density, frequency, and length of exposure

18 

3RZHU7UDQVPLVVLRQ

IB 12

Power loss in transmission lines

When current flows through a wire, some energy is lost to the surroundings as the wire heats up due to the
collisions between the free electrons in the current and the lattice ions of the wire. This is known as -RXOH
KHDWLQJor UHVLVWLYHKHDWLQJ. Since the energy lost per second, or power loss, is proportional to the square of
the current (P = I2 R), this energy loss is also know as I2R loss.

Methods of reducing I2R loss in power transmission lines

1. Reduce resistance: thicker cables low resistivity material

Constraints: lengths are fixed, thicker cables are heavier and more expensive

2. Increase voltage: step voltage up to very high levels

Constraints: high voltages are dangerous must be stepped back down for household use

For economic reasons, there is no ideal value of voltage for electrical transmission. Typical values are shown below.
1. AC power is generated at a power plant at 12,000 V and then stepped
up to 240,000 V by step-up transformers.
2. The high-voltage, low-current power is sent via high-voltage
transmission lines long distances.
3. In local neighborhoods, the voltage is stepped-down (and current is
stepped-up) to 8000 V at substations.
4. This voltage is stepped-down even further at transformers on utility
poles on residential streets.

An average of 120 kW of power is delivered to a suburb from a power plant that is 10 km away. The transmission
lines have a total resistance of 0.40 . Calculate the power loss if the transmission voltage is
a) 240 V

a) 240,000 V

I = 500 A P = 100 kW

I = 0.50 A P = 0.10 W

19 

(OHFWURVWDWLFV

IB 12

1) electric charge: 2 types of electric charge: positive and negative

2) charging by friction: transfer of electrons from one object to another

3) positive object: lack of electrons

negative object: excess of electrons

4) Types of materials:
a) &RQGXFWRUV: materials in which electric charges move freely (e.g. metals, graphite)
b) ,QVXODWRUV: materials in which electric charges do not move freely (e.g. plastic, rubber, dry wood, glass, ceramic)
c) 6HPLFRQGXFWRUV: materials with electrical properties between those of conductors and insulators (e.g. silicon)
d) 6XSHUFRQGXFWRUV: materials in which electrical charges move without resistance (e.g. some ceramics at very low temperatures)

3URSHUWLHVRI$WRPLF
3DUWLFOHV
H = elementary unit of
charge (magnitude of
charge on electron)

Particle

Mass

Electric Charge

Electron

PH [ NJ

T H
T [&

Proton

PS [ NJ

T H
T [&

Neutron

PQ [ NJ

T 
T &

H = 1.60 x 10-19 C

1. A balloon has gained 2500 electrons after being rubbed with wool. What is the charge on the balloon?
What is the charge on the wool?

q = -4.0 x 10-16 C
q = +4.0 x 10-16 C

2. A rubber rod acquires a charge of -4.5 C. How many excess electrons does this represent?

2.8125 x 1013 e

&RQVHUYDWLRQRI(OHFWULF&KDUJH The total electric charge of an isolated system remains constant.

(OHFWULF)RUFH(OHFWURVWDWLF)RUFH&RXORPE)RUFH

IB 12 

&RXORPEV/DZ The electric force between two point charges is directly proportional to the product
of the two charges and inversely proportional to square of the distance between them, and directed along
the line joining the two charges.

&RXORPE)RUFH

T1T2
)H N 2
U

k = Coulomb constant
(electrostatic constant)
k = 8.99 x 109 Nm2 C -2

NOTE: +-F denotes direction of force not sign of charge

Point charge: a charged object that acts as if all its charge is concentrated at a single point
Alternate formula for
Coulomb force:

)H 

1 T1T2
4SH 0 U2

)H 

T1T2
4SH 0 U 2

k = 1/ 40
0 = permittivity of free space
= 8.85 x 10-12 C2 N-1 m -2

Use the Coulomb force to estimate the speed of the electron in a hydrogen atom.

2 

7KH3ULQFLSOHRI6XSHUSRVLWLRQ

IB 12 

The net electric force acting on a charged particle is the vector sum of all the electric forces acting on it.

1. Determine the net electrostatic force on charge q1, as shown below.

2. Where can a third charge of +1.0 C be placed so that the

net force acting on it is zero?

3. Three point charges of 

-2.0 C are arranged

as shown. Determine
the magnitude and
direction of the net
force on charge T.

D = 2/3 m

(OHFWULF)LHOG

IB 12

Electric field: a region in space surrounding a charged object in which a second

charged object experiences an electric force
Test charge: a small positive charge used to test an electric field

1. Positively charged sphere

(OHFWULF)LHOG'LDJUDPV
2. Positive point charge

3. Negative point charge

Radial Field: field lines are extensions of radii

5. Two positive charges

8. Oppositely charged parallel plates

6. Two negative charges

7. Two unlike charges

3URSHUWLHVRI(OHFWULF)LHOG/LQHV

1. Never cross
2. Show the direction of force on a small
positive test charge
3. Out of positive, into negative
4. Direction of electric field is tangent to
the field lines

Uniform Field: field has same intensity at all

spots
Edge Effect: bowing of field lines at edges

5. Density of field lines is proportional

to field strength (density = intensity)
6. Perpendicular to surface
7. Most intense near sharp points

(OHFWULF)LHOG6WUHQJWK

IB 12 

(OHFWULF)LHOG6WUHQJWK,QWHQVLW\electric force exerted per unit charge on a small positive test charge

Electric Field:

)H
( 
T
Units: N/C

Electric Force:

)H (T

Electric Field for a Point Charge:

N

(

4T
U 2 N 4  1 4
T
U2 4SH 0 U2

Units: N
6SKHULFDO
&RQGXFWRU

3RLQW&KDUJH

1. a) Find the magnitude and direction of the electric field at

a spot 0.028 meter away from a sphere whose charge
is +3.54 microcoulombs and whose radius is 0.60
centimeters. 

2. a) Find the magnitude and direction of the gravitational field at

an altitude of 100 km above the surface of the Earth.

b) Find the magnitude and direction of the electric force

acting on a -7.02 nC charge placed at this spot.

b)

Find the magnitude and direction of the gravitational force

exerted on a 6.0 kg bowling ball placed at this spot.

c) Find the electric field strength at the surface of the sphere.

c) Find the gravitational field strength at the surface of the Earth.

5 

3. a) Find the magnitude and direction of the net electric field halfway between the two charges shown below.

IB 12

b) Determine the electric force on a proton placed at this spot.

4. Two charged objects, $ and %, each contribute as follows to the net electric field at point 3: ($ = 3.00 N/C directed to the right, and (%=
downward. What is the net electric field at 3?

E = 3.61 N/C
Theta =33.70

5. a) Two positive point charges, T1 = +16 PC and T2 = +4.0 PC, are separated in a vacuum by a distance of 3.0 m.
Find the spot on the line between the charges where the net electric field is zero.

6 

6. A proton is released from rest near the positive plate. The distance between the plates is
3.0 mm and the strength of the electric field is 4.0 x 103 N/C. 

IB 12

a) Describe the motion of the proton. 

constant acceleration in a straight line

b) Write an expression for the acceleration of the proton.

c) Find the time it takes the proton to reach the negative plate.

d) Find the speed of the proton when it reaches the negative plate.

7. A particle is shot with an initial speed through the two parallel plates as shown.
a) Sketch and describe the path it will take if it is a proton, an electron, or a neutron.
b) Which particle will experience a greater force?

c) Which particle will experience a greater acceleration?

d) Which particle will experience a greater displacement?

8. In the figure, an electron enters the lower left side of a parallel plate capacitor and
exits at the upper right side. The initial speed of the electron is 5.50106 m/s. The
plates are 3.50 cm long and are separated by 0.450 cm. Assume that the electric
field between the plates is uniform everywhere and find its magnitude.

7 

(OHFWULF3RWHQWLDO(QHUJ\

IB 12 

*UDYLWDWLRQDO3RWHQWLDO(QHUJ\(3

High amount of EP

Reason for EP:

1. Test object has mass (test mass = m)
2. Test mass is in a gravitational field (g) caused by larger object (M)
3. Larger object exerts a gravitational force on test mass (Fg = mg)
Low amount of EP
4. Test mass has tendency to move to base level due to force
5. Work done moving object between two positions is path independent.
Base level
where EP = 0

Gravitational potential energy:

EP = mgh
W = EP = mg h

(OHFWULF3RWHQWLDO(QHUJ\(3
Reason for EP:
High amount of EP

1. Test object has charge (test charge = +q)

2. Test charge is in an electric field caused by larger object (Q)
3. Larger object exerts an electric force on test charge (FE = Eq)

Low amount of EP

4. Test charge has tendency to move to base level due to force

5. Work done moving object between two positions is path independent.

Electric potential energy:

EP = Eq h
W = EP = Eq h

Base level
where EP = 0

(OHFWULF3RWHQWLDO(QHUJ\(3 the work done in bringing a small positive test charge in from infinity to
that point in the electric field
Derivation for Point Charges

EP = 0

(Work done by field)

(3 : )V cosT
(3 (T'V 
U
N4
(3  ( 2 T)GV
f
V

Electric Potential Energy due to a point charge

Formula:

Units:

Type:

scalar

(3 

N4T
V f

(3 

N4T

U

(3

N4T
U

IB 12
(OHFWULF3RWHQWLDO9 work done per unit charge moving a small positive test charge in from
infinity to a point in an electric field.
(OHFWULF3RWHQWLDOGXHWRDSRLQWFKDUJH

N4T
(3
Formula:
9
 U
T
T
N4
4
9

U 4SH 0 U

Units:

(3 T9

%
Higher potential

Lower potential

%

1. a) Calculate the potential at a point

2.50 cm away from a +4.8 C
charge.

J/C
= volts(V)

$
Lower potential

Type:
scalar

Zero potential

Zero potential

Higher potential

b) How much potential energy

will an electron have if it is at
this spot?

3. What is the potential where a

proton is placed 0.96 m from
a -1.2 nC charge?

IB 12

3RLQW&KDUJHV

4

4

4

4

(OHFWULF)LHOG

(OHFWULF3RWHQWLDO(QHUJ\

(OHFWULF 3RWHQWLDO

Two objects needed

interaction between the two

One object needed property

of that one object

Two objects needed quantity

possessed by the system

One object needed property of

the field

Magnitude: F = Eq

Magnitude: E = F/q

Magnitude: EP = qV

Magnitude: V = EP/q

(OHFWULF)RUFH

F = kQq/r2

E = kQ/r2

= kQq/r

V = kQ/r

Units: N

Units: N/C

Units: J

Units: J/C

Type: vector

Type: vector

Type: scalar (+/-)

Direction: likes repel,

unlikes attract

Direction: away from

positive, towards negative

Type: scalar (+/-)

E
Sign: use signs of Q and q

Sign: dont use when

calculating check frame of
reference

Sign: dont use when

calculating check frame of
reference

F = 0 where E = 0

Sign: use sign of Q

EP = 0 where V = 0
10

IB 12
1. a) Calculate the net electric field at each spot (A and B):

b) Calculate the net electric force on a proton placed at each spot.

2. a) Calculate the net electric potential at each spot (A and B):

b) Calculate the electric potential energy of a proton placed at

each spot.

11 

(OHFWULF3RWHQWLDODQG&RQGXFWRUV

IB 12

1. all the charge resides on the outside

surface
2. the electric field is zero everywhere within

Value at surface = kQ/r2

Electric Potential

For a hollow or solid conductor,

Electric Field Strength

*UDSKVIRUDVSKHULFDOFRQGXFWRU

3. the external electric field acts as if all the

charge is concentrated at the center
4. the electric potential is constant ( 0)
everywhere within and equal to the
potential at the surface

radius

radius
Distance

Distance

A spherical conducting surface whose radius is 0.75 m has a net charge of +4.8 C.
a) What is the electric field at the center of the sphere?

b) What is the electric field at the surface of the sphere?

c) What is the electric field at a distance of 0.75 m from the surface of the sphere?

d) What is the electric potential at the surface of the sphere?

e) What is the electric potential at the center of the sphere?

f) What is the electric potential at a distance of 0.75 m from the surface of the sphere?

12 

(TXLSRWHQWLDO6XUIDFHV

IB 12 

(TXLSRWHQWLDOVXUIDFH: a surface on which the electric potential is the same everywhere

1. Locate points that are at the same

electric potential around each of
the point charges shown.
2. Sketch in the electric field lines
for each point charge.
3. What is the relationship between
the electric field lines and the
equipotential surfaces?

Perpendicular 

Field lines point in direction 

of decreasing potential 

(OHFWULF3RWHQWLDO*UDGLHQW

Formula:

The electric field strength is the negative of the

electric potential gradient.

'9
(  
'[

Units: N/c or V/m

For each electric field shown, sketch in equipotential surfaces.

Sketch in equipotential surfaces for the two configurations of point charges below.

13 
http://wps.aw.com/aw_young_physics_11/0,8076,898593-,00.html

http://www.surendranath.org/Applets.html

(OHFWULF3RWHQWLDO'LIIHUHQFH

IB 12

(OHFWULF3RWHQWLDO'LIIHUHQFH9work done per unit charge moving a small positive test charge
between two points in an electric field

Formula:

'9
'9

Units:
J/C = V

:

T
'(3
T

'(
 3 T'9

+LJKDQG/RZ3RWHQWLDO
1. a) Which plate is at a higher electric potential? positive
b) Which plate is at a lower electric potential? negative
c) What is the electric potential of each plate? Arbitrary relative to base level
d) What is the potential difference between the plates? Not arbitrary depends
on charge, distance between, strength of electric field, geometry of plates, etc.

Mark plates with example potentials, as well as

spots within field
Mark ground mark equipotentials

e) Where will: a proton have the most electric potential energy?

an electron?

a neutron?

an alpha particle? Not arbitrary

2. An electron is released from rest near the negative plate and allowed to accelerate until it
hits the positive plate. The distance between the plates is 2.00 cm and the potential
difference between them is 100. volts.
a) Calculate how fast the electron strikes the positive plate.

Eo = Ef

Ee = EK

qV = mv2

v = sqrt (2qV/m) 

v = sqrt(2(1.6 x 10-19)(100 V) 

/(9.11 x 10-31)) 

v = 5.9 x 106 m/s

Formula:
qV = mv2
Ve = mv2

b) Calculate the strength of the electric field.

Formula:
E = -V/x
E = V/d

14 

7KH(OHFWURQYROW

IB 12

(OHFWURQYROW: energy gained by an electron moving through a potential difference of one volt

Derivation:

Ee = qV
Ee = (1e)(1 V) = 1 eV

Ee = (1.6 x 10-19 C)( 1 V)

Ee = 1.6 x 10-19 J
Therefore:
1 eV = 1.60 x 10-19 J

1. How much energy is gained by a proton moving through a potential difference of 150. V?

150 eV

or 150(1.60 x 10-19) = 2.4 x 10-17 J

2. A charged particle has 5.4 x 10-16 J of energy. How many electronvolts of energy is this?

Factor-label
(5.4 x 10-16 J) (1 eV/1.6 x 10-19) = 3375 eV
3. An electron gains 200 eV accelerating from rest in a uniform electric field of 150 N/C. Calculate the final speed of the electron.

4. In Rutherfords famous scattering experiments (which led to the planetary model of the atom), alpha particles were fired toward
a gold nucleus with charge +79H. An alpha particle, initially very far from the gold nucleus, is fired at 2.00 107 m/s directly
toward the gold nucleus. Assume the gold nucleus remains stationary. How close does the alpha particle get to the gold
nucleus before turning around? (the distance of closest approach)

2.74 x 10-14 m

15 

(QHUJ\DQG3RZHU

IB 12 

3RZHU*HQHUDWLRQLQDW\SLFDOHOHFWULFDOSRZHUSODQW
a) Some fuel is used (coal, natural gas, oil, uranium) to
release thermal energy which is used to boil water to
make steam.
b) *HQHUDWRU'\QDPR - Steam turns turbines attached
to coils of wire which turn in a magnetic field inducing
an alternating potential difference.
c) Potential difference is stepped up by transformers in
order to reduce I2R loss of power in transmission lines
then stepped down for consumer use.

What are the energy transformations that take place?

Chemical
(nuclear)
energy in fuel

Thermal energy hot

gases go out
chimney/stack

thermal
energy in
steam

rotational
mechanical
energy/kinetic
energy in
turbine

Thermal energy
radiation and convection
from boiler

electrical

energy in

generator

Thermal energy friction

in the generator

Degraded energy: energy transferred to the surroundings that is no longer available to do

useful work cant be converted into other forms

1 

IB 12 
Why does the generation of electrical power involve the degradation of energy?
1. Thermal energy can be completely
converted to work in a single process.

2. A continuous conversion of thermal energy

into work requires a cyclical process.

Example:
isothermal
expansion
Q = U + W
U = 0
so Q = W

6HFRQG/DZRI7KHUPRG\QDPLFV
1) The total entropy of the universe is increasing.
2) No cyclical process (engine) is ever 100% efficient. Some energy is transferred
out of the system (lost to the surroundings) as unusable energy (degraded energy).

7\SLFDO
(IILFLHQF\

)XHO

6DQNH\GLDJUDPVHQHUJ\IORZGLDJUDPV: used to keep track of 

energy transfers and transformations 

Coal

30-35%

1) Thickness of arrow is proportional to amount of energy.

Natural Gas

50%

2) Degraded energy points away from main flow of energy.

Oil

30-35%

3) Total energy in = total energy out.

Input
100%
Chemical
energy

Fuel

boiler

Output
30%
Electrical energy

dynamo

10%
Thermal energy
Friction in dynamo

40%
Thermal energy 

exhaust gas out 

chimney 

20%
Thermal energy 

boiler 

)XHOV

IB 12

Fuel: source of energy (in a useful form)

How does a fuel work? A fuel releases energy by changing its chemical (or nuclear) structure. Chemical (or nuclear)
bonds are broken reducing the fuels internal potential energy but increasing the kinetic energy of the substances particles
which is seen macroscopically as an increase in the temperature of the substance. It is this thermal energy that is used to
heat the water that will change to steam to turn the generators turbines.

Fossil fuels: coal, oil, natural gas, peat

Origins of fossil fuels: organic matter decomposed under conditions of high temperature and
pressure over millions of years

Non-renewable fuels: rate of production of fuel is much smaller than rate of usage so fuel will
be run out - limited supply

Renewable fuels: resource that cannot be used up or is replaced at same rate as being used

7\SHRIIXHO

5HQHZDEOH"

&2
HPLVVLRQV"

Fossil fuels

No

Yes

Nuclear

No

No

Hydroelectric

Yes

No

Wind

Yes

No

Solar

Yes

No

Wave

Yes

No

This histogram shows the relative

proportions of world use of the different
types of energy sources, though it will
vary from country to country.

NOTE: In most instances, the prime energy source for world energy is . . . the Sun.
Exceptions: nuclear, tidal (Moon)

3

)RVVLO)XHO3RZHU3URGXFWLRQ

IB 12

Historical and geographical reasons for the widespread use of fossil fuels:
1. industrialization led to a higher rate of energy usage (Industrial Revolution)
2. industries developed near large deposits of fossil fuels (coal towns)
Transportation and storage considerations:
1. Natural gas is usually transported and stored in pipelines.
$GYDQWDJHV cost effective
'LVDGYDQWDJHV unsightly, susceptible to leaks, explosions, terrorist
activities, political instability (withholding use of pipelines or
terminals for political reasons)
2. Many oil refineries are located near the sea close to large cities. Oil is
transported via ships, trucks, and pipelines.
$GYDQWDJHV workforce and infrastructure in place, easy access to shipping
'LVDGYDQWDJHV oil spills and leakage, hurricanes, terrorist activities

3. Power stations using coal and steel mills are usually located near coal mines.
$GYDQWDJHV minimizes shipping costs
'LVDGYDQWDJHV environmental impact (strip mining), mine cave-ins

8VHRIIRVVLOIXHOVIRUJHQHUDWLQJHOHFWULFLW\
$GYDQWDJHV

'LVDGYDQWDJHV

1. high energy density

1. combustion produces pollution, especially SO2 (acid rain)

2. relatively easy to transport

2. combustion produces greenhouse gases (CO2)

3. cheap compared to other sources

3. extraction (mining, drilling) damages environment

4. power stations can be built anywhere

4. nonrenewable

5. can be used in the home

5. coal-fired plants need large amounts of fuel

4

IB 12 

(QHUJ\GHQVLW\RIDIXHOthe ratio of the energy

released from the fuel to the mass of the fuel consumed

Formula: De = E/m

)XHO
Fusion fuel
Uranium-235
Natural gas
Gasoline (Petrol)
Diesel
Biodiesel
Crude oil
Coal
Sugar
Wood
Cow dung
Household waste

Units: J/kg

Use: to compare different types of fuels

How is choice of fuel influenced by energy density?

Fuels with higher energy density cost less to
transport and store

(QHUJ\'HQVLW\
0-NJ
300,000,000
90,000,000
53.6
46.9
45.8
42.2
41.9
32.5
17.0
17.0
15.5
10

1. An oil-fired power station produces 1000 MW of power.

a) How much energy will the power station produce in one day?
(
W

( 3W 
3 

( (1000 x 106:)(24 [3600)

( 8.6 [1013 -

b) Estimate how much oil the power station needs each day.
HII

useful out (RXW


total in
(LQ

'H 

(
P
- 2.46 [1014 NJ
P

8.6 [1013 -
.35 
(LQ

41.9 [106

(LQ 2.46 [1014 -

P 5.9 [106 NJ

5 

IB 12 
2. A 250 MW coal-fired power plant burns coal with an energy density of 35 MJ/kg. Water enters
the cooling tower at a temperature of 350 K and leaves at a temperature of 293 K and the water
flows through the cooling tower at a rate of 4200 kg/s.
a) Calculate the thermal energy removed from the water in the cooling towers each second.
4 PF'7
4 (4200NJ )(4.19 [10
3

)(350 293)
NJ.

4 1.0 [109 -

(
W
1.0 [109 -
3 

1V

3 1.0 [109: 10000:

3 

b) Assuming the only significant loss of energy is this thermal energy of the water, calculate
the energy produced by the combustion of coal each second.
(LQ (RXW
(LQ 1000 MJ + 250 MJ
E LQ 12500-

c) Calculate the mass of coal burned each second.

HII

useful out 3RXW


total in
3LQ

2500:
HII 
12500:
HII .20

(
'H 
P
1250 [106 -
6 -
35 [10


NJ
P

P 36NJ


1XFOHDU(QHUJ\

IB 12 

Most common source: fissioning of uranium-235 with conversion of some mass into energy
Process:
a) unstable uranium nucleus is bombarded with a 

neutron and splits into two smaller nuclei and 

some neutrons 

Why use neutrons? Neutral, not repelled by

nucleus
b) rest mass of products is less than reactants so 

some matter is converted into energy 

Form of energy: KE of products (thermal energy)

235
92

92
1
8 10 Qo141
%D

.U
3
56
36
0Q

c) released neutrons strike other uranium nuclei 

causing further fissions 

1) A particular nuclear reactor uses uranium-235 as its fuel source. When a nucleus of uranium-235
absorbs a neutron, the following reaction can take place:
235
92

90
1
8 10 Qo144
54 ;H 38 6U [0 Q

a) How many neutrons are produced in the reaction? 2

b) Use the information to show that the energy released in the reaction is approximately 180 MeV.

rest mas of

8 2.1895 x 105 MeV c 2

235
92

rest mas of 10 Q 939.56 MeV c 2

2
5
rest mas of 144
54 ;H 1.3408 x 10 MeV c
2
5
rest mas of 90
38 6U 8.3749 x 10 MeV c

7 

IB 12 

2. The energy released by one atom of carbon-12 during combustion is approximately 4 eV. The
energy released by one atom of uranium-235 during fission is approximately 180 MeV.
a) Based on this information, determine the ratio of the energy density of uranium-235 to that

of carbon-12. (Then, check your answer with the given table of energy densities.)

PDVV=

1
x molar mass
1 $

PDVV=

1
x .235 kg
6.02 [ 1023
mass=3.90x1025 NJ

1
x .012 kg
6.02 [1023
mass=1.99x1026 NJ

mass =

mass =

180 [106 H9 1.60


[1019 -
11

 2.88 [10  -
1
1H9




11

' H

2.88 [ 10 7.38 [1013 -/ NJ

25
3.90 [10 NJ


7.38 [107 0- / NJ

'H U-235
'H C-12

1
x molar mass

1 $

19
4H9 1.60 [10 - 
19
6.40 [10 

1  1H9

6.40 [1019 -
'H 
3.22 [107 -/ NJ
26
1.99 [10 NJ

32.20-/ NJ

7.38 [107
2.3[106
32.2

b) Based on your answer above, suggest one advantage of uranium-235 compared

with fossil fuels.
Higher energy density implies that uranium will produce more energy per
kilogram less fuel needed to produce the same amount of energy

1XFOHDU)XHODQG5HDFWRUV

IB 12

Naturally Occurring Isotopes of Uranium:

1) 8UDQLXP most abundant (99.3%) but not used for fuel since it has a very small probability
of fissioning when it captures a neutron.
2) 8UDQLXP rare (0.3%) but used for fuel since it has a much greater probability of fissioning
when captures a neutron but must be a low-energy neutron (thermal neutron).
7KHUPDO1HXWURQ low-energy neutron (1eV) that favors fission reactions energy comparable
to gas particles at normal temperatures

)XHO(QULFKPHQW process of increasing proportion of uranium-235 in a

sample of uranium

1) formation of gaseous uranium (uranium hexafluoride)

from uranium ores
2) separated in gas centrifuges by spinning heavier U-238
moves to outside
3) increases proportion of U-235 to about 3-5% of total (low
enrichment)
4) This low enriched hex is compressed and turned into solid
uranium-oxide fuel pellets which are packed into tubes
called IXHOURGV which will be used in the core of a
nuclear reactor.
$GYDQWDJH More uranium is available for fission and a chain
reaction can be sustained in a reactor to produce nuclear energy.
'LVDGYDQWDJH If the fuel is enriched to a high level (90% =
weapons grade) it can be used in the core of a nuclear weapon.
Possession of nuclear weapons is seen by many to be a threat to
world peace.

IB 12 

&KDLQ5HDFWLRQ neutrons released from one fission reaction go on

to initiate further reactions

Uncontrolled Chain Reaction

Uncontrolled nuclear fission: nuclear weapons

Controlled nuclear fission: nuclear power production

1) Some material (control rod) absorbs excess neutrons before

they strike another nucleus.

Controlled Chain Reaction

2) This leaves only one neutron from each reaction to produce

another reaction.
3) If the total mass of uranium used is too small, too many
neutrons will escape without causing further fissions so the
reaction cannot be sustained.
&ULWLFDO0DVV minimum mass of radioactive fuel (uranium)
needed for a chain reaction to occur

7KH1XFOHDU5HDFWRU&RUH

)XHO5RGV enriched solid uranium

When neutrons are emitted from a fission reaction in the fuel rods, they
have a very high kinetic energy and will pass right out of the fuel rod
without colliding with another uranium nucleus to cause more fission.
High energy neutrons cannot sustain a chain reaction. Therefore, a
material is needed to slow them down. Typically, a material like water or
graphite (called a PRGHUDWRU) is used to slow down these high-energy
neutrons down to thermal levels (thermal neutrons 1 eV) for use in
further fission reactions to sustain the chain reaction. The high-energy
neutrons slow down when they collide with the atoms in the moderator.
To control the rate at which the thermal energy is produced, and
therefore to control the temperature of the reactor core, FRQWURO
URGV are used to speed up or slow down the chain reaction.
These are rods made of a neutron-absorbing substance, like
cadmium or boron. They are inserted in between the fuel rods
and raised or lowered as needed. If the reaction is proceeding
too fast (too hot) the rods are lowered and enough thermal
neutrons are absorbed to slow down the reaction to the desired
level. Conversely, if the reaction is too slow, the control rods
are raised allowing more thermal neutrons to collide with
uranium nuclei.
10 

IB 12 

How is the thermal energy released in the fission reactions used to generate electricity?
The FRRODQW (which is often the same as the moderator) is fluid circulating around the fuel rods in the
reactor core and is heated up by the thermal energy released in the fission chain reaction.
This coolant in a closed loop (primary loop) flows through pipes in a tank of water known as the KHDW
H[FKDQJHU Here the thermal energy of the hot coolant is transferred to cooler water in a secondary
loop which turns it to steam. This steam expands against fan blades of turbines and turns a magnet is a
coil of wire to generate electricity.
1. State the energy transformations in using nuclear fuels to generate electrical energy: 
Nuclear energy in fuel.thermal energy in coolant . . thermal energy in steam in heat exchangerrotational 
mechanical energy/kinetic energyelectrical energy in turbines

2. Sketch a Sankey
diagram for a typical
nuclear power plant.

11 

IB 12 
3. Suppose the average power consumption for a household is 500 W per day. Estimate the amount of
uranium-235 that would have to undergo fission to supply the household with electrical energy for a
year. State some assumptions made in your calculation.

Assume plant is 100% efficient 

Assume 200 MeV per fission 

12 

IB 12 

4. A fission reaction taking place in a nuclear power station might be:

235
92

92
1

810 Qo141
56 %D 36 .U 3
0
Q

Estimate the initial amount of uranium-235 needed to operate a 600 MW reactor for one
year assuming 40% efficiency and 200 MeV released for each fission reaction.

13 

3OXWRQLXPDQG1XFOHDU5HDFWRUV

IB 12

Plutonium-239 is another nuclide used as nuclear fuel because of the energy it releases when it undergoes
fission. However, it is not as naturally abundant as uranium and so it typically must be artificially
produced as a by-product of uranium fission. In a uranium-fueled reactor, as the U-235 depletes over
time, the amount of Pu-239 increases. This plutonium is then extracted (by reprocessing of the uranium
fuel rods) for use in a plutonium reactor or in a nuclear warhead.
How is plutonium-239 produced in a uranium reactor? It actually is produced from the nonfissionable isotope uranium-238 that occurs in large amounts in fuel rods. Uranium-238 doesnt
undergo nuclear fission but is considered fertile since it produces plutonium-239 by the following
process.
238
92

239
239
810 Qo92
8 o93
1S 01 H Q
239
1So94
3X01 H Q

239
94

3X Qo %D 6U4 Q

140
56

96
38

239
94

3X 239.052157X

rest mass of 10 Q 1.008665X

239
93

1
0

rest mass of

rest mass of 140

56 %D 139.910581X
1
0

rest mass of 96
38 6U 95.921750X

1. Complete the nuclear reactions listed above.

2. Construct a nuclear energy level diagram for
the series of nuclear reactions listed above.

3. Determine the amount of energy released

in the fissioning of plutonium-239.

P PP
0.19383 u = 180 MeV

Some uranium reactors are even specially designed to produce (or breed) large
amounts of plutonium and are known as EUHHGHUUHDFWRUV. They are designed so that
the fuel rods are surrounded by a blanket of U-238 so that neutrons escaping from the
U-235 fissions will induce the conversion of this U-238 to Pu-239.
14 

6DIHW\,VVXHVDQG5LVNVLQWKH3URGXFWLRQRI1XFOHDU3RZHU

IB 12 

8UDQLXP0LQLQJ
x RSHQFDVWPLQLQJ environmental damage, radioactive waste rock (tailings)
x XQGHUJURXQGPLQLQJ release of radon gas (mines need ventilation), radioactive rock is
dangerous for workers, radioactive waste rock (tailings)
x OHDFKLQJ Solvents are pumped underground to dissolve the uranium and then pumped back out.
This leads to contamination of groundwater.
7KHUPDO0HOWGRZQ
Overheating and melting of fuel rods may be caused by a malfunction in the cooling
system or the pressure vessel. This overheating may cause the pressure vessel to burst
sending radioactive material and steam into atmosphere (as in Chernobyl, Ukraine 1986).
Hot material may melt through floor (as in Three Mile Island, Pennsylvania 1979), a
scenario dubbed the China syndrome. The damage from these possible accidents is
often limited by a containment vessel and a containment building.
1XFOHDU:DVWH
x

/RZOHYHOZDVWH Radioactive material from mining, enrichment and operation of a plant

must be disposed of. Its often left encased in concrete.

+LJKOHYHOZDVWH a major problem is the disposal of spent fuel rods. Some isotopes have
lives of thousands of years. Plutoniums is 240,000 years.

1) Some are stored under water at the reactor site for several years to cool off then sealed
in steel cylinders and buried underground.
2) Some are reprocessed to remove any plutonium and useful uranium. The remaining
isotopes have shorter lives and the long-term storage need is reduced.
1XFOHDU:HDSRQV0DQXIDFWXUH
x Enrichment technology could be used to make weapons grade uranium (85%) rather than
fuel grade (3%)
x Plutonium is most used isotope in nuclear weapons and can be gotten from reprocessing
spent fuel rods
&RPSDULQJ1XFOHDU)XHOWR)RVVLO)XHO
$GYDQWDJHV
'LVDGYDQWDJHV

1. No global warming effect no CO2 emissions

1. Storage of radioactive wastes

2. Waste quantity is small compared with fossils fuels

2. Increased cost over fossil fuel plants

3. Higher energy density

3. Greater risks in an accident (due to

radioactive contamination)

4. Larger reserves of uranium than oil

15

1XFOHDU)XVLRQ

IB 12

1XFOHDU)XVLRQTwo light nuclei combine to form a more massive nucleus with the release of energy.

Naturally occurring fusion: main source of Suns energy fusion of

hydrogen to helium
A probable mechanism for the Suns fusion is called the SURWRQSURWRQFKDLQ.
1
1

+11 + o12 +10 H Q

1
1

+12 + o3

2 +H  J 

3
2

+H32 +Ho42 +H11 +11 +

This chain is sometimes

simplified to 

4+ o+HHQHUJ\

1. If the total mass of four hydrogen nuclei is 6.693 x 10-27 kg and the mass of a helium nucleus

is 6.645 x 10-27 kg, determine the energy released in this simplified fusion reaction.

4.3 x 10-12 J

2. The Sun has a radius 5 of 7.0 x 108 m and emits energy at a rate of 3.9 x 1026
W. The nuclear reactions take place in the spherical core of the Sun of radius 
0.255. Determine the number of nuclear reactions occurring per cubic meter 

per second in the core of the Sun. 

4.1 x 1012 m-3 s-1

16 

IB 12 

$UWLILFLDOO\LQGXFHGIXVLRQ
Attempts have been underway since the 1950s to build fusion reactors. Experimental reactors
have come very close to producing more energy than the amount of energy put in, but a
commercial fusion reactor has yet to be built.
3ODVPD The fuel for a fusion reactor is known as a SODVPD. This is a high energy ionized gas in
which the electrons and nuclei are separate. If the energy is high enough (that is, the plasma is hot
enough), nuclei can collide fast enough to overcome Coulomb repulsion and fuse together. Heating
the plasma to the required temperatures (10 million K) is challenging. The nuclei, since they are
charged, are accelerated by means of magnetic fields and forces to high kinetic energies (high
temperatures).
0DJQHWLFFRQILQHPHQW These charged particles are contained via magnetic fields and travel
in a circle in a doughnut shaped ring called a tokamak which an acronym of the Russian
phrase for toroidal chamber with magnetic coils (WRURLGDO
QD\DNDPHUDVPDJQLWQ\PL
NDWXVKNDPL).
3UREOHPVZLWKFXUUHQWIXVLRQWHFKQRORJ\
x

Maintaining and confining these very high-density and high-temperature plasmas for
any length of time is very difficult to do.

Experimental reactors that currently can achieve fusion use more energy input than
output which makes them not commercially efficient.

Comparison of Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion

1XFOHDUILVVLRQ

1XFOHDU)XVLRQ

6SOLWWLQJRIDKHDY\QXFOHXVLQWRWZRRUPRUHOLJKWQXFOHL

&RPELQDWLRQRIWZROLJKWQXFOHLWRIRUPDKHDY\QXFOHXV

7DNHVSODFHDWURRPWHPSHUDWXUH

5HTXLUHVDYHU\KLJKWHPSHUDWXUHHTXDOWR;

&RPSDUDWLYHO\OHVVDPRXQWRIHQHUJ\LVUHOHDVHG

(QRUPRXVDPRXQWRIHQHUJ\LVUHOHDVHG

)LVVLRQUHDFWLRQFDQEHFRQWUROOHGDQGWKHHQHUJ\

)XVLRQUHDFWLRQFDQQRWEHFRQWUROOHGDQGKHQFHWKHHQHUJ\

UHOHDVHGFDQEHXVHGWRJHQHUDWHHOHFWULFLW\

UHOHDVHGFDQQRWEHXVHGWRJHQHUDWHHOHFWULFLW\

,WLVDFKDLQUHDFWLRQ

,WLVQRWDFKDLQUHDFWLRQ

,WOHDYHVEHKLQGUDGLRDFWLYHZDVWHV

,WGRHVQRWOHDYHEHKLQGDQ\UDGLRDFWLYHZDVWHV



&

17 

6RODU3RZHU
6RODUKHDWLQJSDQHODFWLYHVRODUKHDWHU
converts light energy from Sun into thermal
energy in water run through it

Use: heating and hot water

IB 12
3KRWRYROWDLFFHOOVRODUFHOO converts light
energy from Sun into electrical energy

Use: electricity

Advantages of solar heating panel over solar cell: requires less (storage) area, less cost, more
efficient

The amount (intensity) of sunlight varies with:

a) time of day
b) season (angle of incidence of sunlight altitude of Sun in sky Earths distance from Sun)
c) length of day
d) latitude (thickness of atmosphere)
Which way should a solar panel or cell be facing in the Northern hemisphere? Why?
South to receive Maximum radiation from the sun to provide maximum energy for whole day

$GYDQWDJHV

'LVDGYDQWDJHV
1. Large area needed to collect energy

1. Renewable source of energy

2. Only provides energy during daylight
2. Source of energy is free
3. No global warming effect no CO2 emissions

3. Amount of energy varies with season,

location and time of day

4. No harmful waste products

4. High initial costs to construct/install

18 

IB 12 

1. An active solar heater whose efficiency is 32% is used to heat 1400 kg of water from 200 C to 500 C. The average power
received from the Sun in that location is 0.90 kW per m2.
a) How much energy will the solar heater need to provide to heat the water?

b) How much energy will be needed from the Sun to heat the water?

c) Calculate the area of the solar heater necessary to heat the water in 2.0 hours.

2. A photovoltaic cell with an area of 0.40 m2 is placed in a position where the intensity of the Sun is 1.0 kW/m2.
a) If the cell is 15% efficient, how much power does it produce?

b) If the potential difference across the cell is 5.0 mV, how much current does it produce?

c) Compare placing 10 of these solar cells in series and in parallel.

19

:LQG3RZHU

IB 12

Basic features of a horizontal axis wind turbine: 

a) Tower to support rotating blades. 
b) Blades that can be rotated to face into the wind. 
c) Generator. 
d) Storage system or connection to a distribution grid. 
Energy transformations: 
Solar energy heating Earth . . . Kinetic energy of air . . .
kinetic energy of turbine . . electrical energy

1. Determine the
power
delivered by a
wind
generator:

2. Reasons why power formula is an estimate:

a) Not all KE of wind is transformed into
mechanical energy
b) Wind speed varies over course of year
c) Density of air varies with temperature
d) Wind not always directed at 900 to blades

.( 1/ 2PY 2
P=
W
W
1P 2
3
Y
2 W 
1 U9  2 
3

 Y
2 W

1 U $G 2

Y
2 W 
1
3
 UY  Y2 
2
1
$U Y3
3
2


3. Why is it impossible to extract this maximum
amount of power from the air?
a) Speed of air cannot drop to zero after 
impact with blades 
b) Frictional losses in generator and 

turbulence around blades 

4. Why are turbines not placed near one another?

a) Less KE available for next turbine

b) Turbulence reduces efficiency of next turbine

20 

IB 12 

1. A wind turbine has a rotor diameter of 40 m and the speed of the wind is 25 m/s on a day when the air density is 1.3 kg/m3.
Calculate the power that could be produced if the turbine is 30% efficient.

2. A wind generator is being used to power a solar heater pump. If the power of the solar heater pump is 0.50 kW, the
average local wind speed is 8.0 m/s and the average density pf air is 1.1 kg/m3, deduce whether it would be
possible to power the pump using the wind generator.

$GYDQWDJHV

1. Renewable source of energy

'LVDGYDQWDJHV

1. Large land area needed to collect energy since

many turbines are needed

2. Source of energy is free

2. Unreliable since output depends on wind speed
3. No global warming effect no CO2 emissions
3. Site is noisy and may be considered unsightly
4. No harmful waste products
4. Expensive to construct
21

:DYH3RZHU

IB 12

Energy can be extracted from water waves in many ways.

One such scheme is shown here.
2VFLOODWLQJ:DWHU&ROXPQ2:& ocean wave energy
converter:

1. Wave capture chamber is set into rock face on land 

where waves hit the shore. 

2. Tidal power forces water into a partially filled 

chamber that has air at the top. 

3. This air is alternately compressed and decompressed 

by the oscillating water column. 

4. These rushes of air drive a turbine which generates 

electrical energy. 

Energy transformations:
Kinetic energy of water . . . Kinetic energy of air . . . kinetic energy of turbine . . electrical energy

Determining the energy in each wavelength of the wave and the power per unit length of a wavefront

Energy in each wavelength of the wave

PE = mgh
PE=mgA

SRZHU

PE = (U V)gA

1
PE = (U ( O $/))gA
2
1
PE = $2 O gU /
2

1 2
$ O gU /
3  2
7
1
3  $2 YgU /
2
power per unit length

3(
W

3 1 2
$ YgU
/ 2

How would this power estimate change if the waves were

modeled as sine waves instead of square waves?
22 

IB 12 

1. Waves of amplitude 1.5 meter roll onto a beach with a speed of 10 m/s. Calculate:
a) how much power they carry per meter of shoreline

b) the power along a 2 km stretch of beach.

2. Waves that are 6.0 meters high with a 100 meter wavelength roll onto a beach at a rate of
one wave every 5.0 seconds. Estimate the power of each meter of the wavefront.

$GYDQWDJHV

'LVDGYDQWDJHV

1. Renewable source of energy

1. Can only be utilized in particular areas

2. Source of energy is free

2. High maintenance due to pounding of waves

3. No global warming effect no CO2 emissions

3. High initial construction costs

4. No harmful waste products

23

+\GURHOHFWULF3RZHU

IB 12 

There are many schemes for using water to generate

electrical energy. But all hydroelectric power schemes
have a few things in common. Hydroelectric energy is
produced by the force of falling water. The
gravitational potential energy of the water is
transformed into mechanical energy when the water
rushes down the sluice and strikes the rotary blades of
turbine. The turbine's rotation spins electromagnets
which generate current in stationary coils of wire.
Finally, the current is put through a transformer where
the voltage is increased for long distance transmission
over power lines.
By far, the most common scheme for harnessing the
original gravitational potential energy is by means of
VWRULQJZDWHULQODNHV, either natural or artificial,
behind a dam, as illustrated in the top picture at right.
A second scheme, called WLGDOZDWHUVWRUDJH, takes advantage of big
differences between high and low tide levels in bodies of eater such
as rivers. A barrage can be built across a river and gates, called
sluices, are open to let the high-tide water in and then closed. The
water is released at low tide and, as always, the gravitational potential
energy is used to drive turbines to produce electrical energy.
A third scheme is called SXPSHGVWRUDJHWater is pumped to a high reservoir during the night when the
demand, and price, for electricity is low. During hours of peak demand, when the price of electricity is
high, the stored water is released to produce electric power. A pumped storage hydroelectric power plant is
a net consumer of energy but decreases the price of electricity.
Energy transformations:
Gravitational PE of water . . . Kinetic energy of water . . . kinetic energy of turbine . . electrical energy

$GYDQWDJHV

'LVDGYDQWDJHV

1. Renewable source of energy

1. Can only be utilized in particular areas

2. Source of energy is free

2. Construction of dam may involve land being

buried under water

3. No global warming effect no CO2 emissions

3. Expensive to construct
4. No harmful waste products
24 

IB 12 

1. A barrage is placed across the mouth of a river at a tidal

power station. If the barrage height is 15 meters and
water flows through 5 turbines at a rate of 100 kg/s in
each turbine, calculate the power that could be produced
if the power plant is 70% efficient. 2.6 x 104W
Use average height for EP = mgh

2. A reservoir that is 1.0 km wide and 2.0 km long is held

behind a dam. The top of this artificial lake is 100
meters above the river where the water is let out at the
base of the dam. The top of the intake is 25 meters
below the lakes surface. Assume the density of water
is 1000 kg/m3.
a) Calculate the energy stored in the reservoir.
4.3 x 1013 J

b) Calculate the power generated by the water if it flows at a rate of 1.0 m3 per second through the turbine.
875 kW

25 

8QLYHUVDO*UDYLWDWLRQ

IB 12 

.HSOHUV7KUHH/DZVRI3ODQHWDU\0RWLRQ

/DZ All planets orbit the Sun in elliptical paths with the
Sun at one focus.

/DZ An imaginary line joining any planet to the Sun

sweeps out equal areas in equal time intervals.

)RUPXOD

7 2DU 3
7 2 NU 3

/DZ The square of the orbital period of any planet is

proportional to the cube of its average orbital radius.

7 DU

3
2

1HZWRQV/DZRI8QLYHUVDO*UDYLWDWLRQ
Every particle in the Universe attracts every other particle with a force that is
directly proportional to the product of the masses and that is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them.

Two approximations used in deriving the law:

1. Masses are considered to be point masses.
Point mass: infinitely small object (radius = 0) whose mass is P

2. The force between two spherical masses whose separation is large compared to their radii is the same as if
the two spheres were point masses with their masses concentrated at the centers of the spheres.
6XQ

Mean Earth-Sun distance = 1.50 x 1011 m

(DUWK

Mean radius = 6.37 x 106 m

Mean radius = 6.96 x 108 m

1 

([WHQGHGVSKHULFDOERG\

3RLQWPDVV

)RUPXOD

P1 P2
U2
* P1 P2
)J =
U2
)J D

*UDYLWDWLRQDO&RQVWDQW
G = 6.77 x 10-11 N m2/kg2

Re 2Re 3Re 4Re

1HZWRQV'HULYDWLRQRI.HSOHUV7KLUG/DZ
What provides the centripetal force for orbital motion? gravitation

'HULYDWLRQ

$SSOLFDWLRQZHLJKLQJWKH6XQ

6)F PD F

*0P PY2

U2
U
*0 2
Y
U
2S U
but Y
7

72 4S 2

 0
U3 *

1\HDU 365.25GD\V  24KRXUV  3600V 


3
1.50 [1011 P
0 6

4S 2
6.67 [1011  0 V

2.0 [1030 NJ 

accepted value=1.99 [10 NJ

30

*0 2S U

U 7 
*0 4S 2 U 2
 2
U
7
2
4S 2
7

U 3 *0

2

What is the resultant gravitational force on the Earth from the Sun and Moon, as shown below?
Average Earth-Sun distance = 1.50 x 1011 m

Average Earth-Moon distance = 3.84 x 108 m 

6XQ

(DUWK

Mass = 1.99 x 1030 kg

Mass = 5.98 x 1024 kg

0RRQ
Mass = 7.36 x 1022 kg

2 

*UDYLWDWLRQDO)LHOG6WUHQJWK
*UDYLWDWLRQDOILHOGVWUHQJWK at
a point in a gravitational field:

IB 12

the gravitational force exerted per unit mass on a small/point mass

Symbol: g

Deriving formula for gravitational

field strength at any point above the
surface of a planet

3RLQWPDVV

Formula: g = Fg / m

g = Fg /m
g = (GMm/r2)/m
g = GM/r2

Units: N/kg (m/s2)

Type: vector

Deriving formula for gravitational

field strength at the surface of a planet

1. What is the gravitational field strength of the Earth at its surface?

g = GM/r2
go = G Mp / Rp2

g at the surface of the Earth

2. What is the gravitational field strength at an altitude equal to the radius of Earth?
2

go = G ME/Re

([WHQGHGVSKHULFDOERG\

go

g ratio
g/go = RE2/r2

Re 2Re 3Re 4Re

3 

Average Earth-Moon distance = 3.84 x 108 m

(DUWK

IB 12

0RRQ

Mass = 5.98 x 1024 kg

Mass = 7.36 x 1022 kg

3. a) What is the resultant gravitational field strength at a point midway between the Earth and Moon?

b) What is the resultant gravitational force acting on a 1500. kg space probe at this location?

Average Earth-Moon distance = 3.84 x 108 m

(DUWK
Mass = 5.98 x 1024 kg

0RRQ
Mass = 7.36 x 1022 kg

4. a) Is there a point where the resultant gravitational field strength of the Earth and Moon is zero? If so, where?

b) What is the resultant gravitational force acting on a 1500. kg space probe at this location?

*UDYLWDWLRQDO3RWHQWLDO(QHUJ\

IB 12 

Difference in gravitational potential energy between any two points in a gravitational field:

EP = mgh

This difference is SDWKLQGHSHQGHQW.

1. Same EP between any two points no matter what path is
taken between them.
2. Work done in moving a mass between two points in a
gravitational field is independent of the path taken.
3. EP is zero between any two points at the same level no matter
what path is taken.
4. EP is zero for any closed path (a path that begins and ends at
same point).
Old formula for gravitational potential energy:
Ep = mgh

discuss 2 problems with definition

1) g varies above surface
2) arbitrary base level

Base level: infinity

Gravitational PE at infinity: zero

EP = -400 J

Gravitational Potential Energy

of a mass at a point in a
gravitational field:

EP = -100 J

EP = 0

the work done in bringing a small point mass in from

infinity to that point in the gravitational field
Derivation of gravitational potential energy formula

5 

)RUPXOD

3RWHQWLDOHQHUJ\YVGLVWDQFH

IB 12

Ep = - GMm/r
EP = -Gm1m2/r
Formula not valid
inside planet

Ep at surface
Ep = -GMpm/Rp

6\PERO9
8QLWV-
7\SHVFDODU
What is the gravitational potential energy of a 5000 kg satellite: 
a) on the surface of the Earth?

b) orbiting the Earth at an altitude of 200 km?

c) How much does the potential energy of the satellite

increase when it is put into this orbit?

*UDYLWDWLRQDO3RWHQWLDO
*UDYLWDWLRQDOSRWHQWLDO at a
point in a gravitational field:

work done per unit mass to bring a small point mass in from infinity to
that point in the gravitational field

)RUPXODV

*UDYLWDWLRQDO3RWHQWLDO
YVGLVWDQFH

Difference in
gravitational potential:
V = W/m

V = Ep/m

Gravitational
potential at a point:
6\PERO9
V = Ep/m
V = -GM/r

8QLWV-NJ
7\SHVFDODU

V at surface
Vo = -GMp/Rp
6

IB 12 

1. What is the gravitational potential due to the Earths gravitational field:

a) at the surface of the Earth?

b) At a location three Earth radii from

the center of the Earth?

c) What is the change in potential in moving from the surface to this new location?

d) What is the minimum amount of energy needed to lift a 5000 kg satellite to this location?

2. What is the net gravitational potential at a spot midway between the Earth and the Sun?

6XQ

(DUWK

3. Derive an expression for the gravitational potential at the surface of a planet in terms of the gravitational field strength.

7 

(VFDSH6SHHG

IB 12 

(VFDSH6SHHG: minimum initial speed an object must have at the surface of a planet in order to escape the
gravitational attraction of the planet

Travel to infinity
Just make it means velocity is zero at infinity means EK is zero at infinity as well as EP

Eo = Ep + Ek

Ef = Ep

3ODQHW

Assumptions: planet is isolated ignore air resistance

'HULYDWLRQ
Note:
1. Direction of travel is irrelevant Ep is path independent

2. independent of mass of rocket

3. More speed (EK) is needed in real life since air friction is

not negligible at lower altitudes

1. What is the escape speed for Earth?

2. If the Earth became a black hole, how large would it be?

8 

6DWHOOLWH0RWLRQ

1DWXUDO6DWHOOLWHV
Period of a satellite:

7 DU
2

72

$UWLILFLDO6DWHOOLWHV

Acceleration of a satellite:

6)F PD F

v = 2 r/T

v = 2 r/T

ac = 42 r/T2

3
2

7 DU 
Weightlessness

Orbital speed of a satellite:

ac = v2/r

NU 3

IB 12

ac = g = GM/r2

Free fall

Orbital motion

*0P PY2

U2
U
*0
Y2
U
*0
Y 
U
Deep space

1. Compare the motion of satellites A and B.

A faster, less time (smaller period)
B slower, more time (longer period)
T2/R3 = constant true for all satellites
T = kR3/2

2. What happens to the required orbital speed if:

a) the mass of the satellite increases?
Nothing speed is independent of mass

b) the satellite is boosted into a higher orbit?

Satellite would orbit at a slower
(tangential) speed

3. What would happen to a satellite if it encountered appreciable air resistance?

Slow down, drop to lower orbit, and speed up, encounter even more air molecules (denser), cycle continues spiral to Earth

9

(QHUJ\RI2UELWLQJ6DWHOOLWHV

IB 12

Compare the energies of the two orbiting satellites.

Gravitational Potential Energy

Kinetic Energy

(QHUJ\'HULYDWLRQV

Total Energy

*UDSKVRIWKHHQHUJLHVRIDQRUELWLQJVDWHOOLWH

Gravitational Potential Energy

Kinetic Energy

Total Energy

RE

Comparisons:

A 1500 kg satellite is to be put into orbit around the Earth at an altitude of 200 km.

a) How much potential energy will the satellite

have at this altitude?

b) How much kinetic energy will the satellite

need to orbit at this altitude?

d) What is the orbital speed of the satellite?

e) What is the minimum amount of energy needed to lift the satellite

from the surface of the Earth to this altitude?

c) What is the total amount of energy the

satellite has at this altitude?

10 

&RPSDULVRQV

IB 12 

(TXLSRWHQWLDOVXUIDFH: a surface on which the potential is the same everywhere

1. The gravitational force does no

work as a mass moves on
along equipotential surface.
2. The work done in moving a
mass between equipotential
surfaces is path independent.
3. The work done in moving a
mass along a closed path is
zero.
RQHSRLQWPDVV

WZRSRLQWPDVVHV
11

IB 12 

On the diagram at right:

a) Sketch the gravitational field around the point mass.

b) Sketch equipotential surfaces around the point mass.

What is the relationship between the
gravitational field and the equipotential
surfaces?
Perpendicular 

Field lines point in direction 

of decreasing potential 

*UDYLWDWLRQDO3RWHQWLDO*UDGLHQW
gradient: rate of change with respect to something slope or derivative

gravitational potential gradient: the gravitational field is the negative gradient of the gravitational
potential with respect to distance

)RUPXOD

-70 J/kg

$
%

-80 J/kg

derive g = -V/r

What is the average gravitational field strength between

equipotential surfaces A and B if they are 5.0 m apart?

12

3UDFWLFH4XHVWLRQV
1. a) Calculate the gravitational force the Sun exerts
on the Earth

2. a) Calculate the strength of the gravitational field of the Sun

at a location one million kilometers from the Sun.

3. a) Calculate the strength of the Suns gravitational field at

the surface of the Earth.

IB 12 

b) Compare this to the gravitational force that the

Earth exerts on the Sun.

b) What is the Suns gravitational force at this

point?

b) Explain why the net gravitational field strength at

the surface of the Earth can be approximated as due
solely to the Earths gravitational field.

13 

IB 12
4. a) Calculate the resultant gravitational field at a spot
midway between the Earth and Sun.

b) Compare the contributions from the Sun and the

Earth to this resultant field.

c) What is the gravitational force acting on a 5000 kg

space probe at this location?

5. A 5000kg satellite orbits Mars at a distance of 1000 km.

Mass of Mars: 6.42 x 1023 kg

Mean planetary radius: 3.37 x 106 m

a) What is the gravitational potential at the surface of Mars?

0DUV

b) How much gravitational potential energy does the satellite have on the surface of Mars?

c) What is the gravitational potential at orbiting altitude?

d) How much gravitational potential energy does

the satellite have at this altitude?

e) What is the minimum energy needed to lift

the satellite to this altitude?

14 

IB 12 

6. A 5000. kg satellite is placed in a low altitude orbit. 

a) If the altitude is sufficiently low, what is the approximate radius of the satellites orbit?

b) Calculate the satellites orbital speed.

c) Calculate the orbital period of the satellite.

d) Calculate the gravitational potential energy of the satellite.

e) Calculate the kinetic energy of the satellite.

f) Calculate the total energy of the satellite.

g) What is the minimum amount of energy needed to lift the satellite into this orbit?

15

3K\VLFVDQG3K\VLFDO0HDVXUHPHQW

IB 12

(YHU\PHDVXUHGYDOXHKDVXQFHUWDLQW\

A child swings back and forth on a swing 10 times in 36.27s 0.01 s. How long did one swing take?

notice that multiple trials reduces uncertainty

for a single repetition

(36.27 0.01) / 10 = 3.627 s 0.001 s

Measurements of time are taken as: 14.23 s, 13.91 s, 14.76 s, 15.31 s. 13.84 s, 14.18 s. What value should be reported?

0HDQ: 14.37 s

*UHDWHVW5HVLGXDO0.94

5HVLGXDOV: 14.37 13.84 = 0.53

15.31 14.37 = 0.94

5HSRUWHG9DOXH: 14.37 s 0.94 s

= mean greatest residual

1. 0HDVXUHPHQWRecord as many significant figures as the calibration of the

measuring instrument allows SOXV one estimated digit.

Voltage uncertainty 

V V 

2. 8QFHUWDLQW\ Record a reasonable uncertainty estimate that

a) has one significant digit, and 
b) matches the measurement in place value (decimal place). 

11.6 V 0.2 V 

$EVROXWH8QFHUWDLQW\

)UDFWLRQDO8QFHUWDLQW\

3HUFHQWDJH8QFHUWDLQW\

V/V

V/V 100%

0.2 V

0.2 V / 11.6 V

0.2 V / 11.6 V 100% = 1.7 %

&DOFXODWLRQVZLWK8QFHUWDLQWLHV
 $GGLWLRQ6XEWUDFWLRQ5XOH
When two or more quantities are added or subtracted, the overall uncertainty is equal to the
VXPRIWKHDEVROXWHXQFHUWDLQWLHV.
Ex. 1: The sides of a rectangle are measured to be (4.4 0.2) cm and (8.5 0.3) cm. Find the perimeter of the rectangle.

4.4 + 8.5 + 4.4 + 8.5= 25.8 cm

0.2 + 0.3 + 0.2 + 0.3 = 1.0 cm
25.8 cm 1.0 cm

1 

IB 12 

 0XOWLSOLFDWLRQ'LYLVLRQ5XOH

When two or more quantities are multiplied or divided, the overall uncertainty is equal to the
VXPRIWKHSHUFHQWDJHXQFHUWDLQWLHV.
Ex. 2: The sides of a rectangle are measured to be (4.4 0.2) cm and (8.5 0.3) cm. F
ind the area of the rectangle.

4.4 x 8.5
= 37.4 cm2

0.2/4.4 = 4.55%

37.4 cm2 8.08%

0.3/8.5 = 3.53%

37.4 cm2 3.02192 cm2

Total = 8.08%

37 cm2 3 cm2

 3RZHU5XOH
When the calculation involves raising to a power, PXOWLSO\WKHSHUFHQWDJHXQFHUWDLQW\E\WKHSRZHU.
1

(Dont forget that [ [2 )

Ex. 3: The radius of a circle is measured to be 3.5 cm 0.2 cm. What is the area of the circle with its uncertainty?

DUHD SU 2
DUHD S(3.5)2 38.48FP 2

0.2

2  u100% 2  5.71%  11.4%
3.5

DUHD 38.48FP2 r11.4%

DUHD 38.48FP2 r4.39FP2
DUHD 38FP 2 r4FP 2

([HUFLVHV

IB 12

1. Five people measure the mass of an object. The results are 0.56 g, 0.58 g, 0.58 g, 0.55 g, 0.59 g. How
would you report the measured value for the objects mass?

0.57 g 0.02 g

(mean greatest residual)

2. Juan Deroff measured 8 floor tiles to be 2.67 m 0.03 m long. What is the length of one floor tile?

0.334 m 0.004 m

(0.33375 m 0.00375 m)

3. The first part of a trip took 25 3 s, and the second part of the trip took 17 2s.
a. How long did the whole trip take?

42 s 5 s

b. How much longer was the first part of the trip than the second part?
8s5s

4. A car traveled 600. m 12 m in 32 3 s. What was the speed of the car?

18.75 m/s

12/600 = 2.000% and 3/32 = 9.375 % so total = 11.38%

18.75 m/s 11.38%
18.75 m/s 2.13375 m/s

Speed = 19 m/s 2 m/s

5. The time W it takes an object to fall freely from rest a distance G is given by the formula:
where J is the acceleration due to gravity. A ball fell 12.5 m 0.3 m. How long
did this take?

  
 V 
W 


1 0.3
1
u100%   2.4%  1.2%

2 12.5
2

W 

G
J

W 1.60Vr1.2%
W 1.60Vr0.0192V
W 1.60Vr0.02V

3 

$QDO\]LQJ'DWD*UDSKLFDOO\

IB 12 

The masses of different volumes of alcohol were measured and then plotted (using *UDSKLFDO$QDO\VLV. Note there are three lines
drawn on the graph the best-fit line, the line of maximum slope, and the line of minimum slope. The slope and y-intercept of the
best-fit line can be used to write the specific equation and the slopes and y-intercepts of the max/min lines can be used to find the
uncertainties in the specific equation. The specific equation is then compared to a mathematical model in order to make conclusions.

*HQHUDO(TXDWLRQ: y= mx + b
6SHFLILF(TXDWLRQ M = (0.66 g/cm3)V + 0.65 g
8QFHUWDLQWLHV: slope: 0.66 g/cm3 0.11 g/cm3
y-intercept: 0.65 g 3.05 g
0DWKHPDWLFDO0RGHO: D = M/V so M = DV

&RQFOXVLRQ3DUDJUDSK:
1. The purpose of the investigation was to determine the relationship between volume and mass for a sample of alcohol.

2. Our hypothesis was that the relationship is linear. The graph of our data supports our hypothesis since a best-fit line falls within the
error bars of each data point.
3. The specific equation of the relationship is M = (0.66 g/cm3)V + 0.65 g.

4.

We believe that enough data points were taken over a wide enough range of values to establish this relationship. This relationship
should hold true for very small volumes, although if it becomes too small for us to measure with our present equipment we wont
be able to tell, and for very large volumes, unless the mass becomes so large that the liquid will be compressed and change the
density.

5. Zero falls within uncertainty range for y-intercept (0.65 g 3.05 g) so our results agree with math model and no systematic error is
apparent

6. By comparison to the mathematical model we conclude that the slope of the graph represents the density. Therefore the density of
the sample is 0.66 g/cm3 0.11 g/cm3.
7. The literature value for the density of this type of alcohol is 0.72 g/cm3. Our results agree with the literature value since the
literature value falls within the experimental uncertainty range of 0.66 g/cm3 0.11 g/cm3 .

4

/LQHDUL]LQJ*UDSKV8VLQJ/RJDULWKPV

IB 12

This is a special linearizing (straightening) technique that works with general equations that are SRZHUIXQFWLRQV

3RZHU)XQFWLRQy = cxn
0HWKRGRIVWUDLJKWHQLQJ graph log y vs. log x

'HULYDWLRQ

log-log plot 

y = cxn

Compare to y = mx + b

Take log of both sides

slope = n
y-intercept = log c or

c = 10b

Log y = log (cx )

Log y = log c + log xn
Log y = log c + n log x

([DPSOHV



m=2

y = cx2



y = cx-1

m = -1 or -2

y = kx-2





m = 0.5
y = kx

0.5

m=1
y = kx

/RJDULWKPLF6WUDLJKWHQLQJ

IB 12 

Why use logarithms? use when youre not sure what the type of relationship is

use to check the exponent

5HVHDUFK4XHVWLRQ: 

What is the relationship between kinetic energy and 

speed for a uniformly accelerating object?

)LQGLQJ(UURU%DUVIRUWKH6WUDLJKWHQHG*UDSK
1. Error bars needed on only one axis choose whichever
axis has the most significant uncertainties.
2. Use the greatest residual for the data point with the highest
percent uncertainty as the error bars on all data points.
KE:
log (5-2) = log 3 = .477
log 5 = .699
log (5+2) = log 7 = .845

residuals:
.699 - .477 = .222
.845 - .699 = .146

greatest residual = .222 = .22 

use for error bars on log KE axis 

$QDO\VLV
general equation: y = cxn
slope = 1.980 = n 

ORJ.(YVORJVSHHG

y-intercept= 0.7007 = log c 

so c = 100.7007 = 5.0
specific equation: KE = 5.0 v1.98

slope residuals:
1.98 1.40 = 0.58
2.60 1.98 = 0.62

slope:
1.98 0.62

greatest residual: 0.62

3DUWLDO&RQFOXVLRQ

The purpose of the investigation was to determine the relationship between the kinetic energy and the speed of a uniformly
accelerating object. Our hypothesis was that the relationship is quadratic and the graph of our original data supports our
hypothesis since a best-fit parabola can be drawn within the error bars of all data points. The data was then linearized using
logarithms. Using this graph, the specific equation for the relationship was found to be KE = 5.0 v1.98 . Since a value of 2 falls
within the uncertainty range for the exponent of 1.98 0.62, the data is consistent with a quadratic relationship between speed and
kinetic energy. However, since the uncertainty range for the exponent is so large (30.%), the relationship might not be quadratic
but some other power function.

([HUFLVHV/LQHDUL]LQJ'DWDZLWK/RJDULWKPV

IB 12

In each example below, straighten each graph by logarithms. Then, write the specific equation for each relationship. 

What is the most probable type of relationship in each case?

 7LPHV
V


'LVSODFHPHQWP

P


















$FFHOHUDWLRQ
PV
PV

























 'LVWDQFHP
P


Specific equation:
d = (3.2)t1.9





 0DVVNJ
NJ

General Equation:
y = c xn

)RUFH1
1






























Slope:
1.94
Y-intercept:
0.50 = log c
c = 3.2

General Equation:
y = c xn

Type of relationship:
quadratic

Specific equation:
a = (12)m-.99

Slope:
-0.99
Y-intercept:
1.083 = log c
c = 12.1

General Equation:
y = c xn

Type of relationship:
inverse

Specific equation:
F = (15)d-1.9

Slope:
-1.9
Type of relationship:
inverse quadratic
Y-intercept:
1.166 = log c
c = 14.7

6FDODUVDQG9HFWRUV

IB 12

6FDODUV: quantities that have magnitude only

e.g. - Mass, time, volume, energy, distance, speed

9HFWRUVquantities that have magnitude and direction

e.g. - Velocity, displacement, acceleration, force,

momentum, impulse, magnetic field strength, gravitational
field strength, electric field strength

Notation: Bold italic ) or arrow hat

G
)

$GGLQJ9HFWRUV
Find the sum $ + %

6XEWUDFWLQJ9HFWRUV
Find the difference $ - %

5HVROYLQJD9HFWRU
LQWRLWV&RPSRQHQWV

Sin = y/r

Cos = x/r

y = r sin 

x = r cos 

Practice naming components

A sin 

A sin 20
3.
B cos 35
4.

A cos 

A cos 20

2.
B sin 35
62 sin 35 = 36 m

62 cos 35 = 51 m

IB 12 

9 

0HFKDQLFV

IB 12

.LQHPDWLFV7KH6WXG\RI0RWLRQ

Symbols:

s = distance or displacement

v = final speed or velocity

u = initial speed or velocity

a = average acceleration

Equations:

Y 

V
XY 
also Y 
W
2

'Y Y  X
'W
W
Y X  DW
D

VR
V

YW

or

V 

1
V XW   W 2
2
2
2
Y X  2 DV

X Y
W
2

Condition for applying

equations for uniformly
accelerated motion:

must be constant, smooth acceleration

equations use average acceleration = instantaneous if acceleration is constant

average vs. instantaneous: over a period of time vs. at one instant

([DPSOH: Two friends bicycle 3.0

kilometers north and then turn to bike
4.0 kilometers east in 25 minutes.

a) What is their average speed?

distance/time
7.0 km / 25 min =
0.28 km/min x 60 min/hr =
16.8 = 17 km/hr

b) What is their average velocity?

displacement/time
5.0 km/ 25 min =
0.20 km/min x 60 min/hr =
12 km/hr
Angle: 53o west of north

&RQVWDQW9HORFLW\

Time (s)
Distance (m)
Velocity (m/s)
Acceleration (m/s2)

0
0
25
0

1
25
25
0

2
50
25
0

3
75
25
0

4
100
25
0

IB 12

&RQVWDQW$FFHOHUDWLRQ

Time (s)
Distance (m)
Velocity (m/s)
Acceleration (m/s2)

a) What does the slope of a position-time graph represent?

b) What does the slope of a velocity-time graph represent?

0
0
5

3
5
5

10
10
5

23
15
5

Instantaneous velocity - derivative

Instantaneous acceleration - derivative

c) What does the area under a velocity time graph represent?

displacement - integral

'URSSLQJ
1. A stone is dropped from rest from the top of a tall building. After 3.00 s of free-fall, what is the displacement of the stone?
What is its velocity?

s = ut + at2

v = u + at

s = at2 = -45 m

v = -30 m/s

discuss change of frame of reference downward is positive

How would these graphs change in the presence of air resistance?

Terminal velocity: no acceleration constant velocity Fg = Fair

2

IB 12

7KURZLQJ8S
A ball is thrown straight up in the air (shown
here stretched out for clarity.) Sketch velocity
and acceleration vectors at each instant.

A football game customarily begins with a coin toss to determine who

kicks off. The referee tosses the coin up with an initial speed of 6.00
m/s. In the absence of air resistance, how high does the coin go above
its point of release? How long is it in the air?
v2 = u2 + 2 as
02 = (6)2 + 2(-10)s
s = 1.8 m

v = u + at
0 = 6.00 + (-10)t
t = 0.6 s x 2 = 1.2 s

discuss change of frame of reference downward is positive

3URMHFWLOH0RWLRQresultant of two independent components of motion

1. Vertical: constant acceleration (in absence of air resistance)

2. Horizontal: constant velocity no horizontal acceleration

+RUL]RQWDO3URMHFWLOH

A ball is shot horizontally off a cliff that is 100. m high at a speed of 25 m/s. How long
does it take to hit the ground? How far away from the base of the cliff does it land?

y-direction:

x-direction:

s = ut + at2
-100 = 0 + (-10)t2
t = 4.5 s

s = ut + at2
s = 25 (4.5) + 0
s = 113 m

$QJOHG3URMHFWLOH

IB 12

1. Break initial velocity into horiz and vert components

2. maximum height occurs after time

3. maximum range occurs after fulltime and at 450

4. air resistance: not as high nor as far show on diagram

A football was kicked with a speed of 25 m/s at an angle of 30.0o to the horizontal. Determine how high it went and where it landed.
Components

time:

Height:

x: cos 300 = vi/25 m/s

v = u + at

s = ut + at2

vi = 21.7 m/s

0 = 12.5 m/s + (-10)(t)

s = (12.5 m/s)(1.25 s) + (-10 m/s2)(1.25 s)2

t = 1.25 s

s = 7.8 m

y: sin 300 = vi/25 m/s

total time = 2(1.25) = 2.5
vi = 12.5 m/s

Range:
s = ut + at2
s = (21.7 m/s)(2.5 s) + 0
s = 54 m

6WDWLFVDQG'\QDPLFV7KH6WXG\RI)RUFHV
1HZWRQV/DZVRI0RWLRQ
1. An object at rest remains at rest and an object in motion remains in motion at a constant speed in a straight
line (constant velocity) unless acted on by unbalanced forces. (An object continues in uniform motion in a
straight line or at rest unless a resultant (net) external force acts on it.)
2. When unbalanced forces act on an object, the object will accelerate in the direction of the resultant (net)
force. The acceleration will be directly proportional to the net force and inversely proportional to the objects
mass. (The resultant force on an object is equal to the rate of change of momentum of the object.)
3. For every action on one object, there is an equal and opposite reaction on another object. (When two
bodies A and B interact, the force that A exerts on B is equal and opposite to the force that B exerts on A.)
4

1HZWRQV6HFRQG/DZ

F = p / t

For constant mass

F = (mv) / t

F = m (v / t)

IB 12

F=ma

QG/DZRUUG /DZ"
Net force on ball: not zero
so it accelerates not in
equilibrium
Fnet = Fg = mg

Action-Reaction pairs:
Earth pulls ball down
Ball pulls Earth up
FEB = -FBE
mA = -Ma

Net force on block: zero

at rest in equilibrium
Fnet = FN - Fg = 0

Action-Reaction pairs:
Earth pulls block down
Block pulls Earth up
block pushes down on table
table pushes up on block

)J

Translational equilibrium: net force acting on object is zero no acceleration

1. Find the resistive force F caused by the drag of the water on the boat moving at a constant velocity in the diagram shown.

5 

IB 12

2. Find the tension in each cable supporting the 600 N cat burglar pictured.

600 997

796

3. A 20.0-kg floodlight in a park is supported at the end of a horizontal beam of negligible mass that is hinged to a pole, as shown. A cable at
an angle of 30.0 with the beam helps to support the light. Find (a) the tension in the cable and (b) the horizontal and vertical forces
exerted on the beam by the pole.

7


+
9

4. How would your answers change if the mass of

the beam shown above was not negligible?
T increase
show how reaction force is oriented

a)

400N

b) Rx = 346 Ry = 0
1

5. Indicate the direction of the reaction force from the floor and
the reaction force from the wall for the situation shown below.

FW

FN
Fg1
Fg2
6
Ff

:HLJKW0DVVDQGWKH1RUPDO)RUFH
0DVV
1) the amount of matter in an object
2) the property of an object that determines its resistance to a
change in its motion (a measure of the amount of inertia of
an object)

IB 12

:HLJKW
the force of gravity acting on an object
Property:
Varies from place to place

Symbol : Fg or W
Units : N

Property:
Remains constant 

Symbol : m

Units : kg

(OHYDWRUV In each case, the scale will read . . . the normal or reaction force, not the weight

Calculate
the
acceleration
of the man
in each
case.

F=0

F = ma

F=ma

F=ma

FN F g = 0

FN F g = m a

FN Fg = m a

Fg = m a

FN 700 = 0

1000 700 = 70 a

400 700 = 70 a

700 = 70 a

FN = 700 N

a = +4.3 m/s2

a = - 4.3 m/s2

a = -10 m/s2

,QFOLQHG3ODQHAssume the box shown is in equilibrium and draw the . . .

Free-body diagram

Head-to-tail vector diagram

Concurrent vector diagram

Concurrent vector diagram with
perpendicular components

FN
Ff

Fg



7 

IB 12
Calculate the force of friction acting on this box if it accelerates down the
incline at a rate of 0.67 m/s2.
4.5 kg

Fnet = ma = 4.5 (0.67) = 3.0 N 

Fg|| = mg sin = 15 N 

Ff = 12 N 

200

8QLIRUP&LUFXODU0RWLRQ

8QLIRUP&LUFXODU0RWLRQ constant speed and constant radius

3HULRG time take for one complete cycle symbol: T units: s

1. The direction of the objects instantaneous velocity is always tangent to the circle in

the direction of motion.

2. Since the direction of the objects motion is always changing, its velocity is always 

changing therefore the object is always accelerating and is never in equilibrium.

3. Direction of net force towards the center - centripetal

)RUPXODV

V bar = distance / time

V bar = circumference / period
V bar = 2r / T

V = 2r / T

V bar = 2r / T
ac = v2 / r

ac = (2r / T)2 / r
ac = (42r2 / T2) / r

F = m a 

Fc = m ac

Fc = mv2 / r

ac = 4 2 r / T2

The phrase centripetal force does not denote a new and separate force created by nature. The phrase merely labels the net force pointing
toward the center of the circular path, and this net force is the vector sum of all the force components that point along the radial direction.
1. The model airplane shown has a mass of 0.90 kg and moves at a constant

speed on a circle that is parallel to the ground. Find the tension 7 in the 

guideline (length = 17 m) for a speed of 19 m/s. 

8 

IB 12
2. At amusement parks, there is a popular ride where the floor of a rotating cylindrical room falls away, leaving the backs of
the riders plastered against the wall. For a particular ride with a radius of 8.0 m and a top speed of 21 m/s, calculate the
reaction force and the friction force from the wall acting on a 60. kg rider. Which of these is the centripetal force?

3. A 2100-kg demolition ball swings at the end of a 15-m cable on the arc of a vertical circle. At the lowest point of the
swing, the ball is moving at a speed of 7.6 m/s. Determine the tension in the cable.

:RUN3RZHUDQG(IILFLHQF\
:RUN product of force and displacement in the direction of the force
)RUPXOD
W = (F cos ) s

8QLWV
N m or Joules (J)

W = F s cos 
is angle between F and s

3RZHU
1) the rate at which work is done

)RUPXOD
P = W/ t
= E/t
= Q/t

$OWHUQDWH)RUPXOD
P=W/t
= (F cos d) / t
= F v cos 

2) the rate at which energy is transferred

(IILFLHQF\:
1) ratio of useful work done by a system to the total work done by the system
2) ratio of useful energy output of a system to the total energy input to the system
3) ratio of useful power output of a system to total power input to the system

7\SH
Scalar but can be positive or
negative
8QLWV
J/s
= Watts (W)
7\SH
Scalar
)RUPXOD
e = useful out/
total in
9

1. A 45.0-N force is applied to pull a luggage carrier an angle T = 50 for a distance of 75.0 m at a constant speed.IB 12
Find the work done by the applied force.
W = F s cos 
WA = (45.0 N)(75 m) cos 50o = 2170 J

2. a) How much work is done dragging the 5.00 kg box to the top of the hill shown if the hill exerts an
average friction force of 5.0 N?

b) Compare your answer to the amount of work done lifting the box straight up to the top of the hill.

c)

Calculate the power expended if the box is dragged to the top in 15 seconds.

d) Calculate the efficiency of dragging the box rather than lifting the box.

'HWHUPLQLQJ:RUN'RQH*UDSKLFDOO\

Work = area under curve

W=bh
W=Fs
W = (avg force) (displacement)

Work = area under curve

W=bh
W=fs

1. Work done by a constant force

2. Work done by a constantly varying force

ex. stretching a spring

10

(QHUJ\
1.

2.

3.

IB 12

4.

7\SHVRI(QHUJ\
1. Kinetic energy

5.

)RUPXODV
1. EK = mv2

(energy of motion)

2. Gravitational Potential energy (energy of position)

2. EP = mgh

3. Elastic potential energy

3. Eelas = kx2

4. Internal energy (thermal energy)

4. Q = mct

5. Chemical Potential energy (stored in chemical bonds) Electrical energy Light energy

5. Ee = Pt = VIt = I2Rt = V2/R t

Q = mL

&RQVHUYDWLRQRI(QHUJ\3ULQFLSOH
,QDQLVRODWHGV\VWHPWKHWRWDODPRXQWRIHQHUJ\UHPDLQVFRQVWDQW
1. A motorcyclist is trying to leap across a canyon by driving horizontally off the
cliff at a speed of 38.0 m/s. Ignoring air resistance, find the speed with which the
cycle strikes the ground on the other side.

2. What is the speed of the box at the bottom of the incline if an average frictional force
of 15 N acts on it as it slides?

160 N

20 meters
300

11 

/LQHDU0RPHQWXPDQG,PSXOVH
/LQHDU0RPHQWXP: the product of an objects mass and velocity

A 1500. kg car is traveling east at a

speed of 25.0 m/s.

inertia (inertial mass)

m = 1500 kg
scalar

Compare its inertia, momentum, and

kinetic energy.

IB 12

)RUPXOD

8QLWV

p = mv

kg m/s

momentum

kinetic energy

p = (1500) (25)
= 3.75 x 104 kg m/s, east
vector

Ek = (1500)(25)2
= 468750 J = 4.69 x 105 J
scalar

Alternate formula for

kinetic energy:

How does the momentum of an object change?

A net external force acts for a finite amount of time
,PSXOVH:
(the change in momentum of a system)
the product of the average force and the time interval over which the force acts 

8QLWV

7\SH

Ns or

vector

Usually . . . Force is not instantaneous and is not constant

kg m/s

'HULYDWLRQRI,PSXOVH)RUPXOD

'S
'W

'S )'W  

'(PY)  ) 'W

P'Y  )'W (if mass is constant)
 'Y
- 'S ) 'W P

) 

Graphically, the impulse is

J = Favg t = area

If force is linear:
J = Fmax t

12

%RXQFLQJDQG,PSXOVH

IB 12

A 0.50 kg basketball hits the floor at a speed of 4.0 m/s and rebounds at 3.0 m/s. Calculate the impulse applied to it by the floor.
Calculation:

In general:

K
K
'S P'Y 
K
K K
'S P  Y I  YL  
K
'S P  Y I  YL  

'S

'S

P'Y 
 NJ( 4.0  (3.0))

0.50
'S 7.0NJP / V

Velocity vs. time graph for bounce

Force

Velocity

Force vs. time graph for bounce

Time

Time

7KH3ULQFLSOHRI&RQVHUYDWLRQ
RI/LQHDU0RPHQWXP

7KHWRWDOPRPHQWXPRIDQLVRODWHGV\VWHPUHPDLQVFRQVWDQW
SEHIRUH SDIWHU
7\SHVRI,QWHUDFWLRQV

 %RXQF\

 6WLFN\

([SORVLRQ

13 

&ROOLVLRQV
(ODVWLFFROOLVLRQ: a collision in
which the total kinetic energy is
conserved

IB 12

,QHODVWLFFROOLVLRQ: a collision in
which the total kinetic energy is not
conserved

Where does some of the mechanical energy go in an inelastic collision? energy of deformation, internal energy, sound energy

1. A freight train is being assembled in a switching yard, and the

figure below shows two boxcars. Car 1 has a mass of P1 =
65103 kg and moves at a velocity of Y01 = +0.80 m/s. Car 2, with
a mass of P2 = 92103 kg and a velocity of Y02 = +1.3 m/s,
overtakes car 1 and couples to it. Neglecting friction, find the
common velocity Yf of the cars after they become coupled.

2. Is this collision elastic or inelastic? Justify your answer.

3. A EDOOLVWLFSHQGXOXP is sometimes used in laboratories to

measure the speed of a projectile, such as a bullet. A ballistic
pendulum consists of a block of wood (mass P2 = 2.50 kg)
suspended by a wire of negligible mass. A bullet (mass P1 =
0.0100 kg) is fired with a speed Y01. Just after the bullet
collides with it, the block (with the bullet in it) has a speed Yf
and then swings to a maximum height of 0.650 m above the
initial position (see part Eof the drawing). Find the speed Y01
of the bullet, assuming that air resistance is negligible.

14 

1XFOHDU3K\VLFV

IB 12 

1XFOLGH: a particular type of nucleus

1XFOHRQ: a proton or a neutron
$WRPLFQXPEHU=SURWRQQXPEHUnumber of protons in nucleus
0DVVQXPEHU$QXFOHRQQXPEHU number of protons + neutrons
1HXWURQQXPEHU1 number of neutrons in nucleus (N = A Z)
,VRWRSHV: nuclei with same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons
x 1 u = 1.661 x 10-27 kg
x 1 u = 1 g/mol
x 1 u = 931.5 MeV/c2

8QLILHGDWRPLFPDVVXQLWX 1/12th the mass of a carbon-12 nucleus

$WRPLFPDVV A * u

$
=

;

56
26

)H

27
13

$O

12
6

&

14
6

&

$WRPLF1XPEHU

26

13

0DVV1XPEHU

56

27

12

14

1HXWURQ1XPEHU

30

14

$WRPLF0DVV

56 u

27 u

12 u

14 u

0RODU0DVV

56 g

27 g

12 g

14 g

How big are atomic nuclei? 10-15m 10-14 m

How do we know this? Alpha-particle
scattering experiments (Geiger-Marsden)

How do we know that neutrons exist?

By the existence of isotopes
How do we know that isotopes exist?
By measurements in the mass spectrometer

Formulas:
ET = ET
EK = Ee
mv2 = qV
mv2 = q(kQ/r)

Formulas:
v = E/B
Note that most nuclei have approximately the same . . .density
= 2 x 1017 kg/m3 = 1014 times denser than water

r = mv/qB
1

1XFOHDU6WDELOLW\

IB 12 

What interactions exist in the nucleus?

1. *UDYLWDWLRQDO(long range) attractive but very weak/negligible
2. &RXORPERU(OHFWURPDJQHWLF(long range) repulsive and very strong between protons
3. 6WURQJQXFOHDUIRUFH(short range) attractive and strongest between any two nucleons
4. :HDNQXFOHDUIRUFH (short range) involved in radioactive decay

Why are some nuclei stable while others are not?

The Coulomb force is a long-range force which means that every 

proton in the nucleus repels every other proton. The strong 

nuclear force is an attractive force between any two nucleons 

(protons and/or neutrons). This force is very strong but is short 

range (10-15 m) which means it only acts between a nucleon and 

its nearest neighbors. At this range, it is stronger than the 

Coulomb repulsion and is what holds the nucleus together. 

Neutrons in the nucleus play a dual role in keeping it stable. They 

provide for the strong force of attraction, through the exchange of 

gluons with their nearest neighbors, and they act to separate 

protons to reduce the Coulomb repulsion. 

Each dot in the plot at right represents a stable nuclide and the 

shape is known as the band (or valley) of stability. With few 

exceptions, the naturally occurring stable nuclei have a number 1 of 

neutrons that equals or exceeds the number = of protons. For small 

nuclei (Z < 20), number of neutrons tends to equal number of 

protons (N = Z). 

As more protons are added, the Coulomb repulsion rises faster than the strong force of attraction
since the Coulomb force acts throughout the entire nucleus but the strong force only acts among
nearby nucleons. Therefore, more neutrons are needed for each extra proton to keep the nucleus
together. Thus, for large nuclei (Z > 20), there are more neutrons than protons (N > Z).
After Z = 83 (Bismuth), adding extra neutrons is no longer able to counteract the Coulomb repulsion
and the nuclei become unstable and decay in various ways.
Nuclei above (to the left of) the band of stability have too many neutrons and tend to decay by alpha
or beta-minus (electron) emission, both of which reduce the number of neutrons in the nucleus.
Nuclei below (to the right of) the band of stability have too few neutrons and tend to decay by betaplus (positron) emission which increases the number of neutrons in the nucleus.

2 

%LQGLQJ(QHUJ\

IB 12

The total mass of a nucleus is always less than the sum of the masses its nucleons. Because mass is another

manifestation of energy, another way of saying this is the total energy of the nucleus is less than the combined

energy of the separated nucleons.

0DVVGHIHFWPDVVGHILFLWP
Difference between the mass of the nucleus and the sum of the masses of
its individual nucleons
1XFOHDUELQGLQJHQHUJ\(

)RUPXODV

1. energy released when a nuclide is assembled from its individual

components
2. energy required when nucleus is separated into its individual
components

PQXFOHXV P PQXFOHRQV

'( 'PF

Different nuclei have different total binding energies. As a general trend, as the atomic number
increases . . . the total binding energy for the nucleus increases.
3DUWLFOH
3URWRQ
1HXWURQ
(OHFWURQ

(OHFWULF&KDUJH (OHFWULF&KDUJH
H
&
+1
0
-1

+1.60 x 10-19
0
-1.60 x 10-19

5HVW0DVV
NJ

5HVW0DVV
X

5HVW0DVV
0H9F

1.673 x 10-27
1.675 x 10-27
9.110 x 10-31

1.007276
1.008665
0.000549

938
940
0.511

1. The most abundant isotope of helium has a 24He nucleus whose mass is 6.6447 10-27 kg. For this nucleus, find the
mass defect and the binding energy.

helium: 0.050404 x 10-27 kg 

4.53636 x 10-12 J 

2. Calculate the binding energy and mass defect for 816O whose measured mass is 15.994915 u.

Oxygen: 0.132613 u
123.5 MeV

%LQGLQJ(QHUJ\SHU1XFOHRQ

IB 12 

To see how the nuclear binding energy varies from nucleus to nucleus, it is useful to compare the binding

energy for each nucleus on a per-nucleon basis, as shown in the graph below.

<RXU7XUQ

a) This graph is used to compare the energy states of different nuclides and to determine what nuclear reactions are energetically
feasible. As binding energy per nucleon increases so does the stability of the nucleus. +LJKHU binding energies represent
ORZHU energy states since more energy was released when the nucleus was assembled.
b) Binding energy per nucleon increases up to a peak at 2656Fe then decreases, so 2656Fe is the most stable nuclide. Most nuclides
have a binding energy per nucleon of about 8 MeV. Lighter nuclei are held less tightly than heavier nuclei.
c) Nuclear reactions, both natural (radioactive decay) and artificial/induced (fission, fusion, bombardments) occur if they
increase the binding energy per nucleon ratio. Fusion occurs for light nuclei (below 2656Fe) and fission occurs for heavy nuclei
(above 2656Fe).
d) For both natural and induced nuclear reactions, the total rest mass of the products is less than the total rest mass of the
reactants since energy is released in the reaction. Also, the products are in a lower energy state since energy was released in
the reaction and so the products have a greater binding energy per nucleon than the reactants.
1. Use the graph above to estimate the total binding energy of an oxygen-16 nucleus. 8 MeV x 16 = 128 MeV

7\SHVRI1XFOHDU5HDFWLRQV
$UWLILFLDO,QGXFHG7UDQVPXWDWLRQ A nucleus is bombarded with a nucleon, an alpha particle or another small nucleus,
resulting in a nuclide with a different proton number (a different element).
1XFOHDU)XVLRQTwo light nuclei combine to form a more massive nucleus with the release of energy.
1XFOHDU)LVVLRQ A heavy nucleus splits into two smaller nuclei of roughly equal mass with the release of energy.
1DWXUDO5DGLRDFWLYLW\ When an unstable (radioactive) nucleus disintegrates spontaneously, the nucleus emits a particle
of small mass and/or a photon.

5HOHDVHRIHQHUJ\LQQXFOHDUUHDFWLRQV:

P PP

Energy is usually released in the form of kinetic energy for the products.
%LQGLQJHQHUJ\SHUQXFOHRQgreater for product nuclei than for original nuclei since energy is released.
4

5DGLRDFWLYH'HFD\5HDFWLRQV

IB 12 

$OSKD'HFD\
Alpha particle: helium nucleus, , 24He
Example reaction:

226
88
$
=

222
5Do86
5Q 24 +HHQHUJ\


$4
; o=2
<24 +H HQHUJ\


Where does the kinetic energy come from? Rest mass of nucleons
Result: nucleus is in a more stable state with higher binding energy and higher BE per nucleon
since it released energy
1. A radium nucleus, initially at rest, decays by the emission of an alpha particle into radon in the reaction described above.
The mass of 88226Ra is 226.025402 u and the mass of 86222Rn is 222.017571 u and the mass of the alpha particle is
4.002602 u.
a) Calculate the energy released in this decay.

m = 0.005229 u
4.87 MeV

b) Compare the momenta, speeds, and kinetic energies of the two particles produced by this reaction.

c) If the kinetic energy of the alpha particle is

4.77 MeV, calculate its speed.

d) Calculate the recoil speed of the radon nucleus.

Use momentum no need to change units

5 

%HWD'HFD\
-

Beta-minus particle: electron, ,

IB 12

0
-1 e

Beta-plus particle: positron, , +10e

Consider the following two mysterious results of beta decay:
a) Observe the before and after picture of beta decay. 

Whats wrong?

b) Inspect the graph of kinetic energy carried away by 

the beta particles. Why are so few beta particles 

leaving with the majority of the kinetic energy?

Where did this missing kinetic energy go?

Conclusion: there is third particle involved with beta decay that carries away some KE
and momentum virtually undetectable

Neutrino and anti-neutrino: fundamental particles - no charge very small mass

%HWDPLQXVGHFD\

%HWDSOXVGHFD\

Example reaction:

Example reaction:

14
6

0
0
&o14
7 11 H 0 Q HQHUJ\

0
0
 1o12
6 &1 H0 Q HQHUJ\

12
7

General equation:

$
=

General equation:

$
; o=1
<01 H 00 Q HQHUJ\

$
 ; o
 =1
<01 H00 Q HQHUJ\

$
=

How does this happen? Weak force

How does this happen? Weak force

1
0

Qo11 S01 H 00 Q HQHUJ\

1
1

S o10 Q01 H00 Q HQHUJ\

*DPPD'HFD\
Gamma particle: high energy photon, J
Example reaction:

12
6

&* o12

6 & b  HQHUJ\

General equation:

$
=

;* o = $ ; b  HQHUJ\



Before Decay


After Decay

Where does the photon (energy) come from? Rest mass of nucleons
6 

(QHUJ\6SHFWUDRI5DGLDWLRQ

IB 12

The nucleus itself, like the atom as a whole, is a quantum system

with allowed states and discrete energy levels. The nucleus can be
in any one of a number of discrete allowed excited states or in its
lowest energy relaxed state. When it transitions between a higher
energy level and a lower one, it emits energy in the form of alpha,
beta, or gamma radiation. When an alpha particle or a gamma
photon is emitted from the nucleus, only discrete energies are
observed. 7KHVHGLVFUHWHHQHUJ\VSHFWUDJLYHHYLGHQFHWKDWD
QXFOHXVKDVHQHUJ\OHYHOV. (However, the spectrum of energies
emitted as beta articles is continuous due to its sharing the energy
with a neutrino or antineutrino in any proportion.)

Importance: discrete energy spectra give evidence

for nuclear energy levels

$OSKDVSHFWUD

%HWDVSHFWUD

*DPPD
VSHFWUD

Discrete

continuous

discrete

,RQL]LQJ5DGLDWLRQ
,RQL]LQJ5DGLDWLRQ As this radiation passes through materials, it knocks off electrons from neutral atoms thereby
creating an ion pair: free electrons and a positive ion. This LRQL]LQJSURSHUW\ allows the radiation to be detected but
is also dangerous since it can lead to mutations in biologically important molecules in cells, such as DNA.

3DUWLFOH

helium nucleus

Electron or
positron

high-energy photon

3HQHWUDWLRQDELOLW\

low

medium

high

1 mm of
aluminum

10 cm of lead

less than 1 meter

effectively infinite

Sheet of paper; a
0DWHULDOQHHGHGWR
few centimeters of
DEVRUELW
air
3DWKOHQJWKLQDLU

a few cm

'HWHFWLRQRI5DGLDWLRQWKH*HLJHU0XOOHUWXEH*HLJHUFRXQWHU
The Geiger counter consists of a gas-filled metal cylinder. The or rays enter the cylinder through a thin
window at one end. Gamma rays can also penetrate directly through the metal. A wire electrode runs along the
center of the tube and is kept at a high positive voltage (1000-3000 V) relative to the outer cylinder.
When a high-energy particle or photon enters the cylinder, it collides with and ionizes a gas molecule. The
electron produced from the gas molecule accelerates toward the positive wire, ionizing other molecules in its
path. Additional electrons are formed, and an avalanche of electrons rushes toward the wire, leading to a pulse of
current through the resistor 5. This pulse can be counted or made to produce a "click" in a loudspeaker. The
number of counts or clicks is related to the number of disintegrations that produced the particles or photons.

%LRORJLFDO(IIHFWVRI,RQL]LQJ5DGLDWLRQ
Alpha and beta particles have energies typically measured in MeV. To ionize an atom requires about 10 eV so each particle can
potentially ionize 105 atoms before they run out of energy. When radiation ionizes atoms that are part of a living cell, it can affect
the ability of the cell to carry out its function or even cause the cell wall to rupture. In minor cases, the effect is similar to a burn. If
a large number of cells that are part of a vital organ are affected then this can lead to death. Alternatively, instead of causing the cell
to die, the damage done by ionizing radiation might just prevent cells from dividing and reproducing. Or, it could be the cause of the
transformation of the cell into a malignant form. If these malignant cells continue to grow then this is called cancer.
The amount of harm that radiation can cause is dependent on the number and energy of the particles. When a gamma photon is
absorbed, the whole photon is absorbed so one photon can ionize only one atom. However, the emitted electron has so much energy
that it can ionize further atoms, leading to damage similar to that caused by alpha and beta particles.
On a positive note, rapidly diving cancer cells are very susceptible to the effects of radiation and are more easily killed than normal
cells. The controlled use of the radiations associated with radioactivity is of great benefit in the treatment of cancerous tumors.

0DWKHPDWLFDO'HVFULSWLRQRI5DGLRDFWLYH'HFD\

IB 12 

5DGLRDFWLYHGHFD\:

1) 5DQGRPSURFHVV: It cannot be predicted when a particular nucleus will decay, only the 

probability that it will decay. 

2) 6SRQWDQHRXVSURFHVVIt is not affected by external conditions. For example, changing the

pressure or temperature of a sample will not affect the decay process.
3) 5DWHRIGHFD\GHFUHDVHVH[SRQHQWLDOO\ZLWKWLPH Any amount of radioactive nuclei will reduce
to half its initial amount in a constant time, independent of the initial amount.
+DOIOLIH7

Units:
time
= s or hr or
d or yr

- the time taken for of the radioactive nuclides in a sample to decay

 the time taken for the activity of a sample to decrease to of its initial value

1 = number of radioactive nuclei originally present

1 = number of radioactive nuclei present at any one time

<RXU7XUQ
Radioactive tritium has a half-life of about 12
years. Complete the graph below.

Radioactive X stable Y + particle

Show how amount of daughter Y mirrors X

A nuclide X has a half-life of 10 s. On decay the stable nuclide Y is formed. Initially a sample contains only atoms of X. After
what time will 87.5% of the atoms in the sample have decayed into nuclide Y? 30 s

8 

$FWLYLW\

IB 12 

$FWLYLW\$ the number of radioactive disintegrations per unit time (decay rate)
8QLWV
)RUPXOD

'1
$  
'W

6WDQGDUG
XQLWV:

decays/time = s-1 or hr-1or d-1 or yr-1

Becquerel (Bq)
1 Bq = 1 decay per second

1. A sample originally contains 8.0 x 1012 radioactive nuclei and has a half-life of 5.0 seconds. Calculate the activity of
the sample and its half-life after:

a) 5.0 seconds
8.0 x 1011 Bq
5.0 s

b) 10. seconds
6.0 x 1011 Bq
5.0 s

c) 15 seconds
4.7 x 1011 Bq
5.0 s

2. Samples of two nuclides X and Y initially contain the same number of radioactive nuclei, but the half-life of nuclide
X is greater than the half-life of nuclide Y. Compare the initial activities of the two samples.

Activity of sample Y is greater

$FWLYLW\

$D 1
$ O 1
,QLWLDO$FWLYLW\

$0

O 10

7KH5DGLRDFWLYH'HFD\/DZThe rate at which radioactive nuclei in a

sample decay (the activity) is proportional to the number of radioactive
nuclei present in the sample at any one time.

[As the number of radioactive nuclei decreases, so does the average

rate of decay (the activity).]
The initial activity (A0) is directly related to the number of radioactive
nuclei originally present (N0) in the sample.

3. The isotope Francium-224 has a half-life of 20 minutes. A sample of the isotope has an initial activity of 800 
disintegrations per second. What is the approximate activity of the sample after 1 hour?

N = 1/8 N0

So A = 1/8 A0

A = 100 disintegrations s-1

9 

IB 12 
8QLWV
inverse time

'HFD\FRQVWDQW
constant of proportionality between the decay rate (activity) and the
number of radioactive nuclei present.

= s-1 or hr-1or d-1

or yr-1

- probability of decay of a particular nuclei per unit time.

'HULYLQJWKH5DGLRDFWLYH'HFD\/DZ

'1
O 1
$ 
'W
G1
O 1
GW

5HODWLQJWKH'HFD\&RQVWDQWDQG+DOIOLIH
1
2

At W 71/ 2 then 1  1 0
The decay equation becomes
1 10H OW
1
10
2

A solution to this equation

is an exponential function

10HO71/ 2

1
2

 O71/ 2

1

HO71/ 2

O7

ln 2  H 1/ 2


ln 2 O71/ 2
ln 2 0.693

71/ 2 71/ 2

O 

of the form
1  1 0 H  OW

71/ 2

ln 2 0.693


O

also
A = A o H OW O 1 0 H OW

1. The half-life of a certain radioactive isotope is 2.0 minutes. A particular nucleus of this isotope has not decayed within
a time interval of 2.0 minutes. What is the probability of it decaying in:
a) the next two minutes

b) the next one minute

c) the next second

2. A sample of a radioactive isotope X has the same initial activity as a sample of the isotope Y. The sample of X
contains twice the number of atoms as the sample of Y. If the half-life of X is TX then the half-life of Y is 0.5 TX

10 

IB 12 

3. The half-life of a radioactive isotope is 10 days. Calculate the fraction of the sample that will be left after 15 days. 35%

4. The half-life of a radioactive substance is 10 days. Initially, there are 2.00 x 1026 radioactive nuclei present.
a) What is the probability of any one particular nucleus decaying?

b) What is the initial activity?

c) How many radioactive nuclei are left after 25 days?

d) What is the activity of the sample after 25 days?

e) How long will it take for the activity to fall to 1.0 x 1024 dy-1?

11 

*UDSKVRI5DGLRDFWLYH'HFD\

1  1 0 H OW

Radioactive nuclei vs. time

ln 1

Straightening by natural log

ln 1 0 H  OW 

ln 1

ln 1 0   O  W 

ln 1

 10
 O  W  ln
\ P[ E

IB 12 

ln(N0)

T1/2 = ln 2/(-slope)

Activity of sample vs. time

Slope = -

Straightening by natural log

0HWKRGVRI'HWHUPLQLQJ+DOIOLIH
,IWKHKDOIOLIHLVVKRUW, then readings can be taken of activity versus time using a Geiger counter, for example. Then,
either
1.

A graph of activity versus time would give the exponential shape and several values for the half-life could be
read from the graph and averaged.

2.

A graph of ln (activity) versus time would be linear and the decay constant can be calculated from the slope.

OR

,IWKHKDOIOLIHLVORQJ, then the activity will be effectively constant over a period of time. If a way could be found to
calculate the number of nuclei present chemically, perhaps using the mass of the sample and Avogadros number, then the
activity relation or the decay equation could be used to calculate half-life.

12 

IB 12 

1. Cesium-138 decays into an isotope of barium. Measurements of

the activity of a particular sample of cesium-138 were taken and
graphed at right.
a) Suggest how the data for this graph could have been obtained.
Geiger counter

b) Use the graph to estimate the half-life of cesium-138.

35 minutes
c) Use the graph to estimate the half-life of the barium isotope.
Wait until 250/300 minutes when very little cesium left 

90 minutes 

2. A 2.0 mg sample of carbon-14 is measured to have an activity of 6.5 x 1010 Bq.

a) Use this information to determine the half-life of carbon-14 in years. 5700 years

b) A student suggests that the half-life can be determined by taking repeated measurements of the activity and
analyzing the data graphically. Use your answer to part (a) to comment on this method of determining the half-life.

3. The radioactive isotope potassium-40 undergoes beta decay to form the isotope calcium-40 with a half-life
of 1.3 x 109 yr. A sample of rock contains 10 mg of potassium-40 and 42 mg of calcium-40.
a) Determine the age of the rock sample.

3.1 x 109 yr

b) What are some assumptions made in this determination of age?

No calcium-40 originally present = all potassium-40
No loss of either isotope in intervening years

13 

1XFOHDU)LVVLRQ

IB 12

1XFOHDU)LVVLRQ A heavy nucleus splits into two smaller nuclei of roughly equal mass with the release of energy.
1XFOHDU)XVLRQTwo light nuclei combine to form a more massive nucleus with the release of energy.

5HOHDVHRIHQHUJ\LQQXFOHDUUHDFWLRQV:

P PP
Energy is usually released in the form of . . .
kinetic energy for the products.

%LQGLQJHQHUJ\SHUQXFOHRQgreater for
product nuclei than for original nuclei since
energy is released.

One Common Fission Reaction

235
92

236
810 Qo92
8* o;< neutrons

There are about 90 different daughter nuclei (X and Y) that can be formed.
Here is a typical example:
235
92

92
1
8 10 Qo141
56 %D 36 .U 3
0 Q

1. Estimate the amount of energy released when a uranium nucleus fissions.

Use plot above 

Original: 7.5 MeV per nucleon 
Daughters: 8.5 MeV 
Energy difference: 1.0 MeV per nucleon x 235 nucleons 
= 235 MeV as KE of daughters and neutrons 

2. A neutron collides with a nucleus of plutonium and the following fission reaction occurs. Determine the number of neutrons
produced and calculate the amount of energy released.

239
94

96
3X10 Qo140
%D
56
38 6U

P PP

Masses:
239
Pu = 239.052157 u
94
96
38 Sr = 95.921750 u
140
Ba = 139.910581 u
56
1
0 n = 1.008665 u

0.19383 u = 180 MeV

14

&KDLQ5HDFWLRQV

IB 12

&KDLQ5HDFWLRQ neutrons released from one fission reaction go on to initiate further reactions

Uncontrolled nuclear fission: nuclear weapons

Controlled nuclear fission: nuclear power production
1) some material absorbs excess neutrons before striking nucleus
Uncontrolled Chain Reaction

2) leaving only one neutron from each reaction to produce

another reaction
Critical Mass: if mass of uranium is too small, too many
neutrons escape without causing further fission in uranium so
the reaction cannot be sustained
Controlled Chain Reaction

Thermal Neutron: low-energy neutron (1eV) that favors fission reactions energy comparable to
gas particles at normal temperatures
Naturally Occurring Isotopes of Uranium:
1) Uranium-238: most abundant, 99.3%, very small probability of fissioning when it captures a 

neutron, not used for fuel, more likely to capture high energy neutron than low energy one 

2) Uranium-235: 0.3%, 500 times greater probability of fissioning when captures a neutron but must
be a low-energy (thermal) neutron, used for fuel

Fuel Enrichment: process of increasing proportion of uranium-235 in a sample of uranium

1) formation of gaseous uranium (uranium hexafluoride) from uranium ores
2) Separated in gas centrifuges by spinning heavier U-238 moves to outside
3) increases proportion of U-235 to about 3% to be used as fuel in nuclear reactors
Advantage: more uranium is available for fission and reaction can be sustained
Disadvantage: enriched fuel can be used in the manufacture of nuclear weapons
threat to world peace 85% = weapons grade
15 

1XFOHDU5HDFWRUV

IB 12

Most nuclear reactors: thermal fission reactor using uranium-235 as fuel

Fuel Rods: enriched solid uranium

Moderator: material (water, graphite) used to slow down high-energy neutrons emitted from fission
reactions to thermal levels for use in further fission reactions to sustain the chain reaction - slow
neutrons by collisions

Control Rods: inserted between fuel rods made of neutron-absorbing cadmium or boron D
used to control reactor temperature to prevent overheating lowered if too many
neutrons/reactions and excess thermal neutrons are absorbed

Heat Exchanger: hot fluid circulating around fuel rods (primary loop) is fed into tank of water
heat is transferred to water and makes steam steam expands adiabatically against fan blades of
turbines and turns a magnet is a coil of wire to generate electricity

16

1HXWURQ&DSWXUHDQG3OXWRQLXP
Uranium-238 is a non-fissionable isotope but is considered fertile
238
92

239
239
810 Qo92
8 o93
1S01 H Q

IB 12

Neutron capture and

Beta-minus decay

239
93

239
1So94
3X01 H Q

Beta-minus decay

239
94

96
1
3X10 Qo140
%D
6U3
56
38
0 Q

Fission
reaction

Advantage: plutonium-239 used as fuel in breeder reactors

Disadvantage: plutonium-239 used in nuclear weapons

6DIHW\,VVXHVDQG5LVNVLQWKH3URGXFWLRQRI1XFOHDU3RZHU

Uranium Mining:
open-cast mining: environmental damage, radioactive waste rock (tailings)
underground mining: release of radon gas (need ventilation), radioactive rock dangerous for workers,
radioactive waste rock (tailings)
leaching: solvents pumped underground to dissolve uranium and then pumped back out
contamination of groundwater
Thermal Meltdown: overheating and melting of fuel rods may be caused by malfunction in cooling
system or pressure vessel overheating may cause pressure vessel to burst sending radioactive material
and steam into atmosphere (as in Chernobyl, Ukraine 1986) hot material may melt through floor
China syndrome as in Three Mile Island limited by containment vessel and containment building

Nuclear Waste:
Low-level waste: radioactive material from mining, enrichment and operation of plant must be
disposed of left untouched or encased in concrete
High-level waste: disposal of spent fuel rods- some isotopes have lives of thousands of years
plutonium 240,000 years
1) stored under water at reactor site for several years to cool of then sealed in steel cylinders,
buried underground
2) reprocessed to remove any plutonium and useful uranium, remaining isotopes have shorter
lives and long-term storage need is reduced
Nuclear Weapons Manufacture:
Enrichment technology could be used to make weapons grade uranium (85%) rather than fuel
grade (3%)
Plutonium is most used isotope in nuclear weapons and can be gotten from reprocessing spent
fuel rods
17 

IB 12 

1. Suppose the average power consumption for a household is 500 W per day. Estimate the amount of uranium-235 that would have
to undergo fission to supply the household with electrical energy for a year. Assume that for each fission, 200 MeV is released.

2. A fission reaction taking place in a nuclear power station might be

235
92

92
1
810 Qo141
56 %D 36 .U 3
0 Q

Estimate the initial amount of uranium-235 needed to operate a 600

MW reactor for one year assuming 40% efficiency and 200 MeV
released for each fission reaction.

18 

1XFOHDU)XVLRQ

IB 12

1XFOHDU)XVLRQTwo light nuclei combine to form a more massive nucleus with the release of energy.

1. Write the reaction equation for the fusion reaction shown at right.

2
1

+13 + o24 +H 10 Q 

2. Calculate how much energy is released in this fusion reaction.

P PP

2
1

0.0189 u = 17.6 MeV

H (deuterium, 2.0141 u)
3
1 H (tritium, 3.0161 u)
4
2 He (4.0026 u)
neutron (1.0087 u)

3. Calculate the energy released per nucleon and compare this with a fission reaction.

5 nucleons react = 17.6 MeV / 5 = 3.5 MeV 

Compared with 1.0 MeV for fission 

Important occurrence of fusion: main source of Suns energy fusion of hydrogen to helium
Suggested Mechanism: proton-proton cycle
1
1

0
+11 +o12 +1

H Q

1
1

+12 +o3

2 +H  J 

Then either:
1
1

4
0
+32 +H o
2 +H 1 H J

Or:
3
2

+H 32 +H o 42 +H 11 +

 11 +

19 

)XVLRQ5HDFWRU

IB 12

Plasma: fuel for reactor high energy ionized gas (electrons and nuclei are
separate) if energy is high enough (hot enough), nuclei can collide fast enough to
overcome Coulomb repulsion and fuse together

Magnetic confinement: charged particles are contained via magnetic fields

travel in a circle in a doughnut shaped ring (tokamak)

Heating Plasma: accelerate nuclei by means of magnetic fields and forces = high
temperatures (high kinetic energies)

Problems with current fusion technology: maintaining and confining very high-density and
high-temperature plasmas very difficult to do uses more energy input than output not
commercially efficient

$UWLILFLDO,QGXFHG7UDQVPXWDWLRQ

$UWLILFLDO,QGXFHG7UDQVPXWDWLRQ A nucleus is bombarded with a nucleon, an alpha particle or another small nucleus,
resulting in a nuclide with a different proton number (a different element).

Requirement: the bombarding particle must have sufficient kinetic energy to overcome the Coulomb
repulsion

1. In 1919, Ernest Rutherford discovered that when nitrogen gas is bombarded with alpha particles, oxygen and protons are
produced. Complete the equation for this reaction.

14
7

17
1
1 42 +H o
8 21 +

2. Neutron bombardment of lithium can produce the radioactive isotope of hydrogen known as tritium. Complete the reaction.

6
3

/L10 Qo13 +42

+H

NOTE: isotopes produced

Importance: artificial isotopes produced are used in medical tests and therapies

20 

4XDQWXP3K\VLFV

IB 12

What are photons? Quantum of energy particle of light

Properties of photons: m = 0, v = c (in a vacuum), q = 0

(QHUJ\RID3KRWRQ
E = hf

where h = Plancks constant

= 6.63 x 10-34 J s

1. A beam of monochromatic light has a frequency of 4.4 x 1014 Hz. Determine the energy of each photon of this
light in both joules and electron-volts.

2. Light from a 2.5 mW laser has a wavelength of 670 nm.

a) Find the energy of each photon in joules and electron-volts.

b) How many photons does it emit in 3.0 minutes?

c) The laser beam falls normally on a plane surface and appears as a small circle whose diameter is 1.5 mm.
What is the intensity of the laser beam?

,QWHQVLW\power per unit area

Formula: I = P/A
Symbol: I
Units: W/m2

IB 12 

Energy of each
photon

Total energy

Number of
photons

If the frequency of the light is constant, as the

intensity of the light increases.

remains the same

increases

increases

If the intensity of the light is constant, as the

frequency of the light increases.

increases

remains the same

decreases

3. Which contains more photons 1 joule of red light or 1 joule of blue light? Red
4. Which emits more photons per second a 1 W laser of red light or a 1 W laser of green light? red

7KH3KRWRHOHFWULF(IIHFWthe emission of electrons from a metal when electromagnetic radiation of high

enough frequency falls on the surface

7KH([SHULPHQW
1. Light of varying frequencies and intensities are shone on a metal surface (photoemissive surface).
2. Light below a certain frequency will not emit electrons (photo-electrons) no matter how intense it is or how
long it shines on the surface. Light at or above a certain frequency will immediately emit electrons no
matter how intense it is.
7KUHVKROGIUHTXHQF\IR: minimum frequency of light needed to eject electrons from the surface of the metal

How are these results in conflict with the classical theory about light?
&ODVVLFDO7KHRU\says . . . light acts as a wave and the energy of a wave depends on its amplitude (intensity)
not its frequency.
&ODVVLFDOSUHGLFWLRQV

([SHULPHQWDOHYLGHQFH

Whether electrons are

ejected or not depends on
...

Intensity of the light

(If intense enough, electrons will be
ejected no matter what the
frequency)

Frequency of the light

The maximum kinetic

energy of the ejected
electrons depends on . . .

Intensity of the light

Frequency of the light

Takes time

Occurs instantaneously above threshold

frequency
2
but never below certain frequency

At low intensities,
ejecting electrons . . .

IB 12

Einsteins explanation of the photo-electric effect:

4. Light acts like a particle (not a wave) in which its energy is proportional to its frequency.
5. Electrons at the surface of the metal need DPLQLPXPHQHUJ\LQRUGHUWREHHMHFWHGIURPWKH
VXUIDFH, called the ZRUNIXQFWLRQan amount which varies from metal to metal. (Electrons
under the surface of the metal need more energy to be emitted.)

(

:RUN)XQFWLRQ I 

K I
K I R

1. There is a one-to-one interaction in which one electron absorbs one photon. If the photon
has enough energy (high enough frequency) to overcome the work function, the electron
will leave surface immediately with no time delay. If not, the electron will still absorb the
photon but will remain bound to the metal.
2. Any extra energy (above the work function) is retained by the electron in the form of
kinetic energy. The maximum kinetic energy (Ekmax) is retained by electrons that were most
loosely held on the very surface of the metal.
3. The number of photons arriving per second, and therefore the rate of emission of electrons,
is determined by the intensity of the light, not its frequency. The intensity of the light plays
no role in the energy each photon has.

(LQVWHLQV

3KRWRHOHFWULF(IIHFW

(TXDWLRQ

(7

(7

KI I  (m ax
KI

KI0  (max

1. Photons strike a metal surface whose work function is 2.1 electronvolts, ejecting electrons with a maximum kinetic
energy of 7.5 electronvolts.
a) Find the energy of the photons.

hf = 2.1 eV + 7.5 eV
hf = 9.6 eV

b) Find the threshold frequency of the metal.

2.1 eV(1.6 x 10-19J/1 eV) = hfo
3.36 x 10-19 J = hfo
fo = 5.07 x 1014 Hz

3 

$QDO\VLVRIWKH3KRWR(OHFWULF(IIHFW([SHULPHQWDO'DWD

IB 12 

Monochromatic light is incident on a metal

surface in a photo-cell as shown. The
frequency of the light is above the
threshold frequency for this metal. The
current in the photo-cell is measured using
a microammeter. The potential difference
of the voltage source is varied until the
reading on the microammeter is a
maximum (called the saturation current.)

1. Sketch a graph of how this maximum current varies with the

intensity of light if the frequency of the light is kept constant.

Schematic of Experimental Apparatus

Explanation:
Intensity of light is proportional to number of
photons per second striking plate
Each photon ejects an electron
So current is proportional to intensity

2. Describe and explain what will happen to the current if the intensity is kept the same but the
frequency of the light is increased. Sketch the resulting graph on the axes above.
Less current since total energy is constant but the energy per photon has increased so
fewer photons are striking the metal per second and fewer electrons are ejected

A plot of the maximum kinetic energy of the ejected electrons versus frequency of the incident light is
shown. Discuss the features of this graph. Sketch a graph of maximum kinetic energy versus wavelength.
0DWKHPDWLFDO0RGHO

KI I  (m ax
(max

KI  I 

(max

KI  KI 0 

[LQWHUFHSW I
6ORSH KLI(LQ-
\LQWHUFHSW 
4

0LOOLNDQV6WRSSLQJ3RWHQWLDO([SHULPHQW

IB 12 

3XUSRVH to test Einsteins model of the photo-electric effect

0HWKRG
1) Make collecting plate (electrode) negative to repel electrons

emitted from the surface (reverse the normal polarity). 

2) Increase the potential difference until the current drops to zero.

3) Electrons emitted from metal surface have a maximum energy. 

If this maximum energy is less than the energy required for 

electrons to move between plates (against the potential

difference), electrons will not reach the collecting plate.

Two comparable schematics of the

stopping potential experimental apparatus

6WRSSLQJ3RWHQWLDO9V
1) minimum potential difference that stops all current
2) reading on voltmeter equal to KE max in electronvolts
0D[LPXPNLQHWLF
HQHUJ\RIHMHFWHG
HOHFWURQV(PD[

(H
T9V

(Nmax
(Nmax

H9V (Nmax
0DWKHPDWLFDO0RGHO

KI I  (Nmax
KI KI 0  H9V

H9V KI  I 
9V

Experimental Results

[LQWHUFHSW I
6ORSH KH
\LQWHUFHSW H

KI I


H H

Use the graph above to determine a value for the work function in electronvolts and for Plancks constant.

5 

IB 12
The apparatus shown is used to
investigate the photo-electric effect. The
potential difference 9 applied between
the metal plates and electrode may be
varied in magnitude and direction. In
one particular experiment, the frequency
and intensity of the light are held
constant. The graph shows the variation
with the potential difference of the
current measured on the microammeter.

1. Discuss the features of the graph. 

a) current reaches a maximum value with positive potential difference 

b) current drops to zero with a negative potential difference = stopping potential

2. How would this graph change if the intensity of the light 

increased at the same frequency? Sketch it on the axes. 

Same Vs (same energy per photon = same Emax)

higher max current (more photons)

3. How would this graph change if the frequency of the light 

increased at the same intensity? Sketch it on the axes. 

More negative Vs (more energy) lower max current

(fewer photons so fewer electrons)

4. The potentiometer is adjusted to give the minimum voltage at which there is zero reading on the
microammeter. State and explain what change, if any, will occur in the microammeter when
a) the intensity of the incident light is increased but the frequency remains unchanged.
No change stopping potential depends on energy of each electron no change in frequency so
no change in photon energy so no change in electron energy

b) the frequency of the light is increased at a constant intensity.

Reading increases from zero photon energy increases so electron energy increases.

6 

0DWWHU:DYHV

IB 12

Louis de Broglie (French physicist, 1892 1987) postulated in his doctoral dissertation that because light can
have both wave and particle characteristics, perhaps all forms of matter have both characteristics.
'H%URJOLH+\SRWKHVLV (1924): All particles can behave like waves whose wavelength is given by  KS
where h = Plancks constant and p = the momentum of the particle

0DWWHUZDYH: All moving particles have a matter wave associated with them whose wavelength is the de
Broglie wavelength.

:DYH3DUWLFOH'XDOLW\Both matter and radiation have a dual nature. They exhibit both particle and
wave properties.

'H%URJOLH
ZDYHOHQJWK

K
K
O  
S PY

Sketch the relationship

between speed and the

de Broglie wavelength
of a moving object

1. Determine the de Broglie wavelength for an electron moving at 6.0 106 m/s and a baseball (mass = 0.15 kg) moving at 13 m/s.
Electron
baseball
= 6.63 x 10-34 / (0.15 x 13)
= 6.63 x 10-34 / (9.11 x 10-31 x 6.0 x 106 )
= 3.3 x 10-34 m
= 1.2 x 10-10 m

2. Why dont we notice the wavelike nature of matter in everyday life? Wavelengths are too small

3. Compare the momentum of photons and particles. Which has more momentum a red photon or a blue photon? blue
Photon Momentum

K
S 

Particle Momentum

S

K

O

PY
7

IB 12 

4. Give some experimental evidence to verify the de Broglie hypothesis.

([SHULPHQW Davisson-Germer experiment (electron diffraction)
0HWKRG directed beam of electrons onto a crystal of nickel and measured number of electrons
scattered at various angles

Experimental Apparatus

Sample Results

5HVXOWV electrons in scattered beam are only detected at certain angles by the collector
&RQFOXVLRQ electrons are scattered from two layers of atoms and interfere with each other
as waves do
Another Electron Diffraction Experiment
A beam of electrons is sent
at a target and the results
are observed on a
fluorescent screen. Notice
that the resulting pattern
looks very similar to that of
light diffraction through a
circular aperture.
Experimental Apparatus

Sample Results

,PSRUWDQFH experimental confirmation of de Broglie hypothesis (matter waves)

Why are the wave-like properties of matter evident in these experiments but not in everyday life?
De Broglie wavelength of electrons is comparable to the size of the spacing between atoms so
noticeable diffraction and interference occurs

8 

IB 12 

( PF 2 

5. Compare the energy of photons and particles.

( KI

Photon Energy

Particle Energy

1
(N  PY 2
2

S2

2P

S 2

(N 

2P
S  2P(N

O 
(

N

K
K

S
2P(N
K2
2PO2

E kD

O2

OD

1
(N

wavelength

6. Compare the kinetic energy of a particle and its de Broglie wavelength

Kinetic energy

7. An electron is accelerated through a potential difference of 1.00 kV. What is its resulting de Broglie wavelength?

E = V/d 

Ee = qV 

9 

$WRPLF6WUXFWXUH0RGHOVRIWKH$WRP

IB 12 

1XFOHDU0RGHORIWKH$WRP5XWKHUIRUG0RGHO3ODQHWDU\0RGHO Simple

model in which electrons are kept in orbit around the nucleus as a result of the
electrostatic attraction between the electrons and the nucleus
(YLGHQFHIRUWKH1XFOHDU0RGHO

([SHULPHQW Geiger-Marsden experiment (1909), alpha scattering experiment, Rutherford experiment 

0HWKRG Alpha particles from radioactive source are directed at

thin gold foil. Scattered alpha particles are detected by a glow on
a fluorescent screen.
5HVXOWV
1. Most particles went straight through or were deflected at small angles.
2. A few were deflected at very large scattering angles.
&RQFOXVLRQV
1. Most of the atom is empty space since most particles go straight through.
2. All positive charge and most of the mass are concentrated in a very small space called the nucleus.

/LPLWDWLRQRIWKHQXFOHDUPRGHORIWKHDWRP: According to classical physics, an orbiting electron is

accelerating, and accelerating bodies radiate energy. This would mean that electrons would radiate energy
as they orbit the nucleus. This contradicts observations for two reasons:
1. Electrons would lose energy and spiral into the nucleus. This would destroy all matter.

2. Electrons would radiate energy as light in a continuous spectrum of colors. This contradicts
experimental observation since the emission spectra of atoms are observed to consist of only welldefined discrete wavelengths.
&RQFOXVLRQ: Observations of atomic emission and absorption spectra indicate that:
1. electrons do not radiate energy when in stable orbits. Stable orbits only occur at certain radial distance
from the nucleus. Thus, electrons in these orbits have a well-defined discrete amount of energy.
2. electrons only radiate or absorb energy only when they move (transition) between stable orbits. This
energy is quantized and fixed by the energy differences between the allowed orbital levels.
,PSRUWDQFH: Atomic emission and absorption spectra provide evidence for the existence of atomic
energy levels.
10

$WRPLF(PLVVLRQDQG$EVRUSWLRQ6SHFWUD
Production of (PLVVLRQ6SHFWUD
1. Low pressure gas is energized by applying a
potential difference across it causing it to heat up.

2. The hot gas emits light energy only at certain welldefined frequencies, as seen through a diffraction
grating (spectroscope) or prism.

Experimental Apparatus

IB 12 

Production of $EVRUSWLRQ6SHFWUD
1. Light is shone through a cool low pressure gas.

2. A diffraction grating or prism is used to

determine what frequencies pass through the gas
and which are absorbed.

Experimental Apparatus

Sample Results

Balmer
Series

The VSHFWUDOOLQHV produced (emission or absorption) are

characteristic of the particular element producing them.
Sample Results

Note that emission and absorption spectral lines occur at the

same locations for the same element.

How do atomic spectra provide evidence for the quantization of energy in atoms?
1. Electrons do not radiate energy when in stable orbits. Stable orbits only occur at certain radial
distance from the nucleus. Thus, electrons in these orbits have a well-defined discrete amount of
energy.
2. Electrons only radiate or absorb energy only when they move (transition) between stable orbits.
This energy is quantized and fixed by the energy differences between the allowed orbital levels.
11 

IB 12
Electron transitions to a
higher energy level
require the addition of
energy the basis of the
absorption spectrum.

Electron transitions to a
lower energy level
involve the release of
energy the basis of the
emission spectrum.

1. An electron is excited from the ground state to the n = 4 excited state.

a) How many possible different photons may be emitted as the electrons relaxes
back down to the ground state? Sketch them on the diagram.
6 transitions
b) Which transition produces a photon with the most energy?
4 to 1
c) Which transition produces a photon with the highest frequency?
4 to 1
d) Which transition produces a photon with the longest wavelength?
4 to 3
e) Which has the highest wavelength?
4 to 3

7KH9LVLEOH(PLVVLRQ6SHFWUXPRI+\GURJHQ
2. Calculate the wavelength of the spectral line associated with an
energy level transition from n = 3 to n = 2.

12 

7KH(OHFWURQLQD%R[0RGHORIWKH$WRP

IB 12

How can the atomic energy levels be explained as quantized matter waves?
)HDWXUHVRI0RGHO:
1. If the electron is thought to be confined to move in one dimension by a box, the de Broglie wavelength
associated with it will be a standing wave that will only resonate at certain well-defined wavelengths.
That is, the electron matter wave is a standing wave that fits certain boundary conditions, like a
standing wave on a string fixed at both ends.
Resonant Wavelengths

Standing waves on a

string fixed at both

ends must have a node

at each end. The

resonant modes are

then integral numbers

of wavelengths.

L = n/2
= 2L/n
where L = length of box and
n = a positive integer

An electron matter
wave has the same
resonant modes as
a standing wave
on a string.

2. The kinetic energy of the electron in the box can be found from the de Broglie wavelength.

Calculation of first energy level

(use radius = 0.53 x 10-10 m)

Derivation

2/
Q

K
O
S
QK
S
2/
S2
(. 
2PH

O 

(.

(.

Q2K2


8PH/2

(.

(2) 2 (6.63[1034 ) 2
8(9.11[1031 )(.53 [1010 ) 2

(. 2.18 [1018 (. 13.6H9

Q2 K2
8PH/2
13 

7KH6FKUGLQJHU4XDQWXP0HFKDQLFDO0RGHORIWKH$WRP

IB 12

(UZLQ6FKU|GLQJHU (Austrian physicist, 1887-1961) made use of de Broglies hypothesis to develop the
first truly quantum theory of the atom using wave mechanics.
)HDWXUHVRI0RGHO:
1. Electrons can be described as matter waves, rather than particles. The mathematical equation for this
matter wave is called a wave function.
:DYH)XQFWLRQ: a mathematical wave function ()
is assigned to the electron.

<

QS [
$sin

 /

These wave function equations are solutions to a second

order differential equation known as Schrdingers equation:

G 2<
G[2

8S 2 P
 2  ( 9  <
K

2. The position of the electron is undefined. But the square of the amplitude of the wave function is
proportional to the probability of finding the electron at any particular location.
electron cloud of probability for the
first electron energy level

plot of the square of the wave function (probability) versus radial

distance from the nucleus for the electron in its lowest energy state
Most probably found
at r = a = 53 x 10-10 m

+HLVHQEHUJV8QFHUWDLQW\3ULQFLSOH
:HUQHU+HLVHQEHUJ (German physicist, 1901-1976) won a Nobel prize in 1932 for the development of his
uncertainty principle which identifies a fundamental limit to the possible precision of any physical measurement.
8QFHUWDLQW\3ULQFLSOH
1) Both the position and momentum of a particle cannot be precisely known at the same time.
2) Both the energy state of a particle and the amount of time it is in that energy state cannot be 

precisely known at the same time. 

FRQMXJDWHTXDQWLWLHV: position and momentum or energy and time

,PSOLFDWLRQV:
a) The more you know about one of the conjugate quantities, the less you know about the other.
b) If one of the conjugate quantities is known precisely, all knowledge of the other is lost.
14 

IB 12
x p h/4

Mathematical Representations of
the Uncertainty Principle:

E t h/4

** delta = +D not final - initial

Application to Electron Diffraction

A beam of electrons passes through a double slit. If the electrons
act like particles, they should only hit the screen in two locations
as shown in figure (a). But if the size of the slits is comparable to
the de Broglie wavelengths of the electrons, the electrons will
exhibit wave properties. A series of bright and dark bands will
show up on the screen instead, as seen in figure (b), indicating
that the electrons have diffracted upon passing through the slits
and interfered to produce the fringe pattern.
How can the electrons diffract and interfere? One way to interpret this is to consider
that while it is not possible to specify in advance where a particular electron will hit the
screen after passing through one or the other slit, one can predict the probability of it
hitting at a certain location. Bright fringes correspond to places where electrons have a
high probability of landing, and thus over time many electrons do hit there as seen in
figure (c), and dark fringes correspond to places where electrons have a low probability of
landing. The de Broglie matter wave associated with each electron can thus be seen as a
probability wave, as predicted by Schrodinger.

Derivation of Uncertainty Principle

Electrons passing through a single slit can be diffracted up or
down within the central maximum as far as the location of the
first minimum (dark fringe) neglecting the other bright
fringes. This means that although the electron originally had
no momentum in the vertical direction before entering the slit,
now it may have a vertical momentum component as large as
py. Thus, the uncertainty in its momentum is only in the
vertical direction and is equal to py.. Its horizontal
momentum component remains constant at px and so px = 0.

sin T 

O

tan T 

E
'S \
S[

sin T | tan T
O 'S\
|
E
S[

O|

K
S[

'S \ |
E | '\

K

E


'\ 'S \ |K

K
'\ 'S \ t 
4S

15 

IB 12 

1. If the width of the slit is 1.5 x 10-11 m, find the

minimum uncertainty in the:
a) horizontal component of the momentum 0

b) vertical component of the momentum

y py = h/4
py = h/(4 y) = h/(4 1.5 x 10-11 m)
= 3.5 x 10-24 kg m/s

Note that the uncertainty in the momentum is

perpendicular to its original motion

2. How is the uncertainty principle related to the de Broglie hypothesis?

If a particle has a uniquely defined de Broglie wavelength, then its momentum is
known precisely. That means that all knowledge of the position of the particle is lost.
$SSOLFDWLRQWRWKHK\GURJHQDWRP: If the wavelength of the electrons matter
wave is well-defined, then the position of the electron is unknown.

16 

5HODWLYLW\

IB 12

)UDPHRI5HIHUHQFH: the point of view of an observer or a coordinate system against which measurements
are made x,y,z, axes and a clock

,QHUWLDO)UDPHRI5HIHUHQFH:
1. a frame of reference in which Newtons law of inertia is valid, that is, a frame in which an object with
no unbalanced forces will remain at rest or move at a constant velocity
2. a frame of reference that is at rest or moving with a constant velocity not accelerating

*DOLOHDQ7UDQVIRUPDWLRQVDQG5HODWLYH9HORFLWLHV

1. What is the velocity of the ball as measured by the ground-based observer?

Stationary frame: ground based observer

Moving frame: truck
ux/ = velocity of object in x-direction as measured in moving frame
ux = velocity of object in x-direction as measured in stationary frame

v = velocity of frame 2 in x-direction as measured in stationary frame

*DOLOHDQWUDQVIRUPDWLRQ

G
JG G
X [ X c [  Y
G G
JG
X c [ X [  Y 

Example

G
8 X[  15 
G
X [ 23P/ V

2. What is the velocity of the ball as measured by the ground-based observer?

G

8 X[ 15

G
X [ 7 P / V

*DOLOHDQSULQFLSOHRIUHODWLYLW\:
1. laws of mechanics are the same in all inertial reference frames

2. there is no preferred frame of reference (absolute frame) for describing the laws of mechanics
1

What is the problem with the Galilean principle of relativity?

x

different observers will measure different values for the speed

of light

but according to the laws of electromagnetism (Maxwells 

equations), the speed of light in a vacuum is a fixed value

IB 12

How can this contradiction be resolved? Is the speed of light variable or is it fixed? Two possibilities exist:
1. The Galilean transformation laws are incomplete or incorrect. This means that the formulas for adding and subtracting
relative velocities will need to be revised so that the speed of light is the same for all observers.
2. The laws of electromagnetism are not the same in all inertial reference frames. This means that there must exist a preferred
reference frame in which the speed of light is a constant value but in other reference frames the speed of light can vary
according to the Galilean transformations.
Possible solution: Find an absolute frame of reference in which light travels at its predicted constant speed and then all
other reference frames can be compared to this absolute frame using the Galilean transformations.

/XPLQLIHURXVHWKHU: a massless fluid that fills all space that is the medium through which light travels
$EVROXWH)UDPH a frame of reference at rest with respect to the ether
0LFKHOVRQ0RUOH\H[SHULPHQW
Aim: to detect the ether
Apparatus: interferometer
1. a beam of light is split by a half-silvered mirror into two beams

2. the two beams reflect off mirrors and recombine

3. an observer looks at the interference patterns these two beams make

Your turn

4. the apparatus is rotated 900 to see if the interference pattern changes

Results: no change in interference pattern was ever noticed
Conclusions:
1. the ether does not exist there is no preferred frame of reference

2. result is consistent with the speed of light being constant

3. Galilean transformations must be revised

2 

6SHFLDO5HODWLYLW\

IB 12 

Special Theory of Relativity (1905): Einsteins attempt to resolve the paradox about the speed of light and
the laws of electromagnetism

Two Postulates of Special Relativity:

1. The laws of physics are the same in all inertial reference frames. 

Consequence: There is no preferred frame of reference.

2. The speed of light in a vacuum is the same for all observers.

Consequence: The speed of light is independent of the speed of its source or the speed of
any observer.
Consequences of Special Relativity:
A. rethinking simultaneity
B. time dilation
C. length contraction
D. Twin paradox
E. relativistic formulas for addition of velocities (revised Galilean transformations)
F. relationship between mass and energy
G. relativistic momentum and energy
3LRQGHFD\H[SHULPHQWV
3LRQpi meson - neutral pion (uu or dd)
Experiment: (CERN 1964)
fast moving neutral pions converted (decayed) into two high energy gamma-ray photons
pions moving at 99.9% speed of light emitted photons whose speed was still measured to be 3.00 x 108 m/s

Importance: Evidence supporting special relativity since it shows that the speed of light is
independent of its source
3

$ 6LPXOWDQHLW\DQGWKH5HODWLYLW\RI7LPH

IB 12

Two events occurring at different points in space and which are simultaneous for one observer cannot be

simultaneous for another observer in a different frame of reference.

A train is traveling to the right with speed Y with respect to the

ground when, at the moment observer O passes observer O, two
bolts of lightning strike the ends of the car at A and B. What
does each observer notice and why?
Inertial frames of reference
Observer O: ground based observer at rest with respect to the ground halfway between A and B
Observer O: train based observer at rest with respect to the train in middle of car

Observer O: sees lightning strike each end of the car at the same time
Reason: light has to travel equal distances to reach O at speed = c so reaches in equal times

Observer O: sees lightning at B first and then at A

Reason: while light from B is traveling toward him, he is moving toward light so light has less
distance to travel at speed = c so takes less time reverse for A

Result: Observer O sees lightning strikes happen simultaneously but Observer O sees them happen at
different times

Whose version of events is correct? both are there is no preferred inertial reference frame

4 

% 7LPH'LODWLRQ

IB 12

/LJKW&ORFN a beam of light reflected between two parallel mirrors used to measure
the time interval between two events
Beginning Event: the light pulse is emitted from the source

Ending Event: the light pulse is detected at the detector

Each observer uses a light clock to measure the time, as seen from their frame of reference,
between the pulse being emitted and detected. When the space ship is at rest with respect to
the observer on Earth, the two clocks measure the same amount of time.
t0 = time measured in the astronauts frame of reference
t = time measured in the earth observers frame of reference
If the two frames of
reference are at rest with
respect to one another, then

F 

'
'W

and

F 

'
'W0

so
'W 'W0

If the spaceship moves to the right with a

speed Y, the observer on Earth sees the
light pulse travel a greater distance
between the two events. Since each
observer measures the same speed for the
light pulse, if it traveled a greater distance
then it must have taken a longer time. The
observer on Earth thus measures a greater
time interval between the two events than
the astronaut does.
If the astronauts frame of reference is
moving with respect to the observer on
Earth, then

'W ! 'W0

7LPHGLODWLRQ stretching of time moving clock runs more slowly than stationary clocks

NOTE: situation is symmetric astronaut sees Earth observers clock run more slowly since ship
could be at rest and the earth observer moving in the opposite direction

3URSHUWLPHLQWHUYDOWthe time between events as measured in a frame where the events take place at the
same point in space (in moving frame)

NOTE:
The proper time is the shortest possible time that any observer could correctly record for the time between
events.
5

IB 12

'HULYDWLRQRIWLPH

GLODWLRQIRUPXOD

/RUHQW]IDFWRU

J 

1
Y
1 2
F
2

J t1

For an object at rest:

At low (non-relativistic)
velocities:

At high (relativistic)
velocities:

J 1

J |1

J o f 

VR 'W 'W0

VR 'W | 'W0

VR 'W o f 

6 

relative velocity
(v/c)

v = 1.50 x 108 m/s so v/c = 0.500 or v = 0.500 c

IB 12

v = 2.80 x 108 m/s so v/c =0 .833 or v = 0.833 c

Variation of Lorentz factor with velocity (v)

Variation of Lorentz factor with relative velocity (v/c)

([DPSOH: A certain particle created in an experiment has a lifetime of 2.2s when measured in a reference frame in which the
particle is at rest.
a) Describe a reference frame in which the particle could be considered at rest.
the laboratory if it is at rest with respect to the laboratory or its own frame of reference

b) What is the proper lifetime? t0 = 2.2 x 10-6 s

c) In another experiment, the particle is accelerated in a particle accelerator to a
speed of 2.7 x 108 m/s. This is the speed of the particle as measured relative to a 

stationary frame of reference. Give an example of such a frame of reference. 

d) Calculate the Lorentz factor for this particle.

the laboratory

e) Calculate the lifetime of the particle as measured in

the stationary reference frame.

f) What would be its lifetime if it traveled at 0.98c?

7 

& /HQJWK&RQWUDFWLRQ

IB 12

Because of Special Relativity, observers moving at a constant velocity relative to each other measure different time intevals between
two evetnts. Bt if VSHHG GLVWDQFHWLPH and the speed is the same for each observer, then the two observers must measure different
distances or lengths as well. This effect is known as OHQJWKFRQWUDFWLRQ

OHQJWKFRQWUDFWLRQ according to a stationary observer, moving objects contract (shrink) in the

direction of motion but not in perpendicular directions

For example, a ruler at

rest appears to have a
length of /. This is
known as its SURSHU
OHQJWK

For a stationary observer on

Earth, a moving ruler would
appear to be shorter but just
as thick. It only shrinks in
the horizontal direction.

SURSHUOHQJWKthe length of an object recorded in a frame of reference where the object is at rest

NOTE: This is the greatest possible length for the object.

A rocket travels to Alpha Centauri at a speed of Y 0.95F, as measured

by an Earth-based observer. Both observers agree on the relative speed
since, to the astronaut, the Earth observer is moving the other way at Y
= 0.95F. There is no preferred inertial frame of reference from which
to measure absolute speed. However, to the Earth observer, the clock
on board the space ship will appear to run more slowly and the ship
will appear to shrink in the direction of motion. The situation is
reversed for the astronaut. Relative to the astronaut, the clock on Earth
will appear to run slowly and the width of the Earth, as well as the
distance to the star, will appear to shrink. Both observers will agree,
however, on the diameter of the ship and height of the Earth.

Earth-based observers frame of reference

astronauts frame of reference

'HULYDWLRQRIOHQJWKFRQWUDFWLRQIRUPXOD
Earth observer:

astronaut:

Y

Y

/0
'W

/
'W0

/0
/

'W 'W0
'W0 /0
'W
'W /
/  0 0
J'W0

/ 

/ 

/0

J

A note on proper time and proper distance

IB 12

The proper time in this example is the time recorded by the astronaut because only in the astronauts frame of reference do the two
events (leaving Earth and arriving at the star) occur at the same location (the door of the ship). To the astronaut, its as if the ship
is at rest and the Earth and star are in motion in the other direction and pass by the door of the ship as they move.
The correct frame of reference in which to measure the proper length, however, depends on what is being measured. If the
distance from Earth to the star is being measured, then the correct frame of reference is the Earth-based observers since both the
star and the Earth are at rest relative to this person. But if the length of the ship is to be measured, then the correct frame of
reference is the astronauts since the ship is at rest relative to the astronaut.

EXAMPLE: An astronaut is set to go on a journey to Alpha Centauri, a nearby star in our galaxy that the astronaut measures
from her observatory to be 4.07 x 1016 m away. The astronaut boards the ship at rest on Earth before take-off and uses a meter
stick to measure the length of the ship as 82 m and the diameter as 21 m. After take-off, an observer on Earth notices the space
ship traveling past him at a speed of Y= 0.950F in route to Alpha Centauri.
a) How long does the trip to Alpha Centauri take as measured by:
i) the Earth bound observer?

ii) the moving astronaut?

b) What is the distance between Earth and the star as measured by:
i) the Earth bound observer?

ii) the moving astronaut?

c) While the ship is on its journey, what is the length of the ship as measured by:
i) the Earth bound observer?

ii) the moving astronaut?

d) While the ship is on its journey, what is the diameter of the ship as measured by: 
i) the Earth bound observer?

ii) the moving astronaut?

9 

&RVPLF5D\0XRQ([SHULPHQW

IB 12 

0XRQ: unstable elementary particle

Experiment:
1) can be produced by collisions of cosmic radiation with atoms in upper
atmosphere

2) due to unstable nature should only survive for a short time before decaying
shouldnt reach surface of earth

3) measurements of number of muons at top of mountain approximately same

as at bottom of mountain

Question: Why do so many muons reach the ground before decaying?

From Earth frame of reference: time runs slowly for muon so it has time to reach ground before decaying

From muons frame of reference: height of atmosphere contracts so has very little distance to travel

EXAMPLE: A muon having a lifetime of 2.2 s as measured in its own frame of reference is created in the upper
atmosphere and travels toward Earth at a speed of 0.99c.
1. How far can a muon travel before it decays, as measured in its own frame of reference?

2. What is the lifetime of the muon, as measured from the Earth?

3. How far will the muon travel through the atmosphere, as measured from the Earth?

10 

' 7KH7ZLQ3DUDGR[

IB 12

According to special relativity, there is no preferred inertial reference frame so the time dilation effect is the same for all observers.
Since each observer sees the other as moving past at a constant speed, each observer measures the others clock as running slowly
the effect is symmetric. But what about this?
7ZRWZLQV(LQDQG6WHLQJURZXS(LQEHFRPHVDQGDVWURQDXWDQG6WHLQEHFRPHV

DSK\VLFVWHDFKHU2QHGD\(LQVD\VJRRGE\HWRKLVEURWKHUDQGOHDYHVRQDVSDFH

YR\DJHWRDGLVWDQWVWDU6RPHWLPHODWHUZKHQKHUHWXUQVKRPHKHPHHWVKLV

EURWKHUDJDLQ +RZHYHUE\QRZKLVEURWKHULV\HDUVROGHUWKDQKHLV <RX

PLJKWWKLQNWKDWWKLVLVEHFDXVHRIUHODWLYHPRWLRQ 7KHFORFNLQWKHVSDFHVKLSUXQV

PRUHVORZO\WKDQWKHFORFNRQWKH(DUWKVR(LQKDVDJHGOHVV%XWZKDWDERXWWKH

V\PPHWU\RIWKHWLPHGLODWLRQHIIHFW"$FFRUGLQJWRDVWURQDXW(LQKLVVKLSZDVDW

UHVWZKLOHEURWKHU6WHLQDQGWKH(DUWKPRYHGLQWKHRWKHUGLUHFWLRQ6LQFH6WHLQV

FORFNLVQRZWKHPRYLQJRQHVKRXOGQWKLVFORFNUXQPRUHVORZO\DQG(LQUHWXUQWR

(DUWKDVWKHROGHUEURWKHU":KRVHYLHZRIWKHVLWXDWLRQLVFRUUHFW" ,QIDFW

VKRXOGQWWKHEURWKHUVVWLOOEHWKHVDPHDJHVLQFHWKHUHLVQRSUHIHUUHGLQHUWLDO

IUDPHRIUHIHUHQFH"

Explanation: situation is not symmetric since formulas for special relativity are only
symmetrical when the two observers are in constant velocity relative motion -brother on
space ship was not in an inertial frame of reference for the entire trip he accelerated and
decelerated and was acted on by external forces brother on ground was not subject to
forces or acceleration so his view of the situation is correct.

7KH+DIHOH.HDWLQJ([SHULPHQW

In 1971, experimenters J.C. Hafele and R.E. Keating from the U.S. Naval Observatory undertook an experiment to test time
dilation. They made flights around the world in both directions, each circuit taking about three days. They carried with them four
cesium beam atomic clocks, accurate to within 10-9 s. The researchers expected that the relative motion of the clocks would
produce a measurable time dilation effect (moving clocks run slow). In a frame of reference at rest with respect to the center of
the earth, the clock aboard the plane moving eastward, in the direction of the earth's rotation, is moving faster than a clock that
remains on the ground, while the clock aboard the plane moving westward, against the earth's rotation, is moving slower.
When they returned, they compared their clocks with a ground based clock at the Observatory in Washington, D.C. The time
intervals measured by the clocks that had traveled on the aircraft differed from those time intervals measured by the ground based
clocks and provided confirmation of the time dilation effects of relativity.
In this experiment, both time dilation due to motion or kinematics (special relativity) and time dilation due to gravity (general
relativity) are significant and had to be taken into account.
Quote from their published paper:
"During October, 1971, four cesium atomic beam clocks were flown on regularly 

scheduled commercial jet flights around the world twice, once eastward and once 

westward, to test Einstein's theory of relativity with macroscopic clocks. From

the actual flight paths of each trip, the theory predicted that the flying clocks, 

compared with reference clocks at the U.S. Naval Observatory, should have lost

40+/-23 nanoseconds during the eastward trip and should have gained 275+/-21

nanoseconds during the westward trip ... Relative to the atomic time scale of the 

U.S. Naval Observatory, the flying clocks lost 59+/-10 nanoseconds during the

eastward trip and gained 273+/-7 nanosecond during the westward trip, where the 

errors are the corresponding standard deviations. These results provide an

unambiguous empirical resolution of the famous clock "paradox" with

macroscopic clocks."

Experimental Results

J.C. Hafele and R. E. Keating, Science 177, 166 (1972)

11

( 5HODWLYLVWLF)RUPXODVIRU$GGLWLRQRI9HORFLWLHV

IB 12

1. A motorcyclist drives past a stationary observer at a speed of 0.80F and

throws a ball forward at 0.70F, as shown. How fast is the ball moving
relative to the stationary observer?

ux/ = velocity of object in x-direction as measured in moving frame

ux = velocity of object in x-direction as measured in stationary frame
v = velocity of frame 2 in x-direction as measured in stationary frame
Galilean transformation:

JG G G
Xc[ X[ Y
G
0.70F X [  0.80F 
G
X[ 1.50F
5HODWLYLVWLFWUDQVIRUPDWLRQ
IRUPXOD

Xc[ 

X[  Y
XY
1  [2
F

2. Suppose the motorcyclist in the above example

shines a flashlight ahead of him. How fast does the
stationary observer see the light beam travel?

X  Y
Xc[  [
XY
1  [2
F
X  0.80F
F  [
X 0.80F
1  [ 2
F
X[ F

Relativistic transformation:

X  Y
Xc[  [
XY
1  [2
F
X  0.80F
0.70F  [
X 0.80F
1  [ 2
F
X[ 0.96F

3. Two bicyclists approach each other at a speed of 0.60F.

What is their relative velocity of approach?

X  Y
Xc[  [
XY
1  [2
F
0.5F (0.5F)
Xc[ 
0.5F(0.5F)
1 
F2
Xc[ 0.8F

12

) 5HODWLRQVKLS%HWZHHQ0DVVDQG(QHUJ\

IB 12

Newton mechanics: A constant force produces a constant acceleration. 

Implication: Therefore, any speed can be attained if the force is applied for enough time.

Relativistic mechanics: As the objects speed approaches the speed of light, the acceleration decreases even if the force is constant. 
Implication: Its mass is increasing. 

Newtonian
mechanics

velocity

Relativistic
mechanics

velocity
c

time

time

5HVWPDVVP the mass of an object as measured in a frame of reference where the object is at rest
NOTE: rest mass is an invariant quantity
0DVVP relativistic mass mass of moving object resistance to acceleration inertial mass
Relationship:

P JP0
mass

mass

Mass versus
actual speed
line horizontal
for v < 0.5c

Mass versus
relative speed
line horizontal 
for v/c < 0.5

m0
c

m0

v/c

Consequence: No object can ever attain the speed of light in a vacuum or go faster.

Explanation: The greater the speed of an object, the greater its mass. As mass increases, so does force needed to
accelerate it. Mass becomes infinite as speed approaches c. Infinite amount of force or energy would be
needed.

13 

5HVWHQHUJ\(energy equivalent of the mass of an object at rest

Relationship:

(0 P0 F 2

IB 12

1. What is the energy equivalent of a 0.20 kg golf ball at rest?

2. What is the rest energy of an electron?

$OWHUQDWHXQLWVIRUHQHUJ\
1 eV = energy gained by one electron accelerated through a potential difference of 1 volt
1 eV = 1.60 x 10-19 J

1 MeV = 1 x 106 eV

3. What is the rest energy of an electron?

$OWHUQDWHXQLWVIRUPDVV
4. What is the rest mass of an object
whose energy equivalent is 1 MeV?

5. What is the rest mass of an electron?

E0 = m0 c2 

1MeV = m0 c2

m0 = 1 MeV/c2

= 1 MeV c-2

14

)RUPXODUHSUHVHQWLQJ
HTXLYDOHQFHRIPDVVDQGHQHUJ\

PF

JP0 F

IB 12

For an object at rest: = 1 so E = E0

For an object in motion: E > E0 since mass increases
6. What is the energy equivalent of an electron accelerated to a speed of 0.90F?

7RWDOHQHUJ\RIDPRYLQJREMHFW 
rest energy + kinetic energy

Derivation:

ET = E0 + EK

E = E0 + EK

5HODWLYLVWLFNLQHWLFHQHUJ\IRUPXOD

EK = (-1)m0c 2

E = E0 + EK
mc2 = m0c2 + EK
EK = mc2 m0c2
EK = m0c2 m0c2
EK = (-1)m0c2

dont use EK = 1/2mv2

at high speeds

7. What is the kinetic energy of an electron accelerated to a speed of 0.90F? The rest mass of an electron is 0.51 MeV c-2.

15 

IB 12
8. A proton is accelerated to a speed of 0.95F. Determine its energy, rest energy, and kinetic energy.
look up rest mass on tables = 938 MeV c-2

3DUWLFOHDFFHOHUDWLRQ
units for charge:
derive E = m0c2 + qV

9. An electron is accelerated through a potential difference of 2.0 x 106 V. Calculate its energy, kinetic energy, and speed.

16

* 5HODWLYLVWLF0RPHQWXPDQG(QHUJ\
Newtonian momentum
and kinetic energy

S PY

Relativistic momentum
and kinetic energy
units for
Newtonian
momentum

5HODWLYLVWLF
WRWDOHQHUJ\

S JP0X 

(.

1
  PY 2 
2

(.

S2

2P

(. (J 1)P0 2

units for
relativistic
momentum

kg m/s

IB 12

( JP0 F 2

MeV/c

= MeV c-1

2 4
( 2  S 2 F 2 P0 F


1. The linear particle accelerator at Stanford University (SLAC) is 3.0 km long and can accelerate electrons to a speed of 0.999F.
a) Find the magnitude of the relativistic momentum of such an electron.

b) Find the energy and kinetic energy of one of these electrons.

b) How long is the accelerator tunnel, as measured in the electrons frame of reference?

c) How long will it take the electron to travel through the accelerator, as seen by:

i) an outside stationary observer?

ii) an observer moving with the electron?

17 

IB 12

2. A proton is accelerated through a potential difference of 3.0 x 109 V.

a) Calculate the energy of the proton after its acceleration.

b) Calculate the final momentum of the proton.

3. Pair production is a process by which antimatter pairs of particles are produced from energy. This can
happen when a high energy gamma ray photon is in the vicinity of a heavy nucleus. For example, if a
gamma photon is near a lead atom, the reaction pictured at right might occur, where the photon creates
an electron-positron pair. If the energy of the photon is 3.20 MeV, calculate the following quantities.
(Neglect the recoil of the lead atom and assume the energy is shared equally between the particles.)
a) The energy and kinetic energy of each particle.

J oH H

c) The mass of each particle.

b) The speed of each particle.

d) The momentum of each particle.

18 

*HQHUDO5HODWLYLW\

IB 12 

*HQHUDO7KHRU\RI5HODWLYLW\

non-inertial reference frame:

,QHUWLDO0DVVYV*UDYLWDWLRQDO0DVV
1. ,QHUWLDO0DVV WKHUDWLRRIWKHUHVXOWDQWIRUFHWRDFFHOHUDWLRQ.
(The property of an object that determines how much it resists
accelerating.)

mi

= F/A

2. *UDYLWDWLRQDO0DVV WKHSURSHUW\RIDQREMHFWWKDW
GHWHUPLQHVKRZPXFKJUDYLWDWLRQDOIRUFHLWIHHOVZKHQ
QHDUDQRWKHUREMHFW

mg Fg

Mi = F/a

Different masses have different accelerations

when the same net force acts on them.

mg Fg

Different masses have different gravitational forces

acting on them them.

All experiments to measure each type of mass for an object have shown that, within the 
experimental uncertainty, an objects gravitational mass is numerically equal to its inertial mass.

(LQVWHLQV3ULQFLSOHRI(TXLYDOHQFH: a postulate that states there is no difference between an

accelerating frame of reference and a gravitational field

Einsteins elevator thought experiments

I.

A ball dropped in an
elevator at rest on
the Earths surface
accelerates to the
floor due to gravity.

A ball dropped in an
elevator accelerating
upward in a gravity free
region (deep space) will 
act the same as the floor 
accelerates up to meet it.

II.

A person in an nonaccelerating elevator

(rocket) in a gravity free
region (deep space) feels
no forces.

A person in an elevator

freely falling due to

gravity feels no forces.

19 

IB 12

Conclusion of elevator thought experiments:

An observer inside the elevator interprets the situations as identical. That is, there is no way to
distinguish between being in an accelerating reference frame and being in a gravitational field.

Based on the principle of

equivalence, Einstein 
predicted that . . . . 

light rays will bend in gravitational fields. (gravity bends light) 

A photon emitted from the right side of the accelerating rocket ship
will appear to trace a curved path as the rocket accelerates beneath it.

By the equivalence principle, a beam of light in an

elevator at rest in a gravitational field should also bend.

([SHULPHQWDOHYLGHQFHIRUWKHEHQGLQJRIOLJKWE\DJUDYLWDWLRQDOILHOG
 (GGLQJWRQVVRODUHFOLSVHPHDVXUHPHQWV
The positions of several stars were measured against a background of fixed stars. Six months later, those stars were hidden behind
the Sun due to Earths new position in its yearly revolution. It was predicted by General Relativity that these stars should still be
visible if the gravitational field of the Sun bent the light rays around it and deflected the light rays toward Earth. However, these
hidden stars would still not be visible due to the glare of the Sun. But an expedition led by Sir Arthur Eddington sent to the
island of Principe sought to measure the deflection of these light rays during a total eclipse of the Sun in 1919 when the stars
would be briefly visible. He measured the new positions of the stars against the background of fixed stars and found that they had
apparently shifted position. This was experimental evidence that gravitational fields do deflect light rays.

<RXU7XUQ

20 

 *UDYLWDWLRQDOOHQVLQJ Massive galaxies can deflect the light from quasars
or other very distant sources of light so that the rays bend around the galaxy.
The galaxy acts like a lens so that observers on Earth can see multiple images
of the quasar.

IB 12

<RXU7XUQ

(LQVWHLQFURVV: four images of the

same astronomical object,
produced by a gravitational lens
A TXDVDU (contraction of 48$6LVWHOO$5UDGLRVRXUFH) is
an extremely powerful and distant active galactic nucleus.
They were first identified as being high redshift sources of
electromagnetic energy, including radio waves and visible
light that were point-like, similar to stars, rather than
extended sources similar to galaxies. While there was
initially some controversy over the nature of these objects,
there is now a scientific consensus that a quasar is a compact
region 10-10,000 Schwarzschild radii across surrounding the
central supermassive black hole of a galaxy.

*UDYLWDWLRQDOUHGVKLIW
Based on the principle of equivalence, Einstein predicted that . . . .
time slows down near a massive body. (gravity slows time)

Clocks near the surface of the Earth . . . run more

slowly than clocks at higher altitudes

([SODQDWLRQ: The frequency of vibration of an object or of an electromagnetic

wave (a photon) is essentially a measurement of time. Slowing the frequency of
vibration means that time is running slower. The frequency of vibration in a
gravitational field is slowed due to something like the Doppler Effect.
Consider a rocket with a light source at the bottom (1) and a detector at the top
(2), as shown in (a). If the rocket accelerates upward, the detector will be
accelerating away from the light source. Thus, the light waves from 1 will reach
the detector at 2 less frequently, hence the received frequency will now be less
than the emitted frequency, that is, the frequency will be shifted to a lower
(redder) frequency.
Since, by the principle of equivalence, an observer cannot distinguish between an
accelerating reference frame and a gravitational field, the same effect will be
noted for a stationary rocket on the surface of Earth, as shown in (b). As a
photon moves from 1 to 2, its frequency will be shifted lower. Similarly, a clock
at 1 will have a lower frequency (run slower) than a clock at 2.
This effect is known as the JUDYLWDWLRQDOUHGVKLIW

21 

IB 12

(YLGHQFHWRVXSSRUWJUDYLWDWLRQDOUHGVKLIWHIIHFW
1. Experiment: Pound-Rebka experiment
In the early 60's physicists Pound, Rebka,and Snyder at the Jefferson
Physical Laboratory at Harvard measured the shift in gamma rays emitted
from iron-57 by placing a source at the base of Harvard Tower and a
detector at its top, a distance of 22.6 m higher. They were able to
measure the shift in frequency of the photons and the results agreed with
the predicted value to within 1%.

*UDYLWDWLRQDO5HG6KLIW
)UHTXHQF\)RUPXOD

'I
I

J 'K 

F2

Assumption: relatively constant

g between two points

Calculate the shift in frequency for gamma photon radiation whose wavelength is 8.62 x 10-11 m.

Schematic representation of
the gravitational redshift of a
light wave escaping from the
surface of a massive body

2. Experiment: Hafele-Keating experiment

Frequency shift in atomic clocks aboard commercial jets circling Earth. Clocks in planes ran faster due
to gravitational red-shift, and faster or slower due to time dilation.

3. Experiment: Shapiro time delay experiment

Delay in time taken for a radar pulse to travel to a nearby planet (Venus or Mercury) and
return due to gravitational field of the Sun was measured in 1960s. Results agreed with
general relativity predictions.
22 

6SDFHWLPH

IB 12 

6SDFHWLPHfour dimensional coordinates used to describe any event (three spatial dimensions and time)

NOTE: Moving objects follow the shortest path between two points in spacetime.

1HZWRQVH[SODQDWLRQRIJUDYLWDWLRQDODWWUDFWLRQ
Two masses exert a force on each other, pulling each other closer.
(LQVWHLQVH[SODQDWLRQRIJUDYLWDWLRQDODWWUDFWLRQ
Any mass warps (distorts) spacetime - the greater the mass, the
greater the warping. Particles, such as planets, moving in spacetime
follow the shortest path. The path becomes more curved as the
object approaches the central mass. Following this curvature of
spacetime is interpreted as a force.
Mass tells space how to curve space tells mass how to move.

%ODFN+ROH a region of spacetime with extreme curvature due to the

presence of a mass
&HQWHURID%ODFN+ROHVLQJXODULW\ the single point to which all
mass would collapse
6XUIDFHRID%ODFN+ROHHYHQWKRUL]RQ where the escape speed is
equal to F and within this surface, mass has disappeared from the
universe
6FKZDU]VFKLOG5DGLXV56 a particular distance from the center of
black hole where the escape velocity is equal to the speed of light

23 

6FKZDU]FKLOG
UDGLXVIRUPXOD

2*0
YHVF 
U
OHW vesc F
DQG U 56

F

2*0
56

56

2*0
F2

IB 12

1. Calculate the size of a black hole that has the same mass as our Sun (m = 1.99 x 1030 kg).

2.9 x 103 m

The closer one gets to a black hole, the slower time runs
to an outside observer. At the event horizon . . .

*UDYLWDWLRQDOWLPHGLODWLRQ
QHDUDEODFNKROH
JUDYLWDWLRQDOUHGVKLIW

time appears to stop

'W

'W0
5
1 V
U

2. A person who is a distance 3RS from the event horizon of a black hole measures an event to last 4.0 s. Calculate how long
the event would appear to last for a person very far from the black hole.

24

Note that both gravitational lensing and gravitational red-shift can be explained by the
curvature of spacetime.

Light gains potential energy as it climbs

the curvature of spacetime and so must
lose some of its energy. Losing energy
results in a lower frequency.

IB 12

The picture shows a simulated black hole of ten 

solar masses as seen from a distance of 
600 kilometers with the Milky Way in the 
background. Notice the gravitational lensing effect. 

Just for fun . . . 

Do you think the math were doing is hard? Just look at what Einstein really wrote. 

The (LQVWHLQILHOGHTXDWLRQV (()() or (LQVWHLQ

VHTXDWLRQV are a set of ten equations in Einstein's
theory of general relativity in which the fundamental force of gravitation is described as a curved
spacetime caused by matter and energy. They were first published in 1915.
The Einstein field equations (EFE) may be written in the form:

where 5 is the Ricci curvature tensor, 5 the scalar curvature, J the metric tensor, is the
cosmological constant, * is the gravitational constant, F the speed of light, and 7 the stress-energy
tensor.

25 

7KHUPDO3K\VLFV
Internal Energy: total potential energy and random kinetic
energy of the molecules of a substance

IB 12 
Symbol: U

Units: J

Internal Kinetic Energy: arises from random translational,

vibrational, and rotational motion

Internal Potential Energy: arises from forces between the molecules

Temperature (Definition #1): a measure of the average random

kinetic energy of all the particles of a system

Symbol: T
Units: oC, K

Thermal Energy (Heat): the transfer of energy between two substances by nonmechanical means conduction, convection and radiation

Symbol: Q

Units: J

Temperature (Definition #2): a property that determines the direction of thermal energy transfer between two
objects
Thermal Equilibrium: at same temperature no thermal energy transfer independent of mass, etc.

Thermal Capacity: amount of energy required to raise the temperature of a

substance by 1 K
Formula: C = Q/T

Q = CT

Symbol: C

Units: J/K

Symbol: c

Units: J/(kg K)

Specific Heat Capacity: amount of energy required per unit mass to raise
the temperature of a substance by 1 K
Formula: c = Q/mT

Q = mcT

1

IB 12
1. Compare the thermal capacities and specific heat capacities of these samples.

Why do different amounts of the same substances have different

thermal capacities? more molecules to store internal potential and
kinetic energy

$

lower C
same c

higher C

same c

higher C
higher c

lower C
lower c

%

Why do the same amounts of different substances have different specific heat capacities? substances contain
different numbers of molecules with different molecular masses

2. The thermal capacity of a sample of lead is 3.2 x 103 J K-1. How much thermal energy will be released if it cools from 610 C to 250 C?

Q = CT 

Q = 1.2 x 105 J 

3. How much thermal energy is needed to raise the

temperature of 2.50 g of water from its freezing point

to its boiling point?

Slope

mercury

water

VORSH

Q = mcT
Q = (2.50 x 10-3) (4.186 x 103) (100 0) 
Q = 1.05 x 103J 

Compare your answer to the amount of thermal energy needed to

raise the temperature of liquid mercury the same amount.

more Q needed for water since higher c

2 

'7 1

'4 PF

4. A hole is drilled in an 800g iron block and an electric heater is placed inside. The heater provides
thermal energy at a constant rate of 600 W.

IB 12

a) Assuming no thermal energy is lost to the surrounding environment, calculate how long it will take the iron block to
increase its temperature by 150 C. 9.0 s

b) The temperature of the iron block is recorded as it varies with time and is
shown at right. Comment on reasons for the shape of the graph.
begins at room temp
increases linearly as Q = cmT
as gets hotter, more energy lost to environment
levels out when heat gained by heater = heat lost to room

c) Calculate the initial rate of increase in temperature. 1.7 0C/s

5. An active solar heater is used to heat 50 kg of water initially at 120 C. If the average rate that the thermal energy is absorbed in
a one hour period is 920 J min-1, determine the equilibrium temperature after one hour. 120 C

3 

&DORULPHWU\

IB 12 

&DORULPHWU\: determining the specific heat capacity (or latent heat capacity) of a
substance

Conservation of Energy

4F 4K
PF FF '7F

PK FK' 7K

Assumption: no thermal energy lost to environment, container,

thermometer
1. A 0.10 kg sample of an unknown metal is heated to 1000 C by placing it in boiling water for a few
minutes. Then it is quickly transferred to a calorimeter containing 0.40 kg of water at 100 C.
After thermal equilibrium is reached, the temperature of the water is 150 C.
a) What is the specific heat capacity of the metal sample?

b) What is the thermal capacity of the metal sample?

0HWKRGRI0L[WXUHV

983 J/(kg 0C)

98.3 J/ 0C

2. A 3.0 kg block of copper at 900 C is transferred to a calorimeter containing 2.00 kg of water at 200 C. The mass of the
calorimeter cup, also made of copper, is 0.210 kg. Determine the final temperature of the water. 28.30 C

4 

3KDVHVRI0DWWHU

IB 12

.LQHWLFWKHRU\ says that:

1. All matter is made up of atoms, and
2. the atoms are in continuous random motion at a variety of speeds.
3. Whether a substance is a solid, liquid, or gas basically depends on how close together its molecules are and how strong the
bonds are that hold them together.

6ROLG
0DFURVFRSLF
GHVFULSWLRQ

Definite volume
Definite shape

0LFURVFRSLF
GHVFULSWLRQ

Molecules are held in fixed

positions relative to each
other by strong bonds and
vibrate about a fixed point in
the lattice

&RPSDUDWLYH
GHQVLW\

High

.LQHWLFHQHUJ\

Vibrational

High
3RWHQWLDOHQHUJ\
$YHUDJHPROHFXODU
Atomic radius (10-10 m)
VHSDUDWLRQ

/LTXLG

*DV

Definite volume
Variable shape
Molecules are closely
packed with strong bonds
but are not held as rigidly in
place and can move relative
to each other as bonds break
and reform

Variable volume
Variable shape
Molecules are widely spaced
apart without bonds, moving
in random motion, and
intermolecular forces are
negligible except during
collisions

High

Low

Vibrational
Rotational
Some translational
Higher

Mostly translational
Higher rotational
Higher vibrational
Highest

Atomic radius (10-10 m)

10 x atomic radius (10-9)

0ROHFXOHVSHUP

1028

1028

1025

9ROXPHRI
PROHFXOHVYROXPH
RIVXEVWDQFH

10-3

3KDVH&KDQJHV

IB 12

1. Describe and explain the process of phase changes in terms of molecular behavior.

When thermal energy is added to a solid, the molecules gain kinetic energy as they vibrate at an increased rate. This is seen
macroscopically as an increase in temperature. At the melting point, a temperature is reached at which the kinetic energy of
the molecules is so great that they begin to break the permanent bonds that hold them fixed in place and begin to move
about relative to each other. As the solid continues to melt, more and more molecules gain sufficient energy to overcome
the intermolecular forces and move about so that in time the entire solid becomes a liquid. As heating continues, the
temperature of the liquid increases due to an increase in the vibrational, translational and rotational kinetic energy of the
molecules. At the boiling point, a temperature is reached at which the molecules gain sufficient energy to overcome the
intermolecular forces that hold them together and escape from the liquid as a gas. Continued heating provides enough
energy for all the molecules to break their bonds and the liquid turns entirely into a gas. Further heating increases the
translational kinetic energy of the gas and thus its temperature increases.

2. Explain in terms of molecular behavior why temperature does not change during a phase change.
The making or breaking of intermolecular bonds involves energy. When bonds are broken (melting and vaporizing), the
potential energy of the molecules is increased and this requires input energy. When bonds are formed (freezing and
condensing), the potential energy of the molecules is decreased as energy is released. The forming or breaking of bonds
happens independently of the kinetic energy of the molecules. During a phase change, all energy added or removed from
the substance is used to make or break bonds rather than used to increase or decrease the kinetic energy of the molecules.
Thus, the temperature of the substance remains constant during a phase change.

3. Explain in terms of molecular behavior the process of evaporation.

Evaporation is a process by which molecules leave the surface of a liquid, resulting in the cooling of the
liquid. Molecules with high enough kinetic energy break the intermolecular bonds that hold them in the
liquid and leave the surface of the substance. The molecules that are left behind thus have a lower
average kinetic energy and the substance therefore has a lower temperature.

Factors affecting the rate of evaporation:

a) surface area

b) drafts

c) temperature

d) pressure

e) latent heat of vaporization 

4. Distinguish between evaporation and boiling.

Evaporation process whereby liquid turns to gas, as explained above
- occurs at any temperature below the boiling temperature
- occurs only at surface of liquid as molecules escape
- causes cooling of liquid
Boiling

process whereby liquid turns to gas when the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the atmospheric
pressure of its surroundings

occurs at one fixed temperature, dependent on substance and pressure

occurs throughout liquid as bubbles form, rise to surface and are released

temperature of substance remains constant throughout process

6 

6SHFLILF/DWHQW+HDW
6SHFLILF/DWHQW+HDW amount of energy per unit mass required to change
phase of a substance at constant temperature and pressure

IB 12 

Symbol: L
Units: J/kg

Formula: L = Q/m

Q = mL

Specific latent heat of fusion:

melting and freezing

Lf

Specific latent heat of vaporization: Lv

boiling and condensing 

1. How much energy is needed to change 500 grams of ice into water?
a) Assume the ice is already at its melting point.

b) Assume the ice is at -150 C.

2. Thermal energy is supplied to a pan containing 0.30 kg of water at 200 C at a rate of 400 W for 10 minutes. Estimate the mass of
water turned into steam as a result of this heating process.
0.060 kg

7 

7KH.LQHWLF0RGHORIDQ,GHDO*DV

IB 12

.LQHWLFWKHRU\ views all matter as consisting of individual particles in continuous motion in an attempt to
relate the macroscopic behaviors of the substance to the behavior of its microscopic particles.
Certain microscopic assumptions need to be made in order to deduce the behavior of an ideal gas, that is, to
build the .LQHWLF0RGHORIDQ,GHDO*DV.
Assumptions:
1. A gas consists of an extremely large number of very tiny particles (atoms or molecules) that are in continuous random
motion with a variety of speeds.
2. The volume of the particles is negligible compared to the volume occupied by the entire gas.
3. The size of the particles is negligible compared to the distance between them.
4. Collisions between particles and collisions between particles and the walls of the container are assumed to be perfectly
elastic and take a negligible amount of time.
5. No forces act between the particles except when they collide (no intermolecular forces). As a consequence, the internal
energy of an ideal gas consists solely of random kinetic energy no potential energy.
6. In between collisions, the particles obey Newtons laws of motion and travel in straight lines at a constant speed.

([SODLQLQJ0DFURVFRSLF%HKDYLRULQWHUPVRIWKH.LQHWLF0RGHO
3UHVVXUH
Macroscopic definition: force per unit area acting on a surface 

Formula:

P = F/A

$WPRVSKHULF3UHVVXUH

Units: N/m2 = Pa (Pascals)

1. A cylinder with diameter 3.00 cm is open to the air.

What is the pressure on the gas in this open cylinder?

Weight per unit area of all air above

2. What is the pressure on the gas after a 500. gram

piston and a 5.00 kg block are placed on top?

Atmospheric pressure at sea level

1.01x 105 N/m2 = 1.01 x 105 Pa
= 101 kPa
= 760 mm Hg

8 

IB 12

3UHVVXUH
Microscopic definition: total force per unit area from the collisions of gas particles with walls of
container
Explanation:
1) A particle collides with the wall of container and changes momentum. By Newtons second law, a 
change in momentum means there must have been a force by the wall on the particle.

2) By Newtons third law, there must have been an equal and opposite force by the particle on the wall.
3) In a short interval of time, there will be a certain number of collisions so the average result of all these
collisions is a constant force on the container wall.
4) The value of this constant force per unit area is the pressure that the gas exerts on the container walls.

'S
'W
6)
3 
$
) 

1. 0DFURVFRSLFEHKDYLRU: Ideal gases increase in pressure when more gas is added to the container.
0LFURVFRSLFH[SODQDWLRQ: More gas means more gas particles in the container so there will be an increase in the number of
collisions with the walls in a given interval of time. The force from each particle remains the same but an increased number
of collisions in a given time means the pressure increases.
2. 0DFURVFRSLFEHKDYLRU: Ideal gases increase in temperature when their volume is decreased.

animation: Serway: chap 12: TDM06AN1

0LFURVFRSLFH[SODQDWLRQ: As the volume is reduced, the walls of the container move inward. Since the particles are now
colliding with a moving wall, the wall transfers momentum (and kinetic energy) to the particles, making them rebound faster from
the moving wall. Thus the kinetic energy of the particles increases and this means an increase in the temperature of the gas.
3. 0DFURVFRSLFEHKDYLRU: At a constant temperature, ideal gases increase in pressure when their volume decreases.
0LFURVFRSLFH[SODQDWLRQ: The decrease in volume means the particles hit a given area of the wall more often. The force
from each particle remains the same but an increased number of collisions in a given time means the pressure increases.
5HODWLRQVKLS pressure is inversely related to volume (Boyles Law)

1
3D
9

4. 0DFURVFRSLFEHKDYLRU: At a constant volume, ideal gases increase in pressure when their temperature increases.
0LFURVFRSLFH[SODQDWLRQ: The increased temperature means the particles have, on average, more kinetic energy and are
thus moving faster. This means that the particles hit the walls more often and, when they do, they exert a greater force on
the walls during the collision. For both these reasons, the total force on the wall in a given time increases which means that
the pressure increases.
5HODWLRQVKLS pressure is directly related to temperature (Pressure Law Admonton Law)

3D 7

5. 0DFURVFRSLFEHKDYLRU: At a constant pressure, ideal gases increase in volume when their temperature increases.
0LFURVFRSLFH[SODQDWLRQ: A higher temperature means faster moving particles that collide with the walls more often and 

with greater force. However, if the volume of the gas is allowed to increase, the rate at which these particles hit the walls 

will decrease and thus the average force exerted on the walls by the particles, that is, the pressure can remain the same. 

5HODWLRQVKLS volume is directly related to temperature (Charles Law Gay-Lussac Law)

9 D7
9

,GHDO*DV/DZV

IB 12

Hot air balloon

volume

Heat can of soup

pressure

pressure

volume

Squeeze a balloon

temperature

temperature

Control = temperature

Control = Pressure

Control = volume

P 1/V
PV = k

VT

PT

P = k/V

V = kT

P = kT

pressure

K = C + 273

temperature (0 C)

temperature (K)

$EVROXWH=HUR: temperature at which gas would exert no pressure

.HOYLQVFDOHRI7HPSHUDWXUH: an absolute scale of temperature in which 0 K is the absolute zero of temperature

MROHan amount of a substance that contains as many particles as there are atoms in 12 grams of carbon-12.
$YRJDGURVFRQVWDQW the number of atoms in 12 g of carbon 12.
NA = 6.02 x 1023 particles/mole

NA = 6.02 x 1023 mol-1

0RODUPDVV: the mass of one mole of a substance.

As a general rule, the molar mass in grams of a substance is numerically equal to its mass number. 
a) 1 mole of

7
3

/L

b) 2 moles of 27
13

$O

has a mass of 7 g

has a mass of 54 g

c) How atoms are in 8 grams of helium (mass number = 4)?

8 g/ 4 = 2 moles
2 moles x NA = 1.20 x 1024 atoms

10 

,GHDO*DV(TXDWLRQRI6WDWH
Derivation:

IB 12 

P 1/V

PT

PV nT

VT

Vn

PV = nRT

Equation of State: PV = nRT 

The state of a fixed amount of a gas is described by the values of its pressure, volume, and temperature. 
Gas constant: R = 8.31 J/(mol K)

,GHDO*DV a gas that follows the ideal gas equation of state PV = nRT for all values of p, V, and T

Compare real gases to an ideal gas:

a) real gases only behave like ideal gases only at low pressures and high temperatures

b) ideal gases cannot be liquefied but real gases can

Combined Gas Law derivation:

State 1: P1V1 = nRT1

P1V1/T1 = nR

State 2: P2V2 = nRT2

P2V2/T2 = nR

1. What is the volume occupied by 16 g of oxygen

(mass number = 8) at room temperature and
atmospheric pressure?
200 C 0.049 m3

P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2
T must be in K

2. A weather balloon with a volume of 1.0 m3 contains helium (mass

number = 4) at atmospheric pressure and a temperature of 350 C.
What is the mass of the helium in the balloon?
0.160 kg

11 

7KHUPRG\QDPLFV

IB 12 

7KHUPRG\QDPLFV is the branch of physics that deals with the way in which a system interacts with its surroundings.
7KHUPRG\QDPLF6\VWHPsubstance - usually an ideal gas
6XUURXQGLQJV everything else walls of container, outside environment
6WDWHRIWKHV\VWHPIRUDJDVDSDUWLFXODUVHWRIYDOXHVRI39QDQG7
,QWHUQDOHQHUJ\ total potential energy and random kinetic energy of the molecules of a substance

Symbol: U
Units: J

:RUN product of force and displacement in the direction of the force

Symbol: W
Units: J

7KHUPDO(QHUJ\+HDW the transfer of energy between two substances by non-mechanical

means conduction, convection and radiation

Symbol: Q
Units: J

7KHLQWHUQDOHQHUJ\RIDV\VWHPFDQFKDQJHE\

Heating
Q = +400 J

Cooling
Q = -400 J

Expansion
W = +100 J

Compression
W = -100 J

Qin = +400 J

Qin = -400 J

Wby = +100 J

Wby = -100 J

Qout = -400 J

Qout = +400 J

Won = -100 J

Won = +100 J

Definitions: Q = thermal energy added to system

W = work done by the system
U = change in internal energy of the system
12

IB 12
1. A sample of gas is heated with a Bunsen burner
and allowed to expand. If 400 J of thermal energy
are transferred to the gas during heating and the gas
does 100 J of work by expanding, what is the
resulting change in the internal energy of the gas?

2. A sample of gas is warmed by placing it in a bath

of hot water, adding 400 J of thermal energy. At the
same time, 100 J of work is done compressing the
gas manually. What is the resulting change in the
internal energy of the gas?

U = 400 J -100 J

U = 400 J (-100 J)

U = 300 J

U = 500 J

U = Q - W

U = Q - W

8 4:

)RUPXOD

4 8 :

)LUVW/DZRI7KHUPRG\QDPLFV The thermal energy transferred to a system from its surroundings is equal to the work
done by the system plus the change in internal energy of the system.

NOTE: The First Law is a statement of . . . the principle of conservation of energy.

In each case, determine the change in the internal energy of the gas.
a) A gas gains 1500 J of heat from its surroundings, and
expands, doing 2200 J of work on the surroundings.
4 8:

b) A gas gains 1500 J of heat at the same time as an external

force compresses it, doing 2200 J of work on it.

Heating a hot air balloon

and let canvas expand

1500 J= U + (-2200 J)

1500 J= U + (+2200 J)

Heating and
stirring water

U = +3700 J

U = -700 J

Internal energy of many substances depends on . . .

4 8:

temperature and intermolecular bonds

Internal energy of an ideal gas depends on . . .

1. only on temperature since there are no intermolecular bonds
U T so U T

U increases if T increases, if +T then +U

2. the change in internal energy of ideal gas is path independent

13 

)RXU&RPPRQ7KHUPDO3URFHVVHV

IB 12

$QLVREDULFSURFHVVLVRQHWKDWRFFXUVDWFRQVWDQWSUHVVXUH

3 

$QLVRFKRULFLVRYROXPHWULFSURFHVVLVRQHWKDWRFFXUVDWFRQVWDQWYROXPH

9 

$QLVRWKHUPDOSURFHVVLVRQHWKDWRFFXUVDWFRQVWDQWWHPSHUDWXUH

7 

$QDGLDEDWLFSURFHVVLVRQHWKDWRFFXUVZLWKRXWWKHWUDQVIHURIWKHUPDOHQHUJ\

4 

,VREDULF3URFHVV

The gas in the cylinder is expanding

isobarically because the pressure is
held constant by the external
atmosphere and the weight of the
piston and the block. Heat can enter
or leave through the non-insulating
walls.

,VRFKRULF
,VRYROXPHWULF
3URFHVV

The gas in the cylinder is being

heated isochorically since the
volume of the cylinder is held
fixed by the rigid walls.
Heat can enter or leave through
the non-insulating walls.

,VRWKHUPDO3URFHVV

The gas in the cylinder is being

allowed to expand isothermally
since it is in contact with a
water bath (heat reservoir) that
keeps the temperature constant.
Heat can enter or leave through
the non-insulating walls.

$GLDEDWLF
3URFHVV

The gas in the cylinder is

being compressed
adiabatically since the
cylinder is surrounded by an
insulating material.

,VREDULF3URFHVV
:RUN,QYROYHGLQD9ROXPH&KDQJHDW&RQVWDQW3UHVVXUH
How is pressure held constant? weight of brick, piston, and atmosphere constant
How is work done by the gas?
Molecules strike piston and transfer momentum and KE to it causing it to
move upward/outward - as KE decreases, so does internal energy and T

How much work is done by the gas if it expands at constant pressure?

W = F s cos 
W = p A s cos 00

animation: Serway: chap 12: TDM06AN1

W = p V

14 

IB 12
What does an isobaric process look like on a diagram of pressure vs. volume (P-V diagram)?

Expansion of gas

Compression of gas

How can the amount of work done by a gas during a process be determined from a P-V diagram?

work done by the gas = area underneath curve 

arrow to right = positive work done by the gas = expansion 

arrow to left = negative work done by the gas = compression 

,VREDULF3URFHVVHVDQGWKH)LUVW/DZRI7KHUPRG\QDPLFV

([SDQVLRQDW
FRQVWDQWSUHVVXUH

VW ODZ

*DVODZV

If gas is ideal, U increases when T increases

U T 

So + T means + U 

PV/ T = PV/ T
P1 = P2

Q = U + W 

So V1/T1 = V2/T2
If V increases, so does T

Example: A gas is allowed to expand

isobarically by adding 1000 J of thermal
energy, causing the gas to increase its internal
energy by 200 J. How much work is done by
the gas in expanding?
&RPSUHVVLRQDW
FRQVWDQWSUHVVXUH

(+) = (+) + (+)

More heat is added than work done if isobaric

800 J

*DVODZV

PV/ T = PV/ T
P1 = P2
So V1/T1 = V2/T2
If V decreases, so does T

VW ODZ
If gas is ideal, U decreases when T decreases 
U T 

So - T means - U 

Q = U + W 

(-) = (-) + (-) 

More heat is removed than work done if

isobaric - Heat leaves system

15

,VRFKRULF,VRYROXPHWULF3URFHVV

:RUN
Means V = 0

IB 12

*DVODZ
PV/T = PV/T
V=V

VW ODZ

Q = U + W

8 4
(since W = 0)

If V = 0
then W = 0

So P/T = P/T

No area = no work

If T increases, P
increases

If Q+, then U+
If ideal gas, U T
so T+

1. One mole of an ideal gas is heated at a constant volume of 2.0 x 10-3 m3 from an initial pressure of 1.0 x 105 Pa to a final
pressure of 5.0 x 105 Pa.
a) Determine the initial and final temperatures of the gas.

b) Does the internal energy of the gas increase or decrease? Justify your answer.

c) Determine the work done by the gas during this process.

c) If the change in internal energy of the gas is 1200J, determine the amount of thermal energy added to the gas.

16 

2. In each case shown below, an ideal gas at 5.0 x 105 Pa and 1.0 x 10-3 m3 expands to 4.0 x 10-3 m3 at a
pressure of 1.0 x 105 Pa by a different process or series of processes.

,

,,

IB 12

,,,

a) Compare the change in internal energy of the gas as a result of each process. Justify your answer.

b) Compare the work done by (or on) the case during each process. Justify your answer.

c) Compare the thermal energy added to or removed from the gas during each process. Justify your answer.

d) If the change in internal energy in each case is 500 J, calculate the work done and thermal energy exchanged in each case.

Conclusions: 
1) Change in internal energy does not depend on the path taken only on the change in temperature path
independent.

2) Work done and thermal energy transferred depend on the path taken between the initial and final states.

17 

,VRWKHUPDO3URFHVV

IB 12

Heat reservoir: hot or cold water bath that maintains constant temperature of gas by supplying or removing thermal energy

VW /DZ

*DV/DZ

Q = U + W

PV/T = PV/T

If ideal gas, U T
so T= 0 means U = 0

T=T
PV = PV

so

4  :

If V increases, P decreases

Expansion: thermal energy flows in at same rate as work is done by gas

Compression: thermal energy flows out at same rate as work done on the gas

Ideal Gas Equation of State

P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2

PV = nRT
P = nRT/V - hyperbola for fixed T

P1V1 = P2V2 on one isotherm

,VRWKHUPhyperbola of constant temperature

Conclusions:
1) all states on one isotherm have same U since have same T T and U = 0 moving along same isotherm

2) isotherms further from origin higher T so higher U

3) U between two isotherms is path independent same U since same T and U T

Expansion
arrow to right
work done by +
Q added +

Compression
arrow to left
work done on Q removed -

18 

animation: Serway: chap 10: TDA06AN3

$GLDEDWLF3URFHVV

IB 12

Adiabatic walls: insulating walls so no thermal energy can enter or leave system

NOTE: Rapid expansion or compression of gas is approximately adiabatic

VW /DZ

Q = U + W 

Q = 0 

VR 8   :

If ideal gas, U T
so W -T

Expansion: work done by gas cools gas down as it loses internal energy

PV/T = PV/T
P decreases and V
increases and T
decreases

W -T so +W means
temperature goes down = jumps
to lower isotherm = gas cools
down

Compression: work done on gas heats gas up as it gains internal energy

PV/T = PV/T
P increases and V
decreases and T
increases

W -T so -W means
temperature goes up = jumps to
higher isotherm = gas gets hotter

1. If 410 J of heat energy are added to an ideal gas

causing it expand at constant temperature,

2. If an ideal gas is allowed to expand adiabatically, the internal energy

of the gas changes by2500 J.

a) what is the change in internal energy of the gas?

a) Does the internal energy of the gas increase or decrease? Justify your
answer.

b) how much work is done by the gas?

Determine: 
b) the thermal energy added or removed from the gas.
c) how much work is done on the gas?

c) the work done by the gas.

19 

IB 12

&\FOHV
&\FOH: a series of processes that returns a gas to its initial state

The cycle shown below represents processes performed on an ideal gas initially at P0 = 1.0 x 105 Pa and V0 = 2.0 x 10-3 m3.

4

8

:

$%
%&
&'
'$
&\FOH

1. Compare the temperatures at each state A, B, C, and D.

2. During process AB, 600 J of thermal energy were added to the gas. Complete the chart.

20 

IB 12 
3URSHUWLHVRIWKHLQGLYLGXDOWKHUPDOSURFHVVHV
Q in

$%

Q in

%&

Q out

&'
Q out

'$

isochoric, temperature increase, U increase, W = 0,

Q + = Q in
isobaric expansion, +W, temperature increase, U
increase, Q in (more than W by)
isochoric, temperature decrease, U decrease, W = 0,
Q - = Q out
isobaric compression, - W, temperature decrease, U
decrease, Q out (more than Won)

1HW:RUNIRUD&\FOH



3URSHUWLHVRIWKHHQWLUHF\FOH
1) gas returns to same P, V, and T
2) T = 0 so U = 0 (for all ideal gases)
3) U = 0 so net Q = netW

4) net W = area enclosed by figure so positive area enclosed means positive net work = work done by gas = net work out

5) net Q = W so Q+ so more heat added than removed during cycle = net heat in

21 

IB 12 

An ideal gas is confined in a cylinder with a movable piston. The gas starts at
300 K in state A and proceeds through the cycle shown in the diagram.
a) Find the temperatures at B and at C.
900 K isothermal

b) State whether U, W and Q are +, - , or 0 for each of the three processes and for the entire cycle.

4

8

:

A to B: W = 0, Q +, U+ 
B to C: U = 0, W+ and Q+

$%

C to A: Q -, W -, U 

%&

Cycle: U = 0, Q+, W+

&$
&\FOH

c) The internal energy of the gas changes by 1520 J during process A to B. 1700 J of heat are added to the gas
during process B to C. Find U, W, and Q for each process and for the entire cycle.

4
$%
%&

8

:
A to B: Q = U = 1520 J, W = 0
B to C: U = 0, Q = +1700J, W = +1700J
C to A: U = -1520 J, W = - 1000 J, Q = -2520 J
Cycle: U = 0, Q = 700 J, W = 700 J

&$
&\FOH

22 

7KH6HFRQG/DZRI7KHUPRG\QDPLFVDQG(QWURS\

IB 12 

The Second Law of Thermodynamics implies that . . . thermal energy cannot spontaneously transfer from a
region of low temperature to a region of high temperature.

(QWURS\a system property that expresses the degree of disorder in the system.

6HFRQG/DZRI7KHUPRG\QDPLFV: 

1) the overall entropy of the universe is increasing 

2) all natural processes increase the entropy of the universe

$OWKRXJKORFDOHQWURS\FDQGHFUHDVHDQ\SURFHVVZLOOLQFUHDVHWKHWRWDOHQWURS\RIDV\VWHPDQGLWVVXUURXQGLQJVWKHXQLYHUVH
1. Discuss this statement for the case of a puddle of water freezing into a block of ice.

2. A block of ice is placed in a thermally insulated room

initially at room temperature. Discuss any changes in the
total energy, total entropy, and temperature of the room.

3. An operating refrigerator with its door open is placed in a

thermally insulated room. The refrigerator operates for a long
period of time. Discuss any changes in the total energy, total
entropy, and temperature of the room.

23 

:DYH3KHQRPHQD

IB 12 

3KDVH The phase of any particle is its position in its cycle of oscillation.
,QSKDVH: (A,E,I) (B,F) (D,H) (C,G)
The SKDVHGLIIHUHQFH between any points LQSKDVH is 0.
&RPSOHWHO\RXWRISKDVH: (A,C) (B,D) (A,G) (B,H)
The SKDVHGLIIHUHQFH between 
any points FRPSOHWHO\RXWRISKDVH is or 1800.
5HIOHFWLRQDWD%RXQGDU\EHWZHHQ7ZR0HGLD
, )L[HG(QG5HIOHFWLRQ+DUG5HIOHFWLRQ

3KDVH'LIIHUHQFH or 1800.

,, )UHH(QG5HIOHFWLRQ6RIW5HIOHFWLRQ

3KDVH'LIIHUHQFH 0

Reason: Rope applies upward force on support

(incident pulse). By Newtons 3rd law, support
applies downward force on rope (reflected pulse).

6XSHUSRVLWLRQDQG,QWHUIHUHQFH
3ULQFLSOHRI/LQHDU6XSHUSRVLWLRQ: When two or more waves (pulses) meet, the resultant displacement is the
vector sum of the individual displacements.

&RQVWUXFWLYH,QWHUIHUHQFH: superposition of
two or more pulses or waves in phase

'HVWUXFWLYH,QWHUIHUHQFH: superposition of
two or more pulses or waves out of phase

Equal Amplitudes

Equal Amplitudes Complete destructive interference

Unequal Amplitudes

Unequal Amplitudes

1 

6WDQGLQJ6WDWLRQDU\:DYHV

IB 12 

How are standing waves formed?

1. A traveling wave moving in one direction in a medium is reflected off the end of the medium.
2. This sends a reflected wave traveling in the opposite direction in the medium. This second wave is (nearly)
identical with the first traveling wave. (same frequency, same wavelength, almost same amplitude)
3. The two identical waves traveling in opposite directions interfere with each other creating the standing wave whose
amplitude at any point is the superposition of the components amplitudes.

When the two

component waves
meet in phase,
constructive
interference takes
place.

When the two

component waves
meet out of phase,
destructive
interference takes
place.

2QHSRVVLEOHVWDQGLQJZDYHRQDVWULQJ
Node: location of constant complete destructive interference

Anti-Node: location of maximum constructive interference

6WDQGLQJ6WDWLRQDU\:DYH

Energy is not transferred by the wave,
but it does have energy stored in it.
All points on the wave have a
different amplitude (= variable
$PSOLWXGH amplitude). The maximum amplitude
is 2A at the antinodes and 0 at the
nodes.
Same as the wavelength of the
component waves.
:DYHOHQJWK Equal to twice the distance between
any two consecutive nodes (or
antinodes).
All particles oscillate in SHM with the
)UHTXHQF\ same frequency as the component
waves.
All points in one section between two
consecutive nodes (or antinodes) are
moving in phase. All points in the
next section are 1800 out of phase with
3KDVH
all points in this section.
Thus, the only possible phase
differences are 00 and 1800.
(QHUJ\

7UDYHOLQJ:DYH
Energy is transferred by the
wave.
All points on the wave have
the same amplitude (= fixed
amplitude) provided energy
is not dissipated.
Equal to the shortest distance
along the wave between any
two points that are in phase.
All particles oscillate in SHM
with the same frequency.
All points within one
wavelength have a different
phase.
Thus, all phase differences
are possible.

2 

7UDQVYHUVH6WDQGLQJ:DYH6WULQJIL[HGDWERWKHQGV

IB 12 

v = 1200 m/s
L = 1
1 = 2 L = 12 m
VW +DUPRQLFIXQGDPHQWDO

f1 = v / 1 = 1200 / 12 = 100 Hz

v = 1200 m/s
L = 2
2 = L = 6 m
QG +DUPRQLFVW RYHUWRQH

f2 = v / 2 = 1200 / 6 = 200 Hz = 2 f1

v = 1200 m/s
L = 3/2 3
3 = 2/3 L = 4 m
UG +DUPRQLFQG RYHUWRQH

f3 = v / 3 = 1200 / 4 = 300 Hz = 3 f1

Boundary conditions for transverse standing waves on a string: 2 fixed ends node at each end

Fundamental wavelength
and frequency:

L = 1

so

1 = 2L

f1 = v/1 = v / 2L
Other natural frequencies
(Resonant modes):

fn = n f1 = n [ v/ (2 L)]

where n = 1,2,3,4,
3

/RQJLWXGLQDO6WDQGLQJ:DYHV3LSHRSHQDWERWKHQGV

IB 12 

v = 340 m/s
L = 1
1 = 2 L = 1.2 m
VW +DUPRQLFIXQGDPHQWDO

f1 = v / 1 = 340 / 1.2 = 283 Hz

v = 340 m/s
L = 2
2 = L = 0.6 m
QG +DUPRQLFVW RYHUWRQH

f2 = v / 2 = 340 / 0.6 = 567 Hz = 2 f1

v = 340 m/s
L = 3/2 3
3 = 2/3 L = 0.4 m
UG +DUPRQLFQG RYHUWRQH

f3 = v / 3 = 340 / 0.4 = 850 Hz = 3 f1

Boundary conditions for a pipe open at both ends: 2 free ends antinode at each end

Fundamental wavelength
and frequency:

L = 1

so

1 = 2L

f1 = v/1 = v / 2L
Other natural frequencies
(Resonant modes):

fn = n f1 = n [ v/ (2 L)]

where n = 1,2,3,4,

4 

/RQJLWXGLQDO6WDQGLQJ:DYHV3LSHFORVHGDWRQHHQG

IB 12 

v = 340 m/s
L = 1
1 = 4 L = 2.4 m
f1 = v / 1 = 340 / 2.4 = 142 Hz

VW +DUPRQLFIXQGDPHQWDO

v = 340 m/s
L = 3
3 = 4/3 L = 0.8 m
f3 = v / 3 = 340 / 0.8 = 425 Hz = 3 f1

UG +DUPRQLF

v = 340 m/s
L = 5/4 5
5 = 4/5 L = 0.48 m
f5 = v / 5 = 340 / 0.48 = 708 Hz = 5 f1

WK +DUPRQLF

Boundary conditions for a pipe closed at one end: 1 fixed and one free end one node and one antinode

Fundamental wavelength
and frequency:

L = 1

so

1 = 4L

f1 = v/1 = v / 4L
Other natural frequencies
(Resonant modes):

fn = n f1 = n [ v/ (4 L)]

where n= 1,3,5

5 

IB 12 
1. A violin string that is 40.0 cm long has a fundamental frequency of 440 Hz. What is the speed of the waves on this string?

2. A flute is essentially a pipe open at both ends. What are the first two harmonics of a 66.0 cm flute with all of its keys closed
(making the vibrating column of air approximately equal to the length of the flute)? Assume the flute is at room temperature.

3. What is the fundamental frequency and wavelength of a 0.50 m organ pipe that is closed at one end, when the speed of sound in
the pipe is 352 m/s?

5HVRQDQFH7XEH
4. A 256 Hz tuning fork is used in a
resonance tube and the first two
resonances of the fundamental
frequency are found at 0.32 m
and 0.98 m. What is the speed
of sound under the present
laboratory conditions?

L1 = 
L2 = 
L2 L1 = = 0.66 m
v = f = (256 Hz) (1.32 m) =
338 m/s
6 

7KH'RSSOHU(IIHFW

IB 12 

'RSSOHU(IIHFWThe change in frequency of a wave detected by an observer because the wave source
and the observer have different velocities with respect to the medium of the wave propagation.
Sound change in pitch
Light change in frequency (color)

1RWH: In general, the velocities of the source and/or detector are specified
with respect to the medium of propagation. However, light is unique in
that there is no medium of propagation so it is the relative velocity of the
source and detector that is relevant.

6WDWLRQDU\VRXUFHDQGVWDWLRQDU\REVHUYHUV
The number of compressions reaching each observers ear
per second is the same so each hears a sound of the same
frequency. This frequency is identical to the frequency of
the source so there is no Doppler shift.
0RYLQJVRXUFHDQGVWDWLRQDU\REVHUYHUV
Source moving away from
observer #1:

Source moving toward observer #2:

More waves detected per second
Higher frequency
Higher pitch heard
Shorter wavelength

For truck moving at constant velocity: one constant high pitch when

moving toward and one constant low pitch heard when moving away

For truck speeding up: pitch increases and then decreases

'RSSOHU)RUPXODPRYLQJVRXUFH

 Y
I '  I


Y r XV 
f = original frequency 
f = shifted frequency 
v = speed of sound in medium
us = speed of source relative to 
medium
STS source toward subtract

frequency

Fewer waves detected per

second
Lower frequency
Lower pitch heard
Longer wavelength

time

EXAMPLE - A high-speed train is traveling at a speed of 44.7 m/s (100 mi/h) when
the engineer sounds the 415-Hz warning horn. The speed of sound in air is 343 m/s.
What are the frequency and wavelength of the sound, as perceived by a person
standing at a crossing, when the train is approaching?

 343
I ' 415

343 44.7 
I ' 477 Hz

O'

Y 343

0.72 P
I ' 477

'RSSOHUVKLIWIRUPRYLQJREVHUYHUDQG

VWDWLRQDU\VRXUFH

IB 12
Observer moving toward source:
Encounters more waves per second
Higher frequency = higher pitch

Observer moving away from source:

Encounters fewer waves per second
Lower frequency = lower pitch

Is a moving observer equivalent to a moving source?

No. since velocity of each with respect to medium is not the same.
Wind but no motion of either source or observer = no change in pitch

'RSSOHU)RUPXODPRYLQJREVHUYHU

I'

Y rXR
I 

 Y 

uo = speed of observer relative

to medium

EXAMPLE - The security alarm on a parked car goes off and produces a
frequency of 960 Hz. The speed of sound in air is 343 m/s. What is the
frequency you perceive as you drive toward this parked car at 20. m/s?

343  20
I ' 960

 343 
I ' 1016 Hz

OTA observer toward add

'RSSOHU6KLIWIRU(0UDGLDWLRQ
Blue shift: source and observer moving towards each other
Red shift: source and observer moving away from each other

'RSSOHU)RUPXOD(0UDGLDWLRQ

Y

'I |  I

F
when Y  F
v = relative speed of
source and observer
f = frequency shift

EXAMPLE A star is moving away from Earth at a speed of 3.0 x 105 m/s. One of
the elements in the star emits light with a frequency of 6.0 x 1014 Hz. By how
much is the frequency shifted when it is received by a telescope on Earth?

3.0 [105
14
6.0
[

10
'I | 
3.0 [
108
'I 6.0
 [1011 +]
8

IB 12

([DPSOHVRIWKH'RSSOHU(IIHFW
1. Measuring the speed of vehicles
Police use radar to measure the speed of moving vehicles to see if they are 

breaking the speed limit. A pulse of radio waves of known frequency is

emitted, reflected off the moving vehicle and reflected back to the source. 

The change between the frequency emitted and the frequency received is 

used to calculate the speed of the car. 

2. Blood-flow measurements
Doctors use a Doppler flow meter to measure the speed of blood flow. Transmitting and 

receiving elements are placed directly on the skin and an ultrasound signal (sound whose 

frequency is around 5 MHz) is emitted, reflected off moving red blood cells and then

received. The difference in transmitted and received frequencies is then used to calculate

how fast blood is flowing which can help doctors identify constricted arteries. 

3. Determining rotation rates

When an object such as a cyclone or a distant star rotates, one side is moving toward the
observer and one side is moving away. For a cyclone, radio pulses known as radar are
transmitted and reflected from each side of the rotating air mass and the difference in Doppler
shift from each side can be used to calculate the rate at which it is rotating. Similarly, the
atomic absorption spectrum of the light from a star will be blue-shifted from one side and redshifted from the other so this difference can be used to determine its rotational rate.

'LIIUDFWLRQ
'LIIUDFWLRQ: the bending or spreading of a wave when it passes through a small opening (aperture) or
around a barrier
1. The wave diffracts around the barrier at the edges,
leaving a shadow region behind it where the wave
does not reach. The smaller the object is compared
to the wavelength, the smaller the shadow region
and the more the wave reaches behind the obstacle.
If the obstacle is small compared to the wavelength,
no noticeable diffraction occurs.

2. A wave also spreads

out (diffracts) when
it passes through a
small opening
(aperture). In this
way, a plane wave
can act like a point
source.

3. The larger the aperture size (slit width) compared to the

wavelength of the wave, the less the wave diffracts.

E VOLWZLGWKDSHUWXUHVL]H

&RQGLWLRQIRUQRWLFHDEOHGLIIUDFWLRQ

Size of opening should be approximately equal to the wavelength (b)

9

,QWHUIHUHQFHRI:DYHVLQ7ZR'LPHQVLRQV

IB 12 

3DWK/HQJWK distance traveled by a wave from source to a location

3DWK'LIIHUHQFH difference in path lengths between two waves = | 1 - 2 |

10

$QWLQRGDO/LQH line of maximum constructive

interference

IB 12
1RGDO/LQH line of constant complete destructive
interference

&RQGLWLRQVIRU$QWLQRGDO/LQH

&RQGLWLRQVIRU1RGDO/LQH

Phase difference: 0

Phase difference: 1800 or 

Path difference:
= n where n = 0, 1, 2, 3,

Path difference:
= (n + ) where n = 0, 1, 2, 3,

&RQGLWLRQVIRUDVWDEOHLQWHUIHUHQFHSDWWHUQ
1) waves have approximately same amplitude/intensity
2) sources are coherent
Coherent waves: waves that have a constant phase relationship not necessarily in phase

1. A square is 3.5 m on a side, and point A is the midpoint of one of its sides. On the side
opposite this spot, two in-phase loudspeakers are located at adjacent corners. Standing
at point A, you hear a loud sound and as you walk along the side of the square toward
either empty corner, the loudness diminishes gradually but does not entirely disappear
until you reach either empty corner, where you hear no sound at all. Find the
wavelength of the sound waves.

= = 1.449
= 2.9 m

2. The same set-up as above is used but now the frequency of sound emitted by both
speakers is increased to 700 Hz. This time, as you walk along the side of the square
from A toward an empty corner, you hear the loud sound at A alternately diminish to no
sound and then increase to a maximum again. By the time you arrive at the corner, you
have noticed the sound disappear three times. Use this information to estimate a speed
for sound.

= 3 = 1.449
= 0.483 m
v=f = (700)(0.483) = 388 m/s

11 

,QWHUIHUHQFHRI/LJKW

IB 12 

<RXQJV'RXEOH6OLW([SHULPHQW
In 1801 the English scientist Thomas Young (17731829) performed an historic experiment that
demonstrated the wave nature of light by showing that two overlapping light waves interfered with
each other.
Importance of experiment:
1) convincing evidence that light consisted of waves and not particles, since only waves could
interfere with each other.
2) first determination of the wavelength of light.

6LQJOH6OLW'LIIUDFWLRQDQG,QWHUIHUHQFH
Why is there an interference pattern when light travels
through a single slit?
different parts of the wave interfere with itself as it spreads

7KHLQWHQVLW\SDWWHUQIRUVLQJOHVOLWGLIIUDFWLRQ

Features of the Single Slit Intensity Pattern

a) Wide central maximum wider than other fringes

b) Bright central maximum much brighter than other fringes

c) secondary maxima equal width and spacing

3RVLWLRQRIILUVWPLQLPXP

T 

O

E

must be in radians
Narrow slit

Wide slit
12 

'HULYDWLRQRI6LQJOH6OLW)RUPXOD
1. Break wavefront into separate point
sources. Assume screen is very far from
the slit so that the rays are parallel when
they interfere destructively at the first
dark fringe (first minimum).

2. Match points in pairs that are

slit width apart:
1 and 3, 2 and 4 (ignore 5)

IB 12 

3. Draw small right triangle

perpendicular to rays. Wavelet pairs
interfere destructively if the path
difference is .

4. Calculate:

+DOIZLGWKRIFHQWUDOPD[LPXP location of first dark fringe

 E
IRULQUDGLDQV
draw small triangle to show
= /b = d/D

(;$03/(Light passes through a single slit and shines on a flat screen that is located 0.40 m away. The width of the slit is
4.010-6 m. Determine the width of the central bright fringe when the wavelength of the light in a vacuum is = 690 nm (red).

Half width:
= 0.1725 rad = 9. 9o
s = 0.069 m
width:
2 = 0.35 rad = 19.8o
2s = 0.14 m

13 

5HVROXWLRQ

IB 12

5HVROXWLRQ the ability to distinguish between

two sources of light

The ability toUHVROYH two sources of light depends on . . .

distance away from aperture
distance between two sources
wavelength
size of aperture
5HVROXWLRQRIWZRVRXUFHV

WKURXJKDVLQJOHVOLW

5HVROXWLRQRIWZRVRXUFHV
WKURXJKDFLUFXODUDSHUWXUH
Examples:
pupil of eye, telescope,
microscope

,QWHQVLW\3DWWHUQV
:HOOUHVROYHG

-XVWUHVROYHG

1RWUHVROYHG

5HVROYLQJ3RZHU the minimum angle between sources for them to be

just resolved = width of one diffraction pattern

6LQJOH6OLW

&LUFXODU
$SHUWXUH

5D\OHLJK&ULWHULRQ For two sources to be just resolved, the first minimum of one diffraction pattern
is located on top of the central maximum of the other diffraction pattern.
14 

IB 12
'LVWDQFH5HODWLRQVKLS

1. The brightest star in the winter sky in the Northern Hemisphere is Sirius. In reality, Sirius is a system of two stars that orbit each
other. The Hubble Space Telescope (diameter 2.4 m) is pointed at the Sirius system, which is 7.98 x 1016 meters from Earth.
a) What is the minimum separation needed between the stars in order for the telescope to just resolve them?
Assumption: average light coming in from the stars has a wavelength of 500 nm.

2.2 x 1010 m 

b) What is the resolving power of the telescope?

2. a) What is the resolving power of your eye?

Assumptions:

2 x 10-4 rad

Diameter of pupil approx = 3 mm

b) How far away can a car be for you to just distinguish between the two headlights at night?
Assumptions:

R = 10 km

Distance between headlights = 2 m

15 

IB 12 

6LJQLILFDQFHRI5HVROXWLRQ
Due to diffraction effects, all devices have a limit on their ability to perceive and to resolve
between sources of light. For instance, our eyes can never see atoms since atoms are smaller than
the wavelength of visible light so light waves will just diffract around them. Here are some cases
where diffraction and resolution are important.
1. CDs and DVDs
CDs and DVDs store digital information as bumps and pits etched into a
plastic surface. Music CDs have data tracks approximately 5 x 10-7 m wide
with the bumps and pits just over 1 x 10-7 m high. The bumps and pits on a
DVD are much smaller so that more data can be stored. The data is read by
reflecting a laser beam off the surface. The wavelength of laser light used to
read the data and the size of the aperture of the lens used to receive the laser
light places a limit on how close together the bumps and pits can be placed,
that is, places a limit on the resolution of the data.

2. Electron Microscopes
In order to resolve objects beyond the limits imposed by the wavelength of

visible light, the wave properties of electrons are used in electron microscopes. 

The de Broglie wavelength of an electron is much smaller than the wavelength

of a photon of visible light so a microscope using an electron beam can resolve 

objects that are much smaller than those of a light microscope. 

3. Radio Telescopes
Astronomers often wish to detect the radio waves emitted by very distant objects like quasars and galaxies.
However, since the wavelength of radio waves is much larger than visible light, the ability of a radio telescope to
resolve sources is more limited than that of light telescopes. To get around this limitation, astronomers use two
or more radio telescopes separated by a large distance, called a Very Large Array (VLA). For instance, in New
Mexico, there is a VLA consisting of 27 parabolic dishes each of diameter 25 m arranged in a Y-shape that
covers an area of 570 km2.
EXAMPLE: The Galaxy Cygnus A can be resolved optically as an elliptically shaped galaxy. However, it
is also a strong emitter of radio waves of wavelength 0.15 m. The Galaxy is estimated to be 5.0 x 1024 m
from Earth. Use of a radio telescope shows that the radio emission is from two sources separated by a
distance of 3.0 x 1021 m. Estimate the diameter of the dish required to just resolve the sources.

= 6.0 x 10-4 rad

d = 3000 m (much too big for one dish)

16 

3RODUL]DWLRQRI/LJKW

IB 12 

Nature of EM Waves:
1. produced by oscillation of electric charge
2. creates varying electric and magnetic fields that are perpendicular
3. transverse wave
4. plane of vibration is arbitrarily plane of E field vibration

3RODUL]HG/LJKWlight in which the electric

field vector vibrates in one plane only

8QSRODUL]HG/LJKWlight in which the

electric field vectors vibrates in random
directions

Polarization of sunlight:
1. IURPVFDWWHULQJE\PROHFXOHVLQDWPRVSKHUH: Sunlight is polarized in a direction
perpendicular to direction of wave velocity.
2. E\UHIOHFWLRQIURPQRQPHWDOOLFVXUIDFH Incident sunlight is unpolarized. Reflected and
refracted rays are partially polarized by the surface. The plane of polarization of the
reflected light is horizontal (parallel to surface). If the reflected and refracted rays are
perpendicular, the reflected light is completely polarized. The angle of incidence for this
complete polarization depends on relative indices of refraction of the two substances and
is known as Brewsters angle ( I ).

%UHZVWHUV/DZ When light is incident on a surface at such an angle that the

reflected and transmitted rays are perpendicular and the reflected ray is totally
plane polarized, then the index of refraction of the substance is equal to the
tangent of the angle of incidence. (Q WDQ I )
'HULYDWLRQ

QL sin TL QU sin T U

if QL 1.00
Q 

sin TL
sin T U

([DPSOH What is Brewsters angle for

sunlight reflected off a lake?

Q tan I

L  U 90 0

1.33 tan I

sin TL
Q 
sin(900  TL)

530

Q tan TL
Q tan I

17

IB 12
3RODUL]HUdevice that produces plane polarized light from an unpolarized beam
7UDQVPLVVLRQD[LVdirection of polarization that a polarizer allows through
$VLPSOHPRGHORIDSRODUL]HUXVLQJDZDYHRQDURSH

Transmission axis of polarizer is parallel to

the plane of polarization of the wave.

Transmission axis of polarizer is perpendicular

to the plane of polarization of the wave.

NOTE: only transverse waves can be polarized not longitudinal waves sound cannot be polarized.
$PRUHVRSKLVWLFDWHGPRGHORIDSRODUL]HUXVLQJOLJKW
Polarizer allows original intensity through since
of components of all waves are parallel to
transmission axis

How do polarized sunglasses reduce glare?

Transmission axis is vertical does not allow glare to pass
through since glare is light that has been horizontally
polarized by reflection from non-metallic surface

$QDO\]HUpolarizer used to detect polarized light

When the transmission axis of the analyzer is

parallel to that of the polarizer . . .polarized light
passes through

When the transmission axis of the analyzer is

perpendicular to that of the polarizer . . .no light
passes through

18 

IB 12
What happens when the analyzer is neither parallel nor perpendicular to the polarizer?
The component of the polarized

light parallel to the transmission

axis of the analyzer is allowed

to pass through

'HULYDWLRQ

,D$2 
,D( ( cos T) 2
,D( 2 cos 2 T

= angle between
transmission axis of
polarizer and analyzer

, , 0 cos
 2T
0DOXV/DZ the transmitted intensity of polarized light is equal to the product of the
incident intensity times the square of the cosine of the angle between the direction of the
analyzer and the direction of the electric field vibration of the polarized light (, ,R FRV )
1. Natural, unpolarized light of intensity 6.0 W m-2 is incident on two polaroids oriented at 600
to each other. Find the intensity of the light transmitted through both of them.
through first one
Malus law
= 0.75 W m-2
=0.75 cd
How can light be transmitted through crossed polarizers?
Insert a third polarizer between the original polarizer and the 
analyzer. 
Some component of light from the first will make it through the 
second and some component of the second will make it through 
the third
The intermediate polarizer rotates the plane of polarization at 
the cost of lost intensity. 

2SWLFDOO\$FWLYH6XEVWDQFH
1) one that rotates the plane of polarization of the light that passes through it

2) one that changes the plane in which the electric field vector of the light vibrates

19

Applications:

IB 12

1. Determining the concentration of solutions

Eg sugar solutions are optically active intensity of light passing through is
inversely proportional to concentration and distance through solution
Using a polarizer and analyzer to find angle of rotation for maximum intensity allows
calculation of concentration

2. Stress analysis
Some materials are optically active under stress and allow different colors
to pass through at different angles. Engineers can build models out of plastic and
subject them to stress and view through polarizers and analyzers to determine
points of probable mechanical failure due to high stress.

3. Liquid crystal displays (LCD)

Liquid crystal rotates plane of polarization to block light when activated seen
as a dark spot number, letter, etc.

20