EXERCISE 3.3.

~
If A is a real orthogonal matrix, then by the orthogonality condition, the transpose A and the
inverse A−1 of A are equal
~
A= A−1 .

But we have shown in Exercise 3.2.32 (Problem Set #8) that

C ji
( A−1 )ij =a(ij−1)= ,
| A|

whereC ji is the ji th cofactor of | A|. Therefore, we can write

~ C
aij = ji
A ij =~
| A|

or by definition of the transpose of a matrix,

~ C ji Cij
a ij =a ji= ⟹ a ij= .
| A| | A|

Multiplying both sides of the equation bydet A , we obtain

( det A ) aij =Cij .

Now suppose we have the third order orthogonal matrix

a11 a12 a13

(
A=aij = a21 a 22 a23
a31 a32 a33 )
whose corresponding matrix of cofactors is

C 11 C12 C 13

(
C ij= C 21 C22 C 23 .
C 31 C32 C 33 )
Ifdet A=+1, it follows that

a11 a12 a 13 C 11 C 12 C 13

( )(
a21 a22 a 23 = C 21 C 22 C 23 .
a31 a32 a 33 C 31 C 32 C 33 )
Again, as we have shown in Exercise 3.2.32 (Problem Set #8), the nine cofactors are

a22 a23
C 11=(−1)1 +1
| a32 a33 |
=( a22 a33−a 23 a32 ) ,
 a21 a 23
C 12=(−1)1+2
| a31 a 33|=−( a21 a33−a23 a31) ,

a21 a22
C 13=(−1)1+3
| a31 a32 |(
= a 21 a32−a22 a31 ) ,

a12 a 13
C 21=(−1)2+1
| a32 a 33| (
=− a 12 a33−a13 a 32) ,

a11 a 13
C 22=(−1)2+2
| a31 a 33|(
= a 11 a33−a13 a31 ) ,

a 11 a12
C 23=(−1)2+3
| a31 a32 | (
=− a11 a32−a 12 a31 ) ,

a12 a13
C 31=(−1)3+1
| a22 a23 |(
= a 12 a23−a13 a 22 ) ,

a11 a13
C 32=(−1)3+2
| a21 a23 | (
=− a11 a23−a13 a 21) ,

a 11 a12
C 33=(−1)3+3
| a 21 a22|(
= a11 a22−a 12 a21 ) .

We can therefore write

a11 a12 a 13 (a22 a 33−a23 a32) −(a 21 a33−a23 a31) (a21 a32−a22 a31 )

( )(
a21 a22 a 23 = −(a12 a33−a13 a32) ( a11 a33−a 13 a31 ) −(a11 a 32−a12 a31) ,
a31 a32 a 33 (a12 a 23−a13 a22) −( a11 a23−a13 a 21) (a11 a 22−a12 a 21 ) )
which, by the principle of matrix equality, implies that

a 33=a11 a22−a12 a 21 ,
a 32=a13 a21−a11 a 23 ,
a 31=a12 a 23−a13 a22 .

These three are the identities of Eq. (1.46), used in Section 1.4 to show that a cross product of
vectors (in three-space) is itself a vector.

2
EXERCISE 3.3.7

From Eq. (3.94) of Section 3.3, the Euler angle rotation matrix is given by

cos γ cos β cos α −sin γ sin α cos γ cos β sin α +sin γ cos α −cos γ sin β
)
(
A α , β , γ = −sin γ cos β cos α −cos γ sin α −sin γ cos β sin α +cos γ cos α sin γ sin β .
(
sin β cos α sin β sin α cos β )
Using the alternative matrix inversion method shown in Exercise 3.2.32 (Problem Set #8), the
inverse of the Euler angle rotation matrix is given by

C 11 C12 C 13 T
−1
a 11 a12 a13 C 11 C21 C 31

(
A−1 ( α , β , γ ) =a(ij−1)= a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33 ) =
C ji
¿
1
( C
det A ( α , β , γ ) det A 21
C22 C 23
C 31 C32 C 33 ) (
=
1
C
det A 12
C22 C 32
C 13 C23 C 33 )
where by definition, the nine cofactors are

a22 a23
=( a22 a33−a 23 a32 )¿(−1)1+1 −sin γ cos β sin α +cos γ cos α sin γ sin β
C 11=(−1)1 +1
| a32 a33 | | sin β sin α cos β |
¿ (−sin γ cos2 β sin α +cos γ cos β cos α −sin γ sin 2 β sin α )

C 11=−sin γ sin α ( cos 2 β +sin 2 β ) +cos γ cos β cos α =−sin γ sin α +cos γ cos β cos α

a21 a 23
=−( a21 a33−a23 a31)¿(−1)1+2 −sin γ cos β cos α −cos γ sin α sin γ sin β
C 12=(−1)1+2
| a31 a 33 | |
sin β cos α cos β |
¿−(−sin γ cos2 β cos α−cos γ cos β sin α −sin γ sin 2 β cos α )

C 12=sin γ cos α ( cos 2 β +sin2 β ) + cos γ cos β sin α =¿ sin γ cos α + cos γ cos β sin α ¿

a21 a22
=( a 21 a32−a22 a31 )¿(−1)1+3 −sin γ cos β cos α −cos γ sin α −sin γ cos β sin α +cos γ cos α
C 13=(−1)1+3
|
a31 a32 | | sin β cos α sin β sin α |
¿ (−sin γ cos β sin β cos α sin α−cos γ sin β sin 2 α +sin γ cos β sin β cos α sin α−cos γ sin β cos2 α )

C 13=−cos γ sin β ( cos 2 α +sin2 α )=−cos γ sin β

a12 a 13
=−( a 12 a33−a13 a 32)¿(−1)2+1 cos γ cos β sin α+sin γ cos α −cos γ sin β
C 21=(−1)2+1
|
a32 a 33 | | sin β sin α cos β |
¿−( cos γ cos2 β sin α +sin γ cos β cos α +cos γ sin 2 β sin α )

C 21=−cos γ sin α ( cos 2 β +sin2 β )−sin γ cos β cos α =−cos γ sin α−sin γ cos β cos α

3
 a11 a 13
=( a 11 a33−a13 a31 )¿(−1)2+2 cos γ cos β cos α −sin γ sin α −cos γ sin β
C 22=(−1)2+2
|a31 a 33 | | sin β cos α cos β |
¿ ( cos γ cos 2 β cos α −sin γ cos β sin α +cos γ sin 2 β cos α )

C 22=cos γ cos α ( cos 2 β +sin 2 β )−sin γ cos β sin α=cos γ cos α −sin γ cos β sin α

a 11 a12
=−( a11 a32−a 12 a31 )¿(−1)2+3 cos γ cos β cos α −sin γ sin α cos γ cos β sin α +sin γ cos α
C 23=(−1)2+3
|a31 a32 | |sin β cos α sin β sin α |
¿−( cos γ cos β sin β cos α sin α−sin γ sin β sin 2 α −cos γ cos β sin β cos α sin α −sin γ sin β cos2 α )

C 23=sin γ sin β ( cos2 α + sin2 α ) =sin γ sin β

a12 a13
=( a 12 a23−a13 a 22)¿(−1)3+ 1 cos γ cos β sin α + sin γ cos α −cos γ sin β
C 31=(−1)3+1
|a22 a23 | |
−sin γ cos β sin α +cos γ cos α sin γ sin β |
¿ ( cos γ sin γ cos β sin β sin α +sin 2 γ sin β cos α −cos γ sin γ cos β sin β sin α +cos 2 γ sin β cos α )

C 31=sin β cos α ( cos2 γ +sin 2 γ )=sin β cos α

a11 a13
=−( a11 a23−a13 a 21)¿(−1)3+ 2 cos γ cos β cos α −sin γ sin α −cos γ sin β
C 32=(−1)3+2
|a21 a23 | |
−sin γ cos β cos α −cos γ sin α sin γ sin β |
¿−( cos γ sin γ cos β sin β cos α −sin 2 γ sin β sin α−cos γ sin γ cos β sin β cos α −cos 2 γ sin β sin α )

C 32=sin β sin α ( cos2 γ + sin2 γ ) =sin β sin α

a 11 a12
=( a11 a22−a 12 a21 )¿(−1)3+ 3 cos γ cos β cos α −sin γ sin α cos γ cos β sin α +sin γ cos α
C 33=(−1)3+3
|a 21 a22 | |
−sin γ cos β cos α −cos γ sin α −sin γ cos β sin α +cos γ cos α |
¿−cos γ sin γ cos 2 β cos α sin α +cos 2 γ cos β cos 2 α +sin2 γ cos β sin 2 α −cos γ sin γ cos α sin α + cos γ sin γ cos 2 β cos α sin α +sin 2 γ

¿ cos β ( cos 2 γ cos2 α +sin 2 γ sin 2 α +sin 2 γ cos2 α +cos 2 γ sin 2 α )

C 33=cos β ( cos2 γ ( cos2 α + sin2 α ) +sin2 γ ( cos2 α +sin 2 α ) ) =cos β

Furthermore, the determinant of A ( α , β , γ ) can be expressed in many equivalent ways by

Laplace expansion

along the first row
along the second row
along the third row
along the first column
along the second
column
along the third column
⟹ det A=a 11 C11 + a12 C 12+a 13 C13 (d.1)
⟹ det A=a 21 C 21+a 22 C22 +a23 C23 (d.2)
⟹ det A=a 31 C31 +a32 C32 +a33 C33 (d.3)
⟹ det A=a 11 C11 + a21 C 21+a 31 C31 (d.4)
(d.5)
⟹ det A=a 12 C12 +a 22 C22 +a32 C 32
⟹ det A=a 13 C 13+a 23 C 23+ a33 C 33 (d.6)

4
By inspection, the best choices in evaluating det A are equations (d.3) and (d.6) because they
give the shortest combination of factors. That is, using equation (d.3)

det A=a 31 C31 +a32 C32 +a33 C33¿ sin β cos α ( sin β cos α ) +sin β sin α ( sin β sin α ) +cos β ( cos β )

¿ sin 2 β cos 2 α +sin2 β sin 2 α + cos2 β=sin2 β ( cos 2 α +sin 2 α ) +cos 2 β¿ sin2 β+ cos2 β=1

or using equation (d.6)

det A=a 13 C 13+a 23 C 23+ a33 C 33¿−cos γ sin β (−cos γ sin β )+ sin γ sin β ( sin γ sin β )+ cos β ( cos β )

¿ cos 2 γ sin 2 β +sin 2 γ sin2 β +cos 2 β=sin2 β ( cos2 γ +sin 2 γ )+ cos2 β¿ sin2 β+ cos2 β=1

Since the determinant of A is equal to 1, it follows that

−sin γ sin α + cos γ cos β cos α −cos γ sin α −sin γ cos β cos α sin β cos α
−1
( )
(
A α , β , γ = sin γ cos α +cos γ cos β sin α
−cos γ sin β
cos γ cos α −sin γ cos β sin α sin β sin α
sin γ sin β cos β )
Now by definition of matrix transposition,

cos γ cos β cos α −sin γ sin α −sin γ cos β cos α −cos γ sin α sin β cos α
~
(
A ( α , β , γ )= cos γ cos β sin α + sin γ cos α −sin γ cos β sin α +cos γ cos α sin β sin α
−cos γ sin β sin γ sin β cos β )
Comparing the two preceding matrices, we see that every ij th element of A−1 is equal to the
corresponding ij th element of ~ A . Hence, we conclude that the inverse of the Euler angle
rotation matrix is equal to its inverse
~
A−1 ( α , β , γ ) = A ( α , β , γ ) .

On the other hand, if we replace α with – γ , β with −β , and γ with −α in the Euler angle
rotation matrix, we obtain

x 11 x12 x 13

(
A (−γ ,−β ,−α )= x 21 x 22 x 23
x 31 x32 x 33 )
where

x 11=cos (−α ) cos (− β ) cos (−γ )−sin (−α ) sin (−γ )

x 12=cos (−α ) cos (−β ) sin (−γ ) +sin (−α ) cos (−γ )
x 13=−cos (−α ) sin (−β )
x 21=−sin (−α ) cos (−β ) cos (−γ ) −cos (−α ) sin (−γ )
x 22=−sin (−α ) cos (−β ) sin (−γ ) +cos (−α ) cos (−γ )
x 23=sin (−α ) sin (−β )
x 31=sin (−β ) cos (−γ )
x 32=sin (−β ) sin (−γ )
x 33=cos (−β )

But using the trigonometric identities cos θ=cos (−θ ) and sin θ=−sin (−θ ), we may rewrite the
above relations as follows:
5
 x 11=cos α cos β cos γ −(−sin α ) (−sin γ )
x 12=cos α cos β (−sin γ ) + (−sin α ) cos γ
x 13=−cos α (−sin β )
x 21=−(−sin α ) cos β cos γ −cos α (−sin γ )
x 22=−(−sin α ) cos β (−sin γ ) +cos α cos γ
x 23=(−sin α )(−sin β )
x 31=(−sin β ) cos γ
x 32=(−sin β )(−sin γ )
x 33=cos β

Simplifying the above relations, the matrix A (−γ ,−β ,−α ) becomes

cos α cos β cos γ −sin α sin γ −cos α cos β sin γ −sin α cos γ cos α sin β
(
A (−γ ,−β ,−α )= sin α cos β cos γ + cos α sin γ −sin α cos β sin γ + cos α cos γ sin α sin β
−sin β cos γ sin β sin γ cos β )
which is definitely equal to A−1 ( α , β , γ ) , with only the order of addends interchanged in some
elements.

6
EXERCISE 3.4.5

According to the 5th definition given at the start of section 3.4, the conjugate transpose of the
product of two matrices is equal to the product of the transposed matrices taken in reverse
order
( AΒ )†=Β† A † .

But if A and Β are Hermitian, then both are square matrices and are equal to their Hermitian
conjugates

A=A † ∧Β=Β† .

Thus, we can also write

( AΒ )†=ΒA (3.4.5.a)

where the products AΒ and ΒA are essentially square matrices. In fact, if A is an n × n matrix
and Β is an m× m matrix, then the products ( AΒ )n ×m and ( ΒA )m × n are defined only for
n=m.

If we add AΒ to both sides of equation (3.4.5.a), we obtain

†
AΒ+ ( AΒ ) = AΒ+ ΒA . (3.4.5.b)

On the other hand, if we subtract equation (3.4.5.a) from AΒ= AΒ , we get

†
AΒ−( AΒ ) = AΒ−Β A . (3.4.5.c)

Since the sum of a square matrix and its conjugate transpose is Hermitian, AΒ+ ( AΒ )† is
Hermitian. Moreover, since the difference of a square matrix and its conjugate transpose is
anti-Hermitian, AΒ−( AΒ )† is essentially anti-Hermitian. By matrix equivalence, it follows that
AΒ+ ΒA is Hermitian while AΒ−ΒA is anti-Hermitian. Translated in symbols, we have

¿T † ¿T †
AΒ+ ΒA=[ ( AΒ+ ΒA ) ] =( AΒ+ ΒA ) AΒ−ΒA=−[ ( AΒ−ΒA ) ] =−( AΒ−ΒA )

If we multiply i to the second equation, we form

i ( AΒ−ΒA ) =−i ( AΒ−ΒA )† =−i ( AΒ )† +i ( ΒA )† =−i Β† A† +i ( ΒA )†

¿T ¿ T ¿ ¿ T
i ( AΒ−ΒA ) =−[ ( i ( AΒ−ΒA ) ) ] =−[ ( i ¿ ( AΒ−ΒA ) ) ] =−[−i ( ( AΒ ) −( ΒA ) ) ]

¿ T T T T T
¿−[−i ( AΒ ) +i ( ΒA ) ] =−[ i ( AΒ )−i ( ΒA ) ] =[−i ( AΒ ) +i ( ΒA ) ] ¿ [−i ( A † Β† ) +i ( ΒA ) ] =[−i ( ΒA )† + i ( ΒA ) ] =¿
¿

7
Alternatively, if we consider a particular example satisfying the given conditions, then we
should arrive at the same conclusion. For instance, let

7 +2i ∧Β= 2 3 e−2 i

A= [ 3
7−2i −2 3 e2 i 1 ] [. ]
Taking the complex conjugates of every element in A and Β gives
7−2 i ∧Β¿ = 2 3 e 2i
A¿ = [ 3
7+ 2i −2 ]
3 e−2 i 1 [
. ]
Now transposing A¿ and Β¿, we obtain the transpose conjugates

7 +2i ∧( Β ¿ )T =Β † 2 3 e−2i
( A¿ )T = A † = [ 3
7−2i −2 ] 3 e 2i [
1 ]
from which we can see that

A† = A∧Β †=Β .

This confirms that matrices A and Β are Hermitian. We can now proceed to forming the
products ( AΒ )2× 2 and ( ΒA )2 ×2 . That is, by definition of matrix multiplication,

3 ( 2 ) + ( 7+ 2i ) 3 e2 i 3 ( 3 e−2 i ) + ( 7+ 2i ) 1 6+ 21 e2 i +6 ie 2 i 9 e−2 i+ 7+2 i

AΒ=
[ ( 7−2 i ) 2+ (−2 ) 3 e2 i ( 7−2 i ) ( 3 e−2 i ) + (−2 ) 1
¿
][14−4 i−6 e 2 i 21 e−2i −6 ie−2 i−2 ]
2 ( 3 )+3 e−2 i ( 7−2 i ) 2 ( 7+2 i ) +3 e−2 i (−2 ) 6+ 21 e−2 i−6 i e−2 i 14 +4 i−6 e−2 i
ΒA=
[ 2i 2i
3 e ( 3 )+1 ( 7−2i ) 3 e ( 7+2 i ) +1 (−2 )
¿
][
9 e2 i +7−2i 21 e2 i +6 i e2 i−2 ]
Then by definition of matrix addition and subtraction,

12+21 ( e 2 i+ e−2i ) +6 i ( e 2i −e−2 i ) 21+6 i+3 e−2 i

AΒ+ ΒA=
[ 21−6 i+3 e2 i −4+21 ( e 2 i+ e−2i ) +6 i ( e 2i −e−2 i ) ]
21 ( e2 i−e−2i ) +6 i ( e 2i + e−2 i ) −7−2i+15 e−2 i
AΒ−ΒA=
[ 7−2i−15 e2 i 21 ( e−2 i−e2 i )−6i ( e−2 i−e 2 i ) ]
21 i ( e 2 i−e−2 i ) +6 i 2 ( e2 i +e−2 i ) −7 i−2 i 2+ 15i e−2 i
i ( AΒ−ΒA ) =
[
7 i−2 i 2−15 ie 2 i 21 i ( e−2 i−e2 i )−6 i 2 ( e−2 i−e 2i ) ]
21 i ( e2 i−e−2 i )−6 ( e 2i +e−2 i ) −7 i+2+15 i e−2i
¿
[ 7 i+ 2−15 ie 2 i 21 i ( e−2i −e 2i ) +6 ( e−2i −e 2i ) ]
¿ ¿ ¿
Furthermore, the complex conjugates ( AΒ+ ΒA ) , ( AΒ−ΒA ) , [ i ( AΒ−ΒA ) ] are given by

8
 12+ 21 ( e−2 i +e 2 i )−6 i ( e−2i −e 2i ) 21−6 i+3 e2 i
( AΒ+ ΒA ) =
¿

[ 21+6 i+3 e−2 i −4 +21 ( e−2 i+ e2 i )−6 i ( e−2 i−e 2 i ) ]

21 ( e−2 i−e 2 i )−6 i ( e−2i + e2 i ) −7+ 2i+15 e 2i
( AΒ−ΒA ) =
¿

[ 7+ 2i−15 e−2 i 21 ( e 2 i−e−2 i ) +6 i ( e2 i−e−2 i ) ]

−e 2i ) −6 ( e−2 i+ e 2i ) 7 i+2−15 i e2 i
−2i
[ i ( AΒ−ΒA ) ] = −21 i ( e
¿

[ −7i+2+15 i e−2i −21i ( e 2 i−e−2 i )+ 6 ( e 2i −e−2 i ) ]

while the corresponding transpose conjugates are given by

12+21 ( e−2i + e2 i )−6 i ( e−2 i−e 2 i ) 21+ 6i+3 e−2 i

[ ( AΒ+ ΒA )¿ ]
T
=
[ 21−6 i+3 e 2 i −4+21 ( e−2 i +e 2i ) −6 i ( e−2 i−e2 i ) ]
21 ( e−2 i−e2 i )−6 i ( e−2 i+ e2 i ) 7+2 i−15 e−2i
[ ( AΒ−ΒA )¿ ]
T
=
[ −7 +2i+15 e 2i 21 ( e2 i−e−2 i ) +6 i ( e 2i−e−2i ) ]
−21i ( e−2 i−e 2 i )−6 ( e−2 i +e 2 i ) −7 i+2+15 ie−2 i
{ [i ( AΒ −ΒA ) ] }
¿ T
=
[ 7 i+2−15 i e2 i −21 i ( e 2 i−e−2 i ) +6 ( e 2 i−e−2 i ) ]
Comparing these three transpose conjugates with the original matrices, we can establish the
following relationships

¿T ¿T ¿ T
AΒ+ ΒA=[ ( AΒ+ ΒA ) ] AΒ−ΒA=−[ ( AΒ−ΒA ) ] i ( AΒ−ΒA ) ={[ i ( AΒ−ΒA ) ] }

from which we can conclude that both matrices AΒ+ ΒA and i ( AΒ−ΒA ) are Hermitian while
matrix AΒ−ΒA is anti-Hermitian.

EXERCISE 3.4.9

If the product AΒ of two Hermitian matrices A and Β were to be Hermitian as well, then AΒ
must be equal to its transpose conjugate

AΒ=( AΒ )† .

But as shown and discussed in Exercise 3.4.5,

( AΒ )†=Β† A †=ΒA .

9
Therefore, a necessary condition for AΒ to be Hermitian is

AΒ=ΒA .

To establish the sufficiency of this condition, we must show that if A and Β commutes, then
the product AΒ must be Hermitian. Indeed, since A=A † ∧Β=Β† by definition of Hermitian
matrices, and Β† A† =( AΒ )† by the 5th definition provided at the beginning of section 3.4,

AΒ=ΒA=Β† A †= ( AΒ )†

In conclusion, we say that the product AΒ of two Hermitian matrices A and Β is Hermitian if
and only if
AΒ=ΒA .

10