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SolutionstoChapter1
1a.Describethestepbystepprocedurethatisinvolvedfromthetimeyoudepositaletterinamailboxtothetimetheletterisdeliveredtoits
destination.Whatroledonames,addressesandmailcodes(suchasZIPcodesorpostalcodes)play?Howmighttheletterberoutedtoitsdestination?
Towhatextentcantheprocessbeautomated?
Solution:
Thestepsinvolvedinmailingaletterare:

1. Theletterisdepositedinmailbox.
2. Theletterispickedupbypostalemployeeandplacedinsack.
3. Theletteristakentoasortingstation,whereitissortedaccordingtodestination,asdeterminedbythemailcodeand
4.
5.
6.
7.

groupedwithotherletterswiththesamedestinationmailcode.(Ifthereisnomailcode,thenitisdeterminedbythe
largestgeographicalunit,forexample,country(ifspecified),otherwisestate(ifspecified),otherwisecity(ifspecified).)
Theletterisshippedtothepostofficethathandlesthemailforthespecificmailcode(orcountryorcity).
Theletteristhensortedbystreetaddress.
Theletterispickedupatthepostofficebythepostalworkerresponsiblefordeliveringtothespecifiedaddress.
Theletterisdeliveredaccordingtothenumberandstreet.

Thenameisnotreallyused,unlessthestreetaddressismissingorincorrect.Thenthenamemightbeusedtodetermine
wheretheletterbelongs.(Unlessofcoursetheletterisbeingsenttoasmalltown,wheremostinhabitantsareknowntothe
postalworker.)
Themaildeliveryprocesscanbeautomatedbyusingopticalrecognitiononthemailcode.Thelettercanthenbesortedand
routedtothedestinationpostalstation,andeventothedestinationneighborhood,dependingontheamountofgeographical
detailbuiltintothemailcode.

*****
1b.Repeatpart(a)foranemailmessage.Atthispoint,youmayhavetoconjecturedifferentapproachesaboutwhatgoesoninsidethecomputer
network.
Solution:
Thestepsinvolvedinemailingamessageare:

1. Themessageissentelectronicallybyclicking'Send'.(InChapter2weseethattheSimpleMailTransferProtocol
(SMTP)isusedtodothis.)

2. Themailproviderofthesendersendsarequesttoanameserverforthenetworkaddressofthemailproviderorthe
recipient.Themailproviderisdeterminedbytheinformationfollowingthe@symbol.

3. Ifthemailproviderfindsanetworkaddressoftherecipient'smailprovider,thenitsendsthemessagetothataddress
intheemailaddress.

4. Uponreceiptofthemessagethemailprovidereitherinformstherecipientautomaticallythatthereismailorwaitsuntil
mailisrequestedbytherecipient,dependingonhowthemailserviceissetup.Therecipientisdeterminedbythe
informationbeforethe@symbol.
*****
1c.Aretheproceduresinparts(a)and(b)connectionorientedorconnectionless?
Solution:
Thetransferserviceoflettersinapostalsystemisconnectionless.Usersdonotsetupconnectionspriortothetransferof
eachletter.(Notehoweverthatthepostalsystemmayhaveregularlyscheduledshipmentsofbundlesofmailfromcityto
city,becausethevolumeofmailbetweencitiesispredictable.Theseregularshipmentscanbeviewedasprearranged
"connections.")
Emailtransferisalsoaconnectionlessserviceinthattheuserdoesnotsetupendtoendconnectionstosendamessage.
WewillseeinChapter2,however,thatemailprotocolsuseconnectionorientedprocedurestoexchangemessages.
NOTE:Forparts(a)and(b)otherstepbystepproceduresarepossible.

2a.Describewhatstepbystepproceduremightbeinvolvedinsidethenetworkinmakingatelephoneconnection.
Solution:

1. Thetelephonenumberspecifiesan"address"wherethereceiverislocated.IntheNorthAmericantelephonenumbering
systemthefirstthreedigitsaretheareacodewhichspecifiesthemaingeographicalregionofthereceiverthenextthree
digitsspecifyaparticulartelephoneofficeintheNorthAmericannetwork.Thefinalfourdigitsidentifytheparticularlocation
ofthereceiver.
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2. Whenatelephonenumberisdialedequipmentattheotherendofthetelephonelineusesthesequenceofdialednumbersto
3.

determinearouteacrossthetelephonenetworkfromthecalloriginatingphonetothedestinationphone.Acircuitis
establishedbetweentheoriginatinganddestinationphonealongtheidentifiedroute.
Aringingtoneisthenappliedatthedestinationtoindicatethatthereisanincomingcall.Ifthedestinationparty(aperson,an
answeringmachine,orsomeotherdevice)isreadytoanswer,thecalliscompletedthroughtheliftingofthephonesetor
someequivalentaction.ThesettingupoftelephonecallsisdiscussedinChapter4.
*****

2b.Nowconsiderapersonalcommunicationservicethatprovidesauserwithapersonaltelephonenumber.Whenthenumberisdialed,thenetwork
establishesaconnectiontowherevertheuserislocatedatthegiventime.Whatfunctionsmustthenetworknowperforminordertoimplementthis
service?
Solution:

1. Thekeydifferencehereisthatthepersonaltelephonenumberisnottiedtoaspecificlocation.Insteadthepersonalnumber

2.
3.

4.

isassociatedwithoneormorepiecesofequipment,forexample,acellphone,thatcanrequestservicefromvariouspoints
inthenetwork.Thisnecessitatesthetranslationofthepersonaltelephonenumbertoanumberthatcorrespondstoaspecific
locationinthenetworkatagiventime.
Whenthetelephonenumberisdialed,amessagerequestingaconnectionsetupissenttothe"home"locationofthe
personalnumber.
Thehomelocationmustsomehowbeabletoredirecttheconnectionsetupprocesstothecurrentlocationoftheuser.For
example,theusermayregisteroneormoreforwarding"addresses"towhichcallsaretoberedirected.Eachpossible
addressistried,oneatatimeorallatonce,untilthedestinationequipmentislocated.Incellulartelephony,forexample,
requestsforconnectionstoagivenmobiletelephonearebroadcastoverspecificchannels.
Oncethelocationofthedestinationisidentifiedaconnectionisestablished.

3.Explainhowthetelephonenetworkmightmodifythewaycallsarehandledtoprovidethefollowingservices:
Solutionsfollowquestions:

a. CallDisplay:thenumberand/ornameofthecallingpartyislistedonascreenbeforethecallisanswered.

Alongwiththerequestforconnectionsetup,thesystemsendsidentifyinginformationregardingtheoriginator'sphone.

b. CallWaiting:aspecialsoundisheardwhenthecalledpartyisonthelineandanotheruseristryingtoreachthecalledparty.

Whenasecondcallertriestoaccessabusyline,thesystemappliesanaudiblesound,forexample,a"beep"oratone,to
thevoicesignalthatisbeingsenttothecalledparty.Thetonealertsthecalledpartythatthereisanincomingcalland
providesthechoiceofansweringthesecondcallwithoutdisconnectingthefirstcall.

c. CallAnswer:ifthecalledpartyisbusyorafterthephoneringsaprescribednumberoftimes,thenetworkgivesthecallertheoptionof
leavingavoicemessage.

Ifthecallisnotansweredaftersomanyrings,thesystemsestablishesaconnectiontoanothernumber(thatis,forwardsthe
call)thatisassociatedwiththeansweringsystem.Thecallisthenautomaticallyansweredbyanansweringsystem.

d. ThreeWayCalling:allowsausertotalkwithtwootherpeopleatthesametime.
Aftertheestablishmentofacallbetweentwoparties,thecallercanthenindicatetothetelephonesystemthatheorshe
wantstocallathirdparty.Withoutdisconnectingthefirstpair,thesystemsetsupaconnectiontothesecondcalledparty,
andonceestablished,transmitsbothconversationstoallpartiessimultaneously.Specialequipmentisrequiredtocombine
anddistributethevoicesignalsofthethreeparties.

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4a.Supposethattheletterinproblem1issentbyfax.Isthismodeofcommunicationsconnectionlessorconnectionoriented?Realtimeornonreal
time?
Solution:
Inordertosendtheletterbyfax,atelephoneconnectionmustfirstbeestablished.Thereforethemodeofcommunicationsis
connectionoriented.Thetransferofinformationacrossthenetworkoccursinrealtime.
*****
4b.Repeatpart(a)ifavoicemailmessageisleftatagiventelephone.
Solution:
Again,theprocessofleavingavoicemailmessageisconnectionoriented,sincetheremustbeanendtoendconnectionbetween
thecallerandthereceiverwiththeansweringservice.Theleavingofvoicemailisalsodoneinrealtime.However,themodeof
communicationbetweenthepersonthatleavesthevoicemailandthepersonthatlistenstothevoicemailisconnectionlessand
nonrealtime.Thepeopleinvolveddonotneedtoestablishasimultaneousconnectionwitheachotherinordertocommunicate
also,theyrecordandlistentothemessagesatdifferenttimes.

5.Supposethatnetworkaddressesarescarce,soaddressesareassignedsothattheyarenotgloballyuniqueinparticularsupposethatthesameblock
ofaddressesmaybeassignedtodifferentorganizations.Howcantheorganizationsmakeuseoftheseaddresses?Canusersfromtwosuch
organizationscommunicatewitheachother?
Solution:
Tomaketheexampleconcretesupposethattwoorganizationsareassignedthesamesetoftelephonenumbers.Clearly,users
withineachorganizationcancommunicatewitheachotheraslongastheyhaveauniqueaddresswithintheorganization.However,
communicationsoutsideanorganizationposesaproblemsinceanygivenaddressisnolongeruniqueacrossmultiple
organizations.
Apossibleapproachtoenablingcommunicationsbetweenusersindifferentorganizationsistouseatwostepprocedureasfollows.
Eachorganizationhasaspecialgatewaytocommunicateoutsidetheorganization.Internaluserscontactthegatewaytoestablish
callstootherorganizations.Gatewayshaveprocedurestoestablishconnectionswitheachother.Thisenablesgatewaysto
establishconnectionsbetweentheirinternalusersandusersinothernetworks.

6.Explainthesimilaritybetweenthedomainnamesystemandthetelephonedirectoryservice.
Solution:
Bothsystemsareusedtotranslatebetweennamesandnumbers:peoplenamestotelephonenumbersinthecaseoftelephone
directoriesnetworknamestoIPaddressesinthecaseofDNS.Inbothcases,thetranslationisfromsomethingthatiseasyto
remember,thatis,names,tosomethingthatishardertoremember,numbers.

7.ConsidertheNorthAmericantelephonenumberingplandiscussedinthechapter.Couldthisnumberingplanbeusedtoroutepacketsamong
usersconnectedtothetelephonenetwork?
Solution:
Yes,ifeachdestinationuseriscompletelyspecifiedbythenumber.Theareacodewouldspecifythegeneralgeographicalareathe
prefixwouldidentifythetelephoneofficetowhichpacketsshouldbedirectedthesubscriber'snumber(thelastfourdigits)would
identifythefinaltelephonelinealongwhichthepacketsaretobedelivered.

8a.Describethesimilaritiesanddifferencesintheservicesprovidedby(1)amusicprogramdeliveredoverbroadcastradioand(2)musicdelivered
byadedicatedCDplayer.
Solution:
BothbroadcastradioandadedicatedCDplayerprovideuserswithsimilartypesofinformationandwithalmostthesame
performance.Howeverthebroadcastradiooffersitsserviceinarealtimefashionwithnointeractionwithusers.ACDplayer,onthe
otherhand,storesitsinformationonaCDanddeliversitondemand.
*****
8b.Describehowtheseservicesmightbeprovidedandenhancedbyprovidingthemthroughacommunicationsnetwork.
Solution:
Broadcastradioistypicallytransmittedinrealtimeusingradiowaves"overtheair."Broadcastaudioprogramscanalsobe
transmittedoveranycommunicationnetwork.Furthermore,whenstoredinserversthatareattachedtoanetwork,"broadcast"audio
programscanberetrievedforlisteningatalatertime.IndeedaservercanalsostoreCDaudiomaterialandretrieveitondemand.If
thenetworkandserveraresufficientlyresponsive,itmayalsobepossibletoprovidetheinteractivityofapersonalCDplayer
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throughanetworkbasedservice.

9a.UsetheWorldWideWebtovisitthesitesofseveralmajornewspapers.Howarethesenewspaperschangingthemannerinwhichtheydeliver
newsservicesovertheInternet?
Solution:
Traditionally,newspapersdelivernewsinprinted"hardcopy"forminvariouseditionsduringtheday.Theinformationisprimarilyin
textform,supplementedbystillpicturesandgraphics.Theinformationinanewspaperisorganizedinseveralsections:mainpage,
business,local,sports,classifieds,etc.Someoftherevenueofnewspapersisfromsubscriptions,butmostofthenewspaper
revenueisusuallyfromadvertising.
Inthetraditionalmodel,gettingthenewsfromaparticularnewspaperrequiredgettingthephysicalprintedform.TheWWWandthe
Internetallownewspaperstodeliverinformationinelectronicformandatanytimethatauserrequestsit.Newspaperinformationon
theWebstillconsistsmostlyoftext,images,andgraphicsthatcanberetrievedanddisplayedreadilybyaWebbrowser.Inmost
cases,subscriptionisnotrequiredandadvertisingisdisplayedalongwithnewsinformation.Inordertobecompetitive,newspapers
cannolongerworkintermsofeditions,especiallyforlatebreakingnews.Instead,newsitemsareupdatedcontinuouslydayand
night.TheuseofaWebbrowserallowsausertoquicklyfindthenewsitemsofinterest.
*****
9b.NowvisittheWebsitesofseveralmajortelevisionnetworks.HowaretheychangingthemannerinwhichtheydelivernewsovertheInternet?
Whatdifferences,ifany,aretheretotheapproachtakenbytelevisionnetworksandnewspapers?
Solution:
Traditionally,televisionnetworksdelivernewsusingaudio,video,andgraphics,withverylittletext.Newsistraditionallydeliveredin
programsthatarebroadcastatvarioustimesoftheday.Again,theinformationisorganizedinseveralsections:international,
business,sports,entertainment,etc.Therevenueintelevisionnewsisalmostentirelyfromadvertising.TheWWWandtheInternet
allowuserstoretrievenewsinformationinelectronicformandatanytime.However,thetransmissionofaudioandvideooverthe
Internetposesachallenge,sothisinformationmustbetransmittedincompressedformandinrelativelylowquality.Consequently,
moreoftheinformationisprovidedintextform.Thedependenceonaudioandvideoalsorequiredthedevelopmentofapplications
forthedecompressionanddisplayofsuchinformation.Again,inordertobecompetitive,newsnetworksupdatetheirWebpages
continuouslydayandnightasnewsdevelops.

10.DiscusstheadvantagesanddisadvantagesoftransmittingfaxmessagesovertheInternetinsteadofthetelephonenetwork.
Solution:
ThecomparisonoffaxtransmissionovertheInternetandoverthetelephonenetworkreflectthedifferencesbetweenemailand
telephonecalls.Thetransmissionofafaxmessageasanattachmenttoanemailmeansthatthetransferofthemessageisnotin
realtimeandthatdeliveryisnotnecessarilyconfirmed.Thetransmissionofafaxmessageoverthetelephonenetwork,ontheother
hand,isrealtimeandisconfirmedwithfairlyhighcertainty.Ontheotherhand,thecostoftransmissionofafaxmessageoverthe
Internetisveryinexpensiveandisnotdistancesensitive.Thetransmissionoffaxmessagesovertelephonenetworksmayinvolve
longdistancecharges.

11a.Supposethataninteractivevideogameisaccessedoveracommunicationsnetwork.Whatrequirementsareimposedonthenetworkifthe
networkisconnectionoriented?connectionless?
Solution:
Wesupposethatthegameinvolvestheinteractionbetweenaplayerandaserveracrossanetwork.Tosupportaninteractivevideo
gameoveracommunicationsnetwork,thenetwork,whetherconnectionorientedorconnectionless,mustproviderealtimedelivery
oftheplayer'scommandstotheserver,andoftheserver'sresponsestotheplayer.Withaconnectionorientednetwork,
connectionsbetweentheplayerandtheserverstransferthesequenceofcommandsandresponsesthroughoutthegame.Ina
connectionlessnetwork,usercommandsmustbedeliveredtotheotherendontimeinproperordertopreservetherealtimenature
ofthegame.
*****
11b.Repeatpart(a)ifthegameinvolvesseveralplayerslocatedatdifferentsites.
Solution:
Therequirementsonthenetworkdependonhowthegameisimplemented.Inthecentralizedapproachtheplayersinteractthrough
acentralserverthatprocessesthecommandsfromalloftheplayers,maintainsaviewofthestateoftheoverallsystem,and
issuesappropriateresponsestoalltheplayers.Alternatively,thegamecouldbeimplementedinadecentralizedfashion,where
eachplayerreceivescommandsfromsomeoralloftheplayers,maintainsalocalviewofthesystemstate,andtransmits
responsestosomeoralloftheplayers.
Inthecentralizedapproach,thenetworkrequirementsareessentiallythesameasthoseinpart(a).Inthedecentralizedapproach,
therealtimeresponserequirementmayapplyonlytoasubsetofplayerswhentheyhappentobeinteractingwitheachother.If
playersarelocatedatdifferentsites,thenetworkcouldprovidemulticastcapabilitysomessagescanbeexchangedamongthe
serverandalltheplayers.
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*****
11c.Repeatpart(b)ifoneormoreoftheplayersisinmotion,forexample,kidsinthebackofthevanduringasummertrip.
Solution:
Ifoneormoreplayersisinmotion,thenthenetworkmustalsobeabletolocateeachmobileplayerandthendeliverandreceive
informationtoandfromsuchplayer.

12.Discussthesimilaritiesbetweenthefollowingnationaltransportationnetworksandacommunicationsnetwork.Isthetransportationsystemmore
similartoatelephonenetworkortoapacketnetwork?

a. Railroadnetwork.
b. Airlinenetwork.
c. Highwaysystem.
d. Combinationof(a),(b),and(c).
Solution:
Transportationnetworksaredesignedtotransferpeopleandgoodscommunicationsnetworksaredesignedtotransferinformation.
Likecommunicationnetworks,alltransportationsystemsinvolvelinks,intheformofroads,rails,oraircorridors,andswitching
points,intheformofstations,airports,andhighwayinterchanges.Addressingandgeographicalnamesareusedintransportation
networkstoidentifydestinations,androutingofvariousformsisrequiredtodirectgoodstotheirdestinations.Transportation
resources,intheformsofcarsorairplanes,aresharedor"multiplexed"amongvariousgoodsthattraversecommonpartsofthe
network.

a. Railroadnetwork:Goodsorpeoplearriveattrainstationsandareloadedfortransporttospecificplaces.Ticketsare
purchasedforagivendestination,usuallyguaranteeingthattherewillbeaplaceinacarfromthestartingstationalltheway
tothedestinationstation.Thisissimilartoestablishingaconnectionacrossatelephonenetwork.Alternatively,apassenger
maychoosetopurchaseaticketateachstationalongtheway.Thiscorrespondsmorecloselytoaconnectionlesspacket
networkmodel.

b. Airlinenetwork:Inthiscasepassengerspurchaseticketsthatguaranteeaseatallthewaytothedestination,evenif
transfersaremadeatintermediateairports.Thisissimilartotheestablishmentofconnectionsacrossatelephonenetwork.

c. Highwaysystems:Trucksorcarsenterthehighwaywithoutmakingreservationsaheadoftimeandwithoutinformingany
centralauthorityoftheirdestinationorroute.Thismodeofoperationcorrespondscloselytotheoperationofaconnectionless
packetnetwork.

d. Combinationoftransportationsystems:Thecombinationofair,rail,andhighwaytransportationsystemscanandareused
jointlyforthetransferofpeopleandgoods.Eachtransportationsystemisdifferentinhowitisorganizedandhowtransfers
areaccomplished.Nevertheless,itispossibletousethesesystemsincombinationtoprovideahigherdegreeof
connectivitybetweensourcesanddestinationsofpeopleandgoods.WewillseethattheInternetplaysarolesimilartothe
combinedtransportationsystemsinthattheInternetenablesthetransferofinformationacrossmultipledissimilarnetworks
thatmaydifferinhowtheyareorganizedandhowtheyoperate.

13.Inthe1950s,standardcontainersweredevelopedforthetransportationofgoods.Thesestandardcontainerscouldfitonatraincar,onatruck,or
inspeciallydesignedcontainerships.Thestandardsizeofthecontainersmakesitpossibletoloadandunloadthemmuchmorequicklythanusing
nonstandardcontainersofdifferentsizes.Drawananalogytopacketswitchingcommunicationsnetworks.Inyouransweridentifywhatmight
constituteacontainerandspeculateontheadvantagesthatmaycomefromstandardsizeinformationcontainers.
Solution:
Inapacketswitchingcommunicationsnetwork,thecomponentthatisanalogoustothecontainerisaconstantsizepacket
(preferablyofshortlength)thatcanbeusedforthetransportofinformation.Transmissionsystemsofvarioustypescanbe
designedtotransferinformationofthegivenstandardizedsize,muchliketrucks,trains,andshipscanbedesignedtocarry
standardcontainers.Packingandunpackingoffixedsizeunitsissimplerthanforvariablelengthunits.Consequently,itissimpler
toschedulethetransferofpacketsacrossswitchesthatuseconstantsizepacketsthanacrossswitchesthatmakeuseofvariable
lengthpackets.

14.TherequirementsofworldcommerceledtothebuildingoftheSuezandPanamacanals.Whatanalogoussituationsmightariseincommunication
networks?
Solution:
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TheSuezandPanamacanalswerebuilttoprovideashorterpathbetweengeographicalareas.Theanalogoussituationarisesin
communicationnetworkswhenthepathbetweentwoareasinthenetworkaretoo"long"eitherintermsofexcessivedelayor
inadequatecapacitytotransfergivenvolumesoftraffic.Theadditionofnetworkresourcestoprovideshorterpathsforlowerdelayor
widerpathsforhighercapacitycorrespondstothebuildingofacanal.

15.Twomusicianslocatedindifferentcitieswishtohaveajamsessionoveracommunicationsnetwork.Findthemaximumpossibledistance
betweenthemusiciansiftheyaretointeractinrealtime,inthesenseofexperiencingthesamedelayinhearingeachotherasiftheywere10meters
apart.Thespeedofsoundisapproximately330meters/second,andassumethatthenetworktransmitsthesoundatthespeedoflightincable,2.3x
10 8meters/second.
Solution:
Thefirststepistofindthedelayforthesoundwhenthemusiciansare10metersapart:
t10 =10/330=30.30milliseconds
d=(2.3x1010 )30.30x103 )=6969000meters=6969kilometers
Themaximumdistanceisthetimerequiredforarealtime'experience'timesthecabledelay:

16.Thepropagationdelayisthetimethatisrequiredfortheenergyofasignaltopropagatefromonepointtoanother.
a.Findthepropagationdelayforasignaltraversingthefollowingnetworksatthespeedoflightincable(2.3x10 8meters/second):
acircuitboard10cm
aroom10m
abuilding100m
ametropolitanarea100km
acontinent5000km
upanddowntoageostationarysatellite2x36000km
Solution:
Tofindthepropagationdelay,dividedistancebythespeedoflightincable.Thuswehave:
acircuitboardtprop=4.347x1010seconds
aroomtprop=4.3478x108seconds

abuildingtprop=4.3478x107seconds

ametropolitanareatprop=4.3478x104seconds
acontinenttprop=0.02174seconds
upanddowntoageostationarysatellitetprop=0.31304seconds
*****
16b.Howmanybitsareintransitduringthepropagationdelayintheabovecases,ifbitsareenteringtheabovenetworksatthefollowing
transmissionspeeds:10,000bits/second1megabit/second100megabits/second10gigabits/second.
Solution:
ThenumberofbitsintransitareobtainedbymultiplyingthetransmissionrateRbythepropagation:
Distance(m)
0.1

10

100

10Kbps

1Mbps

4.347x10

4.347x10

4.3478x10

4.3478x10

100Mbps

10Gbps

0.04347

4.3478

0.043478

4.3478

434.780

0.43478

43.478

4347.800

100000

4.3478

434.78

43478

4.3478x106

5000000

217.4

21740

2174000

2.174x108

72000000

3130.4

313040

31304000

3.1304x109

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17.Inproblem16,howlongdoesittaketosendanLbytefileandtoreceivea1byteacknowledgmentback?LetL=1,10 3,10 6,and10 9bytes.

Solution:
Thetotaltimerequiredtosendafileandreceiveanacknowledgmentofitsreceiptisgivenby:
ttotal=Lmessage/R+Lack/R+2*tprop=Lmessage/R+Lack/R+2*d/c
whereLmessageisthemessagelengthinbits,Lackistheacknowledgmentlengthinbits,Risthetransmissionbitrate,disthe
distancetraversed,andcisthespeedoflight.
Theaboveequationshowsthattherearetwomainfactorsthatdeterminetotaldelay:

a. MessageandACKtransmissiontime,whichdependsonthemessagelengthandthetransmissionbitrate
b. Propagationdelay,whichdependssolelyondistance.
Whenthepropagationdelayissmall,messageandACKtransmissiontimesdeterminethetotaldelay.Ontheotherhand,whenthe
bitratebecomesverylarge,thepropagationdelayprovidesadelaycomponentthatcannotbereducednomatterhowfastthe
transmissionratebecomes.
Thetablesbelowshowthetwomaincomponentsofthetotaldelayinmicroseconds.Themessagetransmissiontimeisshownin
redandthepropagationdelayisshowninblue.Theentriesinthetotaldelaytablesarecoloredaccordingtowhichdelaycomponent
isdominant.

distance
(meters)
0.1
10
100
100000
5000000
72000000

message+ACKdelay
@10kbps

1600
2*prop.delay
totaldelay@10kbps
(microseconds)
0.00087
1600.00087
0.086957
1600.086957
0.869565
1600.869565
869.5652
2469.565217
43478.26
45078.26087
626087
627686.9565

message+ACK
delay@1Mbps
16
totaldelay@1
Mbps
16.0008696
16.0869565
16.8695652
885.565217
43494.2609
626102.957

message+ACK
message+ACK
delay@100
delay@10Gbps
Mbps
0.16
0.0016
totaldelay@100 totaldelay@10
Mbps
Gbps
0.16087
0.00247
0.246957
0.088557
1.029565
0.871165
869.7252
869.5668
43478.42
43478.26
626087.1
626087

Table1:Messagelength=1byte

distance
2*prop.delay
(meters) (microseconds)
0.1
0.00087
10
0.086957
100
0.869565
100000
869.5652
5000000
43478.26
72000000
626087

message+ACK
delay@10kbps
800800
totaldelay@10
kbps
800800.0009
800800.087
800800.8696
801669.5652
844278.2609
1426886.957

message+ACK
message+ACK
message+ACK
delay@1Mbps
delay@100Mbps delay@10Gbps
8008
80.08
0.8008
totaldelay@1
totaldelay@100
totaldelay@10
Mbps
Mbps
Gbps
8008.00087
80.08087
0.80167
8008.08696
80.16696
0.887757
8008.86957
80.94957
1.670365
8877.56522
949.6452
870.366
51486.2609
43558.34
43479.06
634094.957
626167
626087.8

Table2:Messagelength=1000bytes

distance

2*prop.delay

message+ACK
delay@10kbps
8.00E+08
totaldelay@10

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message+ACK
message+ACK
message+ACK
delay@1Mbps
delay@100Mbps delay@10Gbps
8.00E+06
80000.08
800.0008
totaldelay@1
totaldelay@100
totaldelay@10
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(meters) (microseconds)
0.1
0.00087
10
0.086957
100
0.869565
100000
869.5652
5000000
43478.26
72000000
626087

kbps
8.00E+08
8.00E+08
8.00E+08
8.00E+08
8.00E+08
8.01E+08

Mbps
8.00E+06
8.00E+06
8.00E+06
8.00E+06
8.04E+06
8.63E+06

Mbps
80000.08
80000.17
80000.95
80869.65
123478.3
706087

Gbps
800.0017
800.0878
800.8704
1669.566
44278.26
626887

Table3:Messagelength=106bytes

distance
2*prop.delay
(meters) (microseconds)
0.1
0.00087
10
0.086957
100
0.869565
100000
869.5652
5000000
43478.26
72000000
626087

message+ACK
delay@10kbps
8.00E+11
totaldelay@10
kbps
8.00E+11
8.00E+11
8.00E+11
8.00E+11
8.00E+11
8.00E+11

message+ACK
message+ACK
message+ACK
delay@1Mbps
delay@100Mbps delay@10Gbps
8.00E+09
8.00E+07
8.00E+05
totaldelay@1
totaldelay@100
totaldelay@10
Mbps
Mbps
Gbps
8.00E+09
8.00E+07
8.00E+05
8.00E+09
8.00E+07
8.00E+05
8.00E+09
8.00E+07
8.00E+05
8.00E+09
8.00E+07
8.01E+05
8.00E+09
8.00E+07
8.43E+05
8.00E+09
8.06E+07
1.43E+06

Table4:Messagelength=109bytes

18.BYTE,April1995givesthefollowingperformanceandcomplexityofIntelx86processors:
197880860.33DhrystoneMIPs29,000transistors
19822861.2DhrystoneMIPs134,000transistors
19853865DhrystoneMIPs275,000transistors
198948620DhrystoneMIPs1.2milliontransistors
1993Pentium112DhrystoneMIPs3.1milliontransistors
1995P6250+DhrystoneMIPs5.5milliontransistors
Plotperformanceandcomplexityvs.timeinaloglineargraphandcomparetothegrowthratediscussedinthetext.AccesstheIntelwebsite:
http://www.intel.comtogetupdatedfiguresontheirprocessors.
Solution:
Dhrystonespersecondisameasureofthenumberoftimesabenchmarkprogramcanberunonagivenprocessor.Theprogramis
designedtomeasuretheintegerperformanceofaprocessor.Boththeprocessorperformanceandtheprocessorcomplexityplotas
approximatelylinearfunctionsversustimeinalogarithmicscaleplot.

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19.UseyourWebbrowsertoaccessasearchengineandretrievethearticle"ABriefHistoryoftheInternet,"byLeiner,Cerf,Clark,Kahn,Kleinrock,
Lynch,Postel,Roberts,andWolff.Answerthefollowingquestions:
Solutionsfollowquestions:

a. WhowasJ.Licklider,andwhatwashis"GalacticNetwork"concept?
J.Licklider,ofMIT,wasthefirstheadofDARPA.In1962heenvisionedaglobalnetworkofcomputerswhereuserscouldaccess
dataorprogramsfromanysite.

b. Whocoinedthetermpacket?
DonaldDaviesandRogerScantleburyofNPL(NationalPhysicsLaboratory)intheUnitedKingdomfirstcoinedtheterm.

c. What(who?)isanIMP?
IMPstandsforInterfaceMessageProcessor.AnIMPisapacketswitchandwasakeycomponentinthedesignoftheARPANET.

d. DidtheARPANETuseNCPorTCP/IP?
TheARPANETusedahosttohostprotocolcalledNetworkControlProtocolorNCP.

e. WaspacketvoiceproposedasanearlyapplicationforInternet?
IntheearlydevelopmentofTCP,workonpacketvoiceinparticularpromptedtheseparationofTCPintotwocomponents:TCPand
IP.IPwastoprovideaddressingandforwardingTCPprovidedspecialservicessuchasrecoveryfrompacketlosses(importantfor
packetvoice).

f. HowmanynetworksdidtheinitialIPaddressprovidefor?
TheinitialIPaddressingschemeprovidedfor256networks.

20.UseyourWebbrowsertoaccessasearchengineandretrievethefollowingpresentationfromtheCM97conference:"TheFollyLawsof
Predictions1.0"byGordonBell.Answerthefollowingquestions:
Solutionsfollowquestions:

a. Atwhatratehaveprocessing,storage,andbackbonetechnologiesimprovedfrom1950to2000?Howdoesthisratecomparetoadvancesin
telephony?
Processing,storage,andbackbonetechnologieshaveimprovedatannualratesofbetween20%and40%.Telephonyhasadvanced
atarateof17%.

b. WhatisMoore'sLaw?

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Microelectronictechnologiesimprovebyafactorof4every3years.

c. What'sthepointofmakingpredictions?
Toprovideavisionandchallengeforthefuture.

d. Whatisthedifficultyinanticipatingtrendsthathaveexponentialgrowth?
Thetroublewithexponentialgrowthisthat"youcan'tseethemcoming!"Atanearlystage,thetrendisnotvisibleatalatestage
thetrendisunmistakable.

e. WhowasVannevarBushandwhyishefamous?
VannevarBushpositedthe"memex"in1945thatinasenseprovidedthevisionfortheWorldWideWeb.

f. Whatisthesizeinbytesofeachframeinthispresentation?Whatisthesizeinbytesoftheaudioclipforatypicalframe?Whatisthesizeof
thevideoclipforatypicalscene?

Thegraphicsonlypresentationisapproximately1MBthegraphicsandaudiopresentationis7MBthevideopresentationfor100
kbpsis14MB.

21.UseyourWebbrowsertoaccesscnn.comandplayanewsvideoclip.SpeculateabouthowtheinformationisbeingtransportedovertheInternet.
Howdoesthequalityoftheaudioandvideocomparetothatofbroadcastorcabletelevision?
Solution:
ThevideoinformationissentovertheInternet,soapacketmodeofinformationtransferisused.Thevideosignalisplacedina
streamofpacketsthatissentfromthevideoservertothePC.Asteadystreamofvideoinformationneedstobesuppliedtothe
videoplayerapplicationinthePC.Forthisreasontheplayerfirstbuffersacertainamountofvideoinformationinordertoavoid
runningoutofmaterialtoplayoutduringperiodswhenthepacketsencountercongestionandexperienceexcessivedelay.The
Internetisstillsubjecttocongestionandsopacketsaredelayedandlostresultinginpooraudioandvideoquality.

22.TheofficialstandardsoftheInternetcommunityarepublishedasaRequestforComment,orRFC.UseyourWebbrowsertoaccesstheIETFweb
page,http://www.ietf.org.
Solutionsfollowquestions:

a. FindandretrievetheRFCtitled"InternetOfficialProtocolStandards".ThisRFChadnumber2400atthetimeofwriting.ThisRFCgivesthe
stateofstandardizationofthevariousInternetprotocols.Whatisthestateandstandardnumberofthefollowingprotocols:IP,UDP,TCP,
TELNET,FTP,DNS,ARP?

IPstandard,#5UDPstandard,#6TCPstandard,#7TELNETstandard,#8FTPstandard,#9DNSstandard,#13ARP
standard,#37
Note:RFC2400isnowRFC2600,andalsoStandard1,asofMarch2000.

b. FindandretrievetheRFCtitled"AssignedNumbers".ThisRFC,number1700atthetimeofwriting,containsallthenumbersandconstants
thatareusedinInternetprotocols.WhataretheportnumbersforTelnet,ftp,andhttp?

TelnetPort23FTPPorts20/21HTTPPort80.

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