Project Time Management: Basic Processes

1. Objectives
After studying this topic, students are expected to be able to:
Identify and define project activities based on the deliverables and work packages
in the Work Breakdown Structure (WBS).
Identify and make use of activity dependencies and successor / predecessor
relationship for every activity.
Logically sequence project activities correctly based on activity dependencies and
successor / predecessor relationship.
Describe how estimation of project activity resources is done.
Describe how estimation of project activity duration is done.
2. Introduction
The Project Management Institute (PMI, 2008) guideline A Guide to the Project
Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK) divides the project management body of
knowledge into nine functional areas:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

Scope
Time
Cost
Quality
Human Resource

6)
7)
8)
9)

Communication
Risk
Procurement
Integration

The project time management has the following required processes to ensure that the
project is completed on time:
1) Define project activities
2) Sequence project activities
3) Estimate project activity resources
4) Estimate project activity durations
5) Develop project schedule
6) Control schedule
Note that in general activities may also be referred to as tasks and therefore these terms
can be used interchangeably. However, there are project managers who prefer to use

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Lecture Notes

the term task as the breakdown component of activity and activity as the breakdown
component of deliverable in the WBS.
Deliverable is a noun while activity and task are verbs. Hence any phrases to be used as a
deliverable must be written as a noun, for example: Ground beam, and any phrases to
be used as an activity or task must be written as a verb, for example: cut, bend and fix
the reinforcing steel bars (re-bars) for the ground beam.
3. Define project activities
Specific activities (actions) to produce project deliverables need to be identified. The
project activities would depend on the project scope statement and Work Breakdown
Structure (WBS) as discussed in the previous chapter about project scope management.
Decomposition technique as used to construct the WBS can be used to determine
project activities.
The output would be an activity list, activity attributes and milestone list. The WBS tasks
in Microsoft Project application are the activity list for the project. A milestone is an
accomplishment of certain related activities for example the handing over event of a
project after the construction is completed. An example of an activity list and milestone
list for the construction of a ground beam (simplified for the purpose of illustration) for a
house is listed in Exhibit 1.
4. Sequence project activities
Relationships between project activities or tasks are identified and documented in this
process based on the project scope statement, activity list and attributes, and milestone
list. Based on these relationships, the sequence of the activities are then logically
determined.
4.1 Activity dependencies
In any project, certain activities are dependent on other activity or activities. For
example in Figure 1, Activity B (referred to as the Successor) is dependent on
Activity A (referred to as the Predecessor) i.e. Activity B cannot start before Activity
A is completed or Activity B can only start when Activity A is completed.

Predecessor

Successor

Activity A

Activity B

Figure 1: An example of activity dependency Activity B is dependent on A

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PMI (2008) categorizes dependencies as mandatory, discretionary and external

dependencies:
Exhibit 1: Activity list and milestone list for the construction of a ground beam for a house
Activity List
Activity A: Place lean concrete on the ground where the base of the beam is located.
Activity B: Fabricate the beam formwork at the formwork yard.
Activity C: Apply the formwork oil onto the beam formwork.
Activity D: Fix and erect the beam formwork at site.
Activity E: Cut and bend re-bars.
Activity F: Fix the re-bars for the beam (outside the beam formwork).
Activity G: Lift and place the beam re-bars into the beam formwork.
Activity H: Install any embedded items and provide adequate concrete cover.
Activity I:

Ensure that the area to place concrete is clean and there is no prohibited and
deleterious materials.

Activity J:

Make sure that the concreting team and equipment, supply of concrete and
any other relevant preparations to carry out concreting works are ready.

Activity K: If all concreting preparation works are ready and approval is given by the Site
Engineer, the Site Supervisor will place the order for delivery of fresh
concrete from the batching plant.
Activity L: When fresh concrete has arrived at site, perform concrete slump test and
make concrete test cubes and / or cylinders for the concrete laboratory.
Activity M: If concrete slump test is satisfactory and approval is given by the Site
Engineer, place concrete and perform adequate compaction and finishing.
Activity N: Perform concrete curing for the required duration.
Milestone List
Milestone No. 1: The ground beam is completed after all Activities A to N are finished.

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a) Mandatory dependencies
These dependencies are sometimes referred to as hard logic that are required
in the contract (for example the construction site leveling cannot start until the
opening ceremony is performed by the Prime Minister) or which is inherent in
the work itself (for example the superstructure is dependent on the foundation
because it could be constructed only after the foundation is completed).
b) Discretionary dependencies
These dependencies are sometimes referred to preferred logic, preferential
logic or soft logic. These activities are based on knowledge of best practices
and where a specific sequence is desired. Therefore these activities can be
reviewed to be modified or removed if necessary, for example when the
project has to be fast tracked.
c) External dependencies
These dependencies refer to relationships that are between project activities
(for example construction of a temporary diversion channel to enable dry
construction area for the bridge piers) and non-project activities (for example
the environmental impact assessment to be done by the Ministry of
Environment and their environmental consultants).
4.2 Successor / predecessor relationship
Activity dependencies or more specifically the inter-dependencies of activities, and
lags and leads among activities determine the relationships between activities in a
project. Project activity relationship is called the successor / predecessor
relationship (refer back to Figure 1).
Therefore a predecessor can influence and affect the successor. As discussed
earlier, a successor is dependent on a predecessor. For example if the predecessor
were to be completed behind schedule therefore the successor will have to start
behind schedule. Similarly the successor can only start after the predecessor is
finished. However, this direct relationship is not always applicable to all project
activities if lag and lead are introduced.
Lag is the duration that a successor is purposely delayed from the start or finish of
its predecessor. Lead is the opposite of lag which is the duration that a successor is
purposely precedes the start or finish of its predecessor (Oberlender, 2000).
All possible relationships between activities of a project are as listed in Exhibit 2
and illustrated in Figure 2 (Fisk, 2000).

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Exhibit 2: Relationships between activities (successor / predecessor relationship)

Finish-to-start (F-S): The predecessor is first finished and then only the successor
can start.
Start-to-start (S-S):

The successor can start at the same time or later than the time
that the predecessor starts. There is an overlap between the
successor and predecessor.

Finish-to-finish (F-F): The successor can finish at the same time or later than the
time that the predecessor finishes. There is an overlap
between the successor and predecessor.
Start-to-finish (S-F):

The predecessor must start before the successor can finish.

Note: 1) F = finish and S = start.

2) The first letter in the notation refers to the predecessor and the second
letter refers to the successor.

After the inter-dependencies, lags and leads of activities are confirmed, the sequencing
of activities can then be made. For example the sequence of activities for producing a
deliverable which is a ground beam (after the ground work and setting out have been
completed) based on the activity list in Exhibit 1 is listed in Exhibit 3.
Project activity dependencies or successor / predecessor relationship and the
corresponding sequence of activities can be in the form of a list as shown in Table 1 and
Table 2. Note that all activities in Table 1 and Table 2 are having F S relationship with
no lag and no lead. Table 2 is an example of a simpler form of activity list and
relationship without the activity description.
5. Estimate project activity resources
In this process the type and quantity of resources: financial, people, material,
equipment, etc. that is required for each activity is determined. The resources needed
for each activity would basically depend on the activity attributes, availability of
resources as indicated in the resource calendar, experience and skill level of the human
resource, and the source or supply (geographical location and supplier) of the resource.
A resource calendar is a document that basically provides the essential information
about all resources, for example time and duration the particular type of resources and
its quantity will be available, used or idle; working and non-working days for human
resource, public holidays, etc.
Past experience from construction managers and professionals, and companys past
construction records are usually used to determine the resources. Alternative and better
construction methods must be considered before the resources are finalized. For

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example, based on the activity attributes of the activity list in Exhibit 1, some of the
main required resources are listed in Exhibit 4.

Figure 2: Relationships between activities (successor / predecessor relationship)

Source: Fisk (2000)

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Exhibit 3: Sequence of activities for the construction of a ground beam for a house
Activities A, B and E can start at the same time as the first activities and they are
independent from each other.
Activity C can start after Activity B is completed.
Activity D can start after Activity C is completed.
After Activity E is completed and while Activities C and D are being carried out,
Activity F can start.
Activity G can start after Activity D and F are completed.
Activities H, I and J can be done at the same time i.e. concurrently after Activity G is
completed.
Activity H and I must be completed before Activity J can end.
Activity K can only start after Activity J is completed.
After Activity K is completed, only then Activity L can start.
Activity M can start after the slump test is satisfactory (about hours after concrete
has arrived i.e. after Activity L has started for about hours). In other words Activity
M has a lag of hours after the start of Activity L.
Activity N can start about 2 hours after Activity M is completed i.e. Activity N has a lag
of 2 hours after the start of Activity M.

Output from the estimation of project activity resources process includes the Resource
Breakdown Structure (RBS) which is similar to the WBS. The RBS shows the hierarchical
structure of the breakdown of resources based on resource category (labor, materials,
equipment, etc.) and resource types (skill level, grade level, etc.).
6. Estimate project activity durations
The duration for each activity based on the project scope statement, attributes of each
activity, allocated resources and resource calendar need to be determined (PMI, 2008).
Duration of activities depends on many factors such as (Oberlender, 2000):
Quantity and quality of work.
Number of people and equipment for the activity.
Level of skills of workers.
Availability and efficiency of equipment and machinery.

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Table 1: Activities for a hazardous waste incineration project

Activity

Description

Immediate
Predecessor

Develop information for public hearings.

None

Hold public hearings.

Develop draft plans and specifications.

Contact stakeholders and others.

Obtain permits.

B, C

Order equipment for facility.

Procure and prepare land.

Construct facility.

D, E, F, G

Approval of operating procedures.

Install equipment, staff and facility.

Testing and commissioning.

H, I, J

Adapted from Table 5.1, p. 98, Griffis and Farr (2000)

Table 2: Example of input for exercises
Activity

Immediate
Predecessor

None

B, E

C, F, G

Effectiveness and efficiency of work supervision.

Delays, interruptions and discontinuous flow of work.
Miscellaneous work conditions.
Etc.

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Exhibit 4: Required resources for the production of a ground beam for a house
Activities A, K, L and M require a steady supply of fresh concrete (i.e. material) from
the concrete batching plant that satisfies the particular concrete specifications.
Activities B, C and D require processed timber (i.e. material) that is in the form that is
ready to be used to fabricate the beam formwork.
Activity C requires formwork oil (i.e. material).
Activities E, F and G require re-bars (i.e. material) of the particular specifications.
Activity E requires bar cutting and bending machine (i.e. equipment).
Activity H requires the particular relevant embedded items (i.e. equipment) (if any).
Activity I requires an air compressor of adequate capacity and piping system (i.e.
equipment) and an appropriate water supply (i.e. material).
Activity L requires concrete slump test set, and test cube and cylinder molds (i.e.
equipment).
Activity M requires mobile concrete pumps or mobile cranes with concrete buckets,
poker vibrators and concrete finishing tools (i.e. equipment).
Activity N requires curing facilities for example sprinkler (i.e. equipment).
All activities require a qualified Site Supervisor (i.e. people) to supervise the
construction activities.
Activity K requires a qualified Site Engineer (i.e. people) to inspect and give his
approval.
Activities B, C, D and H require adequate number of skilled carpenters (i.e. people).
Activity E requires adequate number of skilled bar benders (i.e. people).
Activities F, G and H require adequate number of skilled bar fixers (i.e. people).
Activities A, J, K and L require adequate number of skilled concreting workers (i.e.
people).
Activity M requires a qualified laboratory technician (i.e. people).
Adequate number of general workers (i.e. people) is needed to provide assistance in
all activities.

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The Project Management Institute (PMI, 2008) suggests a number of ways to estimate
the project activity duration: analogous estimating, parametric estimating, three-point
estimating and reserve estimating.
6.1 Analogous estimating
This method makes use of durations for previous similar activities particularly
when there is limited detailed information about the project. A common approach
is to analyze historical records from previously completed projects. For example if
in a previous project, it took about 2 weeks to excavate a square kilometer of land
that is comprised of in-situ highly decomposed granite, to a depth of 1 meter by
using an excavator, therefore the same duration can be used for similar excavation
works in another project.
6.2 Parametric estimating
This method uses the quantitative relationship between relevant activity variables.
A simple application is to divide the quantity of work to be performed by the
production rate. For example if the assigned resource, say 3 bar fixers, is capable to
fix the re-bars for 4 beams in a day, therefore the estimated duration for 3 bar
fixers to fix the re-bars for 12 beams would be 12/4 = 3 days.
Reference can be made to commercially available manuals about costs and
production rates for certain types of work.
Therefore a basic formula to calculate the duration of activities would be as
follows:
Duration = total quantity of work
production rate

(which is a function of the number of

individuals who do the work)

Example No. 1 (adapted from Gould and Joyce, 2003)

Calculate the duration for installing 32 window frames if your construction
record shows that the daily carpenter output is able to install 16 window
frames a day.
Solution:
Duration = total quantity of work / production rate
= 32 frames / 16 frames per day
= 2 days
Therefore it would take 2 days for 1 worker to install 32 frames and it
would take 1 day for 2 workers. Note that production rate is the same as
daily crew output.

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Example No. 2 (adapted from Gould and Joyce, 2003)

Calculate the duration for installing 32 window frames if your construction
record shows that the installation of one window frame requires 1 manhour of
carpenters and you have 3 carpenters who work 8 hours a day to install these
window frames.
Solution:
Duration = total quantity of work / production rate
Total quantity of work = 32 frames
Production rate

= 1 frame
hour

for 1 worker

= 3 x 1 frame x 8 hour
hour
day

for 3 workers

= 24 frames
day
Therefore,
Duration = 32 frames
24 frames
day
= 1.33 days
= 2 days
6.3 Three-point estimating
This method considers the uncertainty and accuracy of assigning a particular
duration to an activity and therefore a probability approach is used. An activity is
given 3 different durations: optimistic duration, most likely duration and
pessimistic duration. The expected activity duration is then calculated based on a
particular formula to be used by the particular activity. This estimating method will
be discussed in Project Time Management: Project Scheduling Network Diagram
and Critical Path Method (CPM) module.
6.4 Reserve estimating
This method is about having a contingency reserve which is the time buffer or time
reserve to be utilized due to uncertainties in scheduling. The contingency reserve
may be in the form of a percentage of the activity duration, a fixed duration or to
be determined using quantitative analysis methods. If the uncertainties are no
longer a big concern due to having more accurate and reliable information about
the project, the project manager has the option to reduce or remove the
contingency reserve.

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The activity duration estimate output can include a range of possible duration, for
example: 4 weeks 3 days which is read as the activity will be done in at least 17
days and the most is 23 days (for working days of 5 days in a week).
7. Develop project schedule
The project schedule is created by analyzing project scope statement, activity list and
attributes, inter-dependencies of activities, project schedule network diagrams, activity
duration estimates, resource requirements and calendars, and schedule constraints.
There are a number of tools and techniques that are introduced in PMBOK to develop a
project schedule: schedule network analysis, critical path method (CPM), critical chain
method, resource leveling, what-if scenario analysis and schedule compression
crashing and fast tracking. Project schedule network diagram and CPM is covered in the
Project Time Management: Project Scheduling Network Diagram and Critical Path
Method (CPM) module.
The output of this process is the Gantt Charts (bar chart and milestone chart) and
project schedule network diagram. These charts, diagrams and other relevant project
data and information serve as the project baseline.
Figure 3 is an example of a network diagram which is referred to as a Precedence
Diagram or Activity On Node (AON) Diagram. It was drawn based on the data in Table 1.
Figure 4 is another example of a network diagram which is referred to as an Arrow
Diagram or Activity On Arrow (AOA) Diagram. It was drawn based on the data in Table 2.
F

C
D

Figure 3: A project schedule network diagram called Precedence Diagram or Activity On

Node (AON) Diagram for data in Table 1

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Figure 4: A project schedule network diagram called Arrow Diagram or Activity On Arrow
(AOA) Diagram for data in Table 2
8. Control schedule
The project status and progress is monitored and updated in this process. Any changes
with respect to the schedule baseline of the project will be managed accordingly. The
basic activities to control the project schedule are as follows:
Determine the current status of the project schedule.
Influence the factors that may cause project schedule changes.
Determine whether the project schedule has changed.
Manage the project schedule changes.
The basic input for the control schedule process is the project schedule baseline, the
most recent revised project schedule (with information of updates, completed activities,
delays, etc.) and information about project performance and progress.
Tools and techniques used include performance review (which is basically comparing
actual progress with the baseline), variance analysis (which is to assess the variation
magnitude to the schedule baseline), functions in project management application
(software) to track project progress, resource leveling, what-if scenarios, adjusting lags
and leads, and schedule compression.
Schedule control activities would result in the following: a record of the causes of
variances, a measure of the variances, take corrective actions on the variances, manage
Variation Orders (VO), and update baselines for schedule and costs.
9. Group assignment
1) Study about an introduction to basic project time management at
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UlTjJ_atRmc
2) Study about an introduction to basic project time management at
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=na143ha9oCg

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Lecture Notes

10. References
1. Fisk, E. R. (2000), Construction Project Administration, Prentice Hall.
2. Garold D. Oberlender (2000), Project Management for Engineering and
Construction, 2nd Edition, Mc Graw-Hill.
3. Gould, F. M. and Joyce, J. A. (2009); Construction Project Management; 3rd Edition,
Prentice Hall.
4. Griffis, F. H. and Farr, J. V. (2000), Construction Planning for Engineers, Mc GrawHill.
5. Project Management Institute (2008), A Guide to the Project Management Body of
Knowledge, 4th Edition.
th

Latest update: 9 January, 2015

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