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I. INTRODUCTION
It is already known that world population is ageing. This
happens because of scientific and technological de development which increase the life expectancy at birth [1] by
almost 20 years (from 46.5 years in 1950-1995 to 66.0 years
in 2000-2005) and second because fertility dropped almost to
half, from 5.0 to 2.7 children per women [2]. By 2050 the
aged population will increase by 70 percent in developed
regions and by 400 percent in less developed regions [2].
One of the healthcare strategies for ageing society is the
use of technology to provide care to ageing population [3] in
their own environment at home or at elderly care institutions.
This is possible through the use of telehealth solutions such
as remote patient monitoring or telemonitoring.
Wireless monitoring devices represent an attractive option
for telehealth solutions because they do not restrict the
movement of the patient (i.e. lightweight and small form
factor). There are several approaches [4][5][6][7] concerning
such monitoring systems that make use of commercially
available hardware and communication stacks. The use of
low data rate and low power short range radios introduces
the need of data routing among such networks. The spatial
placement of the nodes and rigid routing strategies are the
two main factors that determine uneven energy depletion.
This problem tends to scale with the network size as some
nodes become rapidly unavailable due to the high amount of
traffic that is routed trough them.
Our work is focused on providing a dynamic routing strategy for wireless sensor networks used in e-health systems,
with the objectives of balancing the routing load throughout
the network and increasing network lifetime (i.e. average
node operating time). Also, we chose to implement this
solution on 2.4 GHz IEEE 802.15.4 compliant devices due to
their wide availability from different manufactures and due
to their low-power capabilities.
TABLE I
S AMPLE ROUTING TABLE
Dest
5
5
10
10
N ext
7
7
3
4
N oHops
4
5
3
3
M inEnergy
4.57 J
2.21 J
5.02 J
2.54 J
Require: RT able
. Local routing table
Require: p
. Received routing packet
Require: id
. Node ID
Require: REnergy
. Residual energy of current node
1: procedure R ECV ROUTE R EQUEST
2:
Update/Add rt RT able where rt.N ext = p.Src
and rt.Dest = p.Origin
3:
if p.Dest = id then
4:
Generate RReply
5:
return
6:
end if
7:
rts RT able.getRoutes(p.Dest)
8:
if rts.Count() > 0 then
9:
if more than one route with same N oHops then
10:
mE min(max(M inEnergy), REnergy)
11:
Generate RReply with mE
12:
else
13:
Generate RReply
14:
end if
15:
else
16:
mE min(p.M inEnergy, REnergy)
17:
Generate RouteRequest with mE
18:
end if
19: end procedure
Fig. 1.
T imestamp
54
45
60
61
Fig. 2.
Routing example
Ax
Ay
=
n
Y
ajx
j=1
ajy
!wj
, x = 1, m, y = 1, m
(1)
Fig. 3.
Next, we evaluated the energy consumption for the proposed algorithm. The target platform is based on a low-power
EFM32 ARM Cortex-M3 MCU and an IEEE 802.15.4 2.4
GHz MRF24J40 radio. The platform is equipped with temperature and accelerometer sensors and can support extension
boards for SpO2, EKG and other physiological signals.
The test application states and parameters are shown in
Table IV. The Battery Estimator and Energy Profiler tools
from Energy Micro [16] were used to estimate the system
operating time. For a rated battery capacity of 3000 mAh the
estimated operating time is 264 days with an average current
consumption of roughly 500 uA.
TABLE II
N ODE 11 S INK ROUTES
Route
r1
r2
r3
r4
r5
r6
r7
r8
Nodes
11-4-2-S
11-4-1-S
11-10-4-2-S
11-10-4-1-S
11-8-6-5-3-S
11-8-7-5-3-S
11-9-7-5-3-S
11-9-7-8-6-5-3-S
TABLE III
N ODE 11 ROUTING TABLE
Dest
S
S
S
S
S
N ext
4
10
8
9
9
N oHops
3
4
5
6
5
M inEnergy
1.47 J
1.18 J
2.01 J
1.22 J
1.22 J
T imestamp
11
12
5
19
17
TABLE IV
T EST APPLICATION STATES
State
Description
Current
TX
29.47 mA
Duty
cycle
0.1%
21.80 mA
2%
590 nA
97.9%
RX
Idle
VI. CONCLUSIONS
In this paper we have proposed a novel routing algorithm
for wireless sensor networks. The algorithm chooses the
communication routes dynamically in order to balance the
energy consumption throughout the network. This makes
it suitable for deployment in patient monitoring systems
because it can extend the lifetime of the monitoring devices.