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B Biological Molecules
Function of collagen in the wall of arteries:
1. withstands pressure ;
2. prevents, overstretching / AW ;
3. prevents, bursting / rupture / AW ;
Structure of collagen vs. Haemoglobin:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
14.
each polypeptide over 1000 amino acids (each 141 / 146 amino acids)
C Enzymes
Phospholipids
1. can form a bilayer ;
2. link between, hydrophobic core / AW, and barrier to water-soluble
substances ; A polar/ ionic
3. idea of, hydrophilic / phosphate, head, forming H bonds with water ; A facing,
water / watery environment / aqueous environment / cytoplasm / cytosol
4. ref. contribution to fluid nature of membrane ;
5. further detail ; e.g. mainly saturated fatty acids, less fluid e.g. mainly
unsaturated fatty acids, more fluid
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
nucleolus disappears ;
spindle is formed ; A more developed A description in terms of spindle fibres
ref to assembly of microtubules ; A makes microtubules R 9+2
nuclear envelope, disintegrates / breaks down / destroyed / AW ; A membrane
chromosomes, move to / at, equatorial plate / equator / metaphase plate / AW
; ignore middle / centre
8. centromeres attach to, spindle / fibres ;
9. ref to random arrangement of chromosomes ; A not in pairs R scattered
Features characteristic of metaphase:
chromosomes / (sister) chromatids, line up at the, equator / equatorial plate /
metaphase
plate ; A move to I middle / centre
centromeres attached to, spindle / spindle fibres ;
A (spindle) microtubules A kinetochore
centrioles, reach / located at / AW, poles ; R ends
ref. spindle fully formed ; A spindle fibres extend from poles / AW
R ref. to nuclear envelope absent (in anaphase also)
Importance of mitosis:
replacement of cells ;
repair of tissue ; R repair of cells
growth / increase in cell numbers ;
asexual reproduction / vegetative propagation ; R cloning
maintains / same, number of chromosomes ; A two sets of chromosomes /
diploid / 2n
genetically identical to parents ;
A produces daughter cells that are genetically identical A ref. clone(s)
ref to rejection / self vs non-self ;
F Genetic Control
Explain how the structure of DNA enables it to replicate semiconservatively.
1. base pairing/A-T and C-G; A purine - pyrimidine
2. ref to complementary/explained with ref to H bonds; R complementary in
wrong context
3. (free) nucleotides pair with both, strands/each strand/polynucleotides/sides;
4. both strands act as templates;
5. to produce two DNA molecules that are identical to one another;
Differences between mRNA and DNA:
G Transport
Explain why mammalian circulatory system is described as close double
circulation.
Double blood passes through the heart twice during one circulation;
Closed blood travels inside blood vessels.
Disadvantage of having no nuclei in RBCs:
1. Cannot carry out, protein synthesis/replication/repair;
2. Short life span;
3. Cannot, divide/replace themselves.
Explain how the structure of red blood cells is suited to their function of
transporting oxygen to body tissues.
1. small size / 6-8 m (diameter), to squeeze through capillaries (7 m) ;
2. small size / 6-8 m (diameter), so, haemoglobin (molecules) near to surface
(of plasma membrane) / reduces distance for diffusion (in / out of rbc) ;
3. no nucleus / lack of organelles, so more room for haemoglobin (so more
oxygen transported) ; R more room for oxygen
4. biconcave shape / diagram drawn, increases surface area for, diffusion /
uptake / release (of oxygen) ;
5.
5. (so that) blood can transport more than could be transported as carbon
dioxide (in
6. solution) / 80 90% CO2 transported this way ;
1. reaction maintains concentration gradient for CO 2 from, tissues / tissue fluid,
to blood ;
2. if carbon dioxide transported then pH would decrease ;
3. (therefore) maintains pH / prevents pH decreasing / acts as a buffer ;
Describe and explain how carbon dioxide (CO2) and hydrogen ions (H+)
play a role in the unloading of oxygen from haemoglobin.
1. diffusion of, carbon dioxide / CO2;
2. into red blood cell from correct
source ;
3. description of carbonic acid
formation followed by H+
production ;
4. ref. carbonic anhydrase ) fast
reaction; A ecf from (d)
5. haemoglobin has a higher affinity
for hydrogen ions than oxygen ; A
haemoglobin releases oxygen more
easily in acidic conditions accept
idea of H+ binding to haemoglobin
bringing out oxygen release
6. ref. to, allosteric effect / change in
tertiary structure / AW, in
(oxy)haemoglobin, causes, release /
AW, of oxygen ;
7. formation of haemoglobinic acid ;
must refer to, H+ binding /
decreased pH
8. ref. higher partial pressures / AW, CO2, linked to (oxy)haemoglobin releasing,
more oxygen / oxygen more readily ; Bohr shift
9. formation of carbamino-haemoglobin ; R carboxyhaemoglobin
10.chloride shift, qualified ;
e.g. as hydrogen carbonate ions move out of cell, chloride ions move in e.g.
to maintain, electroneutrality / a balance of charge / ions ;
less water / lower water potential / lower solute potential / higher osmotic pressure /
higher
concentration of solutes and / or rbcs ;
A blood is more concentrated
fewer ions ;
more of named cell product ; e.g. insulin / glucagon / albumen / AW
(more), urea / excretory waste ; R waste unqualified
The percentage saturation of haemoglobin with oxygen decreases as the
partial pressure of carbon dioxide increases. Explain how this happens.
1. hydrogen ions / protons ; A H+
2. either
react or combine with haemoglobin / form haemoglobinic acid / form HHb ; A
picks up / absorb
or
carbon dioxide combines with haemoglobin / forms carboxyhaemoglobin ;
3. (so) stimulate haemoglobin to release more oxygen (in areas of low pO2) ;
ref. to, allosteric effect / change in tertiary or quaternary structure or shape ;
A conformational change
4. either
haemoglobin has a higher affinity for hydrogen ions than oxygen = 2 marks
or
haemoglobin has a higher affinity for carbon dioxide than oxygen = 2 marks
Adaptations of xerophytes:
1. small leaves / needles / needle-like leaves; R spines / thorns / narrow /
fewer leaves
2. reduce / small surface area;
3. temporary / shed leaves;
4. leaves dry out and then rehydrate;
5. fleshy leaves / succulent leaves / leaves with hypodermis;
6. curled / rolled, leaves; R curved / folded / coiled
7. (very) thick / waxy / impermeable, cuticle;
8. stomata surrounded by hairs / hairy leaves / hairs trap moisture;
9. sunken stomata / stomata in pits / crypts / grooves;
R inverted / few stomata
10.stomata closed during the day / stomata open at night;
max 2 for features given above
11.(so) reduces / slows down (rate of) transpiration / water loss /
evaporation / diffusion of water vapour;
R prevents / avoids water loss
N.B. link to one valid feature above
Pathway of water from root hair cells to xylem vessels:
1. through cortex / via cortical cells ;
apoplast pathway
2. (by) via cell walls (of adjacent cells) ; R if named as symplast pathway ;
symplast pathway
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Explain how the structure of sieve tube elements helps the translocation
of substances in the phloem.
1. little/watery/peripheral, cytoplasm/no tonoplast/no vacuole/ few
organelles/few ribosomes/so little resistance/AW e.g. easy transport/move
more easily/minimum obstruction;
2. pores in sieve plate provide little resistance/permit continuous flow/allows
movement/AW e.g. as above;
3. sieve plate braces/prevents cell bulging under pressure/collapsing;
4. plasmodesmata only between sieve tube element and companion cell allows
pressure to build up;
5. plasmodesmata allows loading/AW e.g. sucrose to be transported in from
companion/transfer cell;
6. (strong) cellulose walls prevent, excessive/too much, bulging/expansion;
7. mitochondria (and starchy plastids) for ATP, for repair/maintenance;
R reference to mitochondria in companion cells
Describe the role of companion cells in translocation in the phloem.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Explain how the sucrose is transported in phloem along the stem from the
leaf to the fruit.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
H Gas Exchange
Goblet cells found in trachea and bronchus/bronchiole.
Mucus is sticky and therefore helps to trap dust and bacteria thereby protecting the
alveoli against damage and pathogens. The cilia sweeps out the mucus away from
the lungs.
Effects of tar on lining of the gaseous exchange system:
1. destroys / paralyses / inhibits / weakens cilia; R. kill
2. mucus glands / goblet cells produce more mucus;
3. tar contains carcinogens / chemicals which damage DNA /
genes / oncogenes;
4. ref cancer / tumour;
5. epithelium / lining replaced by scar tissue;
I Infectious Disease
Disease
1. ill-health / absence of well-being / abnormal condition / AW, (affecting an
organism) ;
2. reduced effectiveness of, functions / named function ; AW
3. (illness with a set of) symptoms ; AW A signs
4. poor / AW, physical, mental or social, well-being ; A two out of the three
absence of well-being for two of the three = 2 marks
Non-infectious disease
1. not transmissible from one person to another / AW ;
2. not caused by a pathogen ; R bacterium / virus / fungus / AW / worm
Describe how TB is transmitted from infected to uninfected people.
1. (infected) person, sneezes/coughs/sputum/spitting/breathes out;
2. aerosol/droplets, in the air/moist air, inhaled/breathed in by (uninfected
person);
Reason for increase in the cases of TB in developed countries now:
1. development of antibiotic resistance (by organism) ; A drug resistance R
immunity
2. ref. impact of HIV infection ;
3. higher rate of immigration from countries with high incidence / AW ;
4. increase in tourism to countries with high incidence ;
5. reduced surveillance leading to undetected cases (and hence spread) ;
6. (detected cases, MDR) unwillingness / AW, to maintain drug regimen / AW ;
7. ref. to vaccination programmes no longer taking place ;
8. ref. to poor / overcrowded, housing (in cities) / AW ; must be in context of
developed countries
Transmission of HIV:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Sexual intercourse;
Infected, blood/blood products;
Sharing/re-using, hypodermic needles;
Across placenta/from mother to foetus;
Breast milk;
AVP.
4. ref to natural disasters; e.g. assistance / aid / medical help / AW, cannot
arrive in time
5. no rehydration therapy available (at time when needed);
6. no (effective) vaccine;
7. further detail; (bacteria live in gut, where immune system is not effective)
Discuss the reasons why vaccination has not eradicated cholera and sickle
cell anaemia.
cholera up to max 4
1 transmission cycle is difficult to break; A described with example(s)
2 ref. difficulty in administering e.g. refugee camp, displaced, disaster ;
3 poor diet, lowered immune response ;
4 more than one strain (needs more than one type of vaccine) ; A more than one
type (that causes cholera) R constantly mutating
5 vaccine, only gives short-term protection / requiring boosters ;
6 antigenic concealment ;
7 qualified ; e.g. organism in intestines, difficult for antibodies to reach
8 ref. (older or newer oral) vaccine, not successful for everyone / variable (6065%
up
to 90% depending on population group) protection ;
9 no requirement by health authorities (for vaccine) / vaccine not used by health
authorities ; AW
sickle cell
1 no vaccine available ; A cannot vaccinate against sickle cell
2 not caused by pathogen / non-infectious / non-transmissible / non-communicable ;
3 genetic / inherited, disease / AW ; A caused by a mutation
4 affects all red blood cells so vaccine would lead to their destruction ;
J Immunity
Specificity of antibody:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
variable region;
binding region to antigen;
shape is specific to, choleragen / antigen;
complementary;
ref to R groups on amino acids (in polypeptide / protein);
different, sequences of amino acids / primary structures;
ref to, folding of the molecule / secondary structure / tertiary structure;
1.
2.
3.
4.
K Ecology
Role of decomposers in cycling of carbon and nitrogen in the atmosphere:
1. breakdown / decay / feed on / digest / secrete hydrolytic enzymes onto,
organic molecules / dead plant / animal / excreted /egested, material; R.
decomposing
2. starch / cellulose, to sugars;
3. respire;
4. release carbon dioxide;
5. protein to amino acids;
6. deamination (of amino acids);
7. (release) ammonia (NH3) / ammonium ions (NH4+) / ammonium
8. compounds / ammonification;
9. (becomes available for) nitrification / ammonia -> nitrite -> nitrate /
ammonia -> nitrates / ammonium -> nitrates;
R. nitrifying / named bacteria unqualified / ammonia -> nitrite
Explain why little of the energy present in producers is transferred to the
secondary consumers.
1. Energy losses in respiration; R used up in/needed in respiration, energy lost in
movement
2. waste/urine/faeces/dead parts/excreta/excretion;
3. primary consumers do not eat all the plant matter; A for secondary
consumers
4. not all parts of, plants/primary consumers, are digestible;
5. energy losses as heat qualified e.g. in digestive system (of consumers)/to
environment/atmosphere/surroundings;
6. plants/primary consumers, migrate/swept away, by tide/waves AW;
7. energy losses to decomposers;
8. Outline the energy losses that occur in afood chain.
9. respiration ;
10.heat loss, qualified ; e.g. heat loss, from digestion / movement / metabolism
11.heat loss in respiration = 1 mark
12.indigestible parts ; A named, e.g. cellulose
13.inedible parts ;
14.excretion ; A named excretory products
15.egestion ; I waste
16.
death, not eaten ;
Outline how bacteria convert nitrogen in these proteins to a form that may
be taken up by living plants.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The protein molecules are broken down to amino acids by enzymes produced by
bacteria. These are then converted to ammonia by deamination which are then
oxidised to nitrate ions.
Describe how urea becomes available as nitrate ions.
urea ammonia;
ammonia nitrite;
Nitrosomonas;
nitrite to nitrate;
Nitrobacter;
nitrification;
oxidation / chemosynthesis;
The bacterial urease converts the urea to ammonia. The Nitrosomnas then oxidises
ammonia to nitrite ions. These nitrite ions are then oxidised to nitrate ions by
NitroBacter.
Explain why crop yields are often significantly reduced even after the
flood water has
drained away.
1. air / oxygen, will not get into soil ;
2. lack of oxygen reduces uptake of ions by plants / AW ;
3. ref. saprobiotic bacteria and fungi / nitrifying bacteria / (some) nitrogen fixing
bacteria,
are aerobic ;
4. ref. reduced populations (of bacteria in mp 2) ;
5. example of effect on nitrogen cycle ;;
6. e.g. slower rate / AW, of decomposition / decay
nitrogen fixation cannot occur (as rapidly)
nitrification cannot occur / nitrate will not be produced / less nitrate produced
(more) denitrification will occur
7. crops / plants, will use up remaining nitrate ;
8. ref. leaching of, nitrates / other nutrients, for growth or (only) low levels of
nitrates / other
nutrients, for growth remain in soil ; A ref. leaching reducing soil fertility
9. AVP ; e.g. named example of another nutrient, with role
will take time to, recover nitrate levels / resume nitrogen fixation ;
fertilisers (previously) applied washed away ;