INTRODUCTION

InearlySeptember2001,worldtelevisionnewsviewerssawan
unusualsight.AdelegationfromIndiahadcometotheUnited
NationsConferenceonRacisminDurban,SouthAfrica,nottojoin
incondemnationsofWesterncountriesbuttocondemnIndiaand
itstreatmentofitsDalits(oppressed),asIndiansbetterknown
abroadasuntouchablescallthemselves.TheChairmanofIndias
officialbutindependentNationalHumanRightsCommission
thoughttheplightofonesixthofIndiaspopulationwasworthyof
inclusionintheconferenceagenda,buttheIndiangovernmentdid
notagree.IndiasMinisterofStateforExternalAffairsstatedthat
raisingtheissuewouldequatecasteismwithracism,whichmakes
Indiaaracistcountry,whichwearenot.

Discriminationagainstgroupsofcitizensongroundsofrace,
religion,language,ornationaloriginhaslongbeenaproblemwith
whichsocietieshavegrappled.Religion,overtime,hasbeena
frequentissue,withcontinuingtensionsinNorthernIrelandandin
Bosniabeingbuttworecentandstillsmolderingexamples.Race
baseddiscriminationintheUnitedStateshasalonghistory
beginningwithevictionsofNativeAmericansbyEuropean
colonistseagerforlandandothernaturalresourcesandthe
importationofAfricanslavestoworktheland.Whiletheframers
oftheU.S.Constitutionpaperedoverslaveryin1787,itwas
alreadyamoralissuetroublingnationalleaders,includingsome
SouthernslaveownerslikeWashingtonandJefferson.Onhislast
politicalmission,theagingBenjaminFranklinlobbiedthefirst
newCongresstooutlawslavery.
JustweeksbeforetheConstitutionalConvention,thelastCongress
oftheConfederationpassedtheNorthwestOrdinance.Itwas,in
part,asuccessfulefforttobarslaverybylawfromalargepartof
2

thenewnation. FollowingtheCivilWar,threeamendmentswere

addedtotheU.S.Constitutiontoendslaveryandprotectcivil
libertiesofallcitizensunderfederallaw.Congressestablishedand
fundedagovernmentagency,theFreedmensBureau,tohelp
bringformerslavesintothemainstreamofAmericanlife.Yetwith
theendofReconstructionin1876,theUnitedStatesrelapsedinto
decadesofindifferenceorworsetowardsitsblackcitizens.
Varyinginintensitybyregion,thisincludeddenialofvoting
rights,intimidationandlynchings,denialofaccesstoadequate
publicservices(includingeducationandwatersupply),hostile
treatmentbypoliceandcourts,andwidespreaddiscriminationin
employmentandhousing.
NotuntilnearlyacenturyaftertheCivilWardidtheUnitedStates
beginmeaningfullytoaddressgrievancesofblackAmericans.
Blackactivismandchangingwhiteattitudeswerecentraltothe
processandledtolandmarkcivilrightslawsinthe1960s.Since
then,abroadsystemofaffirmativeactionhascomeintobeingin
thepublicandprivatesectors.Itineffectreservesaportionof
availablejobsforAfricanAmericans(andotherminoritiesviewed
asdisadvantaged).Lawsprohibitworkplacediscrimination,
diversityhasbecomeawatchword,andasocialsafetynet
assiststhoseinneed.However,despitemuchprogress,abundant
nationalwealth,laws,andgoodintentions,discriminationremains
aseriousissueforAmericansociety.
TherootsofIndiasuntouchabilityproblemrecedebeyondhistory
asdoesthecastesystemthatgaverisetoit.Thisisdifferentfrom
theAmericansetting,wherethepopulation
isnotdividedintoanaturalhierarchyconformingtoreligious
belief,withthelowestsectorregardedaspollutedand
untouchable.Nevertheless,therearesomeparallelswithwhat
happenedintheUnitedStates.Untouchabilityinspiredmany
Indianstoworkforreform,includingleadersoftheindependence

movementlikeNehruandGandhi.EffortstohelptheDalitsbegan
th

inthe19 century,firstunderBritishcolonialadministrationand,
later,from1947,underIndiasindependentgovernment.
Untouchability,likeslaveryinAmerica,wasprohibitedby
constitutionalprovision.AsintheUnitedStates,laws,
administrativeregulations,andcommissionshaveanchored
officialefforts.Atthecenterisanetworkofgovernmentmanaged
reservations,positionssetasidebyquotainlegislativebodies,in
governmentservice,andinschoolsatalllevels.Thehopeisthat
theScheduledCastes,asDalitsareofficiallyknown,canuse
suchopportunitiesasspringboardsforbetterlivesforthemselves
andforintegratingthemselvesmorefullyintothelifeofthe
country.(ThesituationofIndiasScheduledTribes(ST)is
generallysimilartothatoftheScheduledCastes(SC),butis
beyondthescopeofthispaper.)
ThispapertracesthecomplexbackgroundoftheDalitissueand
analyzestheeffortsoftheGovernmentofIndia,startinginthe
colonialperiod,touseareservationspolicytobenefitthe
ScheduledCastes.Thequestiontobeanswerediswhethernearly
sevendecadesofimplementingreservationshavepaidoffinterms
ofgivingDalitsabiggerstakeinIndiansociety.Thethrustofthe
argumentisthattheoriginsofuntouchabilitymakereform
difficult,thatDalitsinmanypartsofIndiaremaintargetsof
discriminationandabuse,andthatextensivegovernmentremedial
effortshaveoftenbeeninefficientandevencorruptionprone,but
thatoverallDalitsasagrouphavemadesignificantprogress.

CHAPTERI
DEVELOPMENTOFRESERVATIONSPOLICYIN
THEPREINDEPENDENCEPERIOD
TheCasteSystem

Hindusocietyisdividedintofourvarna,orclasses,aconvention
whichhaditsoriginsintheRigVeda,thefirstandmostimportant
setofhymnsinHinduscripturewhichdatesbackto15001000
3

B.C. AtthetopofthehierarchyaretheBrahmins,orpriests,
followedbytheKshatriyas,orwarriors.TheVaisyas,thefarmers
andartisans,constitutethethirdclass.Atthebottomarethe
Shudras,theclassresponsibleforservingthethreehighergroups.
Finally,theUntouchablesfallcompletelyoutsideofthissystem.It
isforthisreasonthattheuntouchableshavealsobeentermed
avarna(noclass).
Jati,orcaste,isasecondfactorspecifyingrankintheHindusocial
hierarchy.Jatisareroughlydeterminedbyoccupation.Often
regionspecific,theyaremoreprecisethanthesweepingvarna
systemwhichiscommonacrossIndiaandcanbedividedfurther
intosubcastesandsubsubcastes.Thisisalsothecaseamong
untouchables.AndreBeteilledefinescasteasasmallandnamed
groupofpersonscharacterizedbyendogamy,hereditary
membership,andaspecificstyleoflifewhichsometimesincludes
thepursuitbytraditionofaparticularoccupationandisusually
associatedwithamoreorlessdistinctritualstatusinahierarchical
system.

5
JatisinthethreehighestvarnasinthehierarchyBrahmins,
Kshatriyas,andVaisyasareconsideredtwicebornaccording
toHinduscripture,meaningtheyareallowedtoparticipatein
HinduceremoniesandareconsideredmorepurethantheSudras
andpollutinguntouchables.Thisconceptofpollutionversus
puritygovernstheinteractionbetweenmembersofdifferentcastes.
Thetouchofanuntouchableisconsidereddefilingtoanupper
casteHindu.InsouthernIndia,wherecasteprejudicehasbeen

historicallymostsevere,eventhesightofanuntouchablewas
consideredpolluting.Untouchablesusuallyhandledimpuretasks
suchasworkinvolvinghumanwasteanddeadanimals.Asa
result,untilreformsbeganinthe19thcentury,untouchableswere
barredfromenteringtemples,drawingwaterfromuppercaste
wells,andallsocialinteractionwithuppercasteHindus(including
dininginthesameroom).Thesesocialruleswerestrictlyimposed
andviolatorswereseverelypunished;somewereevenkilled.
Despiteconstitutionalprohibitionsandlaws,mostrecentlythe
ScheduledCastesandScheduledTribes(PreventionofAtrocities)
Actof1989,violenceandinjusticesagainstuntouchablescontinue
5

today,particularlyinruralareasofIndia. Accountsofcastedriven
abusescontinuallyappearinWesternmediaandsurelyaffect
foreignersperceptionsofIndia.AmericaneconomistThomas
Sowelldrewona1978caseinwhichanuntouchablegirlhadher
earscutofffordrawingwaterfromanuppercastewellinoneof
6

hisbooks. MorerecentexamplesincludeDalitstudentsata
governmentschoolinRajasthanwhowerepunishedforaskingto
drinkwaterfromapitcherusedbyhighercastestudentsanda
Dalitin

6
PunjabwhowasmurderedbyaffluentRajputHinduyouthsafter
hisdogranintoaHindutemple.

Initslatestpublishedreport,theGovernmentofIndiasNational
CommissionforScheduledCastesandScheduledTribesstatesthat
...evenafter50yearsofIndependenceUntouchabilityhasnot
beenabolishedasprovidedinArticle17oftheConstitution&
8

incidentscontinuedtobereported." For1997,theCommission
lists1,157registeredcasesofabuseofuntouchablesandtribals.

AnindependentoverviewisprovidedannuallybytheU.S.
DepartmentofStateinitsannualreporttoCongressonworldwide
humanrightspractices.ForIndiain2001,theDepartment
commented,interalia,that

Dalitsareamongthepoorestofcitizens,generallydonotownland,andoftenare
illiterate.Theyfacesignificantdiscriminationdespitethelawsthatexisttoprotect
them,andoftenareprohibitedfromusingthesamewellsandfromattendingthe
sametemplesashighercasteHindus,andfrommarryingpersonsfromhigher
castes.Inadditiontheyfacesegregationinhousing,inlandownership,onroads,
andonbuses.Dalitstendtobemalnourished,lackaccesstohealthcare,workin
poorconditions,andfacecontinuingandseveresocialostracism.

TheScheduledCastesandScheduledTribes(PreventionofAtrocities)Actlists
offensesagainstdisadvantagedpersonsandprovidesforstiffpenaltiesfor
offenders.However,thisacthashadonlyamodesteffectincurbingabuse.Under
theAct,996caseswerefiledinTamilNaduand1,254casesinKarnatakain2000.
HumanrightsNGO'sallegethatcasteviolenceisontheincrease .

Intercasteviolenceclaimshundredsoflivesannually;itwasespecially
pronouncedinUttarPradesh,Bihar,Rajasthan,MadhyaPradesh,TamilNadu,and
AndhraPradesh.9Inadditiontospecifyinganeconomicandsocial

role,casteisalsoaccompaniedby
certainpopularlyheldgeneralizations.Brahmins,forinstance,are
oftenbelievedtobefairskinned,sharpnosed,andhavingmore
refinedfeatures,consistentwiththeirAryanroots.Untouchables,
ontheotherhand,arecommonlyheldtobedarkskinnedand
possessingcoarsefeatures.Beteillehaspointedoutthatlighterskin
colorhasahighersocialvalue,
7
10

makingBrahminshighlyconsciousoftheirappearance. Adark
skinnedBrahmingirl,forexample,isasourceofanxietyforher
parentssincethetaskoffindingahusbandismadeharder.

11

Matrimonialadvertisements,astapleinIndiannewspapers,arefull
offamiliesseekingwheatishbridesfortheirsons.
Nevertheless,thereisincreasingsocialmobility,especiallyin
Indiasurbanareas.Someuntouchablesandsudrashavetriedto
moveupinthehierarchybyadoptingcustomsofuppercastes,a
processlabeledsanskritization.Othershaveattemptedtoescape
thesystementirelybyconvertingtoBuddhismorChristianity.The
prominentDalitpoliticianandlawyer,BhimraoRamjiAmbedkar
(18911956),whosawthedemolitionofthecastesystemas
necessaryfortheemancipationofIndiasDalits,convertedto
Buddhismattheendofhislife.Overtime,significantnumbers,
althoughonlyatinyportionofIndiasDalits,havefollowedhis
example;inNovember2001,thousandsofuntouchables
participatedinamassconversiontoBuddhisminDelhi.

12

PreIndependenceInitiativestoEliminateUntouchability
Christianmissionariestooktheleadinadoptingthecauseofthe
DepressedClassesseekingtoprovidewelfareforthem.Bythe
1850s,eitherinspiredorshamedintoactionbythemissionaries
example,Hindureformersemerged.JyotibaPhulewasonesuch
activist,
andin1860hecalledattentiontotheplightofvictimsofcaste
discriminationinMaharashtra.

13

BritishandotherIndianleaderssoonfollowedsuit,spurredonin
partbyreportsofdiscriminationagainstIndiansinSouthAfrica.
Thus,inthe1880s,Britishofficialssetupscholarships,special
schools,andotherprogramstobenefittheDepressedClasses.
Forwardthinkingmaharajas(princes)innativestateslike
Baroda,Kolhapur,andTravancore,whichwerenotunderdirect
14

Britishadministration,establishedsimilarinitiatives. Ambedkar,

fromtheMaharcasteofMaharashtra,wasonebeneficiary.The
MaharshadalongassociationwiththeBritishorganizedIndian
Army,inwhichAmbedkarsfatherandgrandfatherhadserved.
OneresultwasthatAmbedkarwasabletoattendgovernment
15

primaryandsecondaryschools. TheMaharajaofBaroda,
recognizingAmbedkarsgiftsforscholarship,sponsoredhisstudy
abroad,firstatColumbiaUniversityinNewYork,where
AmbedkarobtainedaPh.D.inEconomics,andlateratLondon
University,whereheearnedaDSc.andentrancetotheBarfrom
GreysInn.

16

Asearlyas1858,thegovernmentofBombayPresidency,which
includedtodaysMaharashtra,declaredthatallschools
maintainedatthesolecostofGovernmentshallbeopentoall
classesofitssubjectswithoutdiscrimination.Althougha1915
pressnoterevealedthatthispolicywasnotbeingenforcedinone
case,aMaharboywasnotallowedtoentertheschoolroom,but
wasrelegatedtotheverandatheBombaygovernmentmaintained
itspositionontheissue,and,in1923,announcedaresolution
cuttingoffaidto

9
educationalinstitutionsthatrefusedadmissiontomembersofthe
17

DepressedClasses. Otherinitiativesfollowedincludingthe1943
BombayHarijanTempleEntryActandthe1947BombayHarijan
(RemovalofCivilDisabilities)Act.IntheUnitedProvinces,now
UttarPradesh,the1947UnitedProvincesRemovalofSocial
DisabilitiesActwasputinforce.

18

InwhatisnowKerala,theMaharajaofTravancoreannouncedthe
TempleEntryProclamationin1936,inwhathasbeencalleda
pioneer[effort]inthefieldofreformsrelatingtotheeradication

ofuntouchabilitybeforeindependence.Statingthatnoneofour
Hindusubjectsshould,byreasonofbirthorcasteorcommunity,
bedeniedtheconsolationsandsolaceoftheHindufaith,the
Maharajadeclaredtheremovalofallbarsonthosedeniedentryto
19

templescontrolledbytheTravancoregovernment. Other
measuresaffectingwhatwouldbecomethepresentstateofKerala
includedthe1938MadrasRemovalofCivilDisabilitiesActand
the1950TravancoreCochinTempleEntry(Removalof
Disabilities)Act.

20

TheGovernmentofIndiaActof1919
CaughtintheturmoilofWorldWarI,Britainfocuseditsattention
onEurope,notonIndia.Nevertheless,theBritishpassedimportant
legislationduringthisturbulentperiodthatwouldhavea
significantimpactonthedevelopmentofIndiangovernmental
institutions:TheGovernmentofIndiaActof1919.
10
TheActhaditsimmediateoriginsonAugust20,1917.With
BritaininawarforsurvivalinEurope,inneedofcontinued
supportfromIndiaandtheEmpire,anddesiringtoavoid
confrontationwiththeIndianindependencemovement,Secretary
ofStateforIndiaEdwinMontagu,inanannouncementin
Parliament,definedBritainsIndiapolicyas:
increasing[the]associationofIndiansineverybranchoftheadministrationand
thegradualdevelopmentofselfgoverninginstitutionswithaviewtothe
progressiverealizationofresponsiblegovernmentinIndiaasanintegralpartof
21
theBritishEmpire.

MontaguandLordChelmsford,thenViceroy,embarkedonan
analysisoftheIndiansituation,eventuallylayingoutproposals
formingthebasisforthe1919GovernmentofIndiaAct.Despite

mentionofgreaterIndianparticipationinpolitics,the1919Act
stillcontainedprovisionsguaranteeingacontinuedactiveBritish
presenceanddominance:
WhilewedoeverythingthatwecantoencourageIndianstosettletheirown
problemsforthemselveswemustretainpowertorestrainthemfromseekingtodo
22
soinawaythatthreatensthestabilityofthecountry.

Thereformsincludeddevolutionofmoreauthoritytoprovincial
governmentsanddyarchy,asysteminwhichelectedIndian
ministers,responsibletothelegislatures,weretosharepowerwith
appointedBritishgovernorsandministers.TheActalsoaddressed
minoritysafeguards,includingtheparticularlyvexingissueof
communalelectorates.
MontaguandChelmsfordfirmlyrejectedcommunalelectorates,
characterizingthesystemasaperpetuat[or]ofclassdivisionand
averyserioushindrancetothedevelopmentoftheselfgoverning
principle.Theauthorsalsopointedoutanotherrelatedproblem
that:
Aminoritywhichisgivenspecialrepresentationowingtoitsweakandbackward
state,ispositivelyencouragedtosettledownintoafeelingofsatisfiedsecurity;it
isundernoinducementtoeducateandqualifyitselftomakegoodthegroundit
haslostcomparedwiththestrongermajority.On
21

SirHarcourtButler,IndiaInsistent.(London:WilliamHeinemannLtd.,1931.)
22
73. GovernmentofBritain:IndiaOffice.ReportonIndianConstitutional
Reforms(MontaguChelmsfordProposals),(1918),7.

11
theotherhand,thelatterwillbetemptedtofeelthattheyhavedonealltheyneed
dofortheirweakerfellowcountrymenandthattheyarefreetousetheirpowerfor
theirownpurposes.Thegiveandtakewhichistheessenceofpoliticallifeis
lacking.Thereisnoinducementtotheonesidetoforbear,ortotheothertoexert
23
itself.Thecommunalsystemstereotypesexistingrelations.

Despitetheirrepudiationofcommunalelectorates,Montaguand
Chelmsfordrealizeditwouldbeunfeasibletotakeaway
communalrepresentationalreadygrantedtoMuslimsbythe1909
MorleyMintoreforms.AtLucknowin1916theIndianNational
CongressandtheAllIndiaMuslimLeaguehadagreedtoseparate
electoratesforMuslims.Britainforpoliticalreasonswasnot
willingtoriskthecombinedireoftheseIndiangroups.Other,
includingSikhs,AngloIndians,Europeans,IndianChristians,and
nonBrahmins,alsoclamoredforspecialrepresentation,but
MontaguandChelmsfordlargelyresistedtheirdemandstheydid
granttheSikhs(describedasagallantandvaluableelementtothe
IndianArmy)communalrepresentationproposinginsteada
systemofnomination.Ifnominationprovedineffective,they
proposedreservingseatsforcommunitiesinpluralconstituencies,
butwithageneralelectoralroll.

24

InBritain,thedecisionagainstcommunalelectorateswas
controversial.IndianmoderatesandsomeBritishmembersof
Parliament(MPs)supportedtheMontaguChelmsfordposition.
(OneMPeffusivelypraisedtheMontaguReport,butlamentedthat
suchanexcellentproductcamefromaJewandnotareal
Englishman.)However,mostfearedanoligarchyofBrahminsif
25

communalelectorateswerenotsetupfornonBrahminHindus.
SeveralfactorscontributedtosuchBrahminophobia,afearthat
hadbeendevelopingevenbeforetheMontaguChelmsfordReport

12
SomeBritonsperceivedBrahminsasuntrustworthy,oppressive
towardsthelowercastes,andsubversiveregardingBritish
governmentalandsocialreforms.ValentineChirol,aprominent
Timescorrespondent,publishedIndianUnrest,inwhichhe
assertedthatBrahminismwasthebiggestthreattotheBritish.The

RowlattReportof1918,theproductofastudyonthecausesof
politicalviolenceinIndia,describedBrahminsas
revolutionaries.AnnieBesant,EnglishbornleaderoftheHome
RulemovementforIndianindependence,accusedBrahminsof
repressingthelowercastes.

26

Anotherimportantfeatureofthe1919Actwastheprovisionfor
theappointmentofastatutorycommissionaftertenyears
TheSimonCommission
Inkeepingwiththe1919GovernmentofIndiaAct,theBritish
governmentin1927appointedacommissiontoassessthe
MontaguChelmsfordreformsandwhether,andtowhatextentit
[was]desirabletoestablishtheprincipleofresponsible
government,ortoextend,modify,orrestrictthedegreeof
responsiblegovernmentexistingtherein.Thesevenmember
commissionwasheadedbyJohnSimon,MP,andincludedMP
ClementAttlee.

28

13
Thisallwhitepanelprovedcontroversial.Thecompetenceof
thenomineeswasnotatissue,butratherthelackofanyIndian
29

representatives. Inprotest,GandhiandtheCongressParty,the
30

dominantIndianpoliticalparty,boycottedtheCommission and
protestdemonstrationsinIndiawerewidespread.

31

32

TheSimonCommissiontouredeveryIndianprovince. Its
findingswerebasedlargelyonmemorandafromtheGovernment
ofIndia,fromcommitteesappointedbytheprovinciallegislative
33

councils,andfromnonofficialsources. Thefinalreport
containedrecommendationsforreform.

OneareatheCommissionidentifiedwastheneedtosafeguard
minoritiesandotherdisadvantagedmembersofIndiansociety.
Notingthatthespiritoftolerationhasmadelittleprogressin
India,theSimonreportdetailedtheplightoftheDepressed
Classesinparticular,whichitsawnotonlyasaproblemofcaste,
butasanissuewithdistinctpoliticalovertones.
Basedonitsassumptionthatthetruecauseofcommunal
conflict...isthestruggleforpoliticalpowerandforthe
34

opportunitieswhichpoliticalpowerconfers, thecommitteesaw
theimprovementoftheDepressedClassessituationashingingon
increasedpolitical
29

ThislackofIndianrepresentationwasindicativeoftheBritishdesiretomaintain
controlofandinfluenceinIndia,despiterhetoricofresponsiblegovernment.A
statementby,ViscountBurnham,oneofthepanelmembers,istelling,[themain
purposeoftheCommissionis]topreventthedissolutionoftheBritishEmpirein
India.(R.W.Brock,ed.,TheSimonReportonIndia(AnAbridgement)(London:
J.M.Dent&SonsLimited,1930)vi.)FurtherevidenceofBritainsreluctanceto
letgoareprovisionsinmajordocumentswhicheffectivelyguaranteea
continuedpresenceandelementofcontrol.TheSimonReport,forexample,
indicatesthattheonlypracticalmeansofprotectingtheweakerandless
numerouselementsinthepopulationisbytheretentionofanimpartialpower
residingintheGovernorGeneralandtheGovernorsintheprovinces.

14
35

influence. Severaloptionsemerged,includingpursuingasystem
ofnomination,creatingseparateelectorates,andreservingseatsin
governmentwithinageneralelectorate.

36

Initsconsultations,theSimonCommissionfoundthatmost
provincialgovernmentssupportedanominatingsystem.The
GovernmentofBiharandOrissa,forexample,assertedthata
nominationwasbestsincetheDepressedClassesweretoo

37

backwardtochoosetheirownrepresentatives. Despitethese
arguments,theCommissiondiscardedtheidea,arguingthatthe
DepressedClassesneededopportunitiesfortraininginself
government.

38

SupportforseparateelectorateswasstrongamongtheDepressed
Classes.Theirrepresentativesproposedcombiningseparate
electoratesandreservedseats.Theyalsodemandedawider
franchise,sincepropertyandeducationalrequirements
significantlyrestrictedtheirrighttovoteandtoparticipatein
government.TheBengalDepressedClassesAssociation,for
instance,lobbiedforseparateelectorateswithseatsreserved
accordingtotheproportionofDepressedClassmemberstothe
totalpopulationaswellasforadultfranchise.TheAllIndia
DepressedClassesAssociationproposedseparateelectoratesfor
eachofwhatittermedthefourmajorgroupsinIndia:the
Brahmins,Muslims,DepressedClasses,andNonBrahmins.The
governmentsofAssamandBombaysupportedsimilarconcepts.

39

TheSimonCommissionrejectedseparateelectoratesforthe
DepressedClasses:

40

Separateelectorateswouldnodoubtbethesafestmethodofsecuringthereturnof
anadequatenumberofpersonswhoenjoytheconfidenceoftheDepressed
Classes,butweareaversefromstereotypingthedifferencesbetweenthe
DepressedClassesandtheremainderoftheHindusbysuchastepwhichwe
considerwouldintroduceanewandseriousbartotheir
35

36

37

Ibid.,97. OfficeofStrategicServices(OSS)34. ThecommitteefromBihar

andOrissacalledforthecreationofseparateconstituenciesfortheDepressed
38
39
40
Classes,rejectingthenominationscheme. OSS31. Ibid.,3334. Althoughthe
CommissiondeniedseparateelectoratestotheDepressedClasses,itfelt
compelledtocontinueseparateelectoratesfortheMuslims,Sikhs,andthe
Europeans.(JohnSimon,IndiaandtheSimonReport:ATalk(NewYork:
CowardMcCann,Inc.,1930).

15
ultimatepoliticalamalgamationwithothers.

41

However,theyretainedthe

conceptofreservingseats:
TheCommissionrecommendsthatinalltheeightprovincesthereshouldbesome
reservationofseatsfortheDepressedClassesonascalewhichwillsecurea
substantialincreaseinthenumberofMembersofLegislativeCouncilsdrawn
42
fromtheDepressedClasses.

SeatsweretobereservedfortheDepressedClassesingeneral
constituenciesandtheseseatswouldbefilledbyelection,basedon
abroadenedfranchise.TheCommissionalsorecommended
drawinguprulestoensurethecompetencyofcandidatesfor
reservedpositions.Inaddition,provincialgovernorswouldhave
thepowertonominateorallownonDepressedClassmembersto
runforelection.Competencywasofparticularconcerntothe
Commission.Membersquestionedwhetherenoughqualified
candidateswouldbeavailableifseatswerereservedaccordingto
theproportionofDepressedClassespersonsinthepopulation.As
aresult,theCommissionsuggested,theproportionofthenumber
ofsuchreservedseatstothetotalnumberofseatsinalltheIndian
generalconstituenciesshouldbethreequartersoftheproportionof
theDepressedClassestothetotalpopulationoftheelectoralarea
43

oftheprovince. Again,thesemeasureswereregardedasstrictly
temporary,withthegoalthatanimprovementintheDepressed
Classesconditionwouldeventuallymakereservations
unnecessary.
TheRoundTableConferences
In1931,sixthmonthsaftertheSimonCommissionsreportwas
published,aRoundTableConferenceconvenedinLondonto
reviewtheCommissionsproposalsandhowthey

16
mightbeincorporatedintoanewconstitution.Thistime,there
wereIndiandelegatesfromvariousinterestgroups.Ambedkar
representedtheDepressedClasses,alongwithRaiBahadurR.
Srinivasan.GandhiandhisIndianNationalCongresswere
conspicuouslyabsent,refusingtoparticipateonthegroundsthat
CongressalonerepresentedIndianopinion.

44

Howtotreatminoritieswasamajortopicattheconference.Prime
MinisterRamsayMacDonaldchairedasubcommitteetofocuson
thisproblem.AmbedkarandSrinivasanappealedforseparate
electoratesandadultsuffrage.Separateelectoratesweredesigned
tobetemporary.Aftertenyears,generalelectorateswithreserved
seatswouldreplaceseparateelectorateswiththeconsentofthe
DepressedClassesandenfranchisementofalladults.Intheend,
thesubcommitteecouldnotreachanagreement,ageneral
reflectionoftheentireconference,whichwasinconclusive.
AsecondRoundtableConferenceconvenedeightmonthslater.
AmbedkarandSrinivasanagainattended.Gandhialsojoined,
representingtheCongress.Havingtakenupthecauseofthe
Harijans(childrenofGod,atermtheCongressleadercoined),
Gandhiadamantlyopposedseparateelectorates,especiallyforthe
45

DepressedClasses. Arguingthatuntouchabilitywasinseparable
fromHinduism,helinkedcreationofseparateelectoratesforthe
DepressedClassestoallegedBritishdivideandrulestrategyand
assertedthatthegroupshouldbeincludedinthemainbodyof
Hindus.Asaresultofstaunchoppositionfrom

17

GandhiandtheCongressonseparateelectorates,thesecond
conferencewasinconclusiveandtheminorityissueremained
unresolved.

46

Ambedkaroriginallyhadmisgivingsaboutseparateelectoratesas
well,butwascompelledtoaskforthematthesecondRoundtable
conferencewhenhefelttheDepressedClasseswereindangerof
47

notgaininganyconcessions. Earlierintheconference,Ambedkar
hadattemptedtocompromisewithGandhionreservedseatsina
commonelectorate,butGandhi,whohaddeclaredhimself
spokesmanforIndiasoppressed,rejectedAmbedkarsproposal,
anddenouncedtheotherdelegates,includingAmbedkar,as
unrepresentative.Atthesametime,Gandhiattemptedtostrikea
dealwithMuslims,promisingtosupporttheirdemandsaslongas
theMuslimsvotedagainstseparateelectoratesfortheDepressed
Classes.Itisapparentthatpoliticalconsiderationsmighthavealso
motivatedGandhitoadoptthisposition.
Giventhefailureoftheconferencetosettleminority
representation,PrimeMinisterRamsayMacDonald,whohad
chairedthecommitteeonminorities,offeredtomediateonthe
conditionthattheothermembersofthecommitteesupportedhis
decision.TheproductofthismediationwastheCommunalAward
of1932.

48

ATurningPoint:MacDonaldsCommunalAwardandthePoona
Pact
MacDonaldannouncedtheCommunalAwardonAugust16,1932.
BasedonthefindingsoftheIndianFranchiseCommittee,called
49

theLothianCommittee, theCommunal

18

Awardestablishedseparateelectoratesandreservedseatsfor
minorities,includingtheDepressedClasseswhichweregranted
seventyeight,reservedseats.Unlikepreviouscommunal
electoratessetupforMuslimsandothercommunities,theAward
providedfortheDepressedClassestovoteinbothgeneraland
specialconstituencies,essentiallygrantingadoublevote.
However,inkeepingwithearlierspecialconcessionstominorities,
MacDonaldasserted:
HisMajestysGovernmentdonotconsiderthatthesespecialDepressedClasses
constituencieswillberequiredformorethanalimitedtime.Theyintendthatthe
constitutionshallprovidethattheyshallcometoanendafter20yearsiftheyhave
50
notpreviouslybeenabolishedunderthegeneralpowersofelectoralrevision.

Gandhi,whowasintheYeravadaPrisoninthecityofPoonaatthe
timebecauseofhiscivildisobediencecampaign,reactedby
51

declaringahungerstrikeuntodeath. Inhisoppositiontothe
Award,hecomparedthecreationofseparateelectoratesforthe
DepressedClassestotheinjectionofapoisonthatiscalculatedto
destroyHinduismanddonogoodwhatever.Otherswere
similarlycriticaloftheAward.Ambedkarfelttoofewseatswere
reservedfortheDepressedClasses.Rajah,anotherleaderofthe
DepressedClasses,opposedtheseparationofthecommunityfrom
theHindufold.
AsaresultofwidespreaddisapprovaloftheAwardandGandhis
hungerstrike,anewagreement,thePoonaPact,wasreachedon
September24,1932.ThePactcalledforasingle(nonMuslim)
generalelectorateforeachoftheprovincesofBritishIndiaandfor
seats
thenewconstitutionforbetterrepresentationoftheDepressedClasses,andthat
themethodofrepresentationbynomination[was]nolongerregardedas
appropriate.Forthebasisofitsinquiry,theLothiancommitteesubmitted
questionnairestoeachoftheprovinces,askingforinputonhowbesttosecure
representationfortheDepressedClassesandadvisingthattheapplicationofthe

groupsystemofrepresentationtotheDepressedClassesshouldbespecially
considered.(IndianFranchiseCommittee,ReportoftheIndianFranchise
Committee,1932(Calcutta:GovernmentofIndiaCentralPublicationBranch,
1932)4.

intheCentralLegislature.Atthesametime,specifiednumbersof
seats,totaling148fortheprovinciallegislaturesandtobetaken
fromseatsallottedtothegeneralelectorate,werereservedforthe
DepressedClasses.IntheCentralLegislature,theDepressed
Classesweretogeteighteenpercentoftheseats.Votingmembers
oftheDepressedClassesineachreservedseatconstituencywere
toformanelectoralcollegetoselectfourcandidatesfromamong
theirnumber.ThePactalsocalledforeveryendeavortogivethe
DepressedClassesfairrepresentationinthepublicservices
52

subjecttosucheducationalqualificationsasmaybelaiddown.
Likeeachofitsantecedents,thesystemofrepresentationof
DepressedClassesbyreservationoutlinedinthePactwasintended
tobetemporary,continuing,untildeterminedbymutual
agreementbetweenthecommunitiesconcernedinthestatement.

53

Gandhiv.Ambedkar
ThePoonaPactsetinmotionwhatonestudentofcasteinIndia
hastermedAmbedkarsqualifiedvictoryoverGandhiandthe
54

Congress. AlthoughAmbedkarhadgiveninonthecommon
votingroll,hehadensuredthatspecifiednumbersofDepressed
Classeslegislators,nominatedbymembersofthoseClasses,would
beincludedinIndianprovincialandnationallegislativebodies.
ThenumberofreservedseatswashigherthanintheAward.
GandhiandtheCongresshadlittlechoice.Unlesstheycameto
termswithAmbedkaronreservedseats,theyriskedabreakupof
theHinduelectoratewithpotentiallyseriouspolitical
consequences:
UniversityPress,1999)260.

20
provincesHindurepresentationwascalculatedwouldmakeacriticaldifferenceto
thesubcontinentselectoralarithmetic,particularlyinBengalandthePunjab
55
wherethebalancebetweenHinduandMuslimwassoclose.

ThePoonaPactissignificantinthatitinitiatedapatternof
politicalcompromisebetweencasteHindusandtheDepressed
Classesintheallocationoflegislativerepresentationand
governmentjobs.AlthoughmuchhaschangedinIndia,seventy
yearsafterthePact81ofthe543membersoftheLokSabha,the
lowerhouseofParliament,arefromwhatwereformerlyknownas
theDepressedClassesand79ofthemholdreservedseats.
AbyproductofthePactwasthehighlightingoftheunderlying
problemsbetweencasteHindusandoutcastes.Gandhi
initiatedanationalcampaigntoeliminatetheevilsof
untouchability.SixdaysafterthePact,withhelpfromwealthy
industrialistsliketheBirlas,hestartedtheHarijanSevakSangh
(ServantsoftheUntouchablesSociety)anditsweeklyjournal
Harijan.TheseriousgulfinHindusocietythatcontinuesuntilnow
alongwiththereservationssystemisevidentinanexchange
betweenGandhiandAmbedkarintheFebruary11,1933,issueof
Harijan.HavingaskedAmbedkarforagreetingsmessageforthe
inauguralissueofHarijan,Gandhireceivedabluntreply:
...IfeelIcannotgiveamessage.ForIbelieveitwillbeamostunwarranted
presumptiononmyparttosupposethatIhavesufficientworthintheeyesofthe
Hinduswhichwouldmakethemtreatanymessagefrommewithrespect...Iam
thereforesendingyoutheaccompanyingstatementforpublicationinyourHarijan.
B.R.Ambedkar
Statement
TheOutcasteisabyeproductoftheCastesystem.Therewillbeoutcastesas
longastherearecastes.NothingcanemancipatetheOutcasteexceptthe

destructionoftheCastesystem.NothingcanhelptosaveHindusandensuretheir
survivalinthecomingstruggleexceptthepurgingoftheHinduFaithofthis
odiousandviciousdogma.56

21
Inhisrejoinder,Gandhinoted:Dr.Ambedkarisbitter.Hehas
everyreasontofeelso.Gandhicontinued,commentingthat
Ambedkarsexteriorisascleanasthatofthecleanestand
proudestBrahmin.Ofhisinterior,theworldknowsaslittleasthat
ofanyofus.Affectinghumility,GandhiannouncedthatHarijan
isnotmyweeklybutbelongedtotheServantsofUntouchables
SocietyandthatAmbedkarshouldfeelitisasmuchhisasofany
otherHindu.ThenGandhiwenttotheheartofthematter:
Astotheburdenofhismessage,theopinionheholdsaboutthecastesystemis
sharedbymanyeducatedHindus.Ihavenot,however,beenabletosharethat
opinion.Idonotbelievethecastesystem,evenasdistinguishedfromVarnashram,
tobeanodiousandviciousdogma.Ithasitslimitationsanditsdefects,butthere
isnothingsinfulaboutit,asthereisaboutuntouchability,and,ifitisabye
productofthecastesystemitisonlyinthesamesensethatanuglygrowthisofa
57
body,orweedsofacrop.

Therefore,accordingtoGandhi,thejointfightisrestrictedtothe
removalofuntouchability,afightintowhichheinvited
Ambedkarandthosewhothinkwithhimtothrowthemselves,
heartandsoul...Ambedkarpreferredtocarryonthefight
throughlegalandconstitutionalmeasures.Hislegacyisthe
existingsystemofreservations.Gandhi,aHindutraditionalist,
soughttoinspireHindustocleansethecastesystemoftheevilof
untouchability.Judgingfromhiswritings,hesawthisasan
achievablegoal.
GandhisHarijanSevakSanghcontinueshisworkthroughout
58

India. WhilethesincerityoftheSocietyseffortscannotbe
doubted,someDalitsseetheorganizationaspaternalisticand

condescending.AttheSocietysstart,Gandhiopposedhavinga
harijanontheboardofdirectors.Somesenseofcasteattitude
comesfromareportinHarijanofsomeearlyactivities.For
example:
UndertheauspicesoftheValmikAchhutMandal,Jullundur,Punjab,awell
attendedmeetingofcasteHindusandHarijanswasheldatBasti
SheikhwithChaudriDaulatram,aHarijan,inthechair.MasterShadiram,awell
educatedHarijan,exhortedhisbrotherHarijanstokeepcleanand
giveupdrinkandotherbadhabits.
BhagatDhannaMal,aprominentCongressmanofFerozepur,Punjab,hastakena
vowtoremovetheevilpracticesofuntouchability,asfarasitliesinhispowerto
doso.Hewillgladlyrespondathisownexpensetoanycallforhelpfrom
59
HarijansinanypartofIndia.

TheGovernmentofIndiaActof1935
ThereservationofseatsfortheDepressedClasseswas
incorporatedintotheGovernmentofIndiaActof1935,legislation
bytheBritishdesignedtogiveIndianprovincesgreaterselfrule
andsetupanationalfederalstructurethatwouldincorporatethe
princelystates.TheActwentintoforcein1937.
TheActbroughtthetermscheduledcastes,nowtheIndian
Governmentsofficialdesignation,intouse,definingthegroupas
includingsuchcastes,racesortribesorpartsoforgroupswithin
castes,racesortribes,beingcastes,races,tribes,partsofgroups
whichappeartoHisMajestyinCounciltocorrespondtothe
classesofpersonsformerlyknownastheDepressedClasses,as
60

HisMajestyinCouncilmayspecify. Thisvagueclassification
waslaterclarifiedinTheGovernmentofIndia(Scheduled
Castes)Order,1936whichcontainedalist,orschedule,of
scheduledcastesthroughouttheBritishprovinces.

AllIndiaDepressedClassesConferenceatNagpur,1942
EffortsbybothIndiansandBritishofficialsencouraged
untouchablesandthelowercastestoformtheirownorganizations
tocallformoreequitabletreatmentandtodemandeconomic
assistance.Ambedkar
bringpressuretobearonthegovernmenttosecuremoreresources
fortheDepressedClasseshehadformedtheIndependentLabor
Partyin1936.Changingtactics,heusedaJuly1942AllIndia
DepressedClassesConferenceinNagpurtoestablishanAllIndia
DepressedClassesFederation.
Amongthegroupsdemandswerethoseforanewconstitution
withprovisionsinprovincialbudgets,specificallyintheformof
moneyforeducation,tosupporttheadvancementofthescheduled
castes;representationbystatuteinalllegislaturesandlocalbodies;
separateelectorates;representationonpublicservicecommissions;
thecreationofseparatevillagesforscheduledcastes,awayfrom
andindependentoftheHinduvillages,aswellasagovernment
sponsoredSettlementCommissiontoadministerthenew
villages;andtheestablishmentofanAllIndiaScheduledCastes
61

Federation. Whenin1942CongressPartyleaderslauncheda
QuitIndiamovement,theBritish,engagedinawarforsurvival,
roundedupNehru,Gandhi,andotherleadersandjailedthemfor
thedurationofthestrugglewithGermanyandJapan.Ambedkar,
bycontrast,supportedthewareffortandbecameamemberofthe
ViceroysExecutiveCouncil.Heusedhisnewpositiontoadvance
theinterestsoftheScheduledCastes.Ambedkar:
SubmittedamemorandumdemandingreservationfortheScheduledCastesin
services,andscholarshipsandfinancialaidforthepromotionoftheireducation.
Thegovernmentacceptedtherecommendations,andin1943reservationin
62
servicesinfavoroftheScheduledCastesbecameeffective.

Hehadplayedthesituationperfectly.Withindependenceinsight,
Congressleaderslockedup,andBritaindesiringtokeepIndia
quietAmbedkarhadsuccessfullyexpandedthescopeof
reservationsfromlegislativeseatstogovernmentjobsand
education.
AltruismorPoliticalInterest?
WerethesepreindependenceeffortstouplifttheDepressed
Classesdrivenbysimplealtruismandthedesiretocorrectpast
injustices?OrwerepoliticalinterestswhatmotivatedBritishand
Indianstoact?WhileonecannotdenythatleaderssuchasGandhi
certainlyweresincereinseekingtoimprovetheplightofthe
HarijansandweakerelementsofIndiansociety,scholarshave
arguedthatpoliticsinfluencedandcontinuestodaytodrivethe
advocacyofreservationsandspecialprovisionsforDepressed
Classes.SumaChitnis,forexample,hasarguedthattheBritish
sawthisissueasusefulagainstIndianindependenceseekers.
MissionariessawtheDepressedClassesasespeciallyamenableto
theirproselytizingefforts.TheCongressParty,thedominant
Indianpartyatthetime,soughttokeeptheDepressedClassesin
itsfoldtopreventpoliticalfragmentationoftheindependence
movement(andtheHindupopulation)andtocounterbalancethe
MuslimLeague,especiallyinmixedprovinceslikeBengaland
thePunjab.Nevertheless,Congressinterestwasrelativelylatein
coming.ChitnispointsoutthattheCongressPartysinterestinthe
welfareoftheDepressedClassesdidnotemergeuntil1917,when
Gandhimadeitoneofthemainplanksoftheparty.

63

CHAPTERII
INDEPENDENCEANDTHECONSTITUTION:

FRAMINGRESERVATIONSPOLICY
OnMay16,1946,theBritishgovernmentreleasedtheCabinet
MissionStatement,asetofproposalstoguidetheframingofa
newIndianconstitution.Bythistime,thewheelsforIndias
independencehadalreadybeensetinmotionbyClementAtlees
LaborPartygovernmentinLondon.Amongother
recommendations,theCabinetMissionlaidoutadetailedplanfor
theConstituentAssemblyscomposition,suchthatthebodybeas
broadbasedandaccuratearepresentationofthewholepopulation
aspossible.Threecategoriesfromwhichtodrawdelegateswere
proposed.InadditiontodivisionsforMuslimsandSikhs,the
CabinetMissionsuggestedageneralcategorywhichwould
includeallothersgroupsHindus,AngloIndians,Parsis,Indian
Christians,theScheduledCastesandTribes,andwomen,among
others.Delegateswereappointedonthebasisofindirectelections
intheprovinciallegislativeassemblies.
InMarch1947,BritainsentLordLouisMountbatten,warheroand
royalrelative,toNewDelhiastheKingEmperorslastViceroy.
HismissionwastotransferpowertoanindependentIndian
government.Intheend,powerwastransferredtotwosuccessor
entities,PakistanonAugust14,1947,andIndiaonAugust15,
1947.
UndertheCabinetMissionplantheConstituentAssemblywasto
consistof389seats,296ofwhichwerefilledbydelegateselected
fromthedirectlyadministeredprovincesofBritishIndiaand93of
whichwereallottedtotheprincelystates.Thetotalnumberof
seatswasbasedonanundividedIndia,and,overall,representeda
crosssectionofthepopulationofthecountry.GiventheMuslim
LeaguesboycottoftheAssembly,theimpactofpartition
26

andsubsequentmigration,andthelengthyprocessofintegrating
theprincelystates,thenumberanddistributionofseatscontinually
fluctuatedfromthetimeofthefirstmeetingonDecember9,1946.
Withthe1947partition,manyMuslimdelegatesleftforPakistan,
terminatingtheirmembershipintheAssembly.Asaresult,the
bodywasreorganized.ByNovember26,1949,itconsistedof324
seats,dividedamongtheprovincesandtheprincelystatesand
representativeofallmajorminoritygroups.
ThemakeupoftheConstituentAssemblyreflectedtherealityof
whatgroupswieldpowerinIndia,thenandnow.Ananalysisof
membershipinthemostimportantadvisorycommitteesofthe
ConstituentAssemblyfoundthat6.5percentwereSCs.Brahmins
64

madeup45.7percent. MinorityandScheduledCastedelegates
didhavesomeinfluenceduringtheAssemblyproceedings,with
65

severalholdingsignificantpositions.Dr.H.C.Mookherjee, an
IndianChristian,wasVicePresidentoftheConstituentAssembly
aswellasChairmanoftheSubCommitteeonMinorities.
However,byfarthemostimportantwasDr.Ambedkar.
JawaharlalNehru(18891964),IndiasfirstPrimeMinisterand
dominantpoliticalfigureuntilhisdeath,hadalreadyselected
Ambedkar,anaccomplishedlawyer,ashisLawMinister.A
Brahminhimself,NehrusoughttobuildasecularIndiafreefrom
castediscrimination.HewasamongthemanyeducatedHindus
opposedtothecastesystemasnotedbyGandhiinhis1933
HarijanexchangewithAmbedkar(above).GivenNehrusviews
andAmbedkarstalents,itisnotsurprisingthatAmbedkarbecame
chairmanofthedraftingcommitteeforIndiasnewconstitution.It
wasalsoanastutepoliticalmoveforbothleaders.ForNehru,it
kept

27

governmentatacriticaltime;forAmbedkar,itwasanopportunity
toinfluencepreparationofthenewconstitutionandprotect
ScheduledCasteinterests.
Fromtheoutset,theConstituentAssemblylaidoutclearlyits
objectivesandphilosophyforthenewconstitution.Severalofthe
framersmaingoals,articulatedintheObjectivesResolution,
includedguaranteesofequality,basicfreedomsofexpression,as
wellasadequatesafeguards...forminorities,backwardandtribal
areas,anddepressedandotherbackwardclasses.Theseprinciples
guidedthedelegatesthroughouttheConstitutionmakingprocess.
TheAssemblysetupaspecialAdvisoryCommitteetotackle
minorityrightsissues.Thiscommitteewasfurtherdividedinto
severalsubcommittees.TheSubcommitteeonMinoritiesfocused
onrepresentationinlegislatures(jointversusseparateelectorates
andweightings),reservationofseatsforminoritiesincabinets,
reservationforminoritiesinthepublicservices,andadministrative
machinerytoensuretheprotectionofminorityrights.After
extensiveresearchanddebate,theSubcommitteeonMinorities
draftedareportofitsfindingsforsubmissiontotheAdvisory
Committee.ThelattersupportedmostoftheSubcommittees
recommendations.

66

VallabhbhaiPatel(18751950),ChairmanoftheAdvisory
Committeeandthemostpowerfulmemberofthegoverning
CongresspartyafterNehru,submittedtheReportonMinority
RightstoRajendraPrasad,PresidentoftheAssembly,andon
August27,1947,theAssemblyconvenedtodiscusstheReport.
PatelopenedthedebatebypresentingtheAdvisoryCommittees
mainrecommendations.RejectingseparateelectoratesCongress
wantednorepeatoftheseparateelectoratesgrantedtotheMuslims
bytheBritishanda

65

HisnameindicateshisfamilywasBengaliBrahminbybackground.

28
weightagesystem,theReportendorsedthecreationofjoint
electoratesandproportionalrepresentation.Reservationswere
approvedforminorities,aslongasthereservationswerein
proportiontothepopulationofthetargetedgroups.Some
minorities,liketheParsis,voluntarilygaveupthisright.
TreatmentoftheScheduledCasteswasextensivelydebated.
EffortsbyAmbedkarandhisalliestocraftaprovisionrequiringa
tripwire35percentofScheduledCastevotesinaconstituency
reservedfortheScheduledCastesfailed.Theprincipleofcommon
votingandreservedseatsinlegislativebodiesthroughoutthe
countrywasretaineddespitestrongoppositionfrominfluential
67

ConstituentAssemblymemberslikeNehru. However,the
colonialerasystemofhavingtheScheduledCasteschoose
candidatesforreservedseatsthroughlocalelectoralcollegeswas
dropped.Throughoutthedebate,casteHinduspermittednothing
thatwouldsuggestsplittingofftheScheduledCastesinan
electoralsensefromtheHinducommunity.
ReservationsUndertheConstitution

68

69

OnJanuary26,1950,IndiaendeditsDominionstatus,becamea
republic,andputineffectitsnewconstitution.Withanentire
sectiondedicatedtoFundamentalRights,theIndianConstitution
prohibitsanydiscriminationbasedonreligion,race,caste,sex,and

29
ofbirth(Article15[1]).Thislawextendstoallpublicinstitutions,

suchasgovernmentruneducationalfacilities,toaccesstohotels
andrestaurants,publicemploymentandpublicwells,tanks
(manmadepondsforwatersupplyandbathing),androads.The
practiceofuntouchabilityisdeclaredillegal(Article17).
Significantly,Article15,whichprohibitsdiscrimination,also
containsaclauseallowingtheunionandstategovernmentsto
makeanyspecialprovisionfortheadvancementofanysocially
andeducationallybackwardclassesofcitizensorforthe
ScheduledCastesandScheduledTribes.Thislanguagewasadded
in1951withinweeksofaSupremeCourtdecisionoutlawing
quotasinschooladmissions.Thespeedoftheamendmentis
indicativeofthestrongpoliticalsupportforreservations,Nehrus
personalviewsnotwithstanding.
Similarly,Article16,callingforequalityofopportunityin
mattersofpublicemployment,containsclausespermittingthe
reservationofappointmentsorpostsinfavourofanybackward
classofcitizenswhich,intheopinionoftheState,isnot
adequatelyrepresentedintheservicesundertheStateandanother
allowingreservationinmattersofpromotionforScheduled
CastesandScheduledTribes.

70

AseparatesectionoftheConstitution,SpecialProvisions
RelatingtoCertainClasses,requiresthereservationofseatsinthe
HouseofthePeople,orLokSabha,andtheLegislative
AssembliesofthestatesfortheScheduledCastesandScheduled
71

Tribes. Thenumbersofreservedseatsaredeterminedbythe
proportionScheduledCasteandScheduledTribememberstothe
generalpopulation,basedonpopulationestimatesfromthe

30
mostrecentdecennialcensus.ThePresidentofIndiaandthe

Parliament,inconsultationwiththestategovernments,determine
thelistofgroupsqualifyingasScheduledCastes,Scheduled
Tribes,andbackwardclasses.
Severalsafeguardsaccompanytheseprovisionsforreservation.
First,theConstitutionoriginallyrequiredthereservationofseatsin
theLokhSabhaandstatelegislaturestoendaftertenyears.After
fiveamendments,thepolicyisnowsettoexpireonJanuary25,
2010.Secondly,regardingthereservationofjobs,Article335of
theConstitutionmandatesthattheclaimsofthemembersofthe
ScheduledCastesandScheduledTribesshallbetakeninto
consideration,consistentlywiththemaintenanceofefficiencyof
administration.Finally,aNationalCommissionforScheduled
72

CastesandScheduledTribes wascreatedtoinvestigate,monitor,
advise,andevaluatetheprogressoftheScheduledCastesand
ScheduledTribesundertheschemesaimedatthesocioeconomic
developmentofthesegroups.AnotherCommissionwasalso
createdtoinvestigatetheconditionsofthesociallyand
educationallybackwardclasses.
ItisinterestingtonotethattheConstitutionsreservations
construct,whichexplicitlysinglesoutcertaincastesforspecial
preferentialtreatment,contradictsthedocumentsprohibitionon
discriminationbasedoncaste,race,andothersuchcriteria.
Furthermore,Indiascastesystemitself,withitsstricthierarchy
dictatedbybirth,isatoddswiththeidealsofequalityandsocial
justice.
Despitethecreationofcentrallybasedcommissionstomonitor
reservationsandotherschemes,theConstitutiongivesgreat
libertiestotheindividualstatestodeterminethequantityandlimits
ofreservationandwhat,forexample,qualifiesasthemaintenance
oftheefficiencyofadministration.Theclausegivingstatesthe
authoritytoformulateand

31
implementpolicytofacilitatetheadvancementofanysocially
andeducationallybackwardclassesofcitizens,isalsodecidedly
vague.Noconcretedefinitionofbackwardisprovidedeither.In
addition,thoughaspecificif,inpractice,flexibletimelimitis
placedonthereservationofseatsintheLokSabhaandstate
legislativeassemblies,thereisnosuchclauseregardingthefuture
terminationofreservationsofjobsandpromotions.
OtherLegalProtectionsforScheduledCastesandScheduled
Tribes
TogiveteethtotheprotectionsfortheScheduledCastesand
TribesmandatedbytheConstitution,IndiasParliamenthaspassed
twomajorlaws.TheUntouchability(Offenses)Actof1955
(renamedtheProtectionofCivilRightsActin1976)wasintended
toprovideenforcementofArticle17oftheConstitution,outlawing
untouchability.Itfellshortofexpectations.InthewordsofIndias
NationalCommissionforScheduledCastesandScheduledTribes,
Allthemeasurestakenwerenotfoundtobeeffectiveenoughin
curbingtheincidentsofatrocitiesonScheduledCastesand
73

ScheduledTribes. In1989anewlaw,theScheduledCastesand
ScheduledTribes(PreventionofAtrocities)Act,cameintoforce.
SimilartoanAmericanhatecrimesstatute,itprovidesheavier
penaltiesthanunderordinarylawforeighteenspecifiedcrimes
includingforcingtheeatingofobnoxioussubstances,bonded
labor,andsexualexploitation.

CHAPTERIIIANASSESSMENTOF
RESERVATIONS
Asthereservationspolicyexpands,involvingmoregroupsof
peopleandcontinuingtogeneratedebate,sotoodoesthetaskof

assessingthissystem.Areviewoftheliteraturerevealsentire
booksdedicatedtotheissue,andeventheseeffortscannotfully
sortoutthereservationspuzzle.Inordertoachievebreadth
withoutlosingdepth,Ihavechosentoexaminetheeffectivenessof
reservationsbyfocusingontheexperienceofthescheduledcastes
(SCs).Furthermore,Iwillanalyzethepolicyacrosstime,from
74

inceptiontopresent,onanationallevel. Narrowingtheproblem
inthiswayfacilitatedamorecomprehensivestudyofthedomains
intowhichreservationsextendsthelegislatures,government
service,andeducation.Inaddition,becauseconsistentand
completestatespecificdatawereunavailable,thisassessmentof
reservationsreliesprimarilyonallIndiastatistics.

75

Thoughthescheduledtribes(STs)andtheotherbackwardclasses
areundoubtedlyimportantplayers,coveringthemthoroughly
wouldbebeyondthescopeofthisstudy.Theotherbackward
classes(OBC),particularlysincethereleaseoftheMandalReport,
haveoftenbeenatthecenterofthecontroversysurrounding
reservations.Nevertheless,OliverMendelsohn,forexample,has
attributedtherelativelackofcontroversyoverreservationsforSCs
andSTs(comparedtothatoverreservationsforbackwardclasses),
whoareguaranteedseatsinlegislaturesinadditiontopreferential
treatmentineducationandpublicemployment,
tothereservationsystemsfailure.Itisforthisreason,
Mendelsohnargues,thatthepolicyhasnotgeneratedtheanimusof
amoresuccessfulprogram.

76

Inits50plusyearsofoperationhasthereservationspolicy
achievedpositiveresults?HavetheSCsreceivedthesocial,
politicalandeconomicupliftingenvisionedbytheConstitutions
framers?Thissectionwilladdressthesequestions.
ASurveyofReservationsPolicy

GovernmentServicesAsMarcGalanterhasobserved,government
employmentinIndiaiswidely
consideredprestigiousandaguarantorofsecurityand
77

advancement. Governmentjobsstillaccountforthemajorityof
jobsintheeconomysorganizedsector.Table1illustratesthat
despiteseriousattemptsatliberalizationbeginningin1991,the
publicsectorcontinuestodominatetheIndianeconomyandserve
asthemainsourceofemployment.

34
Asaresult,reservationsinthecovetedareaofgovernmentservices
takeonincreasedsalience.
Publicsectorjobsaredividedintofourlevels,distinguishedby
incomeandselectivity:ClassI(orGroupA),ClassII(orGroup
B),ClassIII(orGroupC)andClassIV(orGroupD).Table2
showsthedistributionofjobsamongthesefourcategoriesbased
on1994estimates:
Table2.ProfileofCentralGovernmentEmployment
Source:KanchanChandra,WhyEthnicPartiesSucceed:AComparativeStudyof
theBSPAcrossIndianStates.PhDThesis,February2000,Harvard
University,124.Notes:Figuresdonottotal100%becauseofroundingerror

ClassI,thehighestpaidlevel,includesmembersoftheeliteIndian
AdministrativeService(IAS),theIndianForeignService(IFS),the
IndianPoliceService(IPS)andconnectedCentralGovernment
services.Inthenextincomebracket,ClassIIemployeescomprise
officersofthestatecivilservicecadre.Competitiveexamsand
interviewsareusuallyusedtofillthesetoptwotiers,whichrequire
highlyskilledandwellqualifiedcandidates.
Incontrast,thebottomtwojobcategories,ClassIIIandClassIV,

includelowskill,lowqualificationpostssuchasprimaryschool
teachers,revenueinspectors,constables,peons,clerks,drivers,and
sweepers.Thesearetypicallylowincomejobsandarenotsubject
tostrictselectionprocesses.Additionally,selectingofficials
exerciseahighdegreeof
discretioninfillingposts.Influenceplaysamajorrole.Thisis
particularlyrelevantgiventhatClassIIIandClassIVjobsmakeup
thebulkofpublicsectoremploymentintheorganizedeconomy.
Accordingtoestimatesfrom1994,94percentofpublicsectorjobs
intheCentralGovernmentfellintotheClassIIIandClassIV
78

levels. Table3summarizesSCrepresentationinthefourclasses
ofcentralgovernmentfrom1959to1995:
Table3.PercentageofSCEmployeesinCentralGovernment
Services
ItisclearthattherehasbeenageneralriseinSCrepresentationin
allfourcategoriesofemploymentincentralservicesacrosstime.
TheSCpresenceinClassI,forinstance,hasincreasedbytenfold,
from1.18percentin1959to10.12percentin1995.TheClassII
figuresshowanupwardtrendfrom2.38percentin1959to12.67
percentin1995.Thelowestclass,whichinitiallyhadmoreSC
employeesin1959thananyoftheotherclasseshadin1995,has
hadaslowerrateofincrease.
Whiletheseareallgoodindicationsthatreservationsareworking,
itisdifficulttoignorecertainrealitiesthatdetractfromthis
success.First,SCrepresentationintheClassesIandII,afterover
50years,stillfallshortofthereservationsquotaof15percentfor
SCs,whilethelessprestigiousandlowerpaidClassIIIandIV
jobsareamplyfilled.Evenprior
to1970,whenquotasweresetat12.5percent,onlyClassIVmet

thequotaofplacesallottedtoSCs.However,becausereservations
applytoonlycurrentappointmentsandtheaverageservicecareer
isaround30years,itisatimeconsumingprocessforthe
percentageofpostsheldtoequalthepercentageofpositions
79

reserved. ThesteepincreaseinClassIandIIpositionssincethe
1960ssuggeststhatthepercentageofnewSCrecruitsisnearing
theSCreservationsquota.
Secondly,certainpostsareexemptfromreservation.Underthe
currentpolicy,reservationsdonotapplytocasesoftransferor
deputation;casesofpromotioningradesorservicesinwhichthe
elementofdirectrecruitmentexceeds75%;temporary
appointmentsoflessthan45days;workchargedpostsrequiredfor
emergencies(suchasreliefworkincasesofnaturaldisaster);
certainscientificandtechnicalposts;singlepostcadre;
upgradationofpostsduetocadrerestructuring(totalorpartial);
80

andadhocappointmentsarisingoutofstopgaparrangements.
Asfarasscientificandtechnicalpostsareconcerned,reservations
donotapplytopositionsabovethelowestgradeinGroupI
services.
Finally,anotherfactorundercuttingthepositivetrendsisthe
prevalenceoffalsecastecertification.NonSCs,whetheroutof
opportunismordesperation,havebeenknowntoposeasSCsin
ordertotakeadvantageofreservedgovernmentjobs,inadditionto
otherbenefitsaffordedtoSCs,suchasrelaxationofmaximumage
limitsandwaivingofcivilserviceexamsandfees.Inanattemptto
curbtheproblem,theKarnatakastategovernmentconsidered
issuingcasteidentitycardstoSCs,STs,andOBCsinJune2001.
However,the
planwasshelvedwhentheauthoritiesrealizedhowcostlysucha
policywouldbe,giventhataround90percentofthestates

populationcouldbecountedasSC,STorOBC.

81

Legislatures:TheLokSabha
Oneofthemostexplicitconstitutionalprovisionsconcernsthe
reservationofseatsforSCsintheUnionandstatelegislatures.An
th

analysisofthecompositionofthecurrentLokSabha(the13 ,
electedin1999)indicatesadherencetotheConstitutionsmandate.
AllseatsreservedforSCsarefilled,withtwostates,Maharashtra
andAndhraPradesh,eachhavinganSCMemberofParliament
(MP)fromanonreservedconstituency(Table4).
Oneofthemajordifferencesbroughtoutinthetableisthe
Congressfallfromdominance.Thisisnotonlyreflectedinthe
totalnumberofseatscontrolledbytheparty

43
(366downto112),butalsointhenumberofitsSCMPs,which
hasbeenreducedfrom63to6.Incontrast,theBJP,with180seats,
hastakenCongressplace.TheBJPhas24SCMPs,17morethan
thenexthighestparty.SCMPsalsomakeupnearly15percentof
theBJPsrepresentativesintheLokSabhawhileCongressSC
MPsareonly5percentofthetotalpartymembersinoffice.
Anotherchangeovertimehasbeenthesignificantgrowthinthe
numberofpoliticalpartiestowhichSCMPsbelong.SCMPsonly
represented12differentpartiesinthethirdLokSabha.This
numberhasdoubledinthecurrentLokSabha.ThoughtheBJPhas
themostSCmembersofanyparty,itdoesnotenjoythesame
monopolyastheCongresspartydidinthethirdLokSabha.
Finally,anadditionalimportantdevelopmentwiththeelectionof
thecurrentLokSabhahasbeentheemergenceoftheBahujan

SamajParty(BSP),thefirstmajorpartyformedtoadvocateDalit
rightsthathasachievedelectoralsuccess.Ironically,theBSPs
increasingprominence,mainlyinnorthernIndiahasdepletedthe
Congresstraditionalvotebank.

88

Education
Educationhaslongbeenidentifiedaskeytoachievingthe
advancementoftheSCs.InlinewithArticle15(4)ofthe
Constitution,whichempowerstheStatetomakespecialprovisions
fortheeducationaldevelopmentofSCs,theIndiangovernment
currentlyallowsthereservationof15percentofseatsforSCsin
universitiesandcolleges.Thispolicycoversenrolmentinvarious
undergraduateandgraduatecoursesofgeneral,technical,medical
and
44
otherprofessionaleducation.Reservationscanalsoextendtothe
allotmentofplacesindormitories.Stategovernmentsobserve
differentratesofreservation,basedonthesizeoftheirSC
populations.
Alongwiththesemeasures,Centralandstategovernmentshave
alsoinstitutedscholarship/stipendprograms,aswellasinitiatives
tofurnishSCswithspecialtutoring,books,middaymeals,
stationeryanduniforms.Onesuchscheme,fundedentirelybythe
Centralgovernment,providesfouryearsofspecialandremedial
tutoringtoselectsecondaryschoolstudentstohelpSCsgain
admissiontouniversitiesandtechnicalinstitutions.

89

Createdin1956byanActofParliament,theUniversityGrants
Commission(UCG)overseestheimplementationofthesepolicies
ininstitutesofhighereducation.Therearecurrently166
central/stateuniversities,37deemeduniversities,and9,278

90

colleges. TheUCGhasroutinelypublishedguidelinesto
encourageandaidstategovernmentsinfillingreservationsquotas
entirely.Forexample,SCcandidatesarenormallygivena
relaxationofmarksbyfivepercentfromtheminimumqualifying
level.Shouldreservedseatsremainvacant,universitiesareadvised
toincreaserelaxationofadmission.

91

Despitethesespecialconcessions,enrolmentstatisticsfor
undergraduate,postgraduate,technicalandprofessionalcourses
indicatethattheSCarestillunderrepresented,withonly13.30
percentenrolment(Table8).Thisfallsshortofboththeinstructed
reservationof15percentofseatsaswellastheproportionofSCs
tothetotalpopulation.
45
However,itshouldbenotedthatthepercentageofSCsincourses
ofhighereducationhasnearlydoubledsince1978.
Table8.SCEnrolmentinUndergraduate,Postgraduate,Technical

CHAPTERIVACCOUNTINGFORSUCCESS
Theprecedingchapterhasshownthatthereservationspolicyhas
notbeenentirelysuccessfulinsignificantlyimprovingthe
conditionsoftheSCs.AsaperusalofanyreportfromtheNational
CommissionforSCsandSTswillreveal,theIndiangovernment,
fromcentraltolocallevels,hasoftendisplayedalackadaisical
attitudeinadministeringreservationspolicy.Atthesametime,SC
interestsoftentakeabackseatonthepoliticalagenda.The
reservationssystemhasevolvedintoabureaucraticstructurewith
majorinefficiencies.
Therearetwomajorreasonsfortheserealities.First,withthe
fadingoftheCongresspartysdominance,theIndianpolitical

scenehaswitnessedthefloweringofmanynewpartiesandthe
intensificationofpartycompetition.AsthepopulationofSCs
increases,fasterthantherateofgrowthofthegeneralpopulation,
politicalpartieshaverealizedtheelectoralpotentialofthisgroup
andhavesoughttousereservationsasawayofgarneringvotes.
ChristopheJaffrelothasarguedthattheCongresspartyinits
heydayusedsuchastrategy,bargainingandextendingits
93

patronageinexchangeforelectoralsupport. However,oncein
office,politicianslosetheirincentivetoseethatreservationsare
implementedeffectively.
AsecondreasonisthefactthatDalitshavefailedtouniteasan
AllIndiapoliticalforce.ThoughtherehavebeenDalitpolitical
successstories,suchastherisetopoweroftheBahujanSamaj
PartyinUttarPradesh,theseachievementshavebeenrestrictedto
certainregions.Dalitshavebeenplaguedbyinternalrivalries,
includingtheirowncastehierarchy.
51
ApoliticallyinfluentialnationalDalitmovementhasyetto
emerge.Consequently,theyhavenotbeenabletolobbyeffectively
fortheefficientimplementationofthereservationspolicy.Dalit
politicianswhoareelectedtoreservedseatsinlegislativebodies
liketheLokSabhahavealsobeenknowntobeservantsofthe
partyratherthanrepresentativesoftheirSCconstituents.
Furthermore,thegeneralpoliticizationofreservationshas
contributedtoDalitdisunity,sparkingdisputesoverthe
distributionofbenefits.
Thissectionwillexamineobstaclestothesuccessofthe
reservationspolicy.Itbeginswithanexampleoftheadministrative
difficultiesandinefficienciesofthesystem.Next,thereisan
analysisoftheroleofthegovernmentcommissionthatoversees

reservationspolicy.Thecurrentpoliticalsettingisalsoan
importantcomponent,includingtheviewsoftheBJPledcoalition
thatgovernsIndia.Areviewofselectedsocialandeconomic
indicatorsprovidesbackgroundforconsideringthecurrent
politicalclimatewithintheDalitcommunity.
AdministrativeDeficiencies
AFlawedandCumbersomeSystem:TheIssueofFalse
Certificates
Anyconsiderationofreservationsasaformofsocialengineering
toredressthegrievancesofaminoritymusttouchonthe
mechanicsofthesystem.Itisasystemthathasgrownenormously
sinceitsoriginsinthe1930sandreachesintoalllevelsofIndian
politics,education,andgovernmentemployment,includingthe
substantialnumberofpublicsectorundertakings,as
governmentownedindustriesareknown.
Thecornerstoneofthesystemistheofficiallist,orschedule,that
gavetheScheduledCastes(SCs)theirname.Originally
compiledbycivilservantsinthe1930s,the
93

Jaffrelot89.

52
94

currentversionshows1,091ScheduledCastes. Stateswiththe
greatestnumbersofSCsareKarnataka(101),Orissa(93),and
TamilNadu(76).AScheduledCasteinonestatemaynotbesoin
anotherstateoreveninanotherpartofthesamestate.
Overtime,alargebodyofadministrativeregulations,forms,and
caselawhascomeintobeingtoguidethereservationprocess.
Thereare,forexample,aProformaforsendingproposalsfor

dereservationofvacancies,aninstructionfortheGroupingof
isolatedpostsforpurposesofordersregardingreservation,and
DeschedulingofCasteofScheduledCastepersonafterhisinitial
appointment.However,themostimportantformisthecertificate
everyScheduledCastemembermusthavetoapplyforreserved
employment,educationalbenefits,holdingreservedlegislative
seatsatanylevel,orreceivingbenefitsundervarious
developmentalprogrammesmeantformembersofScheduled
Castes&ScheduledTribes.

95

Anyofeighteenspecifiedlocalofficialscanissueacertificate,but
therulesforissuingacertificatearecomplex.Anapplicantwho
movestoanareaofhisstateinwhichhisgroupisnotscheduled
canstillgetacertificate,butifhemovestoanotherstatewherehis
groupisnotscheduledhewillnot.Shouldheconverttoother
thanHinduism,Sikhism,orBuddhism,hemaynotreceivea
certificate.Ifheconvertswhileholdingareservedjob,hewillbe
strippedofhisSCpromotionadvantage.Shouldhereconvert,he
cangetacertificateonlyifhecanshowheisacceptedbackbyhis
formergroup.

9694

TheConstitution(ScheduledCastes)Order,1950,isthe
controllingdocument.NabhisBrochureonReservationandConcession(New
Delhi:NabhiPublications,2001)412438,reprintsthemostrecentversionofthe
95
list. NationalCommissionforScheduledCastesandScheduledTribes,Fourth
96
Report199697&199798,VolumeI(NewDelhi:1998),212. Nabhis
Brochure,2442.

53
Inevitably,theissuingofcertificateshasbecomeasourceof
corruption.Jobs,schooling,grantmoney,andevensomeshareof
politicalpowerperhapsaseatonavillageormunicipalcouncil
areatstake.Onthereceivingend,thereisoftenalackof
ScheduledCastecandidatesformidorhigherlevelpositions.
GivenemployerorschoolinterestinfillingSCpositions,adont

ask,donttellattitudemayprevail.Atalllevelsabovetraditional
untouchableoccupationslikesweeper,thepossibilityexiststhat
casteHinduswithbogusSCcertificatesaresqueezingoutreal
membersoftheScheduledCastes.
Theproblemoffalsecertificatesisoflongstanding.Earlier
mentionsareoftencouchedinbureaucraticlanguage,likethis
examplefrom1976:
...ComplaintscontinuedtobereceivedinthisOrganisationaboutfalse
certificatesobtainedbynonScheduledCaste/ScheduledTribepersonstogetthe
facilitiesadmissibletomembersofScheduledCaste/Tribecommunities.
Attimes,itwasobservedthattheauthoritiesempoweredtoissuecastecertificates
didnotsatisfythemselvesadequatelyaboutthegenuinenessofthecastestowhich
theapplicantsclaimedtobelong.Sometimes,certificateswereissuedwithout
necessaryinquiries/verifications.Thismatterwasalsohighlightedinthelast
report...The[Home]Ministryhasfurthersuggestedthattheofficialsconcerned
mayalsobeinformedthatactionwouldbetakenagainstthemundertherelevant
provisionsoftheIndianPenalCodeifanyofthemisfoundtohaveissuedthe
97
certificatescarelesslyandwithoutmakingproperverifications...

Althoughthepossibilitythatofficialsweresellingcertificatesis
notmentioned,itisimpliedbythethreattousetheIndianPenal
Code.
Bythemid1990s,theproblemhadworsenedandFalse
Certificateshasitsownchapterinthetwomostrecentreportsof
theNationalCommissionforScheduledCastesandScheduled
Tribes.Concernedaboutthewidespreadincidenceoffalse
certificates,theCommissionin1996carriedoutpilotfieldstudies
inseveralstates.Thestudiesconfirmedtheirregularitiesandthe
trend.AcheckontwelveCentralGovernmentorganizationsin
TamilNadufound338holdersoffraudulentSTcertificates.Inthe
end,onlysixwere
dismissedafterwhattheCommissiontermedenormousdelays.

Nearlyaquarteroftheindividualsthwartedremovalbygetting
98

stayordersfromcooperativelocalcourts. TheCommissionhas
repeatedlycalledonthegovernmenttocrackdownon
fraudulentcertifications.Ithasmadedetailedproposalsfor
correctivemeasures,butnonehavebeenforthcoming.The
appearanceisthatfewingovernmentreallycare.The
Commissions1998reportprovidesafinalword:

...certificateshavebeenissuedtoineligiblepersons,carelesslyordeliberately...
Thishasresultedinwrongpersonsavailingofthebenefitsmeantforthe
ScheduledCastesandScheduledTribesonafalsepretext.
...themenaceoffalsecastecertificatesisontheincrease...
Aconsiderablenumberofseatsintheeducationalinstitutionsarealsosecuredby
thesewrongpersons.
...therehavebeeninstancesofpersonsbeingelectedtoelectiveofficesonthe
strengthoffalseCommunityCertificates.99

54
TheNationalCommissionforScheduledCastesandScheduled
Tribes:ReservationsWatchdog
AsmandatedbyArticle338oftheConstitution,aspecialofficer
wasappointedin1950tomonitorsafeguardsfortheSCs.Thepost
hassincebeenalteredseveraltimes.Atonepoint,twogovernment
organizationsexistedconcurrentlyaCommissionersofficeand
theDirectorateGeneralofBackwardClasses.Aconstitutional
amendmentin1978mergedthetwobodiestocreatetheNational
CommissionforScheduledCastesandScheduledTribes.Despite

thisapparentimprovement,understaffingcontinuestobeachronic
problem.In1992,sixofseventeenfieldofficedirectorspostswere
abolished.OfficesinPatna,BiharandHyderabad,AndhraPradesh,
twostateswhereatrocitiesagainstSCsareparticularly
97

ReportoftheCommissionerforScheduledCastesandScheduledTribes,1974
98
(NewDelhi:GovernmentofIndiaPress,1977)185. NationalCommissionfor
ScheduledCastesandScheduledTribes,ThirdReport:199495&199596(New
Delhi:GovernmentofIndiaPress,1998),192.
99

NationalCommissionforScheduledCastesandScheduledTribes,Fourth
Report:199697&199798(NewDelhi:GovernmentofIndiaPress,1998),213
214.

55
100

prevalent,wereamongthepostssustainingcutbacks. Attimes
eventhecentralheadposthasbeenleftvacant,asoneoutgoing
commissionerrelated:
NosuccessorhasbeenappointedcreatingaConstitutionalvaccum[sic].Idonot
knowhowlongthiswillcontinue.Thisisanotherincidentofconstitutional
violationconcerningthesafeguardsoftheSCsandSTswhichIhavebeen
repeatedlyasserting.Butthisishowthecurrentofarowed[sic]equityandsocial
101
justicefortheweakestsectionsofoursocietyflowsinourcountry.

AnotherproblemtheCommissionhasencounteredconsistentlyis
thedifficultyofobtainingdatafromstateandlocalgovernmentsin
atimelyandcompletemanner.In1953,theCommissionerfor
ScheduledCastesandScheduledTribes,L.M.Shrikant,lamented:
Experiencehas...shownthatinspiteofrepeatedandurgentreminders,ithasnot
beenpossiblefortheStateGovernmentstofurnishmewiththerequiredand
sufficientdataintimeforinclusionintheReport.Moreover,itisfoundthatat
timestheinformationfurnishedbytheStateGovernmentsisverysketchyand
incompleteand,itbeingalreadytoolate,notimeislefttoobtainfurtherdetails
102
fromthem.

Thisisstillanissue.TheTamilNadugovernment,forexample,
whichhasbeenconductingcensusesofitsemployeessince1978,
103

didnotcollectanydataonreservationsuntil1992. Such
evidenceisillustrativeofthegenerallackofprioritygivento
issuesinvolvingthewelfareofSCs.
Thestoryatthecentrallevelisnobetter.Frequently,Commission
reportsarenotreviewedbyParliamentformonthsorevenyears
aftertheyarecompleted.In1964,CommissionerAnilChanda
politelynotedthelonggapbetweenpresentationof[theannual]
100

NationalCommissonforScheduledCastesandScheduledTribes,Annual
101

Report:199394. ReportoftheCommissionerforScheduledCastesAnd
th
ScheduledTribes.30 Report.[originallypresented
inHindi]p.109.LetterfromSC/STCommissioner,B.D.SharmatoShriC.
102
Subramanian,GovernorofMaharashtra. ReportoftheCommissionerfor
ScheduledCastesandScheduledTribesfortheYear1953(ThirdReport).L.M.
103
Shrikant,GovernmentofIndia,2. P.Radhakrishnan,SensitizingOfficialson
DalitsandReservations,EPW,February16,2002,653.

56
104

ReporttothePresidentanditsplacingbeforeParliament. He
attributedthistoadelayinprintingandintranslatingthetextinto
Hindi.Commentingonthesameproblemthirtyyearslater,B.D.
Sharma,thenholdingtheCommissionerspost,wasnotas
forgiving:
Evenifareportispresenteditremainsshelvedformonthsandyearstogether
withoutanyactionbeingtakenonit.EvenwhentheParliamentfindstime...there
ishardlyanydiscussiononthecontentsofthereportandtheformalityisoverinno
105
time.Ofwhatuseissuchanarrangement?

Sharmawasnotexaggerating.ThemostrecentNational

Commissionreportavailabletothepublicisfrom1998.
SubsequentreportsarestillpendingParliamentsreviewbefore
theycanbereleased.
DalitsandtheLaw
WhenSClegislatorsdonotrepresenttheirinterests,Dalitsdonot
havemanyotheroptionsforprotestingtransgressionsofthe
reservationspolicyoratrocitiestheysustain.Thepolice,for
example,areoftenindifferenttotheSCsgrievancesandhave
frequentlybeenknowntobeaggressorsthemselves.
InOctober2000inMatailavillage,UttarPradesh,uppercastemen
severelybeatupandthrewacidonsixDalits,blindingtwo.Oneof
thevictimsgaveanaccountoftheincident:
Theybeatusmercilesslyandpouredacidonallofus.Ourfamilytookustothe
Matipolicepostintheneighborhoodbutweweresnubbedbythepolicemen
there...(whentheywenttothepolicestationinDewathenextday),thepolice
reluctantlylodgedourcomplaintafterwerequestedthemseveraltimes...wewere
106
lefttogotothehospitalonourown.
104

ReportoftheCommissionerforScheduledCastesandScheduledTribesforthe
Year19631964:PartI.ThirteenthReport.PrintedinIndiabytheManager
GovernmentofIndiaPressCoimbatoreandPublishedbytheManagerof
105
PublicationsDelhi6,1965.Commissioner:AnilK.Chanda. Reportofthe
th
CommissionerforScheduledCastesAndScheduledTribes.30 Report.
[originallypresentedinHindi]9.
106

SharatPradhan,TwoblindedasuppercastementhrowacidonsixDalits,
IndiaAbroadNewsService,October23,2000.

57
Thoughtheconductofthepoliceinthiscaseshowedmore
negligencethanbrutality,manycasesofviolencecommittedbythe
policeagainstSCshavebeendocumented.Ofthe418cases

broughttotheattentionoftheNationalCommissionforScheduled
CastesandScheduledTribesin199394,52involvedthe
commissionofatrocitiesbythepolice.Suchcasesincludedtorture
whileinpolicecustody,rapeinpolicecustody,andother
harassment.In1994forinstance,policeintheVaishalidistrictof
BiharbeatanSCyouthtodeath.Another23casesinvolvedlapses
suchasthefailureofthepolicetoarresttheaccusedandtoprovide
protectiontovictimsofcastebasedatrocities.Forexample,in
Fatehpurdistrict,UttarPradesh,nonSCsmurderedanSCfather
andsonoveralanddisputeandsetfiretothevictimshouseafter
placingthebodiesinside.Thelocalpolicewroteofftheincidentas
afireaccidentanddidnotpresschargesontheculprits.

107

SCsalsodonotoftenhavemeansfororaccesstolegalresources
tocontestviolations.Fewhaveobtainedjudgeshipsandother
positionsincourts.Table13,whichsurveysSCrepresentationon
thehighcourtsofselectstatesin1996,showsthatSCsrarelyattain
postsintheupperechelonsoftheIndianjusticesystem:Table13.
SCRepresentationinHighCourtsinVariousStates/UTsin1996
58
Betweentheeightstatesandoneunionterritorysurveyed,there
wereatotaloffiveSCswithpositionsonhighcourts.Himachal
Pradesh,where,accordingtothe1991census,SCsmakeup25.30
percentofthepopulation,hadnoSCsinitshighcourt.Punjaband
Harayana,whichsharethesamecapitalofChandigarh,haveSC
populationsof28.30percentand19.70percent,respectively,but
havenoSChighcourtofficialsoutofatotalof29.Incontrast,itis
estimatedthatBrahminsholdapproximately78percentofjudicial
positionsthoughthisgroupaccountsforonly3.5percentofIndias
population.

108

Administrativeproblemsaside,aclearlydisgruntledSharmagotto

theheartofthematterintheopeningpagesofhisreport:
Todaythequestionofreservationhasplungedthewholecountryintoan
atmosphereofmadness...Unfortunatelyinsteadofappreciatingthespiritof
reservationinarightwayasenvisagedintheConstitutionandconsistentwithits
leasie[sic]spiritandcreatingasuitableatmospherethereforitisbeingusedthe
arithmatics[sic]ofvotesasanunerringweaponforstrengtheningthepartybasein
thecontextofallprevailingrealpoliticsprevalentalloverthecountry.The
reservationisnotonlyturningintoapartnershipinthegainsofexploitationbut
alsoaninstrumentofpermanentdivision,prejudices,inequalityanddistress
createdtherebyinthesociety.Thustodaytheforemostquestionishowfarand
howmuchtheinterestsofthecountryandsocietywillcontinuetobesacrificedfor
109
theimmediatepoliticalgains.

Thus,partoftheexplanationforthereservationspolicysproblems
stemsfromthesystemhavingbecomeapoliticaltoolforpolitical
partieslookingtoexpandtheirvotebanks.Thoughtheymayjump
tosupportreservationsandevenseekthepolicysextension,such
partieslackthepoliticalwilltofollowthroughwiththeirpromises
oncetheyhaveachievedelection.
108

109

DepartmentofStateHumanRightsReport2001. ReportoftheCommissioner
th
forScheduledCastesAndScheduledTribes.30 Report.[originallypresentedin
Hindi]4.

59
ReservationasanElectoralTool:PoliticalInterests
Asurveyofthemanifestosofthemajorpoliticalpartiesinthelate
1990sindicatesthatnearlyallgroupsaddresstheissueof
reservations.Furthermore,adoptingaproreservationsstanceis
oftenthecourseofaction,since,asthepolicyexpands,opposing
110

thereservationsisconsideredelectoralsuicide. In1996,for
example,fourmajorpartiesCongressI,BJP,JanataDal,and
CPI(M)endorsedreservations.WhiletheBJP,JanataDal,and

CPI(M)supportedreservationsforbackwardclasses,theCongress
partyevenproposedtoextendreservationtowomenintheLok
111

Sabha.

ThisisnotanewdevelopmentontheIndianpoliticalscene.As
ChristopheJaffrelotarguesinhisforthcomingbookIndiasSilent
Revolution:TheRiseoftheLowCastesinNorthIndianPolitics,
theCongresspartyhadlongbeenawareofthesignificanceofthe
SCvoteaswellasoftheelectoralpotentialofthereservations
system:
Congresssucceededinprojectingitselfasthenaturalrepresentativeofthe
ScheduledCastesbecauseofitsskillinpromotingorcooptingUntouchable
leadersincludingcadresofthepartiesestablishedbyAmbedkarandgetting
themelectedintheframeworkofthereservationsystem.Eveniftheyhad
propogatedrevolutionaryviewsintheirearlycareer,theyoftenforgotthem,once
112
integratedtothepoliticalelite.

TheChangingFaceoftheBJPSincethewaningofCongress
dominance,theBJPhasemergedasIndiasleading
party.InadditiontobeingcharacterizedasaHindunationalist
partyfiercelyopposedtoMuslimculture,theBJPhasalsobeen
describedasperpetuatingaBrahminicalSocial
110

111

Bayly303. PoliciesofPoliticalPartiesbasedontheirElectionmanifesto
112
1996,http://meadev.nic.in/election/cmpare.htmAccessedFebruary18,2002.
Jaffrelot89.

60
OrderinwhichuppercasteHindusdominateandoppressthe
113

lowercastesinIndiansociety. Sinceitspoliticaltroublesafter
the1996elections,whenthepartycouldnotfindanycoalition
partnersandwasunsuccessfulinformingagovernment,theBJP
hasattemptedtoalteritsimagetowidenitsappeal.

OnemajorchangehasbeentheBJPsefforttotonedownits
traditionallymilitantHindunationalistrhetoric.Itsmanifesto
featuressectionsonCommitmenttotheWelfareoftheScheduled
CastesandScheduledTribesandUntouchability:ACrime
AgainstHumanity.Amongitspromisesarethoseforalawto
backupthereservationspolicy,specialtribunalstodealwith
complaintsofnonimplementationofthepolicy,andeffortstosee
thatpreferentialopportunitiesbenefitthelargestandwidestcross
sectionofSCs.TheBJPhaseveninvokedthenameofAmbedkar,
announcinginits1998manifestothatabefittingNational
MemorialinhonourofDr.BabasahebAmbedkar,whodedicated
hislifetothecauseofsocialjustice,willbeerectedat
ChaityabhoomiinMumbaionthelinesofnationalmemorialslike
114

RajGhat,ShantiVanandVijayGhat. Themostrecent
manifestofrom1999fortheBJPledNationalDemocraticAlliance
containspledgestoprotectexistingreservationspolicyforSCs.
SuchstatementsarenodoubtaimedatwooingSCvoters.

115

ModeratingitspositionhasalsofacilitatedtheBJPsattemptto
forgemorewidespreadallianceswithregionalparties.In1997,the
BJPformedacoalitionwiththeBSPintheUttarPradesh
government.
116

headstheNationalDemocraticAlliance .TheAlliance,which
includesleftistpartieslikeSCpoliticianRamVilasPaswansLok
JanShaktiParty,controlstheLokSabha.
Withinitspartyranks,theBJPhasalsotriedtoadvancemembers
withnontraditionalbackgrounds,suchasSCs.Forexample,it
madeBangaruLaxman,anSC,itspresident.However,hewas
forcedtoresignwhentheTehelkascandalinvolvingbriberyand
defensecontractssurfacedin2001.

117

SpendingonScheduledCastes:AnIndicatorofPoliticalWill

Budgetallocationandspendingareoftentellingindicatorsofa
governmentspolicyinterestsandpriorities.Since1979,the
GovernmentofIndiahasimplementedaSpecialComponentPlan
(SCP)withthegoalofboostingSCsabovethepovertyline.Based
ontheproportionofSCpopulation,theumbrellaprogramis
designedtodirecttheflowofoutlaysandbenefitsfromgeneral
sectorsinStateandCentralMinistryplansintothedevelopmentof
SCs.DespitetheclaimoftheMinistryofSocialJusticeand
Empowerment(whichoverseesimplementationoftheprogram)of
havinghelped1,930,641familiescrossthepovertylinein1999
2000,Table14showsthatportionsofthefundsearmarkedforSCP
useareleftunspenteachyear,withasmuchas40percentunused
in199798.ItshouldalsobenotedthatthepercentageofState
PlanOutlaysetasidefortheSCPislessthantheproportionofthe
SCpopulation,which,accordingtothe1991Censuswas16.37
percent.However,injustificationofthelackofdirectcorrelation
betweentheSCPoutlayandthepercentageof
Theprogramhasalsobeenhamperedbythetendencyofstate
governmentstodivertfundstoothersectors,awayfromthetarget
group.InavillageinLucknow,UttarPradesh,itwasdiscovered
thatthePresidentofthegrampanchayat(villagecouncil)had
fraudulentlytriedtoobtaingrantmoney.Heclaimedthatthe
requestwasatthebehestofsomeSCresidentsinhisvillage,butit
waslaterfoundthattheSCshadneverappliedformoneyandhad
notgiventhecouncilpresidentpermissiontodosoontheir
behalf.

118

Localgovernmentshavealsobeenknowntotakeexcessivetimein
finalizingbenefitprogramsforSCs,suchthatbythetimetheplans
andaccompanyingmoneyarereleased,theyearforwhichthe
grantswereintendedtoapplyhasalreadyelapsed.
118

119

ReportoftheCommissionerforScheduledCastesandScheduledTribesforthe

Year19631964:PartI.ThirteenthReport1011.

119

Ibid.

63
Thus,despitetheprogramsdesignedtoextendeconomicaidto
SCs,corruptionandinefficiencyhavehinderedtheireconomic
progress.Povertystatisticsreflectthis:
Table15.PercentageofSCandTotalPopulationBelowthe
PovertyLine
Source:NationalCommissionforScheduledCastesandScheduledTribes.Fourth
Report,199697&199798,13.Notes:MorerecentpovertystatisticsforSCswere
notavailable.

Table15indicatesthateventhoughalowerproportionofSCsare
belowthepovertylinethaninthe1970s,comparedtotheallIndia
estimatestheSCsremainbehindintheclimboutofpoverty.In
1989thePlanningCommission,whichproducedthepoverty
estimatesabove,decidedtoreviewitsestimatesbasedonanew
methodologydevisedbyacontractorexpertgroup.Thegroups
findings,submittedin1993,showedthatearliersurveyshad
underestimatedpovertylevelsbynearlytenpercent:
Table16.PercentageofTotalPopulationBelowthePovertyLine
Source:NationalCommissionforScheduledCastesandScheduledTribes.Fourth
Report,199697&199798,82.

ThegroupneglectedtogeneratestatisticsontheSCpopulation,
buttheNationalCommissionforSCsandSTs,usingthenew
methodology,madesuchestimates,findingthat
Year

SC

Total

197778

56.3

48.3

198384

50.1

37.4

198788

41.5

29.9

Year

%ageBelowPoverty
Line

197778

51.32%

198384

44.48%

198788

38.86%

199394

35.97%

64
fortheyear199394approximately48.8percentoftheSC
populationwasbelowthepovertyline.Thisismuchhigherthan
theoriginalestimateof41.5percentfortheyear198788.
Thoughthediscrepanciescouldsimplybeaccountedforby
improvementsindatacollectionandstatisticalanalysis,the
underestimatescouldbeindicativeofthedesiretodownplaythe
seriousnessofthepovertyproblem,especiallyconcerningtheSCs.
GiventheemphasisplacedontheupliftoftheSCsintheIndian
constitutionandbypoliticians,thefailuretocollectandreporton
theeconomicstatusofSCsisatellingoversight.Whichever
povertyestimatesmaybeclosertothetruth,thecommon
denominatoristhateconomicdevelopmentprogramshavenothad
asignificantimpact.TheCommissionforSCsandSTssummedup
thepicturebest:
Eachandeveryactofdevelopment...reviewedforjudgingtheconditionofthe
SCs/STsshowsthattheirpositiontodayinruralIndiaandurbanslumshadnot

improvedsubstantiallyevenafterfiftyyears.

120

DalitMobilization
TheDalitMassesandtheHarijanElite
WithpovertywidespreadamongtheSCpopulation,manySCsare
stillnotabletotakeadvantageofpreferentialpolicies.Alarge
proportionliveinruralareasfarremovedfrommanyofthe
opportunitiesforjobandeducationalreservations.Accordingto
the1991census,theratioofruraltourbanpopulationwas81:19
forSCs,whilethatforallofIndiawas74:26(72:28inthe2001
121

census). OverhalfofSCsareemployedintheagricultural
sector,primarilyaslandlessagriculturallaborers.Thus,benefits
suchasreservedseatsin
120

NationalCommissionforScheduledCastesandScheduledTribes,Annual
121
Report:199394,1. RuralUrbandistributionofpopulation,CensusofIndia
2001,http://www.censusindia.net/results/rudist.html,AccessedMarch15,2002.

65
institutionsofhighereducationareoflittleconsequencewhen
manySCsdonotmakeitpasttheprimarylevelofschool.
Incontrast,asnotedbyvariouscommissionersforSC/STs,the
forwardamongtheSCs,whoarebetteroffeconomicallyand
havepoliticalconnections,aresecuringadisproportionateshareof
reservationsbenefits.Asaresult,scholarssuchasOliver
Mendelsohn,Sachchidananda,andG.Narayanahavebroughtto
lighttheemergenceofaHarijanElite,whoaregraduallymoving
fartherandfartherawaypolitically,socially,andeconomically
122

fromtherestoftheSCpopulation. Someofthesedominantsub
castesincludetheMaharsofMaharashtra,theEzhavasinKerala
andtheMalasinAndhraPradesh.

ItisapparentthatmanyoftheSCswhomadeuseofreservations,
suchastoobtainseatsinlegislatures,hadsuchadvantagesas
educationalopportunities,bettereconomicpositionsandpolitical
links.Mendelsohn,whoconductedinterviewswithSCmembersof
Parliamentinthe1980s,foundthatselfmadepoliticians,those
whodidnotdependonearliergenerationstobreakfromthe
economiccondition(typicallylandlesslaborers)oftheSC
community,weretheexceptiontotherule.ThemajorityofSC
123

politiciansinterviewedhadalsoreceivedhighereducation. The
analysisinthisstudyofthebackgroundsofmembersofthecurrent
LokSabhaalsoreflectsahighlevelofeducation.ProminentSC
politicianslikeAmbedkar,aMaharfromMaharashtra,camefrom
comparativelymoreprosperousSCfamilies.Ambedkarsfather
andgrandfatherwereinthemilitary,oftenawayofgettingaccess
toeducationandmorestablepay.JagjivanRam,whobecame
activeinthe
122

AsimilarphenomenonhasoccurredamongtheranksoftheOtherBackward
Classes,namely,thedevelopmentofacreamylayer,whichalsoprofits
123
disproportionatelyfromreservationsbenefits. AHarijanElite?TheLivesof
SomeUntouchablePoliticians(OliverMendelsohn),EconomicandPolitical
Weekly,VolXXI,No12,March22,1986.

66
Congresspartyintheearly1930s,wasaChamarfromBihar
whosefatherwasemployedbytheIndianarmy.Ramsfamilys
comfortableeconomicsituationfacilitatedhisattendinguniversity
inCalcutta.

124

TheLegislatures:DescriptiveRepresentationAchieved,
SubstantiveRepresentationStillElusive
TheNovember1993electionsinUPbroughtacoalition

governmentofMulayamSinghYadavsSamajwadiParty(SP)and
MayawatisBahujanSamajPartytopower.Theeventmarkedthe
emergenceandconsolidationofasuccessfulorganizationaland
politicalfocalpointfortheDalitsofUPforthefirsttimein20
years.TheBSPsrisetopowerwasalsothefirsttimeapolitical
partythatdependedontheDalitsupportandadvancedaDalit
125

basedagendawasvotedintogovernmentoffice. Theelection
resurrectedthemodernDalitmovementspearheadedbyAmbedkar
thathadloststeambythe1970s.

126

Demographicshavebeenadeterrenttoachievingunity.Because
SCs,whoconstitute16.4percentofthepopulationbasedon1991
Censusestimates,aredistributedfairlyevenlyacrossIndia,theydo
notmakeupthemajorityofanyLokSabhadistrict.Alistair
McMillanhascalculatedthat,onaverage,SCsmakeup23.1
percentofthepopulationinSCreserved
124

OliverMendelsohnandMarikaVicziany,TheUntouchables:Subordination,
Poverty,andtheStateinModernIndia.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,
125
1998. IanDuncan,NewpoliticalequationsinNorthIndia:Mayawati,
Mulayam,andgovernmentinstabilityinUttarPradesh,AsianSurvey,October
126
1997,v37n10,979. Jaffrelot101103.Yet,evenwithhispopularityandstature
amongDalitsacrossIndia,Ambedkarhimselfhadonlymodestsuccessinbuilding
aninfluentialDalitpoliticalparty.WhatbeganasAmbedkarsIndependent
LabourParty(ILP)in1936,soonturnedintotheScheduledCastesFederation
(SCF)in1942.WhentheSCFfailedtoachieveanysignificantelectoralsuccess,
thepartybecametheRepublicanPartyofIndia(RPI),foundedin1957,lessthana
yearafterAmbedkarsdeath.ThoughtheRPIdidenjoysomemodestelectoral
victories,theleadershipcrisisthatemergedwithAmbedkarsdeathultimately
causedthepartytomeetthefateofitspredecessors.Atonepoint,shortlybeforeit
dissolved,theRPIhadfourdifferentfactionscontestingelections,includingone
ledbyAmbedkarsson.

67
constituencies.GivenIndiasfirstpastthepostelectoralsetup,

candidatesinthesereservedconstituenciesdonotalwayshaveto
dependontheSCsupportforvictory.

127

Table17.DistributionofConstituenciesReservedforSCs
(accordingtopercentageofScheduledCastes)
Source:ChristopheJaffrelot,IndiasSilentRevolution.London:Hurst&Co.,in
publication,96.Notes:Tableisbasedon1961datawhentherewere75LokSabha
seatsforSCs.

Asaresult,Dalitrepresentativeswhoareelecteddonotalways
derivetheirmainsupportfromtheSCs,butfromcasteHindu
constituents.
ThoughthequotasforSCparliamentaryrepresentationhavebeen
filled,Dalitpoliticiansdonotappeartobegaininginfluenceor
supportoutsideofthesespecialconstituencies.MarcGalanter,
writingintheearly1980s,commented:
Atthepolicymakinglevel,reservedseatshavesecuredtheacceptanceofSCand
STasgroupswhoseinterestsandviewsmustbetakenintoaccount.Inevery
legislativesettingtheyarepresentinsufficientnumberssothatissuesaffecting
thesegroupsremainontheagenda.Anythinglessthanrespectfulattentiontotheir
problems,evenifonlylipservice,isvirtuallyunknown.Overthostilitytothese
groupsistabooinlegislativeandmanyotherpublicforums.Butthereisevidence
thatSCandSTarenotacceptedpolitically.Veryfewmembersofthesegroupsare
128
nominatedfornonreservedseats,andonlyatinynumberareelected.
127

AlistairMcMillan,ScheduledCastevotingandtheBJP,preparedfor
presentationatthe2001AmericanPoliticalScienceAssociationAnnualMeeting,
128
SanFrancisco,California,August31September2,2001,4. MarcGalanter,
CompetingEqualities:LawandtheBackwardClassesinIndia.Delhi:Oxford
UniversityPress,1984,549.

%ofScheduledCastes

Numberofconstituencies

010

1020

25

2030

33

3040

10

4050

68
Thesituationhasnotchanged.ThesuccessofonlytwoSCMPsin
nonreservedconstituenciesinthe1999LokSabhaelections
supportsthisobservation.Asaresult,SCMPsinreservedseats
havelessofanincentivetofightforSCintereststhantheywould
ifseparateelectoratesexisted.
Indiasparliamentarysystemamplifiestheproblem.Unlike
presidentialstylegovernments,suchasintheUnitedStates,the
parliamentarysetuprequiresagreaterdegreeofpartydiscipline.
Therefore,especiallywhenDalitsdonotformasignificantpartof
theircontituencies,Dalitpoliticiansmayshowmoreloyaltyto
theirpartiesthantotheirDalitconstituents.Thissituationhasbeen
summedupbyoneformerIndianstategovernor:Unfortunately
thesemembersbelongingtodifferentpoliticalpartiesaremore
loyaltothepartiesthantothemillionsofDalitswhomthey
represent.Theyseemtohavebecomesilentandvoiceless
surrogatesoftheparties.

129

IntraDalitRivalry
Moresignificantly,theemergenceofapowerfulDalitmovement
hasbeenhinderedbyintragrouprivalry.Dalits,too,havethere
owncastehierarchy,withsomegroupsclearlymoredominantand
influential.

130

Suchgroupshaveenjoyedadisproportionateshare

ofreservations.
TheongoingconflictbetweentheMalaandMadigacastes,both
groupsconsidereduntouchable,inAndhraPradeshisacasein
point.Ofthe59scheduledcastesinAndhraPradesh,theMalaand
Madigaarethelargest,constitutingabout80percentofthestates
SCpopulation.Betweenthetwogroups,theMadigasare
consideredtobelowerthantheMalas
129

A.Padmanaban,DalitsandDurban,TheHindu(Internetedition),Chennai,
130
September25,2001. McMillan10.

69
intheAndhraPradeshSChierarchytheyareoutcasteswho
eatbeef,drinkandloafaroundtotheMalas.Since1972,the
numericallylargerMadigacommunity,whichcitestheMalas
disproportionateshareofreservationsquotas,hasdemandedthat
thestates15percentSCquotabesubdivided.Theirclaim,which
hasbeenbouncedaroundbetweentheAndhraPradesh
government,highcourt,theNationalCommissionforScheduled
CastesandScheduledTribes,isstillpendingfinalrulingandwill
probablybeconsideredbytheSupremeCourt.Inthemeantime
tensionsbetweenthecommunitiescontinue,eventhoughsofar
fewviolentincidents,likeonin1997inwhichaMadigayouthwas
clubbedtodeathbyMalayouth,haveoccurred.

131

InadditiontothefrictionwiththecasteHindus,thepoliticization
ofreservationshascreatedtensionswithintheranksoftheSCs
betweenhavesandhavenots.McMillanhashypothesizedthat
theBJPhasplayedupontheseintragrouprivalriesandtriedto
reachouttothemostbackwardSCs.Lastyear,controversyarose
overBJPChiefMinisterofUttarPradeshRajnathSinghs
proposedpolicytocreatequotaswithintheexistingonesforthis

verygroup.
AStepTowardsUnity:TheBhopalConference
InJanuary2002,theMadhyaPradeshgovernmentsponsoredan
allIndiameetingofDalitsinBhopal.Theconference,whichtook
placefourmonthsafterDalitgroupsgainedworldwidepublicity
fortheircauseattheUnitedNationsmeetingonracisminDurban,
SouthAfrica,markedthefirsttimesinceindependencethatastate
governmenthadsupportedaforumfocusedonDalitissuesand
entertainedparticipationfromcriticsofthestatespoliciesfor
helpingScheduledCastes.
131

K.Balagopal,ATangledWeb:SubdivisionofSCReservationsinAP,EPW,
March25,2000,1075.

70
InorganizingtheBhopalmeeting,MadhyaPradeshChiefMinister
DigvijaySinghpubliclydemonstratedacommitmenttoimproving
DalitsstatusinIndiansociety,notsimplythepoliticianshabitof
reaffirmingreservationsinordertogarnervotes.Withthetheme
st

OnChartingaNewCourseforDalitsinthe21 century,the
eventculminatedintheMadhyaPradeshgovernmentsreleaseof
the21pointBhopalDeclaration.Thedeclaration,whichpointsout
thelackofprogressofDalitmovementsinthepast50years,calls
foraseriesofeconomicreforms.Theseincludepoliciestoensure
Dalitsafairshareintheappropriationanduseofruralandurban
commonpropertyresourcesandlegislationtoachievediversityin
bothpublicandprivatesectorsoftheworkforce.Oneofthe
participants,K.S.ChalamofAndhraUniversity,Visakhapatnam,
assertedthattheconferencedeclarationrepresentedaparadigm
shiftinthat,forthefirsttime,Dalitslookedbeyondthe
establishedsystemofreservationsforsolutionstotheirproblems.

Dalitsproposedaneconomicagendatoachievesocioeconomic
132

advancement. Asthereservationsfreeprivatesectorgrows,the
wholestructureofcompensatorydiscrimination,spearheadedby
B.R.Ambedkar,isbroughtintoquestion.
ItistooearlytoconcludethattheBhopalconferenceisaprecursor
ofmajorchangeforDalitsandthecentralandstategovernments.
Sofar,governmentshavebeenreluctanttoventureoutsideofthe
establishedreservationsframework.Atthesametime,lackofa
cohesivepanIndiamovementhasslowedDaliteffortsfor
advancement.ThoughAmbedkardidserveasafigurearound
whichDalitscouldunify,heneverachievedapoliticallypotent
panIndianfollowing.UnityhasbeenelusiveforDalits.Witha
cohesivenationalDalitmovementyettobeestablished,what
politicalconsolidationofDalitsthathasoccurredhasmostlybeen
restrictedtostatessuchasMaharashtraandUttarPradesh.As
previously
132

V.Venkatesan,TheDalitCause.Frontline,Vol.19:3,February215,2002.

indicated,Dalitsinofficetendtodemonstratemoreloyaltytotheir
individualparties(thenumberofwhichincreaseswithevery
election)thantheydototheDalitstheyrepresent.
71

CHAPTERVCONCLUSION
HaveReservationsWorked?
Successofreservationspolicywillbemeasuredbyresultshow
DalitsfareinIndiansociety.Aprecursorexamplewasthe
selectionin1997ofK.R.Naryanan,aDalit,asIndiasPresident.
Hisdistinguishedcareerhasincludedtimeasajournalist,heading
auniversity,andserviceasAmbassadortotheUnitedStates.Dalit

politicalactivismisanotherindicatorofchange.Wellorchestrated
protestsatthe2001UnitedNationsConferenceonRacismin
Durban,livelyInternetsitesofDalitadvocacygroups,and,mostof
all,growinginvolvementinpoliticallifeshowthatincreasing
numbersofDalitsaremakingtheirpresencefelt.
Theemergenceofwelleducated,articulate,andmiddleclass
Dalitsraisesthequestionofwhatwasresponsibleforsuch
progress.InthecaseofDr.Ambedkar,amaharajasteppedinto
helpatacriticaljunctureinhiseducation.Forthosefollowingin
hisfootsteps,themaharajamaybethereservationssystem.
Criticized,withjustification,forinefficiency(orworse),the
networkofreservationsinitshalfcenturyofexistencehas
contributedtoDalitopportunity.Onanationwidescale,ithas
meantmoreeducationalandbettergovernmentjobopportunities
forDalits.Statisticalevidence(Tables3and8,above)shows
decidedlypositivetrendsforDalitsenteringintoseniorcivil
serviceranks,aneightfoldincreasefrom1959to1995,and
receivinghighereducation,aneardoublingover17yearsending
in1996.
Literacyratesthrough1991arelesscompellingandshowedthat
Dalitswerenotclosingthegapwiththegeneralpopulation.
However,the2001Censusreportsatenyear
73
133

jumpof27percentinnationalliteracy(to65percent). Census
dataonDalitliteracyarenotyetavailable,butanindependent
19971998studyfoundthatDaliteducationalachievementfor
youngeragegroupsinvillagesinRajasthanandMadhyaPradesh
hadsurgedtothepointthatitwasvirtuallythesameasforupper
castes.

134

Whatishardertopinpointishowmuchimprovementcanbe
creditedtoreservationsandhowmuchmighthaveoccurred
withoutthemasaresultofgeneralgovernmentdevelopment
policiesandeconomicgrowth.Dalitgroupsareinnomoodtofind
out.Realistically,thesystemhasbecomesuchamainstayinIndia,
involvingasignificantportionofthepopulation,thatitisdoubtful
thatthedismantlingofthesystemisevenfeasible.Nopolitician
willrisktryingtorollbackthesetemporarymeasures.
AreReservationsEnough?
Reservationswillcontinuetoplayausefulrolebutwilllikelybea
diminishingpartofthesolutionofDalitproblems.Therearemajor
flaws.Reservationsapplytothepublicsectorbutnottheprivate
sector,theprobablegrowthareaoftheIndianeconomy.Thenthere
aretensofmillionsofDalitslivinginruralareasandnotpartof
theorganizedeconomy.Itisoftenadifficultlife.In1976,
ShankarraoMane,thethenCommissionerforScheduledCastes
andScheduledTribes,wrotethefollowingappraisal:
ThehardfactofoursociallifeisthattheScheduledCastesarefightingalone.
HousesinCasteHinduslocalitiesarenotavailabletothemonrenteveninurban
areas;drinkingwaterwellsaregenerallynotopentothem,theservicesofpriests,
barbersandwashermenarestilldeniedtotheminseveralpartsofthecountryand
theyarepaidnominalwagesforhardlabourinthefields.And,whentheytryto
asserttheirrightstousecommonservicesordemandproperwages,theyare
subjectedtoinhumanatrocities,abuses,assaults,socialboycott,loot,arson,
murderandwhatnot.Theyarebrandedwithredhotiron.Eventheirwomenare
notspared.Stilltheystruggle.
133

LiteracyRate:India,CensusofIndia,
134
http://www.censusindia.net/results/provindia3.html.AccessedMarch20,2002.
AnirudhKrishna,WhatisHappeningtoCaste?AViewfromSomeNorthIndian
Villages.(Manuscript,2002)Table1.Basedonsurveysin69villages.

74

LettheScheduledCastesbeassuredthatintheirstruggletheyarenotalone.That
theenlightenedamongtheIndiansarewiththemnotonlywithwordsofsympathy
135
butwithconcreteaction.

ReportingbyIndianandforeignhumanrightsgroupsand
governmentsindicatesthatproblemsofthiskindremaininmany
partsofIndiadespitetheConstitution,laws,andthedesireofa
greatmanyIndiansforanendtomistreatmentofDalits.
WhatCanBeDone?
Thereservationssystemwouldbenefitmarkedlyfroman
administrativefacelift.AsrecommendedbytheCommissionfor
ScheduledCastesandScheduledTribes,acomprehensiveact,
articulatingthepolicy,isneeded.Therevisionandstreamliningof
procedures,suchasSCcertification,mighthelpcurbabuse.In
addition,socialprogramssuchasthosedirectedatimprovingthe
educationsystem,especiallyattheprimarylevelandinruralareas,
shouldbegivenmoreemphasis.
Reformwilldependheavilyonthepoliticalwillofgovernment
leadersanddominantpoliticalpartiesaswellastheabilityofthe
Dalitstomobilizesuccessfully.Asourceofoptimismisthe
successoftheBahujanSamajPartyintheFebruary2000assembly
electionsinUttarPradesh.Thepartywon97outof403seatsinthe
statelegislaturewiththesupportofawiderangeof
communities.

136

Overthelongerterm,otherforcesmightbeintheSCsfavor.In
additiontostressingtheimportanceofeducation,businessman
turnedjournalistGurcharanDasseesthegrowthofcapitalismasa
keytobreakingdowncasteprejudiceandraisingtheSCs.Pointing
out
135

ReportoftheCommissionerforScheduledCastesandScheduledTribes1974
136
75(NewDelhi:GovernmentPrinter,1976),17. SukumarMuralidharan,BJPin

BigTrouble,Frontline,Vol.19,Issue5,March215,2002.
http://www.flonnet.com/fl1905/19050040.htmAccessedMarch22,2002.

75
thatcastedoesnotpervademoderneconomiclifeinthewaythat
itstructuresruralsociallife,hepredictsthatthegrowthofthe
privatesectorandthemiddleclasswillerodetheoldIndian
137

hierarchy. Acknowledgingdemocracysroleinimprovingthe
lotofDalitsinthetwentiethcentury,Dasbelievesthatinthenew
centurytheIndianeconomy
...willcreatenewopportunitiesforeveryone.Thebetterjobs,itistrue,willgoto
thebettereducated.Butasthelowercastesbegintorealizethatthebetterjobsare
intheprivatesectorratherthaninthegovernment,theywillturn,onehopes,to
138
educationratherthanreservations.

Thismayalreadybehappening.Previouslymentionedfield
researchinRajasthanandMadhyaPradeshsuggeststhatanew
politicalleadership,definedbyeducationandskillratherthan
caste,maybeemergingintheseruralareas.Twentysixpercentof
thenewleadersareSCs,thoughthegrouponlymakesup22
percentofthepopulation.Education,commercialization,andland
reformhavefacilitatedtherepresentationofSCsamongthisnew
politicalelite.

139

Dasargumentmaybeoverstatedgiventheslowpaceofeconomic
liberalizationinIndiasincemajorreformsin1991.AsDas
concedes,theprivatesectorisstillinfluencedbytheaffinitiesof
kinandcasteconnectiontheBirlaandTatacompaniesbeing
examplesbutthespiritofcapitalistcompetitionhasalsodriven
manybusinessestorecruitforskillandtalent,notcaste.
Finally,theJanuary2002BhopalConferenceisagoodsign.That
thenonDalitChiefMinisterofalargestatewouldorganizethe

meetingandtakepersonalinterestinthewelfareofDalitsshowed
bothpoliticalacumenandwillingnesstofashionsolutions.Singh
foresawacontinuedroleforreservations.Inhispaperforthe
conference,hewarned,though,thattheywereonlypartofthe
solution:
137

GurcharanDas,IndiaUnbound(NewYork:AlfredA.Knopf,2001)154.
Ibid.,153.

138

76
WhiletheDalitmovementmuststrivetoachievecompletefulfillmentofthequota,
weatthesametimemustunderstandthelimitedrolereservationingovernment
jobshasinSCSTsprogressandemancipation.Unlesswehaveunderstoodit,it
wouldbedifficulttomouldthe
directionofthemovementtowardthedesiredgoal.

140

TheChiefMinisteroutlinedadetailedprogramtobenefitand
protectallDalits,includingthoseinruralareas.Aremarkable
featureofthefinalconferencedocumentistheinfluenceonitof
thelong,difficultAmericanexperiencedealingwiththelegacyof
slavery.IfMartinLutherKingdrewinspirationfromGandhi,now
IndiansweredrawinginspirationfromAmericanhistorical
experience.Theconferencedocumentnotesthatoutofthetroubles
ofthe1960scamepoliciesofequalopportunityanddiversity.It
talksofwhatExxonMobil,WalMart,andGeneralMotorsand
othercompanieshavedonetoensureemploymentofminorities.
TheauthorsseeitastimeforIndianstofollowtheAmerican
exampleandgobeyondreservations.Soglobalizationhasbrought
greaterexchangeofideasaswellascommodities.
139

Krishna2225.

140

DigvijaysDalitGambit,IndianExpress,January15,2002.

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