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GuidelinesforCommunitySupplyandProtectioninAfrica

CostEffectiveBoreholesinsubSaharanAfrica
Danert,KCarter,RC,Adekile,DandMacDonald,A
Abstract
AcommonassertionisthatthecostofwaterwelldrillinginsubSaharanAfricaistoohighandthat
constructionqualityisregularlycompromised.Overthelast20years,severalstudiesregardingthis
havebeenundertaken,coveringmorethantencountriesintheregion.Althoughdrillingcostsin
subSaharanAfricaaregenerallyhigherthaninIndia,therearevalidreasonsforthis.However,
changestoboreholedesigns,procurementandcontractmanagementpractices,wellclusteringfor
economiesofscale,sitingandsupervisionpracticesaswellassupporttoandprofessionalizationof
theprivatesectorcanallservetobringdrillingcostsdown,andimproveconstructionquality.This
paperprovidesanoverviewofhowdrillingcostscanbecalculated.Itpullstogetherthekeyissues
thataffectdrillingcostsandpricesintoaconceptualframework.Theframeworkissubsequently
usedtocomparepoliciesandpracticesforthecountrieswhereinformationisreadilyavailable.The
paperthusintendstoraiseawarenessandimprovetheanalyticalcapacityofimplementersand
decisionmakersregardingmeasuresthatcouldbeadoptedtoimprovethecosteffectivenessof
boreholedrillingintheirparticularcontext.

Introduction

Ithasbeenestimatedthatabout35,000boreholesperyearneedtobedrilledinsubSaharanAfrica
tomeettheMDGsfordomesticwatersupply1.Ifoneconsidersfullcoverageby2050,andwaterfor
irrigationaswellasindustrialsupply,atleast50,000boreholesperyeararerequired.Government,
privateenterprises,NGOsanddonorshaveallraisedconcernsaboutthehighcosts,variable
constructionqualityandtheinadequatevolumeofboreholesdrilledinsubSaharanAfrica2.
Concernsregardingthedisparitybetweentherelativelylowcostsofhandpumpsandthehighcosts
ofdrilledwellswereraisedattheUNDPWorldBankInternationalHandpumpWorkshopin1992
(Doyen,2003).Costsavingsonconventionaldrillingofaslittleas10%wouldhaveasignificant
impactonextendingaccesstoimprovedwatersupplies.Useofmanualdrillingwherefeasiblecould
alsoextendaccessatverylowcost.However,itisessentialthatcostsavingsdonotadversely
jeopardisequalityandthatwaterwellinfrastructurecanbesustainedoverthelongterm.Further,in
ordertoattractprivateinvestment,waterwelldrillingmustbeaviablebusinessventure.
Inordertoimprovethehealthoftheboreholedrillingsector,decisionmakersandimplementers
shouldbeabletoeasilyidentifyissuesthatreduceefficiencyandcompromisequality.Thispaper

BasedonJointMonitoringProgramme(JMP2004)data:12millionpeopleservedin2004:MDGof701millionpeople
servedin2015andfullcoverageof1625millionserved.Assumptions:50%ofpeoplewillbeservedwithahanddugwell,
treatedsurfacewaterorspring;37.5%ofpeoplewillbeservedwithahandpump(300peopleperpump)and12.5%witha
mechanisedborehole(2,000peoplepersystem).Assumes3%ofexistingboreholesareredrilledannually.

egInKenya,about250wellsaredrilledannually,comparedtotherequired650tomeettargets(Doyen,2003);in
Tanzania,theinvestmentplanprovidesfor1,600boreholesannually,requiringadoublingincapacity(Baumannetal,2005)

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setsoutaconceptualframeworkforcosteffectiveboreholesandanalysespoliciesandpractices
fromseveralcountries3.

Assertions,InformationandEvidenceofHighDrillingPrices

Itisessentialtodistinguishbetweenboreholepriceandboreholecost.Pricereferstothe
amountpaidbytheGovernmentoraparticularprojectforasuccessfullycompletedborehole,
whereascostisbornebythedrillingenterprise.Thedifferencebetweenthetwoisthesumof
overheads,taxes,profitandamarginforrisk(egdryholes,paymentdelays,insecurityand
breakdown).
AccurateinformationondrillingpricesorcostsinsubSaharanAfricaisnoteasytoaccess(ANTEA,
2007).Systematicanalysisisachallengebecausethereispoor,fragmentedandnonstandardized
recordkeepingofwatersupplyprojectsandprogrammesinsubSaharanAfricaaswellaslackof
transparency.Table1providesexamplesofestimatedandactualboreholecostsandprices,ranging
from$2,000to$500,000($120to$1,271permeter).
Table1EstimatedandActualDrillingCostandPrices
Country,year(ref)

Cost/Priceper:
well

Description

meter

BurkinaFaso2006
(ANTEA2007)

Chad2005
(Practica,2005)

$12,000
15,000

Ethiopia,2005
(Carter,2006)

$37,800

$252

Estimatedpricefora200mmdiameter,steelcasedboreholeto150m.No
pumporsupervision(basedonanalysisofinputs).

Kenya,1996
(Doyen,2003)

$8,400

$120

Priceestimatedfor70mwellinspecificprogramme(includesdrilling,testing
butnotsiting,supervisionorfailure)

Malawi,2001
(Mthunzi,2004)

$2,730

Niger,2005
(Danert,2005)

$10,000

$160

Estimatedpriceonabillofquantities,60mdepth,700kmfromcapitalcity,
excludingsupervisionandpumpinstallation

Mozambique,2006
(WEConsult,2006)

$151

Averagedrillingpriceaccordingtothereport.Includessiting,pump
installationandVAT.

Nigeria,2006
(Adekile,2007)

$11,700

$195

FederalMinistryofWaterResources2006boreholeprice.PVClined,60m
depthfittedwithhandpump.

Nigeria,2008
(Adekileetal,2008a)

$6,000

$120

Estimatedpricefora110mmdiameter,PVClinedboreholeto50mdepth
withoutpumporsupervision(basedonanalysisofinputs).

Nigeria,2008
(Adekileetal,2008a)

$2,140

Senegal,2006
(ANTEA,2007)

$152

Averagecostofdrillingandinstallationofcasingandscreen(PVC)butnot
thepump,asestablishedbystudyofdrillingcosts.
Rangeofmachinedrilledwellpricespaidbydifferentagencies.

Estimatedaveragewellcostincludingcapital,recurrent,personnel&
materials;assuming45wellsperyearwithsmallrigbyNGO.

Handdrilled,110mm,PVClined.

$500

Averagecostofdrillingandinstallationofcasingandscreen(stainlesssteel)
butnotthepump,asestablishedbystudy.

Tanzania,2004
(Baumann,2005)

$6,000

Budgetforboreholewithahandpump,asintheNationalRuralWaterSupply
andSanitationProgramme(2004),MainReportV1.

Uganda,2007
(MWE,2007)

$8,700

Averagepriceofprivatesectordrilleddeepboreholes(withhandpumps)
paidforbydistrictlocalgovernmentsinF/Y2006/7.

Nigeria,2008
(Adekileetal,2009)

$500,000

$2,500

Contractpricefor200mboreholeinRiverState

IncludingBurkinaFaso,Chad,Ethiopia,Kenya,Nigeria,Niger,Malawi,Mali,Mauritania,Senegal,TanzaniaandUganda.

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Somewellsareshallow,andinstalledwithahandpumpwhileothersaredeepanduseamotorised
pump.Thereisvariationinhowtheyarecalculated(e.g.whataspectsareincludedorleftoutsuchas
sitingorsupervision).Thetypeandsizeofcasingvaries,asdoesthegeology,distancetravelledand
equipment.Thismeansthatonecannotmakesimplisticcomparisonsofboreholepricesbetween
counties,orwithinthesamecountry.
Carteretal(2006),WEConsult(2006),ANTEA(2007)andAdekileandOlabode(2008a)emphasise
thateveryboreholeisunique.Estimatesofboreholepricesarevitalforbudgetingbutaverageshide
morethantheyreveal.Internationalandincountrybenchmarkingwouldbeusefultoconsider
valueformoneyinservicedeliverybutsimpleleaguetablesofnationaldrillingcostsarenotvery
usefulfordrivingdownthepriceofboreholesandensureconstructionquality.Inordertomake
usefulcomparisons,astandardaccountingframeworkisneeded,aswellamethodologyfor
modellingtheeffectsofkeyvariablesonoverallcost.

ConceptualFramework

Itisessentialtounderstandandaddresstheparametersthataffectcosteffectivenessincontext
(ANTEA,2007;Carteretal,2006).Boreholecostsandqualityareprimarilyinfluencedbysixcore
factorsandthirteenelementsassetoutintheconceptualframeworkinFigure1anddiscussed
below.NotethatthisframeworkbuildsonpreviousworkbyWurzel(2001),Smith(2003),Ball
(2004),Carter(2006),Carteretal(2006),Danert(2008)andAdekileandOlabode(2008b).
Figure1RWSNConceptualFrameworkforCostEffectiveBoreholes
Core Factors
1. Physical environment
2. Sector players
3. Finance
4. Communications
5. Materials
6. Fuel
Elements
1. Operation & Maintenance procedures
2. Preference for local private sector drilling
3. Borehole standards and designs
4. Smaller and less costly rigs
5. Procurement
6. Contract packaging
7. Program and contract management
8. Siting
9. Supervision
10. Pumping test
11. Groundwater resources monitoring and
evaluation
12. Hydrogeological data
13. Regulation, support and professionalization
of the private sector

Borehole Cost and Quality


Basic cost to driller ( =
mobilization + drilling + well
development and test pump
+ installation)
2. Construction Quality
1.

Borehole Price
Sum of: borehole cost, additional costs
to driller, siting, supervision, social
infrastructure and pump.
Plus factor for post-construction failure

Key
Issues (grouped)
Outcomes
A

3.1

B A has an effect on B

BoreholeCostsandQuality

Therecommendedwaytoanalyseboreholecostistoexamineeachofthefollowingcomponents:
Mobilisationallcostsinvolvedintransportingequipmenttositeandbacktobase(Box1).

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Drillingallowsfortheperhour(convertedtopermeter)costsofequipmentdepreciation,
labourconsumptionoffuel,lubricantsanddrillfluidsandreplacementofdrillingtools.
Affectedbydepth;diameter;drillingandstandbytime(Box2).
Installationincludesthesupplyandinstallationofplaincasingandscreen,gravelpack,
sanitarysealandwellheadconstruction.
Welldevelopmentreferstothecleaningoftheboreholeafterconstructionandtest
pumpingisthepostconstructionassessmentofboreholeandaquiferperformance.

Thetimetakentoundertaketheseactivitiesaffectsthebasicdrillingcosts.Theaverageexecution
timeforaboreholeinBurkinaFasois2daysand45daysinSenegal(ANTEA,2007).Notethatwhile
savingsonsaycasingcanhaveaconsiderableeffectontheinstallationcost,theproportionsavedon
thetotalcostdependsonhowmuchtheinstallationcomponentaffectsthetotalconstructioncost.
Constructionqualityreferstothedegreetowhichtheboreholeisstraight;thequalityofwell
developmentandgravelpacking;thecasing/screenqualityincludingitsinstallation;thepermeable
backfillmaterialandplacement;thequalityofthesanitarysealandheadworks.Fromtheuser
perspectiveturbidwater,lowflowratesandseasonalfunctionalityareapoorqualityofservice.
Box1MobilisationCostComponent
Thetablebelowshowsthemobilisation(anddemobilisation)costforahypotheticalproject,100kmfromthe
contractorsbase.Twoexamplesaregiven:(a)equipmentpurchasedatUS$170,000and(b)equipment
purchasedatUS$85,000.
Amount Amount
Mobilisation
CalculationMethod
(a)
(b)
Capitalequipment
Costofrig,freightinsurance,loanchargesconvertedto
depreciation
dailycostbasedona10yearlifespanand60%utilisation
$78
$39
Vehicles
Rentalmarketrate/realrunningcostof:(a) 2trucksand1
pickup;(b)1truckand1pickup.
$297
$186
Fuelandlubricants
Foratraveldistanceof100km(20loffuel/vehicle at
$0.58/l)
$46
$35
HumanResources
Salariesandperdiemsondailybasisforhydrogeologist,
driller,assistantdriller,2labourers,securitypersonand1
driver(riga)/2drivers(rigb).
$149
$141
SubtotalMobilisation

$570
$401
SubtotalDemobilisation Estimatedat80%ofmobilisationcost
$456
$321
Total
$1,026
$721
Clearly,itisconsiderablymoreeconomicaltospreadthemobilisationcostover10,20or50wells(i.e.a
clusteredcontractwithwellsrelativelycloseindistance)thantopaythisamountforeachindividualwell
drilled.

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Box2DrillingCostComponent(adaptedfromRowles,1995)
Item
Capitalequipment

Explanation
Costofrig,freightinsurance,loancharges

Fixedcosts

Hammer
Hammerbit
Dragbit
SubTotalRock
SubTotal
Overburden
Example
Formation
Overburdendepth
(m)
Rockdepth(m)
Totaldepth(m)
Drillingspeed(m/h)
Calculation
Fixedcosts
Variablecost:
overburden
Variablecosts:rock
TotalCostDrilling
Drillingcostperm

3.2

$170,000

Lifetime
(Hours)

Depreciation
Maintenance
Labour
FuelandLubricants
Mud/foam
SubTotal(Naira/h)
Costpermeter

VariableCosts
Drillingstring

Cost(US$)

Costper
hour

20,000 Capital cost divided by lifetime (ie 10 years at


60%utilisation)US$/h

$8.50
$0.43
$17.00
$10.00
$13.00
$48.93

Maintenance(5%ofdepreciation)US$/h
US$/h
US$/h
US$/h
SumofaboveUS$/h
ConverttoUS$/mbydividingbydrillingspeed

Lifetime
Replacement
(Meters)
Explanation
Cost
20,000 ConverttoUS$/mbydividingreplacementcost
$15,254
bylifetime
3,000 ConverttoUS$/mbydividingreplacementcost
$8,136
bylifetime
300 ConverttoUS$/mbydividingreplacementcost
$1,186
bylifetime
300 ConverttoUS$/mbydividingreplacementcost
$508
bylifetime

SumofdrillstringanddragbitUS$/m

Sum of drill string, hammer, and hammer bit


US$/m

Costsper
meter

Depth
(m)
20
30
50
3

=50mx(57.85/3)
=20mx(0.76+1.67)

=30mx(0.76+2.7+4)

Cost
$815
$49
$200
$1,065
$21

BoreholePrice

Figure1differentiatesbetweenboreholecostandboreholeprice.Theboreholepriceincludes:
Boreholecost(asdescribedinsection3.1)
Additionalcoststothedriller(egtaxes,overheadsandkickbacks).Anastutedrillerwill
assesstherequirementsforaparticulartender,considertherisksinvolvedandload
particularitemsintheBillofQuantitiesaccordingly(Carteretal,2006).
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$0.76
$2.71
$3.95
$1.69

3.3

Pumpcosts.Thesevaryandmayormaynotbeincludedinquotedboreholeprices.
Sitingcosts.Thesecanbebornebytheprogramme,drillerorconsultant.Inthecaseofthe
latter,thecostsaremorevisible.Incaseswheresupervisionisundertakenbyprogrammeor
Governmentstaff,thecostsareoftenconcealed.
Supervisioncostsarecanbebornebytheprogramme,orconsultants(asforsiting).
CostsofSocialInfrastructurereferstocommunitymobilisationandtraining.Thesecostsare
sometimeshiddenwithinprogrammeexpenditure.
TheCoreFactors

ThecorefactorsindicatedinFigure1areindependentvariablesthatcannoteasilybeinfluencedbut
haveabearingonthecostofboreholes.TheyaresummarisedinTable2.Itisimportantto
understandthemandberealisticabouttheextenttowhichtheycanbechangedinagiventime
frame,ifatall.
Table2CoreFactorsthatAffectDrillingCosts
Water well construction in different formations has different requirements in terms of
equipment, casing and depth requirements. If plentiful groundwater is available at
shallowdepths,itcanbecheapertodrillthanfordeepgroundwater.Ifformationsare
soft,andgroundwateriswithinthefirst15to20m,lowcosthanddrilledwellsmaybe
feasible. Rainfall and recharge affect groundwater availability and sustainability.
Althoughthephysicalenvironmentcannotbechanged,theunderstandingofitbysector
professionalsandpractitionerscanbeimproved.
Therearenumeroussectorreformsthroughouttheregioncomprisingashifttopublic
SectorPlayers
sectorcoordination,regulation,andpolicyformationwithprivatesectorimplementation
andSector
Structure
(egUganda,Ethiopia,MalawiandGhana).Theseprovidemoreopportunitiesforprivate
drilling.ThereisagrowinginterestintheSectorWideApproach(SWAp),althoughforms
vary,whichcanmakethemarketforboreholedrillingmorecoherentandtransparent.
Wheremajorstructuralchangesaretakingplacerolesandresponsibilitiesareinastate
offluxandtheintroductionofcostsavingmeasuresisnotalwayseasy.Inmost
countriestherearenumerousdiscretewatersupplyprojectsbeingimplementedwith
differentobjectives,standardsandconditionalities.Acoherentlegalandregulatory
frameworkiskeyforcosteffectiveboreholeprovisionbuttakestimetodevelopandbe
enforced.
Communication Roadnetworksareoftenpoor,particularly inremoteruralareas.Thiscanrenderlarge
networks
partsofthecountryinaccessiblefortherainyseasons(egSouthSudan),whichimpacts
onequipmentdowntimeandamortisationcosts.Telecommunicationsischanging
rapidly.Mobilephonetechnologycanhaveahugeimpactondecisionmakingofjunior
fieldstaff,andthusimpactonwaitingtimesconsiderably.
Finance
Coherentfinanceforinvestmentinwatersupplydevelopmentandmaintenanceover
severalyearsprovidescontinuityofworkandthusencouragesinvestmentbyprivate
drillingenterprisesinequipmentandhumanresources.
Materialsand
Thecostandavailabilityofmaterialssuchascasing,gravelpack,cementanddrilling
Equipment
fluidsandequipmentsuchasdrillingrigsandsparesvarieswidely.Somecountriesare
fortunatethatcasingsaremanufacturedincountrywhileothershavetoimport.
Landlockedcountriestendtobeatadisadvantageastheraisedcostoftransportrenders
everythingmoreexpensive.Thishastobecarefullyconsideredwhenmakingany
comparisons.
Physical
Environment
(geology,
hydrogeology,
climate)

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Fuel

3.4

Fuelpricesvarywidely,notonlyovertime(aswehaveseenoverthelasttwoyearswith
fluctuatingpricesforabarrelofoil),butalsobetweenandwithincountries.Some
countries(egEgypt)haveformanyyearsoperatedapolicywherebyoilpricesarehighly
subsidized.Inothercountries,fueltaxationisakeycontributortoGovernment
revenues.Insomeareas,fuelisnotreadilyavailableandmainlysold,atahigherprice
fromplasticcontainersbytheroadside.Kano,Nigeriaisacaseinpoint

KeyElements

Giventhatthecorefactorschangeverylittle,ifatall,inordertoimproveboreholecosteffectiveness
itisessentialthatproperattentionispaidtothe14elementsgiveninfigure1.Box3outlinesthe
basicprinciplesthatshouldbeadheredtowithrespecttothesetwelveelements.Theseprinciples
aredrawnfromongoingworktodevelopacodeofpracticeforcosteffectiveboreholes.
Box3.KeyElementsforCostEffectiveBoreholes
1.
2.
3.
4.

5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.

Operationandmaintenance(O&M)procedures toensurethesustainabilityofpumpedgroundwater
sourcesfortheexpectedlifetimeofthefacilityshouldbeestablished,adheredtoandmonitored.
Whodrills?Thepreferredoptionisthatlocalprivatesectorenterprisesundertakeconstructionofwater
wellsandpumpinstallation.Thisshouldencourageincountycapacitytogrowandfostercompetition.
Standardsanddesign:Boreholesshouldbedesignedandconstructedsothattheyarefitfortheir
intendedpurposeintermsofdiameter,depth,casingandscreen.
Drillingequipment:Smallerandlesscostlyrigsshouldbeutilizedtoprovideboreholesthatarefitfor
theirdesignedpurpose.Manualdrillingshouldbebroughtintothemainstreamofwatersupply
programmes,withappropriatequalitycontrol.
Procurement:Systematic,transparentandtimelyprocessesofadvertising,prequalification,tendering,
evaluationandawardneedtobeestablishedandfollowed.
ContractPackaging:Contractsshouldbepackagedformultipleboreholesincloseproximityandfor
boreholeswithsimilargeology.
Programmeandcontractmanagement.Itisessentialthatdrillingprogrammeshavesufficientskillsto
designandmanagetheprogrammesorbringinexpertise.Paymentforworksmustbetimely.
Appropriatesitingpracticesshouldbeutilized.
Highquality,timelyconstructionsupervisionshouldbeemphasized.
Testpumpingrequirementsshouldbematchedtoboreholepurposewhiletakingintoaccountthe
importanceofdatatoimprovetheunderstandingofhydrogeologyandwaterresources.
Rigorousevaluationofgroundwaterresourcesshouldbeundertakenandinformationmadeavailable
Hydrogeologicaldatacollectionandstorageshouldbeundertaken.
Regulationandprivatesectorprofessionalism:Astrongpublicsectorisneededtooverseeandregulate
theprivatesector.Theprivatesectorneedsbetteraccesscreditandshouldprofessionalise.

AnalysisoftheThirteenElementsofCostEffectiveBoreholes

ThischaptersetsouteachofthekeyelementsofCEBandprovidesexamplesofpoliciesand
practicesfromwithinthecontinent.
4.1

OperationandMaintenanceProcedures

Operationandmaintenance(O&M)procedurestoensurethesustainabilityofpumped
groundwatersourcesshouldbeestablished,adheredtoandmonitored.
Postconstructionfailureincreasesactualboreholecostssignificantly.A50%failurerateeffectively
doublesthewellprice.Unfortunatelybrokendownhandpumpsandabandonedboreholesarea
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frequentsiteacrossthecontinent.Anestimated30%to50%ofinstalledfacilitiesinNigeriaare
brokendownatanyonetime(AdekileandOlabode,2008b).ComparablefiguresforMalawiand
Ugandaare30%and20%respectively.Reliableandcomprehensivedatainthisregardislacking,but
recentwaterpointmappingwork(egMalawi,Angola)iscapturingmoreinformation.Alas,update
mechanismsareoftenweak.
Unlessinitialconstructionqualityishigh,waterisofanacceptablequalityandlongtermoperation
andmaintenanceproceduresareestablishedandadheredto,costeffectiveboreholeprovisionwill
neverberealised.Drillingprogrammesoftenneglectthemuchneededcommunitysensitisationand
mobilisationaspects.Waterusersrarelycontributemorethanasmallproportionofthecapitalcost,
towardsconstructionoftheborehole,ifanything,andownershiptendstobeunclear.The
developmentofandsupporttosocialinfrastructureisoftenneglectedandsparepartsarefrequently
notavailable.These,combinedwithlackoffollowupsupport(egtoretraincommitteesand
mechanics;ensuresparesareavailable)contributetopooroperationandmaintenanceandthus
brokendownsources.Ugandahasdevelopedanoperationandmaintenanceframeworkanda
similarinitiativestartedin2008inMalawi.Standardisationofhandpumpstotwoorthreetypeshas
beenundertakeninseveralcountriesinordertosimplifymaintenanceproceduresandreducethe
differenttypesofsparesrequired.
4.2

Whodrillswaterwells?

Thepreferredoptionisthatlocalprivatesectorenterprisesundertakeconstructionofwaterwells
andpumpinstallation.Thisshouldencourageincountycapacitytogrowandfostercompetition.
Inordertokeepdrillingcostsdown,arigshouldbeusedforabout220daysperyear(60%ofthe
time)andbesubjecttoregularmaintenanceandrepair.Thisequatestodrilling20,000hoursovera
tenyearperiod.UnfortunatelysuchhighusageisrarelyachievedwithinStateownedequipment.
TherearenumerousrigslyingidleinGovernmentyards,brokendownorrarelyused.Thereisa
growingconsensus(bytheWorldBank,severalbilateraldonorsandAfricanGovernments)that
privatesectordrillingtendstobemoreefficientandeffectivethandirectimplementationbythe
State.Governmentsanddonorsupportagenciesareencouragedtoprovidesupportsothatthe
privatesectorcanbebuiltupratherthansupportingthepurchaseofStateowneddrillingrigs.
MovestowardsmoreprivatesectordrillingvarywidelyinsubSaharanAfrica(Table4)andisusually
partofwiderpolicyreforms.NotethatitmaybedesirableforGovernmenttoretainatleastsome
minimumdrillingcapacitytodealwithemergencysituations.Thereisagreyareawithrespectto
NGOdrillingwellsdirectly.Clearly,thisreducesthemarketforprivatedrilling.Competitionbetween
NGOsandtheprivatesectorisclearlyunfairifNGOsareabletocrosssubsidise,orbenefitfromtax
exemptions.
Table4OrganisationsundertakingWaterWellDrillinginSubSaharanAfrica
Country
Ethiopia
Malawi
Nigeria

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Whodrills?
StateenterprisesareoftenthefirstchoicefortheRegionalBureau;privatesectorcomprised23
contractorswith64rigsinlate2005;eightNGOshad11rigsinlate2005(Carter,2006).
DrillingisundertakenbytheState(mainlyatregionallevel)aswellasby10to20privatedrilling
companies.
NearlyalldrillingdonebyprivatesectoralthoughsomeGovernmentagencies(egKanoState
RUWASSA)alsoconstructwaterwellsinhouse.Therearehundredsofprivatewelldrillersin
Nigeria(AdekileandOlabode,2008b).

Tanzania

Uganda

4.3

TheDrillingandDamConstructionAgency(DDCA)employsmanywelltraineddrillersand
hydrogeologists.Itcoversabout60%ofthedrillingmarket.DDCAstaffskillsareunderutilised
whileprivatesectorconsultantsarestilllacking(Baumannetal,2005).Privateenterpriseshave
drilledanestimated9,000privateboreholesinDarEsSalaam.
Alldrillingdonebyprivatecontractors.

BoreholeStandardsandDesigns

Wellsshouldbedesignedsothattheyarefitfortheirintendedpurpose(Carteretal,2006).This
meansthatthediameter,depth,liningandbackfillmaterials,screenopenareaandotherdesign
featuresshouldbewellmatchedtoneed(expressedaswaterdemand,longevity,hydraulicefficiency
andcost).Differentiatingbetweendifferentmagnitudesofabstractionrequirementsisparticularly
important.Unfortunately,thisisnotalwaysthecase,asshownbytheexamplesbelow.
Doyen(2003)pointsoutthatoften,wellsdrilledforruralhandpumparebeingconstructedtogive
highyields,andareforcedtoconformtohigherstandardsnecessary.Wellyieldsof0.25l/sare
adequateforhandpumpwells.
Handpumpboreholesdiameterrequirementsandthesmalldiametersubmersiblepumpsthatare
nowonthemarketmeanthat4(102mm)internaldiameterboreholesareusuallysufficient.
However,diameterrequirementsvaryconsiderablybetweencountries:

Tanzaniatheinternaldiameterfordeepandshallowwellsarespecifiedat150mmand
117mmrespectively.
Mozambique4casingisinstalled,buttherearenoofficialstandards(WeConsult,2006).
InUganda45casingisspecified(MWE,2007a).
SixinchcasingisusedinEthiopia,althoughdrillingdiametersareoften10or12(Carter,
2006).
Malawispecifiestheinstallationof110mmcasing(Mthunzi,2004).
InBurkinaFasoandSenegal,finaldrillingdiametersare8and12respectively(ANTEA,
2007).
InNigeria,therearefivedifferentboreholedesignsdependingonthegeologyandaquifer
depthindifferentpartsofthecountry(AdekileandOlabode,2008b).
InKenya,welldiametersforboreholeswithhandpumpsare152mm(Doyen,2003).

Incountrieswhereboreholesaredrilledintostablebasementformation,itispossibletomake
savingsbycasingthecollapsingformationonly,groutingatthejointtothehardformationonlyand
notcasingtheholedrilledintothebasement,asisthestandardinUganda(MWE,2007a).In
Tanzania,allboreholesarefullycasedandgravelpacked,althoughBaumannetal(2005)statethat
thespecificationsarenotveryprecise.InNigeria,boreholesarelinedtothefulldepth.Concerns
aboutsiltingofpartiallycasedboreholeshavebeenraised.AstudyinMalawi(Mthunzi,2004)of60
partiallycasedand23fullycasedboreholesfoundthat73%ofthepartiallycasedboreholeshadno
depthreductionover46yearsandthat5%ofboreholesshowedanincreaseexceeding5%ofdatum
depth.Boreholeyieldswerecomparableforbothtypes.
InKenya,drillerslobbiedGovernmentforsixyearstorelaxthedrillingspecificationsandthusdrilling
andrigcostsbutdidnotsucceed.Partoftherationalforthisareplanstoupgradethesesourcesto
motorisedpumpswithsmallpipeddistributionsystemsatalaterstage.However,giventhe
enormouschallengeofmeetingtheMDGs,thepaucityoffinanceanddifficultyinmaintaining
9|

existingruralwatersupplies,suchthinkingmaybetooadvancedformanycountries.Higherlevelsof
abstractionalsoraisequestionswithrespecttowaterresources.
Drillingbeyondtheoptimumyielddepthiscommon,withexamplesdocumentedinEthiopia(Carter
etal,2006),Kenya(Doyen,2003)andNigeria(AdekileandOlabode,2008b).Doyen(2003)estimates
thatcostsavingsof25%couldbemadeinKenyaifdrillingwasnotbeyondtheoptimumyielddepth.
Inthebasementcomplex,ageophysicalsurveycanprovideagoodindicationofdepthrequirements
andforsedimentaryformation;existingdrillingrecordscanbeusedtodeterminerealisticdrilling
depths.Thereisneedforcloseonsitesupervision,withthesupervisorhavingtheconfidenceand
authoritytodecidewhendepthissufficient.Itisenvisagedthattheincreasedcostofbetter
supervisionwouldultimatelybeoffsetbyreduceddrillingcostsandimprovedconstructionquality.
4.4

DrillingEquipmentSmallerandLessCostlyRigs

Itispreferablethatsmaller,lesscostlyequipmentbeusedtomatchfitforintendedpurpose
boreholedesigns.Manualdrillingshouldbebroughtintothemainstreamofwatersupply
programmes,withappropriatequalitycontrol.
Boreholecostsareaffectedbythetypeofequipmentused,withcheaperandlighterequipment
resultinginlowermobilisationcosts.Box2showsthedrillingcomponentforequipmentcostingUS$
170,000.However,thetotalboreholecostalsoincludesmobilisation,installationandpumptest.
Ball(2004)comparesdrillingwithequipmentcostingUS$470,000andUS$95,000andestimatesthat
thepriceperborehole(includingoverheads)forthelargerrigis$8,837,whileboreholeswiththe
smallerrigcostUS$2,652(afactorof3.3).
Inmanycountries(egKenya,Ethiopia,Mozambique,Niger),therigsinuseareoversizedforthe
purposeofdrillingruralhandpumpboreholes(Doyen,2003;Carteretal,2006;WEconsult,2006;
Danert2007).InMozambique,onlyNGOsuselightrigswhileprivateenterprisesuselarge
conventionalrigs(WEConsult,2006)whereasinNigeria,halfoftherigsencounteredonastudyby
AdekileandOlabode(2008b)wereclassifiedaslighttomediumand30%werelocallymanufactured.
Thereisatendencytooverestimaterequiredwelldepthandoverdrill,orspecifylargerigswhich
haveabearingontheequipmentthatdrillingenterprisesdecidetobuy(Carteretal,2006).Ifa
contractorcanonlyinvestinonerig,hemaypurchasethelargestpossiblerig,toprovideflexibility.
DiscussionswithGovernmentstakeholdersanddrillersinNiger(Danert,2005)andEthiopiarevealed
alackofawarenessofnewlightconventionalrigsontheinternationalmarket.Stakeholdersmaybe
awareofequipmentexistsbutunsureitscapabilityandwaryofclaimsmadebymanufacturers.
Improvedaccesstoreliableinformationondrillingequipmentisessential.
Baumannetal(2005)statethatmostdrillingoperatorsinTanzaniauseoldequipment,withthe
resultthatbreakdownsarefrequentandtheperformanceisslow.Mostofthedrillingequipmentin
Senegal,BurkinaFaso,MaliandMauritaniaisold(someover30years)andlacksadequate
maintenance(ANTEA,2007).68%ofdrillingrigsinEthiopiaareolderthan15years(Carteretal,
2006).Maintainingancientequipmentiscostlyandtimeconsumingandthewidevarietyofrigsin
usemeansthatsparesneedtobesourcedfromallovertheworld.However,lackofinitialcapital
canseriouslylimitonesoptionswithrespecttodrillingequipmentpurchase.

10|

Manual(orhand)drillingtechniquescanprovideaviablealternativeinparticularenvironments(soft
formationandshallowgroundwater).Apreliminaryanalysisofthepotentialforhanddrilledwellsin
termsofgeologyandhydrogeologyestimatesthat12%ofthetotalpopulationofsubSaharanAfrica
(SSA),or18%oftheruralpopulationofSSA,couldbeservedwithhanddrilledwells(Danert,2007).
AdekileandOlabode(2008b)foundthatthecostofamanuallydrilledholeinNigeriawasaboutone
thirdofaconventionallydrilledhole.WhilePractica(2005)claimthatinChad,theycostatenthof
machinedrilledwells.
ManualdrillingtechniquesareusedinNiger,Benin,BurkinaFaso,Nigeria,Chad,Ethiopia,
Mozambique,Malawi,Madagascar,SouthAfrica,SenegalandTanzania.InNigeria,adrillrig
manufacturingindustryisgrowing,withrigsavailableatamuchlowercostthanforimported
equipment,whichiscontributingtolowerdrillingcostswithanestimated30,000handdrilledwells
inexistence(fordomesticandirrigationwatersupply).ApparentlyinsomepartsofChadand
Nigeria,conventionaldrillerswincontractsandsubcontracttheworktohanddrillers.
Aconcernraisedrepeatedlywithrespecttohanddrilledwellsitthatofconstructionquality,aswell
aswaterquality.Itisessentialthattheseconcernsaretakenintoconcernwithappropriatequality
assurancemechanisms,aswellaswaterqualitytestingandremedialaction.
4.5

ProcurementProcess

Systematic,transparentandtimelyprocessesofadvertising,prequalification,tendering,
evaluationandawardneedtobeestablishedandfollowed.
Tenderingproceduresforprivatesectordrillinginmanycountriesarestillweakandprocedurescan
takealongtime.Thisisnotgoodforbusinessandunnecessarilyincreasescostswhichinturnraises
drillingpriceorcompromisesconstructionquality.

Adekile(2007)foundthatinNigeria,contractsareoftenawardedtononprofessionalswho
thensubcontracttothedrillingcontractor,loweringtheprofitmarginandsometimes
compromisingtechnicalstandards.InNigeria,numerousdrillerscomplainofnotbeingable
totenderforGovernmentastheydonotstandachange(AdekileandOlabode,2008b)
Inothercountries(egMalawiandUganda),therearecompanieswhichwillnottenderfor
workwithcertainDistrictGovernments(Danert,2008a).
Baumannetal(2005)foundthattherewasnoprequalificationofbiddersinTanzaniaand
thattenderevaluationsdidnotfindoutinconsistenciesinthecapabilitiesofdifferent
bidders.
InEthiopia,considerableprocurementisunplanned,whichmeansthatisrathersudden,
anddrivenbytheavailabilityoffunds.Insuchcasesthesequenceofstepsfollowedforopen
andlimitedtendersarenotadheredto.

4.6 ContractPackaging
Transportisamajorcostcomponentforboreholedrilling,whichcanbereducedbyclusteringwells
tolimitexpenditure(Box2).Unfortunately,smallcontractpackagesarecommoninmanycountries
(Table5).Notonlydotheseraisecosts(andprices),buttheydonotallowforlongtermplanningand
investmentbyprivateenterprises.
Table5Summaryofcontractpackagingarrangementsindifferentcountries

11|

Country
Ethiopia
Kenya
Nigeria

Tanzania
Uganda

ContractPackaging

Doyen(2003)estimatesthatcostscouldrisebyasmuchas25%ifdrillingcampaignsarenotin
economiclotsof50wellsormore.
Manycontractsarepackagedasoneortwoboreholes(Adekile,2007).Upto2008,UNICEF
contractedinlotsof5,butpaidforseparatemobilisationoneachbillofquantitiesratherthan
onemobilisationfeeandpaymentformovementbetweensites(AdekileandOlabode,2008b).
Therearecaseswhereacontractorhadtoenterfiveorsixcontractstodrillnineortenwells
(Baumannetal,2005).
Eachof80Districtsannuallycontractsoutitsownboreholes:numbersofwellsdrilledaresmall
(rangingfrom1to20in2007;average9.5in2008(MWE,2007b;MWE,2008),

Communitymobilisationeffortsandresponsetothedemanddrivenapproachbyendusersshould
bereconciledwithclusteringofwellstoachieveeconomiesofscale.Thisisnotalwayseasy.
4.7

ProgrammeandContractManagement

Itisessentialthatdrillingprogrammes(whethernationalormorelocal)havesufficientskillsto
designandmanagetheprogrammesorbringinexpertise.Paymentforworksmustbetimely.
Asmorecountriesmoveovertonationalprogrammes,oradheretosectorwideapproaches,thereis
adangerthatexpertisewithrespecttoprogrammemanagementaswellasdrillingcontactis
insufficient.Wheregovernmentsarechangingrolefromimplementertothatofserviceprovider,or
asmoreresponsibilitiesaregiventoDistrictlevel,skillsmaybelacking.InTanzania,forexample,
modeldocumentsfortendering,evaluationandcontractswerelackingandtherewerenocontract
managementguidelines(Baumann,2005).Althoughpoorlydocumented,anecdotalevidence
suggeststhatthisisanareawhichisparticularlyweakinmanycountries.Tomakemattersworse,
understaffedministriesandlocalGovernmentofficesarenotuncommon.
Paymentsystemsforwaterwelldrillingvaryconsiderably.InNigeria,MalawiandMozambiqueitis
commonfordrillingcontractorstobepaidforageophysicalsurveyandonlytobepaidforsuccessful
wells.InUganda,paymentistheoreticallyagainstabillofquantities,butthisisnotalwaysfollowed
(Danert,2008a).Ithasbeenstronglyarguedthatsuchamechanismincreasesprices,asdrillerstake
intoaccountofrisk.InMozambique,paymentdelaysofthreemonthsarecommoninGovernment
projectsbutthereareexampleswheredelayshavebeenforseveralyears(WEConsult,2006).
4.8

SitingPractices

Appropriatesitingpracticesshouldbeutilized.
Improvementsinknowledgeofhydrogeology(seesection4.11and4.12)andenhancedexperiencein
sitesurveycanincreasedrillingsuccessrates,andreducethedisparitybetweenanticipatedand
actualdrillingdepths.Professionalsitinginvolvesdeskandfieldreconnaissance,butdoesnotalways
requiretheuseofgeophysics(MacDonaldetal,2005).Inmanycountriesintheregion,drillers
themselvesundertakethesiting,andaresubsequentlyonlypaidforasuccessfulwell.
Inmanycountriesthereisatendencytospecifygeophysicsondrillingsites,evenwhereitisnot
necessary.AdekileandOlabode(2008b)pointoutthatonsomeoftheconsolidatedsedimentsin
Nigeria,areviewofexistingboreholedatawouldbemoreapplicableindeterminingdepthsthan
geophysics.InTanzania,whensiting,consultantsarerequiredtoundertakeageophysicalsurvey
usingatleasttwomethods,includingaVESresistivelysurvey,whichisnotalwaysnecessary
12|

(Baumann,2005).Doyen(2003)reportsonaKenyandrillingprogrammewhereblinddrillinganduse
ofgeophysicaltechniquesachieved51%and89%successrespectively.
Howeverwhentryingtolocatewaterinfracturedbedrock,geophysicaltechniquesmaysignificantly
improvesuccessrates.InthechallenginghydrogeologicalconditionsofMauritania,thereare
betweentwoandthreereconnaissancewellsdrilledpersuccessfulwell(ANTEA,2007).
4.9

Supervision

Highqualityandtimelyconstructionsupervisionneedstobeemphasised.
Doyen(2003)states:overdrillingisroughlyinverselyproportionaltothedegreeofsupervisionof
drillingoperations.Thequalityofdrillingsupervision(includingknowledgeofthelocalphysicaland
hydrogeologicalenvironment)andonsiteauthorityareimportant.Degreecoursesingeologyand
hydrogeologydonotprovidegraduateswithasolidfoundationindrillingsupervision.Itisnot
uncommonfordrillerstocomplainaboutbeingsupervisedbyinexperiencedhydrogeologists,
straightoutofuniversity.Somedrillersusetheirmonopolyonknowledgeandexploitthis.When
supervisorsarenotabletotakeapromptdecision,drillerswillincurwaitingtime,whichcan
significantlyraisethecostofdrilling.Unfortunately,supervisioncapacityisextremelylimitedinmuch
ofsubSaharanAfricaandisakeyreasonforboreholefailureeg:

InNigeriathecapacityforpropersupervision,intermsofexperiencedpersonneland
equipmentislimitedatStatelevelAdekileandOlabode(2008b).KadunaStateMinistryof
WaterResourcesrealisedthattheydidnothavesufficientcompetencetosupervisetheir
drillingprogrammesandinvestedintraining(Adekile,2007).TheNigerianFederal
Governmentandexternalsupportagenciesengageconsultantstocarryoutdrilling
supervision(AdekileandOlabode,2008b).
InMalawi,thereareonlyahandfulofhydrogeologistsinthecountry.Supervisionoftest
pumpingisoftentheonlyprofessionalsupervisionthattakesplace.Communitiesare
expectedtoundertakeacertainamountofdrillingsupervision(forwhichtheyaregivenno
morethantwodaystraining)(BaumannandDanert,2008).
InUgandasupervisioniseitherundertakenbyprivateconsultantsorbyDistrictGovernment
dependingonwhoisfinancingthework.
InEthiopia,supervisionisundertakendirectlybytheWaterBureauxorthroughhired
consultantswithvariationregardingthelevelofsupervisionandstrictness.Contractorscite
lackoftimelydecisionmakingbysupervisorsasafrequentproblem(Carter,2006).

4.10 PumpingTest
Testpumpingrequirementsshouldbematchedtoboreholepurposewhiletakingintoaccountthe
importanceofdatatoimprovetheunderstandingofhydrogeologyandwaterresources.
Doyen(2003)estimatesthat7%savingswouldbepossibleinKenyaifa3hour,ratherthana24hour
dischargeand12hourrecoverywasusedtotestpumpruralhandpumpwells.Thehighstandards
testpumpingrequirementsareintendedtoobtainasmuchhydrogeologicalinformationaboutthe
aquiferinthevicinityoftheboreholeaspossible.Doyen(2003)statesthatalthoughpermeter
drillingcostsinKenyafellby35%between1988and1996,theincreasedstandardsforwell
development,pumptestingandwelldesignincreasedcostsbyasmuchas36%withtheresultthat
13|

therewerenonetsavings.Tanzaniaspecifiesa24hourpumpingtest(Baumann,2005).InNigeria,
pumpingtestshavebeenmatchedtoboreholepurposeforseveralyears,boththeFederalMinistry
ofWaterResourceandStateprojectusuallyspecifypumpingtestsof2to6hoursforhandpumps
and8to24hoursformotorisedschemes.
4.11 GroundwaterResourcesMonitoringandEvaluation
Rigorousevaluationofgroundwaterresourcesshouldbeundertakenandinformationmade
available.
MacDonaldandDavies(2000)pointoutthat:sustainabilityofgroundwatersupplies;overexploitation
insedimentarybasins;variationsinnaturalwaterqualityandcontaminationofgroundwaterdemand
moreattention.Thereisanurgentneedforimprovedgroundwaterresourcesmonitoring:

GroundwaterlevelsappeartohavefalleninsomepartsofNigeriaandithasbeensuggested
thatintensivedrillingintheurbanareasofLagosandKanoStatecouldleadtowaterlevel
decline(Adekile,2007;AdekileandOlabode,2008b).
ArsenichasbeenreportedinsomepartsofNigeriabutitisnottestedforinwatersupply
projects.

4.12 HydrogeologicalData
Hydrogeologicaldatacollectionandstorageshouldbeundertaken.
MacDonaldandDavies(2000)provideanoverviewofthefourmainhydrogeologicalenvironmentsin
SSA(crystallinebasement40%oflandarea;volcanicrocks6%;consolidatedsedimentaryrocks
32%unconsolidatedsediments22%)andthedifferentmethodsforfindingandabstracting
groundwaterfromeach.Differenthydrogeologyrequiresdifferentlevelsoftechnicalcapacityfor
development,andmuchisstillnotknownaboutgroundwaterinAfrica(MacDonaldandDavies,
2000).
Hydrogeologicaldataisextremelyimportantandinsufficientattentiontothestorage,analysisand
utilisationofdrillingdataisalostopportunity.Unfortunatelycoordinatedresearchanddata
collectionongroundwaterinSSAhasbecomeincreasinglydifficult.Mistakesarerepeated,while
informationfromthousandsofboreholesisnotcollected.InTanzania,forexampleonly60%to70%
ofboreholesdrilledbytheParastatalarerecordedinthecentraldatabaseandrecordsfromindustry
andminingarenotincludedatall(Baumannetal,2005).
However,knowledgeofhydrogeologyinNigeriahasimprovedconsiderablyovertheyearsanddata
hasbeencollectedwithaviewtopublishinghydrogeologicalmaps(AdekileandOlabode,2008b)and
hydrogeologicalmappingisunderwayinEthiopiaandUganda.
Simpletechniquesforthecollectionandanalysisofhighvaluedatafromdrillingprogrammesexist,
butareinadequatelyused.Thisisamissedopportunityforsignificantlyenhancingtheknowledge
baseofgroundwaterAfrica,andenablingissuesforspecificresearchtobeidentifiedandtargeted.
MacDonaldandDavies(2000)advocateforthedisseminationofsimpletechniquesongroundwater
resourceassessmenttostakeholdersinvolvedinruralwatersupply.

14|

4.13 Regulationandprofessionalismoftheprivatesector
Astrongpublicsectorisneededtooverseeandregulatetheprivatesector.Theprivatesector
needsbetteraccesscreditandshouldprofessionalise.
ThepublicsectorinmanysubSaharancountriesisstillstrugglingtofulfilitsemergingregulatory
role.Regulationonnumberofemployeesandequipmentisdemandinginsomecountries,eg
Ethiopia(Carteretal,2006)andlackinginothers,egNigeria(Adekile,2007).Althoughdrilling
permitsareissuedinTanzania,theyarenotbasedonconsistentprofessionalassessmentsofthe
companies,andqualityisnotmonitoredinaregularbasis(Baumann,2005).
If35,000wellsaretobedrilledannuallyinsubSaharanAfrica,andeachrigdrills100wellsperyear,
thecontinentneedssome3,500drillingrigs.Evenifasmanyas20%oftheseareownedbyNGOs
andGovernment,thisstillleavesarequirementofsome2,800privatelyownedrigs.However,the
privatesectorhasnowherenearthiscapacityi4.SomecountriessuchasNigeriaandUgandahave
considerablenationalexpertisewhileothersarestillheavilyreliantonforeigncompanies.Costsof
expatriatestaff(fromEurope,Australasia,JapanandNorthAmerica)aremoreexpensivethanlocal
staff,iefourtoeighttimesasmuchinBurkinaFaso,Senegal,MaliandMauritania(ANTEA,2007).
Productivityratesareoftenlowduetotheuseofoldequipment,challengesofobtainingsparesand
lackofmaintenanceskillsaswellaslackofsteadywork.Obtainingregularworkisessentialto
enablecapitalintensivedrillingenterprisestoremaininbusiness,andbecosteffective.However,
contractorsgenerallyhavetotenderforworkeveryyear,andformanydifferentprojectsorlocal
authorities.Onlyonedocumentedcaseofadrillingconcession,runningoverseveralyearshasbeen
foundintheliterature(Robinson,2006).Lowproductivityoftheprivatesectorfliesinthefaceof
argumentsagainstuseofGovernmentequipmentduetolowproductivity.
Settingupinbusinesscanbeextremelydifficultwhichmakesitverydifficultforenterprisestoenter
thesector.TherearecasesinMozambiquewhereithastakenthreeyearsforacompanyto
establishitself(WEConsult,2006).
Therearemanyexamplesofpeoplewiththeskills,butnotthefinancestoinvest.Conventional
drillingisaverycapitalintensiveundertaking.Therearechallengeswiththebankingsectoracross
thecontinent.Interestratesonloansarehigh,eg2040%inMozambique(WEConsult2006);18%in
Tanzania(Baumann,2005).Repaymentperiodscanbeshort,eg3yearsinTanzania(Baumann,
2005).InNigeria,peoplegenerallyusetheirownsavingsandthoseofrelativesasstartupcapital.
Therearemajordifficultiesofshowingsufficientcollateraltoobtaincreditthroughouttheregion.
CommercialbanksinTanzaniarequireasecurityof125%andtheassuranceofcontinual
Governmentwork(Baumann,2005).Existing,andpotentialdrillersareoftencashstrapped
(Baumann,2005).Delaysinpaymentforworkcompleted(seesection4.7)exacerbatethisproblem.
Importationofequipmentandsparescanbeverydifficultifcontractorsdonothaveforeign
connections(Carteretal,2006;Robinson,2006;Adekile,2007).

Capacityintheregionincludesanestimated49privateenterprisesinBurkinaFaso,10inMalawi,about21in
Mozambiqueover1000inNigeria,about40inTanzania(ofwhichonlytenworkintheruralareas).

15|

Thecapabilityandavailabilityofskilledpersonnel(professionalsandtechnicians)isanissueforboth
thepublicandprivatesector.Manydrillers,supervisorsandtechnicalstaffwereoriginallyworking
forGovernmentandtrainedwithinprojects.Giventheshiftinemphasistodecentralisedservice
deliverybytheprivatesector,thereareseriousquestionsregardingadequateopportunitiesfor
trainingandskillsdevelopment.Ethiopiaisacaseinpoint,whereanestimated4,000techniciansare
neededtoenabletheMDGwatertargettobemet(Carter,2006).However,thereisonlyone
trainingschoolwhere200aretrainedperyear.ContractorsinNigeriaandEthiopiafaceproblemsin
retainingpersonnelduetoskillsshortages(Adekile,2007;Carteretal,2006).
Networking,collaborationandlobbyingarerecognisedasimportantmechanismstoprofessionalize
organisationsandbringaboutpolicyshifts.DrillersAssociationsinMozambiqueandNigeriahave
recentlybeenestablished,initiallywithdonorsupport.InMozambique,theassociationsuccessfully
lobbiedformorerealisticcontracttermsandconditions.TheUgandaDrillersAssociationhad
collapsedby2003,althoughdrillershaverecentlycollaboratedtodemystifytaxprocedures.The
ProjectManagementUnitinSouthSudanprovidesaninterestingexampleofdrillingenterprises
whicharecollaboratingwitheachother.Documentationandanalysisofthesuccessofnetworking
andcollaborationofdrillersislacking,butevidencefromothersectorsindicatesthatitcouldbe
instrumentalinbringingaboutpositivechange.

ConclusionsandRecommendations

Simplecomparisonsofboreholecostsbetweencountriesandprogrammescanbemisleading.In
ordertobetterunderstandcostvariations,astandardaccountingframeworkisneeded,aswella
methodologyformodellingkeyvariables.Thecostingofboreholesneedstobedemystifiedtosector
stakeholderssothattheycanbetterunderstandhowtheyarecalculated.Thiscouldimprovetender
evaluation.Asimplebutrobusttoolforsensitivityanalysisregardingdepth,rigamortization,
distanceanddrillingtimecouldproveveryuseful.
Theconceptualframeworksetoutinthispaperprovidesinsightsintotheissuesthataffectborehole
costsandprices,aswellasconstructionquality.Therearenosingle,simplemagicbullets.Each
particularcountryandspecificprojecthasitsownstrengthsandweaknesseswithrespecttocost
effectiveboreholeprovision.Thepapershowsanumberofinitiativeswhicharealreadytakingplace
(egdrillersassociationsinNigeriaandMozambique).Inaddition,stepsarebeingtakentodevelop
nationalcodesofpracticeforcosteffectiveboreholes(egNigeria).
Inordertobettermovetowardsimprovingthecosteffectivenessofboreholedrillinginspecific
context,itisrecommendedthatasafirststep,stakeholdersusetheconceptualframeworkto
analyseboreholecosting,appreciatethecorefactors,andundertakeapreliminaryanalyseofthekey
elementsatnationallevelandforspecificprogrammes.Thisshouldenableaspectsthatcanbedealt
withrelativelyquicklyandeasily,andthosewhichneedlongertermeffortstobeidentified.Insome
cases,thescopeforimprovementiscloselyconfinedwithinthenarrowconfinesofaparticular
project,whileinothers,nationalconsensusorchangeoflegislationmayberequired.Inthecaseof
verylargecountries,orthosewherethereisconsiderabledecentralisation,prioritisationandaction
islikelytoberequiredatasubnationalaswellasatnationallevels.
Itshouldbewellappreciatedthatunderlyingalloftheelementssetoutinthispaperareinherent
structuralstrengthsandweaknesses.Ingeneral,thereisneedforconcertedandlongterm
investmentinhumanresources,institutionbuildingandbettermonitoringandinformationsystems
16|

aswellasstrengtheningtheregulatoryframework.Improvedtransparencyintermsofreportingand
publishinginputsandprogrammeoutputsisalsocriticaltoenablebetterscrutinyofprogrammes.
However,withoutsufficientfinancialresourcesdecisionmakerswillbefacedwithveryhard
decisionssuchaswhethertofocusongroundwaterresourcesmonitoring,improvesupervision
capacityortodeveloprobustoperationandmaintenancesystems.
Itwouldbeprudenttoutilisethethirteenelementsasabasisforbenchmarkingthedrillingsectorin
aparticularcountryorforaparticularprogramme.Suchbenchmarkingcouldbeundertakenunder
theumbrellaofagenericandnationalcodeofpracticeforcosteffectiveboreholes.However,there
isneedforpoliticalandtechnicalbuyinatinternationalaswellasnationalleveltoenablesuchan
initiativetohaveasignificantimpact.
Acknowledgements
TheauthorsextendthankstoWSPAF,SDCandUNICEFwhichhavesupportedtheCostEffective
BoreholesflagshipoftheRuralWaterSupplyNetwork(RWSN),thusenablingthispapertobe
prepared.

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