GEOPHYSICS 224 – Fall 2009

CHAPTER 2 – GRAVITY EXPLORATION

(Textbook: chapter 6)

2.1 Gravity and gravity anomalies

2.1.1 Newtonian gravitation

Newton’s Law of Gravitation states that if
two point masses are a distance r apart, they
will attract each other with a force Fg:

Gm1 m 2
Fg =
r2

The parameter G is the universal gravitational constant (or “big G” or the Newtonian
constant).
G = 6.67 x 10-11 m3 kg-1 s-2

Units are:
F Newtons (N)
m kilograms (kg)
r metres (m)

This equation shows that Fg obeys an inverse square law – as the distance between the
two masses increases, Fg decreases by 1/r2.

Now consider that one of the masses is

the Earth (call this ME). For a spherical,
non-rotating, homogeneous Earth, it can
be shown that the force of gravity due to
the mass of the Earth will be the same as
if all the mass were at the centre of the
Earth.
 2

If you were to drop a small object (with mass m), the force of gravity will cause it to
accelerate according to Newton’s third law of motion:

Fg = ma

Fg
The acceleration (a) is therefore: a =
m

Combine this with Fg from the gravitation equation on page 1:

GM Em 1 GM E
a= = 2 =g
r2 m r

In this equation, g is the gravitational acceleration (units are m/s2). Note that:

• g decreases with distance from ME - decreases by 1/r2 (inverse square law).

• g does not depend on the mass of the small object. A small mass and a large
mass will fall with the same acceleration.

Question: What is the average gravitational acceleration at the surface of the Earth?

Mass of the Earth (ME) = 5.974 × 1024 kg

Average radius of the Earth (r) = 6371 km

g = ______________ m/s2

In gravity exploration, we study very small variations in g, so it is convenient to use a

smaller unit – the milligal.

1 mgal = 10-5 m s-2

Note that textbook uses the unit gu (“gravity unit”):

1 gu = 1 μm s-2 = 10-6 m s-2 = 0.1 mgal
 3

2.1.2 Gravity variations over the Earth’s surface

The value of gravitational acceleration (g) varies over the Earth’s surface because of:

(A) the shape and rotation of the Earth (latitudinal variations)

(B) topography on the Earth’s surface (elevation variations)

(C) heterogeneities within the Earth (local geology)

(A) Variation in gravity with latitude

The Earth is not a sphere – it is an oblate spheroid. The radius at the equator is 6378 km
and the radius at the poles is 6357 km. In addition, the Earth is rotating.

Æ How do these factors affect the surface gravity?

1. Shape of the Earth

The equatorial radius is greater than the polar radius. Therefore, at the equator, the
Earth’s surface is further from the centre of the Earth. Since gravity decreases with
distance (inverse square law), gravity should be weaker at the equator

GM E
Remember that: g = where ME is the mass of the Earth
r2

Using this equation, gE = 979,540 mgal at the equator

gP = 986,022 mgal at the poles

Æ the predicted gravity is 6482 mgal less at the equator (gE < gP)

2. Variations in mass distribution

Because the Earth has a larger radius at the equator than at the poles, there is more mass
between the surface and the centre of the Earth at the equator. This produces a larger
gravitational acceleration. It can be shown that this results in gravity that is 4800 mgal
more at the equator (gE > gP).

3. Rotation of the Earth

At the equator, rotation of the Earth causes you to travel around a circle with a radius of
6378 km once a day. As you go around, you experience a slightly reduced pull of
gravity because of the centrifugal force associated with circular motion. As you move
toward the poles, the centrifugal force decreases because radius of the path that you travel
becomes smaller. At the pole, you would not experience any centrifugal force – you
would just be turned around in place by the rotating Earth.

It can be shown that the effect of rotation causes gravity to be gE to be 3370 mgal less at
the equator (gE < gP).
 4

Combining these factors:

gP - gE = +6482 - 4800 + 3370 = 5052 mgal

Observed values: 978,032 mgal at the equator

983,218 mgal at the poles

Æ gP - gE = 5186 mgal

The variation in gravity with latitude (due to the above three factors) is given by the
Geodetic Reference System for 1967 (GRS67) equation:

g(θ) = 978031.846(1 + 0.0053024 sin 2 θ − 0.0000059 sin 2 2θ)

where θ is the latitude in degrees and g is in mgal. This equation gives the expected
(theoretical) value of absolute gravity at latitude θ.

9.84

9.83

9.82
Gravity (m/s2)

9.81

9.8

9.79

9.78

9.77
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Latitude (degrees)

Question: What is the expected value of gravity at the front doors of the CEB building
(latitude 53.52589ºN)?

From GRS67: g = 978031.846 ( 1 + 0.003442594 – 0.000005393 )

= 981393.538 mgal
= 9.8139 m s-2
 5

(2) Effect of topography on gravity

GM E
Gravity depends strongly on the distance from the centre of the Earth: g =
r2

As you move away from the centre of the Earth (r increases), the gravitational
acceleration will decrease.

This means that topographic (elevation) variations on the Earth’s surface will cause the
surface gravity to vary because the distance from the centre of the Earth is changing.

The change in gravity due to elevation changes is:

Δg = 0.3086Δh mgal

where Δh is the change in elevation in m.

Note that we also need to consider that elevation changes will also result in variations in
the amount of mass below a given point. For example, if you are standing on top of a
mountain, the gravity will be affected by the additional mass of the mountain below you.
We will deal with this in Section 2.4.

Question: How does gravity change as you go from the ground level to the 5th floor of
the CEB building – a change in height of 15 m? (ignore the effects of the building on the
gravity).

Δg = ____________ mgal

Does gravity increase or decrease?

(3) Effect of heterogeneities on gravity

Heterogeneities within the Earth (e.g., variations in rock types, geological structures)
cause local variations in the mass distribution, which are observable in surface gravity
measurements. The material property that links the surface gravity and subsurface
geology is the density of the rocks.

2.1.3 Rock density

The mass (m) of an object is equal to its density (ρ) multiplied by its volume (V):

m=ρxV

Units for density are kg m-3 (S.I. units) or g cm-3. (to convert: 1 g cm-3 = 1000 kg m-3)
 6

(1) Igneous and metamorphic rocks – density is primarily determined by composition.

Mafic rocks are generally more dense due to a decreased silica content and an increased
amount of heavier elements (Fe and Pb).

Granite ρ = 2.52 – 2.75 g cm-3

Basalt ρ = 2.70 – 3.20 g cm-3
Gneiss ρ = 2.61 – 2.99 g cm-3

(2) Sedimentary rocks – have lower density because of pore space that is filled with
lower density materials (e.g., air, water, hydrocarbons). Composition has a secondary
effect on density. Densities cover a wide range owing to variations in amount of porosity
and degree of weathering. Density increases with depth and age.

Clay ρ = 1.63 – 2.60 g cm-3

Shale ρ = 2.06 – 2.66 g cm-3
Limestone ρ = 2.60 – 2.80 g cm-3
Dolomite ρ = 2.28 – 2.90 g cm-3
Sandstone
Cretaceous ρ = 2.05 – 2.35 g cm-3
Triassic ρ = 2.25 – 2.30 g cm-3
Carboniferous ρ = 2.35 – 2.55 g cm-3

(3) Pure minerals – Tend to have a high density because atoms are closely packed
together. Density reflects the composition - higher density if minerals contain a
significant fraction of heavy elements, such as Fe and Pb.

Galena (PbS) ρ = 7.40 – 7.60 g cm-3

Pyrite (FeS2) ρ = 4.90 – 5.20 g cm-3
Halite (NaCl) ρ = 2.10 – 2.40 g cm-3

2.1.4 Gravity anomalies

Subsurface variations in rock density result in small changes in the value of
gravitational acceleration (g) observed at the Earth’s surface. In gravity exploration, the
small variations in g are used to determine the distribution of subsurface densities and
infer the subsurface geology.

surface subsurface subsurface

gravity density geology

For data analysis and interpretation, it is often easier to use gravity anomalies – the
difference between the observed gravity and the background value of gravity.
 7

What is the magnitude of a typical gravity anomaly?

A spherical ore body (density ρ and radius r) is
buried. The centre is at a depth z below the surface.
The surrounding rock has a density ρ0.

The ore body has a density that is larger than the

surrounding rock. Therefore we expect that the
gravitational acceleration should be larger over the
ore body. The gravity will be greatest at the point
(X) directly over the ore body.

We need to figure out is how much extra gravity there is due to the extra mass of the
ore body.
⎛4 ⎞
• Total mass of the ore body = volume × density = ⎜ πr 3 ⎟ × ρ
⎝3 ⎠

• Excess mass of the sphere, ΔMS = mass of the ore body – mass of the rock
⎛4 ⎞ ⎛4 ⎞
= ⎜ πr 3 ⎟ × ρ - ⎜ πr 3 ⎟ × ρ 0
⎝3 ⎠ ⎝3 ⎠
⎛4 ⎞
= ⎜ πr 3 ⎟ × (ρ − ρ 0 )
⎝3 ⎠

The quantity ρ- ρ0 is the density contrast – the difference in density between the ore
body and the rock (background density).

It can be shown that the maximum gravity anomaly (Δg) for the sphere is the same as if
all the mass were concentrated at its centre. From the equation on page 2:

GΔMS 4Gπr 3 (ρ − ρ0 )
Δg = =
z2 3z 2

Try some values:

r = 50 m ρ = 5000 kg m-3
z = 100 m ρ0 = 3000 kg m-3

The calculated gravity anomaly is: Δg = ________________ mgal

The anomaly is a very small fraction of Earth’s average surface gravity (less than
0.0001%).

Æ How does the gravity anomaly change if the ore body is deeper?
… has a larger radius?
… has a larger density?
 8

2.1.5 Gravity profiles

Consider an arbitrary ore body which is more dense than the surrounding soil. How does
the gravitational acceleration vary as you walk across the surface? To measure the
gravity field, we could do a simple experiment where we drop a ball at a number of
locations and accurately record its acceleration. This is will produce a gravity profile.

In Experiment 2, assume that all densities are reduced by subtracting the density of the
soil (ρ0). It can be shown that the shape of the gravity profile and the magnitude of the
gravity anomaly (the difference between the maximum gravity value and the gravity on
either side of the ore body) will be the same as in Experiment 1. The only difference in
the profiles is an offset in the absolute value g.

The shape and magnitude of the gravity anomaly depends only on the density contrast
(Δρ=ρ- ρ0) between the ore body and the soil and not on the absolute densities of the
materials.

Æ The shape and magnitude of the gravity anomaly contains all the information
that is needed to determine the geometry and depth of the ore body.