339

Communications and Navigation Aids

VHF
Controller

VHF Antenna

128.15

VHF Transceiver

Digital Tuning
Transmitter Keying
Audio

ACARS
Control Unit
Data

Flight
Management
System

ACARS
Management
Unit

Printer

Figure 9.8 Typical ACARS installation

facility enabled the investigators to recover a modicum of data during the investigation into
the Air France 447 accident before the crash recorders were recovered.
All aircraft and air traffic control centres maintain a listening watch on the international
distress frequency 121.5 MHz. In addition, military controllers maintain a listening watch on
243.0 MHz in the UHF band. This is because the UHF receiver could detect harmonics of
a civil VHF distress transmission and relay the appropriate details in an emergency (second
harmonic of 121.5 MHz (2) = 243.0 MHz; these are the international distress frequencies
for VHF and UHF bands respectively).

9.2.4 SATCOM
Satellite communications provide a more reliable method of communications, originally
using the INternational MARitime SATellite (INMARSAT) organisation satellite constellation which was developed for maritime use. Now satellite communications, abbreviated to
SATCOM, form a useful component of aerospace communications over a range of different
frequency bands and provided by a number of service providers.
The principles of operation of SATCOM are shown in Figure 9.9. The aircraft communicates
via the INMARSAT constellation and remote ground station by means of C-Band uplinks and

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Civil Avionics Systems

Inmarsat
Satellite

Uplink
L-Band
Downlink
L-Band

Downlink
C-Band
Uplink
C-Band

Ground
Earth
Station

Aircraft

C-Band:

4 - 6 MHz

L-Band:

1530 - 1660 MHz

Figure 9.9 SATCOM principles of operation

downlinks to/from the ground stations and L-Band links to/from the aircraft. In this way
communications are routed from the aircraft via the satellite to the ground station and on to
the destination. Conversely communications to the aircraft are routed in the reverse fashion.
Therefore, provided the aircraft is within the area of coverage or footprint of a satellite, then
communication may be established.
The airborne SATCOM terminal transmits on frequencies in the range 1626.5 to 1660.5 MHz
and receives messages on frequencies in the range 1530.0 to 1559.0 MHz. Upon power-up,
the radio frequency unit (RFU) scans a stored set of frequencies and locates the transmission
of the appropriate satellite. The aircraft logs on to the ground station network so that any
ground stations are able to locate the aircraft. Once logged on to the system, communications
between the aircraft and any user may begin. The satellite to ground C-band uplink/downlink
is invisible to the aircraft, as is the remainder of the Earth support network.
The coverage offered by the INMARSAT constellation was a total of four satellites in
2001. Further satellites from different competitors have been launched more recently. The
INMARSAT satellites are placed in geostationary orbit above the Equator in the locations
shown in Figure 9.10:
Two satellites are positioned over the Atlantic: AOR-W at 54 West and AOR-E at 15.5
West.

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Communications and Navigation Aids

Limitations of SATCOM:
The geostationary
nature of the INMARSAT
satellite constellation
means that SATCOM is
ineffective at latitudes
greater than 80 North or
80 South, i.e. in the polar
regions
The aircraft
installation is also a
significant limiting
factor
54 W 15.5W
AOR-W AOR-E

64E
IOR

178E
POR

Figure 9.10 INMARSAT satellite coverage around 2001

One satellite is positioned over the Indian Ocean: IOR at 64 East.

One satellite is positioned over the Pacific Ocean: POR at 178 East.
This represents the coverage provided by the four I-3 satellites launched in the 199697
timeframe. In 2005 to 2008, three I-4 satellites were commissioned, which offer a higher
bandwidth Broadcast Global Area Network (BGAN) capability.
Blanket coverage is offered over the entire footprint of each of these satellites. In addition
there is a spot beam mode that provides cover over most of the land mass residing under each
satellite. This spot beam coverage is available to provide cover to lower capability systems
that do not require blanket oceanic coverage.
The geostationary nature of the satellites does impose some limitations. Due to low grazing
angles, coverage begins to degrade beyond 80 North and 80 South, and fades completely
beyond about 82 . Therefore no coverage exists in the extreme polar regions, a fact assuming
more prominence as airlines seek to expand northern polar routes. A second limitation may
be posed by the performance of the onboard aircraft system in terms of antenna installation,
and this is discussed shortly. Nevertheless, SATCOM is proving to be a very useful addition to
the airborne communications suite, and promises to be an important component as procedures
compatible with future air navigation system (FANS) are developed.
A typical SATCOM system typically comprises the following units:

satellite data unit (SDU);

radio frequency unit (RFU);
amplifiers, duplexers/splitters;
low gain antenna;
high gain antenna.

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Civil Avionics Systems

A429 (4)

A429 (4)

Beam
Steering
Unit Port

Radio
Frequency
Unit
A429 (2)

Satellite Data
Unit

High Gain
Antenna Port

High
Power
Relay

High Gain
Antenna Starboard
A429 (2)

Beam
Steering
Unit Starboard

High
Power
Amp
High
Gain
Antenna
A429 (2)
RF
Splitter

<
<
<
<

High Power Amp

- Low Gain
Antenna

<
<
<
<
<
Low Gain
Antenna

Figure 9.11 SATCOM system using conformal antennae

A typical SATCOM system as installed on the B777 is shown in Figure 9.11. This example
uses extensive ARINC 429 data buses for control and communication between the major
system elements. This configuration demonstrates the use of two high gain conformal antennae
which are mounted on the upper fuselage at positions approximately 20 respectively from
the vertical. Conformal antennae lie flush with the aircraft skin, offering negligible additional
drag. Alternatively, the system may be configured such that a single top-mounted antenna
may be mounted on the aircraft spine. Both systems have their protagonists and opponents.
Claims and counter-claims are made for which antenna configuration offers the best coverage.
Conformal configurations reportedly suffer from fuselage obscuration dead-ahead and deadstern, while the top-mounted rival supposedly suffers from poor coverage at low grazing
angle near the horizon. Whatever the relative merits, both configurations are widely used by
airlines today.

9.2.5 Air Traffic Control (ATC) Transponder

As a means to aid the identification of individual aircraft and to facilitate the safe passage of
aircraft through controlled airspace, the ATC transponder allows ground surveillance radars
to interrogate aircraft and decode data which enable correlation of a radar track with a specific
aircraft. The principle of transponder operation is shown in Figure 9.12. A ground-based
primary surveillance radar (PSR) will transmit radar energy and will be able to detect an
aircraft by means of the reflected radar energy termed the aircraft return. This will enable the