INTRODUCTION

ATMOSPHERIC AND VACUUM UNIT (AVU):The ADU (Atmospheric Distillation Unit) separates most of the lighter end
products such as gas, gasoline, naphtha, kerosene, and gas oil from the crude
oil. The bottoms of the ADU is then sent to the VDU (Vacuum Distillation Unit).
Crude oil is preheated by the bottoms feed exchanger, further preheated and
partially vaporized in the feed furnace and then passed into the atmospheric
tower where it is separated into off gas, gasoline, naphtha, kerosene, gas oil
and bottoms.
Atmospheric and Vacuum unit (AVU) of Mathura Refinery is designed to
process 100% Bombay High Crude and 100% Arab Mix crude (consisting of
Light and Heavy crude in 50:50 proportion by weight) in blocked out operation
@ 11.0 MMTPA.

CRUDE DISTILLATION UNIT :

The column is provided with 56 trays of which 8 are baffle trays in the stripping
section. Heated and partly vaporized crude feed coming from fired heater
enters the flash zone of the column at tray no. 46 at 355 C/365 C.
Hydrocarbon vapours flash in this zone and get liberated. Non-flashed liquid
moves down which is largely bottom product, called RCO.
MP steam having some degree of superheat is introduced in the column below
tray no. 46 at approximately 3.5 kg/cm 2 (g) and 290 C for stripping of RCO.
Steam stripping helps to remove lighter constituents from the bottom product
(RCO). Hydrocarbon vapours liberated by flashing moves up along with the
steam in the column for further mass transfer at trays in the upper section.
Reduced crude oil product is collected at the bottom of the column and the
overhead vapours are totally condensed in Overhead air Condenser and train
condenser. This condensed overhead product is separated as hydrocarbon
and water in the reflux drum. Water is drawn out under inter-phase level
control and sent to sour water drums.

CDU
CRUDE RECEIVING
CRUDE PREHEATING (FIRST STAGE)
DESALTING OF CRUDE
CRUDE PREHEATING (SECOND STAGE)
PREFRACTIONATOR DISTILLATION
CRUDE PREHEATING (THIRD STAGE)
RAISING TEMPERATURE WITH FIRED HEATERS
ATOMOSPHERIC DISTILLATION
NAPHTHA STABILISATION
PRODUCT ROUTING AFTER HEAT RECOVERY

TYPES OF CRUDE:
Low Sulphur
Indian: Bombay High
Nigerian: Girasol, Escravos ,Farcados, Bonny ligh
High Sulphur
Imported: Arab Mix, Kuwait, Dubai, Ratawi, Basra etc
1.1

UNIT SECTIONS & CAPACITIES :

UNIT

CAPACITY

Crude Distillation Unit

6.00 MMTPA
2

Vacuum Distillation Unit.

Naphtha stabiliser.
Naphtha splitter.
MTO splitter.
Naphtha caustic wash
C5-90C cut
90-120 cut
LPG vaporiser

3.30 MMTPA
1.22 MMTPA
1.10 MMTPA
0.03 MMTPA
0.37 MMTP
0.48 MMTPA
5.0 Tons Hrs.

1.1.1 STREAM FACTOR :

Numbers of stream days per year are 345 days (8000 Hrs./year) for Crude
distillation and Vacuum distillation sections.
1.1.2 TURN-DOWN RATIO :
UNIT
CDU
VDU

CASE

TURNDOWN RATIO

HS Crude
LS Crude
with NSU heater operation

50% of 6.0 MMTPA

50% of 6.0 MMTPA
50% of 3.2496 MMTPA of
RCO (AM case)
50% of 3.2496 MMTPA of
RCO (AM case)
80%

without NSU heater operation

NSU

FO firing, max., slop recycle & NSU

heater also operating
FG firing with max. slop recycle & NSU
heater also operating.
FG + FO Firing with max. slop recycle &
recycle NSU heater also operating.
FG + FO firing with max. & NSU heater
not operating.
FO firing. Max. reflux & AM C5-90
overhead product with VDU heater also
operating.
FG firing, max. reflux & AM C5-90
overhead product with VDU heater also
operating
3

60%
70%
60%
75%
55%

FG + FO firing max. reflux & AM C5-90

overhead product with VDU heater also
operating.
FG + FO firing, with or without VDU
heater in operation.

65%

---

50%

MTO

1.2
S.NO

PRODUCTS EX CDU/VDU MAIN COLUMNS:

SHORT

LONG NAME

CUT RANGE USAGE

C

NAME
1.
2.

GAS
LPG

3.

NAP

4.
5.
6.

HN
KERO
ATF

7.
8.
9.
10.

LGO
HGO
VD
LVGO

11.

HVGO

12.
13.

1.3

50%

Fuel gas

C1-C2

Liquefied Petroleum C3-C4

Gas
Naphtha
C5-120
C5-120
140-270
140-240

V.SLOP

Heavy Naphtha
Kerosene
Aviation
Turbine
Fuel
Light Gas Oil
Heavy Gas Oil
Vacuum Diesel
Light Vacuum gas
Oil
Heavy Vacuum Gas
Oil
Vacuum Slop

VR

Vacuum Residue

560+

CRUDE SPECIFICATIONS:
4

240/270-320
320-370
370
370-425
425-550
550-560

Internal fuel
Domestic
Gas

fuel

MS Component
HSD Component
Domestic fuel
Airplanes
HSD Component
HSD Component
HSD Component
Feed
to
HCU/FCCU
Feed
to
HCU/FCCU
IFO Component/
feed to RFCCU
Bitumen/
VBU
feed

S.NO

PROPERTY

RANGE

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Gravity
Viscosity
Pour point
RVP
Salt content
BS & W
Total Sulphur
Wax Content

30-40 C API
3-24 Cst @ 36 C
(-) 30 (+) 30 C
0.34-0.67 Kg/cm2 (max.)
165 ppm (max.)
2.0% vol. (max.)
0.17-2.35 % Wt.
10.68-2.8% wt.

1.4

MATERIAL BALANCE (DESIGN):

BH CRUDE
SK-RUN
MT/HR
WT%

ARAB MIX CRUDE

ATF-RUN
MT/HR
WT%

750
1.81
14.5
102.43
33.75
192.75
80.29
40.26
283.1
1.11

750
9.6
63.9
19.49
113.25
81.71
54.47
406.2
1.38

A) CDU

CRUDE
GAS
LPG
NAPHTHA
HY.NAPH.
KERO
LGO
HGO
RCO
LOSS

1.6

100
0.24
1.93
13.66
4.5
25.7
10.7
5.37
37.75
0.15

100
1.28
8.52
2.6
15.1
10.9
7.26
54.16
0.18

LIST OF EQUIPMENTS:

A) COLUMNS:
S.NO.

1.
2.
3.

EQUIPMENT NUMBER

03-C-001
03-C-002
03-C-003

DESCRIPTION

Crude Distillation column

Heavy Naphtha stripper
KERO/ATF Stripper
5

4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.

03-C-004
03-C-005
03-C-006
03-C-007
03-C-008
04-C-001
19-C-001
19-C-002

LGO stripper
HGO stripper
Naphtha stabiliser
Naphtha splitter
MTO Splitter
Vacuum Distillation column
LPG Amine Absorber
Fuel Gas Amine Absorber

B) VESSELS :
S.NO.

EQUIPMENT

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

NUMBER
03-V-001
03-V-002
03-V-003
03-V-004
03-V-005
03-V-006
03-V-007 A/B

8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.

03-V-008
03-V-009
03-V-010
03-V-011
03-V-013
03-V-014
03-V-015

15.

03-V-016

16.
17.

03-V-017
03-V-018

18.

03-V-019

19.
20.
21.
22.

03-V-020
03-V-021
03-V-022
03-V-023

DESCRIPTION
Crude Preflash vessel.
Crude column o/h reflux drum.
Stabiliser reflux drum
Naphtha splitter o/h reflux drum.
MTO splitter reflux drum.
CDU Furnace Decoking pot
Caustic soln.tk. for pre & post-desalter
caustic dosing
Corrosion inhibitor drum
Demulsifier drum.
Caustic solution tank (mother tank)
Ammonia solution vessel
Desalter water drum
Tempered water drum.
Naphtha caustic wash vessel. (C5-90 C
cut)
Naphtha water wash vessel (C5-90 C
cut)
Spent caustic drum
Naphtha caustic wash vessel. (90-120
C cut)
Naphtha caustic wash vessel. (90-120
C cut)
Sour water quench drum. (from 03-V-5)
CBD drum.
Flare knock out drum
MP steam drum.
6

23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.

03-V-024
03-V-025
03-V-026
03-V-027
03-V-032
03-V-033
04-V-001
04-V-002
04-V-003
04-V-004
04-V-12
04-V-13
19-V-001
19-V-002
19-V-003
19-V-004
19-V-005
19-V-201
19-V-202
19-V-203
19-V-204

LP steam drum.
Steam blow down drum.
LPG vaporiser drum.
Fuel gas knock out drum
TSP vessel.
Flushing oil vessel.(CDU)
Hot well.
Water coalescer.
Hot well catch pot.
VDU Furnace Decoking pot.
Vacuum Slop quench drum.
Flushing oil vessel.(VDU)
Sour fuel gas filter separator.
Sweet gas filter separator.
Amine sump.
LPG surge drum.
Anti foam agent drum.
Ist stage caustic wash vessel.
2nd stage caustic wash vessel.
Ist stage LPG/ caustic mixer.
2nd stage LPG/ caustic mixer

C) PUMPS :
S.NO.

EQUIPMENT NUMBER

1.
2.
3.

03-P-01A/B/C
03-P-02A/B/C
03-P-03A/B/C

4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.

03-P-04A/B
03-P-05A/B
03-P-06A/B/C
03-P-07A/B/C
03-P-08A/B/C
03-P-09A/B/C
03-P-10A/B
03-P-11A/B
03-P-12A/B
03-P-13A/B
03-P-14A/B/C
03-P-15A/B

16.

03-P-16A/B

DESCRIPTION

Crude charge pump.

Preflashed crude pumps.
Desalted crude pumps. (not in use). 03P-3A converted to fire water booster
pump.
Stabiliser feed pumps.
Atm. Column top reflux pumps.
HN circulating reflux pumps.
Kero/ATF circulating reflux pumps.
LGO circulating reflux pumps.
HGO circulating reflux pumps.
Hy. Naphtha product pumps
Kero/ATF product pumps.
LGO product pumps.
HGO product pumps
Reduced crude oil pumps.
Naphtha stabiliser reflux/LPG product
pumps.
Naphtha splitter reflux/overhead product
7

17.

03-P-17A/B

18.
19.

03-P-19A/B
03-P-20A/B/C

20.
21.
22.

03-P-21A/B
03-P-22A/B
03-P-24A/B

23.

03-P-25

24.
25.

03-P-26A/B
03-P-27A/B

26.

03-P-28

27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.

03-P-29A
03-P-30A/B
03-P-35A/B
03-P-36A/B
03-P-37
03-P-38
03-P-41A/B

34.
35.

03-P-44A/B/C
03-P-45A/B

36.
37.
38.
39.
40.

04-P-01A/B
04-P-02A/B
04-P-03A/B/C
04-P-04A/B/C
04-P-05A/B

41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.

04-P-06A/B
04-P-07A/B
04-P-08A/B
04-P-09A/B
03-P-MT-31A/B/C
03-P-MT-32A/B
03-P-MT-33A/B
03-P-MT-34A/B/C
03-P-MT-43A/B
19-P-001A/B

pumps.
MTO splitter reflux/overhead product
pumps
MTO splitter bottom product pumps
Naphtha splitter bottom/Furnace feed
pumps.
2nd stage desalter water pumps
1st stage desalter water pumps
Naphtha Caustic circulation pumps. (c590)
Naphtha Water circulation pumps. . (c590)
Spent caustic pumps.
Naphtha Caustic circulation pumps. (90120)
Naphtha Water circulation pumps. (90120)
Water make up pumps.
MTO product pumps.
Main tempered water pumps .
Tempered water pumps
Caustic make up pump.
CBD pump
MTO Splitter feed pumps (removed as
not required)
Flushing oil pumps (LGO)
Atmospheric reflux drum boot sour water
pumps.
Vac. diesel product+IR+CR pumps.
LVGO product+IR+CR pumps
HVGO product+IR+CR pumps
Slop + Recycle pumps.
Vacuum residue + quench pumps. (04-P5B removed)
Vacuum residue + quench pumps.
Hot well Sour water pumps.
Hot well Slop oil pumps.
Flushing oil pumps (HVGO) .
Corrosion inhibitor pumps.
Demulsifier injection pumps.
Caustic injection pumps.
Ammonia solution injection pumps.
TSP dosing pumps.
Rich Amine transfer pumps.
8

51.
52.

19-P-002A
19-P-003A/B

53.
54.
55.

19-P-201A/B
19-P-202
19-P-203A/B

Amine sump pumps.

Anti foam injection pumps.(removed as
not required)
LPG caustic circulation pumps.
LPG caustic circulation pumps.
Strong caustic injection pumps from 03V-10

D) FURNACES :
S.NO.

1.
2.
3.

EQUIPMENT NUMBER

03-F-001
03-F-002
04-F-001

DESCRIPTION.

Crude Furnace
Naphtha splitter furnace
Vacuum Furnace

E) EJECTORS :
S.NO.

1.
2.
3.

EQUIPMENT NUMBER

04-EJ-001A/B/C
04-EJ-002A/B/C
04-EJ-003A/B/C

DESCRIPTION.
st

1 stage ejector
2nd stage ejector
3rd stage ejector

F) AIR FIN COOLERS :

S.NO.

EQUIPMENT

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.

NUMBER
03-EA-LP-001 A-P
03-EA-LP-002 A-H
03-EA-LP-003
03-EA-LP-004
03-EA-LP-005
03-EA-LP-006
03-EA-LP-007
03-EA-LP-008
03-EA-LP-009 A-D
03-EA-LP-010 A-B
03-EA-LP-011
04-EA-LP-001 A-B

DESCRIPTION.
Crude column o/h air cooler
Naphtha splitter o/h air cooler
LGO product Air cooler
HGO product Air cooler
HN product Air cooler
Kero/ATF product cooler
Naphtha splitter bottom air cooler
MTO product Air cooler
Main Tempered water air cooler.
Tempered water air cooler.
Naphtha stabiliser air cooler
Vacuum diesel air cooler.

G) AIR FIN COOLER FANS :

S.NO.

EQUIPMENT NUMBER

1
2
3

03-EA-FN-001 A-P
03-EA-FN-002 A-H
03-EA-FN-003 A-B

4
5

03-EA-FN-004 A-B
03-EA-FN-007 A-B

6
7
8

03-EA-FN-009 A-D
03-EA-FN-010 A-B
04-EA-FN-001 A-B

DESCRIPTION.

Crude column o/h air cooler-16 nos

Naphtha splitter o/h air cooler- 8 nos
LGO, HN & Kero/ATF air cooler (EA LP
3,5,6)
HGO & MTO Air cooler (EA-LP- 4 & 8)
NSU & Stabiliser bottom air cooler (EA
LP 7,11)
Main Tempered water air cooler.- 4 nos
Tempered water air cooler 2 nos
Vacuum diesel air cooler- 2 nos

H) EXCHANGERS :
S.NO.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.

EQUIPMENT NUMBER

03-E-001A/B
03-E-002A/B
03-E-004A/B
03-E-007
03-E-008A/B
03-E-009
03-E-010
03-E-013
03-E-014A/B
03-E-015
03-E-016A/B
03-E-017
03-E-018
03-E-019
03-E-020A/B
03-E-021
03-E-022
03-E-023
03-E-024A/B
03-E-025
03-E-026A/B
03-E-027A/B
03-E-028A/B/C/D/E
03-E-029
03-E-030A/B/C
03-E-031
03-E-032
03-E-033A/B

DESCRIPTION.

Crude column o/h trim cooler.

Stabiliser o/h condenser.
Naphtha splitter o/h product cooler.
Hy. Naphtha product trim cooler.
Kero/ATF product trim cooler
LGO product trim cooler
HGO product trim cooler
Crude/Kero/ATF exchanger.
Crude/Kero/CR exchanger.
Crude/Vacuum diesel CR exchanger.
Crude/Hy. Naphtha CR exchanger.
Crude/VR exchanger.
Crude/HVGO exchanger.
Crude/LGO exchanger.
Crude/Kero/ATF exchanger.
Crude/Kero/ATF exchanger
Crude/LGO CR exchanger
Crude/HGO exchanger.
Crude/LVGO exchanger.
Crude/HVGO exchanger.
Crude/LGO exchanger.
Crude/LVGO exchanger.
Crude/VR exchanger.
Crude/slop exchanger.
Crude/LGO CR exchanger
Crude/HGO exchanger.
Crude/HGO CR exchanger.
Crude/HVGO CR exchanger.
10

29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.

03-E-034A/B
03-E-035
03-E-036
03-E-040
03-E-041
03-E-042
03-E-043A/B/C
03-E-044
03-E-046A/B
03-E-047
03-E-048
03-E-050
03-E-051A/B/C
03-E-052A/B
03-E-053
03-E-054
03-E-055A/B
03-E-056A/B
03-E-057
03-E-058A/B
03-E-059
03E-060
03-E-062
04-E-001

53.

04-E-002

54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.

04-E-003
04-E-004
04-E-005
04-E-007
04-E-008
04-E-009A/B/C
04-E-011
04-E-012
04-E-013
19-E-001

Crude/HVGO exchanger.
Crude/HGO exchanger.
Crude/HVGO CR exchanger.
Tempered water/HGO exchanger.
Tempered water/LGO exchanger.
Naphtha splitter bottom trim cooler.
Tempered water/DM water exchanger
MTO splitter o/h condenser.
Desalter water/brine exchanger.
MTO product trim cooler.
MTO bottom product trim cooler.
MTO o/h trim cooler.
MTO splitter feed/bottom exchanger.
Stabiliser feed bottom exchanger
Kero/ATF MP steam generator.
Kero/ATF LP steam generator.
HN/BFW exchanger.
Vac Slop /MP steam generator.
Brine cooler
VR/ LP steam generator.
HGO CR/ MP steam generator.
LGO CR/ steam generator.
Heating coil of 03-V-026 (LPG Vaporiser)
Tempered water/Vacuum diesel CR
exchanger.
Tempered
water/Vacuum
diesel
exchanger.
Tempered water/HVGO exchanger.
Tempered water/LVGO exchanger.
Tempered water/Vac. Slop exchanger
Tempered water/LVGO exchanger.
Tempered water/Vacuum diesel cooler.
Tempered water/VR exchanger.
Ejector 1st stage inter condenser.
Ejector 2nd stage inter condenser.
Ejector 3rd stage inter condenser.
Sour gas cooler

I) REBOILERS:
S.NO.

1.
2.

EQUIPMENT NUMBER

03-E-BU-03A/B
03-E-BU-006

DESCRIPTION.

Stabiliser reboiler
MTO splitter reboiler.
11

3.
4.

03-E-BU-011
03-E-BU-012A/B

HN reboiler
Kero/ATF reboiler.

J) DESALTERS:
S.NO.

1.
2.

EQUIPMENT NUMBER

03-LD-001
03-LD-002

DESCRIPTION.

Crude Desalter 1st stage

Crude Desalter 2nd stage

K)MISCELLANEOUS:
S.NO.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.

EQUIPMENT NUMBER

DESCRIPTION.

19-GN-201
LPG Sand filter
SP-1201
Hydrocarbon skim off vessel
03 F AP 002 A/B & Cast APH & Glass APH for 03-F-001
006 A/B
04 F AP 002 & 006
Cast APH & Glass APH for 04-F-001/03F-002
03-FF-FN-003 A/B
FD fan for 03-F-001
03-FF-FN-004
ID fan for 03-F-001
04-FF-FN-003 A/B
FD fan for 04-F-001/03-F-002
04-FF-FN-004
ID fan 04-F-002/03-F-002.
03-FF-ST-005
AVU stack
03-JS-001
Silencer (MP Steam Drum)
03-JS-002
Silencer (LMP Steam Drum)
03-JS-003
Silencer (LP Steam Drum)
03-VM-001
Mixer Corrosion Inhibitor
03-VM-002
Mixer-Demulsifier
03-VM-004
Mixer-TSP
04-GN-001
Vacuum diesel CR filter
04-GN-002
Vacuum diesel IR filter
04-GN-003
LVGO-CR filter
04-GN-004
HVGO CR+LVGO IR filter
04-GN-005
HVGO IR FILTER
03-GN-001
MTO Clay Filter

12

PROCESS DESCRIPTION

2.1

FEED SUPPLY
Crude oil is stored in eight nos. storage tanks i.e. TK-301 to 308 located in
offsite area, each tank having a nominal capacity of 50,000 KL. Booster
pumps (45-P-001A/B/C) located in offsite area are taking suction from one of
these tanks and delivering crude to suction of unit feed pumps 03-P-001A/B/C.

2.1.1 SLOP PROCESSING

Provision to reprocess 5% of slops with crude exists in the unit. Slop oil ex
slop tanks (2001,2002,2003) through 03-FV-1101 is injected in crude inlet line
at battery limit. The slop oil is transferred from offsite to unit by pump No. 47P-A/B.
2.2

1st PREHEAT TRAIN

Crude oil from crude charge pumps (03-P-001A/B/C) is charged to preheat
exchanger trains in two parallel streams. Total crude flow unit is recorded by flow
meter 03-FT-1102 & divided into two streams with the help of 03-FRC-1104 and
03-HIC-1101. Provision has been kept to inject caustic and demulsifier solution
at suction of crude charge pumps. The impellers of crude charge pumps 03-P-1
A/B/C have been trimmed from its original impeller dia of 404 mm to 380 mm to
reduce power consumption as well as for better pressure control of desalter .

2.2.1

CRUDE-EX 03-FRC-1104. (1st PREHEAT TRAIN)

The first crude stream passes through 03-E-015 (Crude v/s vacuum diesel
CR) and picks up heat from Vacuum Diesel CR coming at 142-166 c. Vacuum
13

Diesel CR is cooled to 91-99 C, whereas crude is getting heated upto 56-61

C.
Crude outlet from 03-E-015 enters 03-E-016A/B (Crude v/s Hy. Naphtha CR)
exchanger. Crude gets heated upto 87-103 C whereas Hy. Naphtha CR gets
cooled from 122-147 C to 94-108 C.

14

15

After 03-E-016A/B Crude enters 04-E-017 (Crude v/s VR) exchanger. Crude
gets heated upto 113 C whereas VR gets cooled from 237-242 C to 178128 C.
After 03-E-017, Crude enters 03-E-018A/B (Crude v/s HVGO) exchanger.
Crude gets heated upto 133-134 C whereas HVGO gets cooled from 204211 C to 130-133 C.
After 03-E-018A/B Crude enters 03-E-019 (Crude v/s LGO) exchanger. Crude
gets heated upto 140-146 C whereas LGO gets cooled from 179-197 C to
138-152 C.

2.2.2 CRUDE EX-03-HIC-1101 (1ST PREHEAT TRAIN)

The second crude steam passes through 03-E-013 (Crude v/s Kero/ATF)
where it is picking up heat from Kero/ATF coming at 124-125 c & getting
cooled to 95-98 C whereas crude is getting heated upto 55-58 C.
After 03-E-013, crude enters 03-E-014A/B (crude v/s Kero/ATF CR)
exchanger. Crude gets heated upto 107-115 C, whereas Kero/ATF CR gets
cooled from 154-171 C to 115 C.
After 03-E-014A/B, crude enters 03-E-020A/B (crude v/s Kero/ATF)
exchanger. Crude gets heated upto 132-135 C, whereas Kero/ATF CR gets
cooled from 163-174 C to 124-125 C..
Crude oil ex 03-E-20A/B and 03-E-19 is combined to average the temperature
@ 136-141 c and enters crude desalters 03-LD-001 & 03-LD-002 in series.
Provision has been kept to inject wash water and demulsifier ahead of 03-DPC
201 i.e. mixing valve at inlet of Desalter-1 & ahead of 03-DPC-1202 i.e. mixing
valve at inlet of Desalter-2.

2.3

ELECTRIC DESALTERS:

2.3.1 GENERAL DISCUSSION ON PROCESS :

The desalter is an electrostatic coalescer used for purification of crude from
sludge, salts and corrosion inducing salts. Sludge and salts like NaCl generally
gets deposited on the tubes of exchangers and thus reduce preheat
temperature. Salt if not removed will cause corrosion in distillation column.
There is no relationship between salt and sediment content in the crude oil
except each might increase with increase in water content in crude oil.
Sediment contains fine particles of sand, clay, mud, rust etc. Salts may vary
widely in the ratio of metal ions and brine concentration though 75% Na, 15%
Mg and 10% Ca are common averages. Chloride is the source of the indices
16

of corrosion potential of the crude. MgCl2 is the most specific producer of HCI
with Ca and Na in descending order. Apart from chloride, carbonates may be
present in significant quantities, sulfates may be troublesome and cause
sulfate scale formation.
These water-soluble impurities are brought along with the residual water
content into the crude oil. Much of the sediment also may be associated with
this dispersion of water. Water drops ordinarily are so small that gravity would
require a prohibitively long time to draw all of the drops to the bottom of a
storage tank, even if the tank were free from convection currents. Moreover
this water dispersion, or in other words, the emulsion received at the Refinery
has been aged over an extended period by stabiliser. These stabiliser are
molecules or groups of molecules, asphalts, etc. in the oil that are least similar
to the bulk oil (i.e. least similar to the most prevalent oil molecular species),
and therefore subject to less intermolecular force. Being less attracted to the
internal body of the oil, the exceptional material will be rejected to the interface
of the oil water drops. Such rejected surface active materials comprise a
physical barrier that prevents water drops getting close enough to bring about
coalescence. Before the drops can coalesce, therefore the stabiliser film must
be reduced in thickness and tenacity, and ruptured. An effective means for
aiding this is heat. Heat increases the solvency of the bulk oil for the stabiliser,
reduces the viscosity of the oil and decreases the cohesion of the film. These
effect though very much beneficial are normally not adequate to permit
coalescence.
The limitation of distance between drops is dealt with by dispersing about 5%
of fresh water to the oil. Thus the water has been increased about 25 times
and the distance between drops surfaces reduced by 10. Even so, the added
water is not likely to combine with a satisfactory portion of the brine particles
and coalesce effectively without additional means.
In desalting, the electric field is a powerful tool for overcoming the resistance
of stabilising films. The collision and coalescence of drops is accomplished by
an induced dipole attraction between them. That is the electrical charges
inherent in each droplet are separated so that positive charges move to one
end of the droplet and negative charges move to the other end.
As droplets then approach each other, the force between them becomes very
great. The stabilizing films are squeezed between drops and coalescence is
rapid. In a 5% emulsion, drops average about two diameters apart;
coalescence proceeds almost instantaneously. The distance between drops
then increases as drops fall due to gravity. For a 1% emulsion, drops are four
diameters apart and coalescence slows. When the emulsion content is 0.1%,
drops are eight diameters apart on the average. The forces of dipole
attraction, diminished by a factor of 250, are insignificant at this distance and
the final emulsion content shall depend on this to about 0.1%.
17

2.3.2 SYSTEM DESCRIPTION :

It may be seen from the above discussion that the process of desalting
consists of three main stages viz. heating, mixing & separation.
Crude oil is heated up to 136-141 C in the train of Heat Exchangers operating
in two parallel sections. Desalting temperature as required can be maintained
manually by operating the bypass valve of Heat Exchangers.
A two-stage bielectric desalter (03-LD-001/002) has been designed for 99%
salt removal with an outlet salt PPM of <0.1% wt. at outlet. It is designed to
use stripped sour water for desalting which is being taken ex stripped sour
water unit. Provision to use DM water/Service water is also provided. The level
in the desalter water vessel 03-V-013 is maintained by 03-LIC-1207. 2 nd stage
desalting pumps 03-P-021A/B are used for injecting stripped water into crude
line upstream of 2nd stage mixing valve 03-DPIC-1202 under flow control after
heating it with not brine from the 1 st stage desalter in 03-E-046A/B. The 2 nd
stage aqueous phase is transferred to 1 st stage desalter by pumps 03-P-022A/B under interface level control.
Selector switch SS-1201/1204/1205/1206 is provided to operate each desalter
independently. Pressure in the desalter is maintained by 03-PIC-1201 at the
inlet of first preheat train provided at the discharge of crude charge pump 03P-1 A/B/C. The electric field in the desalter breaks the emulsion and the outlet
brine from the 1st stage desalter is sent to ETP on level control. 03-LIC1201/1204 after cooling in 03-E-046 (Brine v/s desalter water)) and 03-E-057
(CW v/s Brine).
For physical checking of aqueous and oil levels try lines are provided at
different heights in the lower half of the desalters.
The desalter vessels are protected from over pressure by safety valves which
release excess pressure to crude column 03-C-001 flash zone. The safety
valves are located close to the column. Desalters drain is connected to both
CBD & OWS. As per original scheme, crude outlet of desalter 03-LD-002 was
going to desalted crude pumps 03-P-003A/B/C and further to pre-flash drum
(03-V-1) through 2nd preheats train. Presently crude is going to 03-V-1
bypassing 03-P-3 pumps at the desalter pressure. A separate bypass line has
been provided for the above.

18

19

2.4

2ND PREHEAT TRAIN :

Crude from second desalter, bypassing crude pump (03-P003 A/B/C)
discharge, is divided into parallel heat exchanger trains by HIC-1301 and
FRC-1302.
Provision has been kept to inject caustic at second desalter outlet. However,
caustic injection at Post Desalter should preferably be avoided due to
unreacted caustic carryover to Heat Exchangers, furnaces, FCCU, OHCU, etc.

2.4.1 CRUDE EX-03-FRC-1302 (2ND PREHEAT TRAIN) :

The first desalted Crude stream passes through 03-E-023 (Crude v/s HGO)
where it is picking up heat from HGO coming at 185-194 C and getting cooled
to 140-144 C whereas crude is getting heated up to 140-142 C.
After 03-E-023, crude enters 03-E-024 A/B (Crude v/s LVGO) exchanger.
Crude gets heated up to 166-174 C whereas LVGO gets cooled from 265268 C to 147-152 C.
After 03-E-024A/B crude enters 03-E-031 (Crude v/s HGO) exchanger.
Crude gets heated up to 185-194 C.

2.4.2 CRUDE EX-03-HIC-1301 (2ND PREHEAT TRAIN) :

The second desalted crude stream passes through 03-E-021 (Crude v/s
Kero/ATF) where it is picking up heat from Kero/ATF coming at 195-205 c and
getting cooled to 163-174 C whereas crude is getting heated upto 146-153
C.
After 03-E-021, crude enters 03-E-022 (Crude v/s LGO CR) where it is picking
up heat from LGO CR coming at 185-190 C and getting cooled to 170-180 C
whereas crude is getting heated upto 155-162 C.
After 03-E-022, crude enters 03-E-025 (Crude v/s HVGO) where it is picking
up heat from HVGO coming at 248-291 C and getting cooled to 204-211 C
whereas crude is getting heated up to 173-176 C .

20

21

2.4.3 CRUDE PRE FLASHING :

Crude oil ex 03-E-025 and 03-E-031 is combined to average the temperature
@ 179-180 C and enters pre-flash drum (03-V-1) where 3-4% wt. of light ends
are removed. Pre-flash drum pressure is controlled by 03-PIC-1301. The
flashed vapor is sent to flash zone of 03-C-001 and also provision is there to
route it to Hy. Naphtha section of crude column. Level in the preflash drum is
maintained by 03-LIC-1301. Crude after flashing in the preflash drum is
pumped by 03-P-002A/B/C through 3rd preheat train.
Interlock I-3 will trip the pump 03-P-002A/B/C by activation of press alarms
i.e. PAL-1306/1307/1308 sensed from pump suction. Interlock I-4 will trip 03P-002A/B/C on LSLL-1301 actuation.
As long as there is no advantage of gaining throughput, preflash vapor should
be routed to flash zone. Care should be taken on 03-LIC-1301 operation, as its
closing will cause over pressurisation of all upstream heat exchangers. To
avoid the above situation, a software lock is provided at 20 % so that the LIC
does not close beyond 20 % value.

2.5

3rd PREHEAT TRAIN :

Crude discharge 03-P-002 A/B/C is further divided into two parallels preheat
circuits by FRC-1402 and HIC-1401.

2.5.1 CRUDE EX-03-FRC-1402 (3rd PREHEAT TRAIN) :

The first crude stream passes through 03-E-030A/B/C (Crude v/s LGO CR)
where it is picking up heat from LGO-CR coming at 241-249 C and getting
cooled to 185-190 C whereas crude is getting heated upto 210-213 C.
After 03-E-030A/B/C, crude enters 03-E-036 (Crude v/s HVGO CR)
exchanger. Crude gets heated up to 218-228 C whereas HVGO CR gets
cooled from 259-271 C to 239-258 C.
After 03-E-036, crude enters 03-E-032 (Crude v/s HGO CR) exchanger. Crude
gets heated up to 223-249 C whereas HGO CR gets cooled from 302-311 C
to 275-303 C.
After 03-E-032 crude enters 03-E-033A/B (Crude v/s HVGO CR) exchanger.
Crude gets heated up to 241-277 C whereas HVGO CR gets cooled from
238-298 C to 239-271 C.
After 03-E-033A/B, crude enters 03-E-034A/B (Crude v/s HVGO) exchanger.
Crude gets heated up to 251-283 C whereas HVGO gets cooled from 298306 C to 201-248 C.

22

23

After 03-E-034A/B, crude enters 03-E-035 (Crude v/s HGO) exchanger. Crude
gets heated up to 259-289 C whereas HGO gets cooled from 323-325 C to
291-260 C.

2.5.2 CRUDE EX 03-HIC-1401 (3rd PREHEAT TRAIN) :

The second crude stream passes through 03-E-026A/B (Crude v/s LGO)
where it is picking up heat from LGO coming at 226-258 C and getting cooled
to 179-197 C whereas crude is getting heated up to 184-198 C.
After 03-E-026A/B, crude enters 03-E-027A/B (Crude v/s LVGO CR)
exchanger. Crude gets heated up to 218-236 C whereas LVGO CR gets
cooled from 258-265 C to 204-214 C.
After 03-E-027A/B, crude enters 03-E-028A/B/C/D/E (Crude v/s VR)
exchanger. Crude gets heated up to 248-265 C whereas VR gets cooled from
350/350 C to 237-242 C.
After 03-E-028A/B/C/D/E, crude enters 03-E-029 (Crude v/s vacuum slop)
exchanger. Crude gets heated up to 258-288 C whereas vac slop gets cooled
from 353/370 C to 298-353 C.
2.5.3

Crude oil exchanger 03-E-029 and 03-E-035 is combined to average the

temperature @ 259-289 C .This temperature is called preheat temperature
or coil inlet temperature (CIT) .

2.6

FIRED HEATERS:
The preheated crude is further heated and partially vaporized in Atmospheric
Heater 03-F-001 having eight passes. (Four sections with 6 inches sch. 40
tubes).
The atmospheric heater is a box-type vertical furnace with up firing burners, 8
Nos. of burners in each section are provided on the floor with FG and FO firing
facilities. Crude flows to each pass is controlled by 03-FIC-1501 to 03-FIC1508 respectively. A total 32 nos. of burners have been provided in CDU
heater. Out of 32 burners, 28 nos. of burners have both FO and FG firing
facility and 4 burners, called LP burners have facility to fire off- gas from VDU
column and FG (called support burners).
This heater is having two distinct heating sections i.e.

A)RADIANT SECTION: It houses the burners and forms the combustion

chamber or fire box. Tubes are arranged in a vertical arrangement along
the walls of each cell with tube arrangement itself forming the cell .
24

25

B) COVECTION SECTIONS: It receives heat from hot flue gases leaving

the radiant section. Tubes are arranged in horizontal bank and positioned
above radiant section.
Preheated Crude oil enters the convection section in eight passes.
Temperature indications TI-1502 to 1509 are provided on the outlet of each
convection pass. Convection outlet of each pass again enters the Radiation
Zone of furnace. The floor of the furnace is elevated above grade and the
hot air duct supplying combustion air to burners runs across the length of
the furnace.
A return line is provided on fuel oil header to the burners of each furnace to
maintain desired circulation flow to avoid dead end of the header and
associated problems i.e. difference in pressure availability between extreme
end burners, congealing of stagnant portion etc. flow recorders FI-1525,
1528, 1529, are provided respectively on fuel gas, IFO (S) & IFO headers
to the unit. Shut down valves 03-SDV-1501, 1502, 1503, 1517 are also
provided on the main fuel gas, IFO (S) & IFO(R), support burners of LP gas
burners respectively. These shutdown valves shall be activated w.r.t trip
logics provided.
Peep holes are provided on side walls of the furnace to inspect all radiant
section tubes. 24 Nos. of soot blowers are provided to keep the convection
bank clean. They are operated by automatic control panel located at grade
level.
Furnace has total 32 low NOx burners. Each cell has 8 burners along the
center line of the cell. One central burner is for combination fuel gas & hot
well off gases firing while the balance burners are for combination IFO &
FG.

2.6.1 FURNACE FUEL SYSTEM

A)FUEL GAS SYSTEM :
Fuel gas system (FG) from fuel gas knock out drum (KOD) 03-V-27, located
inside the unit is supplied by a 6 header. The FG line is steam traced to
avoid condensation of heavier components inside the line itself and carry
over of hydrocarbon liquid droplets to the burner. To arrest carry over of
foreign particles like rust etc. a 100-mesh strainer is provided on the line.
FG to main burners passes through a shut down valve SDV-1501 whose
open or close position is indicated in control room by XL-1501 A/Xl-1501 B.
26

fuel gas flow/temperature to the main FG burners is indicated in DCS by FI1525/TI-1510. A local temperature & pressure indicator are provided at the
inlet of fuel gas to the main burners. Fuel gas pressure indicator PI-1502,
low fuel gas pressure trip alarm PAL-1508 and a very low pressure trip
alarm PALL-1509 are provided at the inlet of fuel gas to the main burners. If
fuel gas pressure falls below PALL-1509 set value, chances of flame failure
in burner, accumulation of unburned FG in fire box and resultant possibility
of explosion/back fire through heater openings exists. Actuation of PALL1509 will shut the SDV-1501 on fuel gas supply to the main burners of the
furnace, eliminating this possibility. Minimum stop limit to PV-1501 and all
valves on similar duty has also been considered to avoid extinguishing of
FG burners on closure of valve due to signal from COT controller TIC-1512.
Fuel gas pressure and hence flow to burners is controlled by PIC-1501. It
can be cascaded with crude oil coil temperature (COT) controller TIC-1512.
Through a selector switch SS-1512, COT can be used to select either fuel
oil or fuel gas as the fuel gas-controlling COT.
A 2 FG tapping upstream of shut down valve SDV-1501 has been taken for
pilot burners. On the pilot fuel gas line, PI-1503/FI-1526 are provided to
measure FG pressure/flow to pilot burners. Pressure in the pilot gas line is
manually adjusted.
A low-pressure alarm PAL-1510 will alert the operator when pilot gas
pressure falls. PG-1525/PG-1526 indicates FG pressure in main and pilot
gas lines in filed at heater battery limit. 8 Nos. of pilot and 7 Nos. of main
FG burner are provided in every cell of the heater.

B) HOT WELL OFF GAS SYSTEM :

Off gases from hot well of VDU are routed to 03-F-001 through hot well
Catch pot. After de-entertainment of water/oil droplets in catch pot the off
gas pass through strainers of 100 mesh. Hot well off gas pressure
atmospheric heater is controlled by PIC-1513, manipulating PV-1513 on off
gas vent line to atmosphere. PAL-1514 indicates low off gas pressure to
heater. To avoid possibility of back fire due to external spark carryover,
flame arrestors AF-1503/AF-1504 & AF-1501/AF-1502 are provided on off
gas line to vent as well as heater. Spare flame arrestors are provided to
ensure serviceability. Fuel gas pressure control for burners using hot well
off gases is done by PIC-1517. Pre trip alarm PAL-1516 and trip alarm
PALL-1517 is provided on this header also.

27

C) FO FIRING SYSTEM :
When fuel oil is fired, it is atomized or sprayed as a fine mist for realizing
complete combustion. The spraying of FO is done by MP steam in FO
burners. Atomizing steam is supplied to heater through a 4 header. Earlier
atomising steam was directly supplied to the atomising steam header from
the MP steam drum 03-V-23 which was supplying saturated steam.
However, to supply atomising steam with higher degree of superheat a
jump over has been provided between the decoking steam header (U/S of
isolation valve) and the atomising steam header. Atomizing steam pressure
is controlled by differential pressure controller DPIC-1501, taking pressure
signals form FO supply and MP steam headers simultaneously. It maintains
the atomizing steam header pressure. To arrest carry over of foreign
particles like rust etc. a 100-mesh strainer is provided on the line.

NOTE: When furnace operates on combination fuel, FG operates on PIC-1501 & FO

on PIC-1505/TIC-1512 cascade and vice versa. Selector switch SS-1512 is
used when only one fuel controls COT by cascading .

FUEL AIR CONTROL STRATEGY AT THE FURNACE :

In the combustion control strategy the output signal from coil outlet (03-F-01)
TIC-1512 is used for regulating the fuel and air flow rates.
The simultaneous fuel and air controls a cross limit control system. It aims at
eliminating the possibility of fuel rich condition in the furnace by ensuring that
the fuel demand does not exceed measured air flow and that the air flow does
not drop below measured fuel flow. The firing rate demands signal i.e. the
TRC-1512 output is sent to two signal selectors.
HSS :
High signal selector.
LSS :
Low signal selector.
The HSS compares the TRC output against the operating total fuel flow signal.
The higher of these two signals is selected as the SET POINT for air flow
controller FIC. (It may be noted that the operating total fuel flow signal to HSS
is obtained by adding the conditioned fuel gas flow and the net of fuel oil
supply and return flows of that particular furnace. Also a small negative bias is
applied to the total fuel flow signal, which permits faster response to load
changes within the limit of bias).

28

The HSS causes the air to lead the fuel while increasing the firing and causes
the air to lag the fuel while decreasing the firing. The air flow signal sent to the
air flow FIC as the MEASURED VARIABLE. is derived from the air flow
transmitter and corrected by a multiplication factor. (The multiplication factor is
determined by the output of the oxygen controller, the output being filtered, as
a precaution, to a narrow range of typical 0.8 to 1.2). The output of air flow FIC
sent to operate the control dampers on the hot air ducts of the respective
furnace.
The LSS compares the output signal of COT TRC with the corrected air flow
signal mentioned above. The normal function of the LSS is to cause the fuel to
lag the air while increasing the firing and cause the fuel to lead the air while
decreasing the firing. The lower of the signals to LSS is chosen as the SET
POINT for fuel flow controller FIC. ( A small positive bias is applied to the
corrected air flow signal to LSS. This permits faster response to load changes
within the limit of bias). The output of fuel controller FIC would then regulate
the flow of IFO or fuel gas depending on the mode selected from panel.

2.7

AIR PRE-HEATER SECTION :

To recover the waste heat from fuel gases, two sets of cast and glass air
preheaters in parallel are provided along with two forced draft fans for air and
one induced draft fan for flue gases.
An air bypass damper to bypass APH is provided for bypassing the
combustion air, either partly or fully. The combustion air requirement of each
heater controlled by individual FIC controller through control damper located in
the air duct,
The loads on the FD fans are varied by loading the fans by hydraulic coupling
system by manipulating the scoop by changing the instrument air pressure. In
case of ID fan, a pressure controller 03-PIC-1534 measures and controls the
draft in the main fuel gas duct from the furnace by actuating a pneumatic
loader similar to the FD fans.

29

30

2.8
S.N
O.

SAFETY TRIPS & INTER LOCKS (GENERAL) :

ACTIVATING
CONDITION

TRIPS/INTER LOCKS.

Low Off-Gas Pressure

Low Fuel Oil Pressure
Low Fuel Gas Pressure
Low flow of feed to
passes
Combustion air low flow
Combustion
air
low
pressure
Failure of ID fan

OFF-GAS to be cut off

Fuel oil to be cut off
Fuel Gas to be cut off
FO/FG to be cut off
FO/FG to be cut off
FO/FG to be cut off

HV will open with 20 seconds

If HV fails to open, FO/FG to be cut off
ID fan suction high temp.
-DoHigh temp at glass APH
-Do-

inlet
Both FDs fail
High Arch pressure
Fuel failure
13.

ID fan not in line

FO/FG to be cut off

HV to open within 10 seconds.
If PAH persists for 20 seconds FO/FG to
be cut off within 30 seconds.
HV to open fully
ID fan shall trip
FD fan shall trip
Damper HV will not be closed.

NOTE: All solenoid valves have reset facility available at main control panel.
Emergency push buttons has been provided on main control panel pressing
which fuel to the furnace will trip, all drives will trip and damper will open.
An additional emergency push button has been located near naphtha
stabiliser column in break glass enclosure for tripping the furnace from field
in case of emergency.

31

32

2.8

CRUDE. DISTILLATION SECTION

The column is provided with 56 trays of which 10 are baffle trays in the
stripping section. In addition 6 nos. of chimney trays are also provided in
the column. Feed to the column is on tray # 10. The vaporised portion of
the feed along with the light ends from the Pretopping Vessel are
fractionated on trays above the flash zone to yield liquid side draw
products, pumparounds (circulating refluxes) and overhead vapor stream.
Heated and partly vaporised crude feed coming from fired heater enters the
flash zone of the column at tray no. 10 at 360-370 C (LS crude)/370-380
C (HS crude). Hydrocarbon vapours flash in this zone and get liberated.
Non flashed liquid moves down which is largely bottom product, called
RCO. Certain degree of over flashing of crude is desirable for proper
stabilisation of RCO and fractionation of gas oil components. Over flash is
achieved by setting up COT at slightly higher value than actually required.
This over flashed material mostly condenses on 11th tray. The condensed
liquid withdrawn from 11th tray is put back on 10 th tray into the column. Over
flash liquid travels down form tray 11 to tray 10. It strips out heavier vapour
components coming up from RCO stock collected at column bottom and
which otherwise could move and cause coloration of gas oil stream. Flow of
over flash liquid could be increased by either increasing COT and
condensing more material on 11th tray or by reducing HGO draw off and
dropping more HGO components on 11th tray. However, this will result is
less gas oil yield and higher energy consumption without any advantage.
Too large flow of over flash liquid may result in drop in bottom temperature
and lighter bottom product, RCO.
Over flash flow and temperature is indicated by FI-1606/TI-1616. The
optimum over flash flow is about 4-5 % on crude throughput. Flash zone
temperature and pressure in indicated by TI-1622/PI-1602. Min 2000 MM
piping elevation is provided between liquid entry nozzle on 10 th tray and U
loop bottom tangent line over which FE-1606 is mounted. This elevation
provides adequate liquid build up on upstream of FE and ensures
unflickering, steady flow is required to prevent flashing down stream of flow
orifice due to pressure drop. One line of 2 is provided above 11th tray to
release uncondensed components from over flashed liquid. MP steam
having some degree of superheat is introduced in the column below tray 1,
at approximately 3.5 Kg/Cm2 (g) and 290 C for stripping of RCO. Steam
stripping helps to remove lighter constituents from the bottom product RCO
by reducing their partial pressure and helping them vaporise without
requiring additional heat. Hydrocarbon vapours liberated by flashing move
up along with steam in the column for further mass transfer at trays in upper
section.
33

Steam flow to column is controlled by FIC-1611. Steam flow to column is

regulated based on outgoing RCO quantity to Vacuum Heater. To reduce
pressure drops at column entry nozzle and achieve homogenous
distribution, steam is introduced through two nozzles.
Safety relief valve discharge from desalters is routed above 10 th tray. Pre
flashed vapour from V-001 is also routed on same tray. As an alternative,
vapours from V-001 can be routed on tray 43, in Kero/ATF section. This
option is exercised to realise greater energy savings. When CDU operation
is stable and level in pre flash vessel is steady, its vapours can be diverted
to tray 43. Care should be taken to ensure that there is no level surge and
subsequent crude carry over from V-001. However, in normal practice it is
not advisable to route the V-001 vapour to tray # 43 as it may result in to
coloration of HN/ Kero in case of pressure surge/ malfunctioning of V-001
level.

2.9.1 OVERHEAD SECTION :

The overhead vapours are totally condensed in Crude Overhead Air
Condensers 03-EA-LP-001 and trim condenser 03-E-001. This
condensed overhead product is separated as Hydrocarbon and water in
the Reflux Drum 03-V-002. Water is drawn out under inter-phase level
control and sent to sour water stripper or to ETP by pump 03-P-045A/B.
Unstabilised naphtha containing Fuel Gas, LPG and Naphtha is partially
refluxed by pumps 03-P-005A/B and partially pumped under level
cascaded flow control by Stabilizer Feed Pumps (03-P-004A/B) to the
Stabilizer 03-C-006. Automatic minimum flow bypass has been provided
for 03-P-004A/B for turndown operations of both BH and AM operation.
For 03-P-005A/B, minimum flow bypass has been provided for AM
turndown operation. Reflux demand is set by column top temperature
(TIC-1601 & FIC-1605). The column overhead pressure is maintained by
split range PIC control (PIC-1601) with FG back up & flare connections.

2.9.2 HEAVY NAPHTHA SECTION:

Heavy Naphtha is with drawn as side product from tray # 44 to the Side
Stripper 03-C-002 under level control. Light ends in Hy. Naphtha are
stripped in the Hy. Naphtha Reboiler 03-E-BU-011 using LGO as the hot
medium. Duty controller (opposite acting) controls the duty exchanged.
Stripped vapours from the side stripper are routed to tray # 46 of the
Atmospheric Column. The bottom product is pumped by 03-P-010 A/B
under flow control, cooled in Hy Naphtha /BFW Exchangers 03-E-055
followed by a trim cooler 03-E-007 and sent to storage.Presently 3P10A/B is not run and the product is sent to rundown by gravity itself
under level control.
34

35

2.9.3 KERO SECTION

Kero is withdrawn as side product from tray # 31 to the Kero side
stripper 03-C-003 under level control. Light ends in Kero are stripped in
the Kero Reboiler 03-E-BU-012A/B using HVGO CR as the hot medium.
Duty controller (opposite acting) controls the duty exchanged. Stripped
vapours from the side stripper are routed to tray # 33 of the Atmospheric
Column. The bottom product is routed to MP Steam Generator 03-E-053
followed by LMP Steam Generator (03-P-54) and Crude Preheat
exchanger 03-E-021 (to reduce vapour pressure & hence increase
available NPSH) before being pumped by 03-P-11 A/B. The discharge of
03P-11A/B routed to crude preheat exchangers (03-E-020 &013) and
finally cooled in 03-EA-LP-006 and trim cooler 03-E-008A/B before being
routed under flow control to storage. Min. flow bypass for the pump has
been provided for AM/BH turndown operations.

2.9.4 LIGHT GAS OIL SECTION

LGO is withdrawn as side product from tray # 22 to the LGO side
Stripper 03-C-004 under level control. Light ends in LGO are stripped
using MP steam. Stripped vapours from the side stripper are routed to
tray # 24 of the Atmospheric Column. The bottom product is pumped by
03-P-12 A/B under flow control through Hy. Naphtha Reboiler, (03-E-BU011), Crude preheat exchangers (03-E-026 A/B and 019 and finally
cooled in tempered water exchanger (03-E-041), air coolers (03-EA-LP003A/B) and trim cooler (03-E-009) before being routed to storage. Min.
flow bypass for the pump has been provided for AM/BH turndown
operation.
Facilities have also been provided to route part of LGO ex 03-E-009 to
Flushing Oil Header and also to Visbreaker Unit. Facility has also been
provided to supply hot LGO to DHDS from up stream of 03-E-09.

2.9.5 HEAVY GAS OIL SECTION :

HGO is withdrawn from tray # 15 to the HGO side stripper 03-C-005
under level control. Light ends in HGO are stripped using MP steam.
Stripped vapours from the side stripper are routed to tray # 18 of the
Atmospheric Column. The bottom product is routed to preheat
exchanger 03-E-035 (to improve NPSH available) before being pumped
(by 03-P-013A/B) through preheat exchangers (03-E-031 & 023),
tempered water exchanger 03-E-040 and coolers 03-EA-LP-004 & 03-E010 before being finally routed to storage on Flow Control. Facility has
been provided to supply hot HGO to DHDS from up stream of 03-E-10 .
36

2.9.6 REDUCED CRUDE OIL

Stripped RCO drawn from the bottom of 03-C0-001 is pumped by RCO
pumps 03-P-014 A/B/C to the Vacuum heater of vacuum Distillation Unit
on Level control. Single pump will operate during turndown operation for
both AM/BH operations. Starts up lines connect RCO to VR pump
discharge line. Provision to route RCO to VR, and to route RCO through
HVGO PDT & CR circuit and finally through VR product cooler 04-E-009
is also provided to cater to short period of operation of CDU without VDU
operation. To control the charge pump suction temperature during hot
circulation of the unit additional facility has also been provided to cool
the circulation liquid of HVGO CR circuit in LVGO tempered water cooler
04-E-04.

2.9.7 CIRCULATING REFLUXES

In order to maximise heat recovery and balance tower loadings, heat is
removed by way of circulating reflux (or pump arounds) from each of the
sections. These pump arounds are withdrawn and pumped through
preheat train for maximum heat recovery, thus cooling these streams.
Duty controllers are provided for removing the requisite duty. HGO CR is
used to reboil the Stabilizer Bottom in the Reboiler 03-E-BU-003 A/B.
LGO CR is used for generating LP Steam. For turndown operations
single pump will operate for HN/Kero/LGO/HGO CR pumps.

2.10 NAPHTHA STABLIZER SECTION

Unstabilised Naphtha from Crude Column overhead is pumped to the
Naphtha Stabilizer 03-C-006 after preheating with stabilizer bottoms in
the Feed/Bottom exchanger 03-E-052 on FIC/LIC cascade. A bypass of
03-E-52 has been provided to maintain NSU feed temperature in the
range of 85-90 C and stabiliser feed temperature about 125- 128 C.
This column has 40 trays with feed entering on the 21 st tray. Necessary
heat to reboil is provided by HGO-CR to the Horizontal Thermosyphon
Reboiler 03-E-BU-003 A/B on Flow control (opposite acting).
Temperature on tray # 3 regulates HGO CR flow through the reboiler.

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

A. LPG :
Stabiliser overhead vapors are condensed in the overhead condenser
03-E-002 and then flow into the reflux drum on PIC control. The
stabilizer works either on partial condensation mode or total
condensation mode. During full condensation PV-1901A is under control
action and PV-1904 under control operation. Any water present with the
overheads and separated in the Reflux drum 03-V-003 and part of
Hydrocarbons refluxed under FIC/TIC cascade. The balance (LPG) is
pumped to Caustic & Amine treating Unit for treatment on LIC/FIC
control by pumps 03-P-015A/B. These pumps are provided with double
mechanical seal with methanol as seal fluid releasing to flare on
pressurisation. Min. flow bypass has been provided for turndown
operations for both AM/BH.
Fuel Gas generated during BH/AM operation is routed to Amine
Treatment Unit (located within CDU/VDU unit) to remove H 2S before
being routed to the Fuel gas KO Drum 03-V-027 and then to the plant
Fuel Gas Distribution Header.

B. STABILIZED NAPHTHA :
Naphtha from stabiliser bottom after exchanging heat with feed Naphtha
in 03-E-052 is routed to the Naphtha Splitter 03-C-007, on FIC/LIC
control. In case naphtha splitter is shutdown, the stabilised naphtha is
cooled in 03-EA-LP-11 and sent to rundown through CRU naphtha
caustic wash system. However, if naphtha splitter is in operation 03-EALP-11 is kept bypassed.
Provision is also made to divert unstabilised Naphtha to slop header
during
start up.

2.11 NAPHTHA SPLITTER SECTION

In the Naphtha Splitter, 03-C-007, stabilized Naphtha is split to C 5-65/90
C and 65/90-120/140 C cuts as overhead and bottom product
respectively. This column has 26 trays with feed entering on 12 th tray.
Provision to route feed to tray # 16 th and 9th are also provided. The
column overhead pressure is maintained by PIC control.

45

46

NAPHTHA SPLITTER

47

48

A)NAPHTHA SPLITTER OVERHEAD PRODUCT :

The overhead vapour is condensed in Air cooler 03-EA-LP-002 and the
condensed product flows to the reflux drum 03-V-004 from where a part
is refluxed back to the column on FIC/TIC control. This overhead product
is further cooled to 40 C in 03-E-004 before being routed to storage via
Caustic Wash on FIC/ LIC control. Min. flow bypass has been provided
for pumps 03-P-016A/B for turndown operations.

B) NAPHTHA SPLITTER BOTTOM PRODUCT :

The bottom product is cooled in air cooler 03-EA-LP-007A/B followed by
03-E-042 to 40 C before being routed to storage via a separate caustic
wash on FIC/LIC control. Two control valves were provided in parallel to
cater to the wide variations in flow between the various operations.
However, based on actual experience the control valve provided for AM
crude operation, has been removed. Common pumps 03-P-020A/B/C
are provided for the furnace feed and product. During turndown, single
pump will operate at the requisite capacity.

C) NAPHTHA SPLITTER REBOILER

The heat for reboiling is provided by a fired heater 03-F-002. The heater
can be fired with FO/FG or combination fuel. Vacuum heater and
Naphtha Splitter fired reboiler share a common Air preheating system.
Firing is controlled by temperature on the 3 rd tray. For better control Coil
Outlet Temperature, the principles of pass balancing is used. This is a
vertical cylindrical Heater having six flows passes. The radiant section is
provided with 6 Sch. 40 tubes having two 8 Sch. 40 tubes as last and
second last tubes at the outlet of each pass while the pass while the
connection section is provided with 6 Sch. 40 tubes. The radiant section
tubes are disposed in a vertical arrangement along the walls of the
combustion chamber.
The heater is provided with 12 forced draft, low NOx combination fuel
fired burners (fuel oil & Refinery fuel gas). These burners are arranged in
a circle and are fired vertically upward from the floor.
The convection section of Naphtha Splitter Reboiler has 8 Nos. of soot
blowers, which are controlled by automatic sequential control panel
provided at grade level.

49

50

A combined air preheater system containing one cast Air preheater and
one Glass Air preheater alongwith two forced draft fans and one induced
draft fan is provided for both Vacuum Heater and Splitter Reboiler.
The turndown factors are as follows: For AM, C5-90 C overhead product with max. reflux, 75/55/65% on
FO/FG/Comb Fuel is possible with vacuum Heater also in operation.
With NSU heater operating in isolation no turndown is possible.
For BH, C5-90 C overhead product, 50% turndown is achievable with
or without Vacuum Heater in operation.

D)NAPHTHA CAUSTIC WASH SYSTEM

The Naphtha Splitter overhead Product & the Bottom product are
Caustic washed to remove H2S, phenols and mercaptans in two
separate wash facilities.
Caustic wash consists of mixer settler unit with 12-15% caustic
followed by mixer settler unit of water wash with Service water to
remove Caustic traces.
The Naphtha cuts flow separately from the Splitter to the Caustic
wash vessels 03-V-015/018 through mixing valves where it is mixed
with 25 vol. % of 12-15 wt % circulating Caustic on flow control. The
thorough mixing given in the mixing valve transfers the H 2S, part of
phenols (from stripped sour water through the desalter), and part of
mercaptans from Naphtha cuts to the caustic. The mixture is given
adequate residence time in the vessels for the Hydrocarbon and
Caustic phases to separate. The Hydrocarbon phase leaves at the
top of the vessel and the Caustic phase from the bottom. As the
circulation goes on, the strength of the Caustic goes down and when
Caustic is 75% spent the entire Caustic is drained out.. Shorter batch
times may be required with heavier feed mercaptans.
The Hydrocarbon phase is then sent for water wash in vessels 03-V016/019 to remove entrained Caustic, water is circulated by pumps
03-P025/028 respectively, for the overhead and bottom products, and
the hydrocarbon is thoroughly mixed with water in the mixing valve
upstream of the wash water vessel. Here again 25-vol. % of service
water is circulated on flow control.

51

The washed Naphtha cuts are routed to storage on flow control.

Pumps 03-P-024B and 03-P-027B are common stand by for 03-P-025
and 03-P-028 respectively.
Spent caustic from the tanks 03-V-015/018 are transferred to spent
caustic drum 03-V-017 and pumped at controlled rates to WWTP.
Presently both naphtha splitter streams go to rundown without caustic
and water circulation.

2.12

MTO SPLITTER SECTION

Part of Kero/ATF, upstream of the Product Rundown Control Valve is

pumped to the MTO Splitter 03-C-008 by pumps 03-P-041A/B on flow
control after exchanging heat with MTO bottom product (Hy. Kero) in 03E-051A/B/C. Presently the above pumps have been removed as
sufficient pressure is available in the kero rundown system to push kero
to splitter column. The balance heat required is provided by HVGO CR in
the Horizontal Thermosyphon Reboiler 03-E-BU-006 on flow control
(opposite acting). Temperature on the 3 rd tray regulates HVGO CR flow
through the reboiler.
The column is designed with 26 trays with feed entering on the 10 th tray.
Provision to route the feed to the 8th tray is also provided.

A. MTO SPLITTER OVERHEAD :

The overhead pressure is controlled by PIC control. The overheads are
condensed in a tempered water Exchanger 03-E-044 and routed to the
Reflux Drum 03-V-005 from where a part of the condensed products is
refluxed on FIC control and the rest pumped on LIC/FIC control to
Kero/ATF rundown line after cooling in 03-E-050. Min. flow bypass for
pump 03-P-017A/B is provided to cater to AM turndown operation .

B. MTO PRODUCT :
This product is drawn from a total draw tray below tray # 19 by pumps
03-P-030A/B. A part is refluxed on FIC control and the balance cooled in
03-EA-LP-008 and 03-E-047, before being rundown to storage on
LIC/FIC control. During BH operation this stream is blended with
Kero/ATF rundown line.

C. HEAVY KERO (MTO SPLITTER BOTTOM) :

The bottom product is pumped by 03-P-019A/B and finally cooled in 03E-048 and routed to storage on flow control. During AM operation this
product is blended with Kero/ATF in the rundown line. Min. flow bypass
has been provided to cater to turndown operation.
52

53

54

55

BASIC DESIGN PROCEDURE AND THEORY

The general equation for heat transfer across a surface is:

where Q = heat transferred per unit time, W,

U = the overall heat transfer coefficient, W/m2 0 C,
A = heat-transfer area, m2,
= the mean temperature difference, the temperature driving
force, 0 C
The prime objective in the design of an exchanger is to determine the surface
area required for the specified duty (rate of heat transfer) using the
temperature differences available.The overall coefficient is the reciprocal of
the overall resistance to heat transfer, whichis the sum of several individual
resistances. For heat exchange across a typical heatexchanger tube the
relationship between the overall coefficient and the individual coefficients,
which are the reciprocals of the individual resistances, is given by

Where Uo =the overall coefficient based on the outside area of the tube,
W/m2 0 C,
ho = outside fluid film coefficient, W/m2 0 C,
hi = inside fluid film coefficient, W/m2 0 C,
hod = outside dirt coefficient (fouling factor), W/m2 0 C,
hid = inside dirt coefficient, W/m2 0 C,
kw = thermal conductivity of the tube wall material, W/m0 C,
di = tube inside diameter, m,
do = tube outside diameter, m.
The magnitude of the individual coefficients will depend on the nature of the
heattransfer process (conduction, convection, condensation, boiling or
radiation), on the physical properties of the fluids, on the fluid flow-rates, and
on the physical arrangement of the heat-transfer surface. As the physical
layout of the exchanger cannot be determined until the area is known the
design of an exchanger is of necessity a trial and error procedure. The steps in
a typical design procedure are given below
56

1. Define the duty: heat-transfer rate, fluid flow-rates, temperatures.

2. Collect together the fluid physical properties required: density, viscosity,
thermal conductivity.
3. Decide on the type of exchanger to be used.
4. Select a trial value for the overall coefficient, U.
5. Calculate the mean temperature difference
6. Calculate the area required from equation
7. Decide the exchanger layout.
8. Calculate the individual coefficients.
9. Calculate the overall coefficient and compare with the trial value. If the
Calculated value differs significantly from the estimated value, substitute
the calculated for the estimated value and return to step 6.
10. Calculate the exchanger pressure drop; if unsatisfactory return to steps
7 or 4 or 3, in that order of preference.
11. Optimise the design: repeat steps 4 to 10, as necessary, to determine
the cheapest exchanger that will satisfy the duty. Usually this will be the
one with the smallest area.
MEAN TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE (TEMPERATURE
DRIVING FORCE)

Before equation 1 can be used to determine the heat transfer area required for
a given duty, an estimate of the mean temperature difference Tm must be
made. This will normally be calculated from the terminal temperature
differences: the difference in the fluid temperatures at the inlet and outlet of
the exchanger. The well-known logarithmic mean temperature difference is
only applicable to sensible heat transfer in true co-current or counter-current
flow (linear temperature enthalpy curves). For counter-current flow, Figure
12.18a, the logarithmic mean temperature
is given by:

where

=log mean temperature difference,

T1 = hot fluid temperature, inlet,
T2 = hot fluid temperature, outlet,
t1 =cold fluid temperature, inlet,
t2 = cold fluid temperature, outlet
57

The equation is the same for co-current flow, but the terminal temperature
differences will be (T1 - t1) and (T2 -t2). Strictly, equation 4 will only apply
when there is no change in the specific heats, the overall heat-transfer
coefficient is constant, and there are no heat losses. In design, these
conditions can be assumed to be satisfied providing the temperature change
in each fluid stream is not large. In most shell and tube exchangers the flow
will be a mixture of co-current, countercurrent and cross flow. Figures 12.18b
and c show typical temperature profiles for an exchanger with one shell pass
and two tube passes (a 1 : 2 exchanger). Figure 12.18c
shows a temperature cross, where the outlet temperature of the cold stream is
above that of the hot stream.
The usual practice in the design of shell and tube exchangers is to estimate
the true temperature difference from the logarithmic mean temperature by
applying a correction factor to allow for the departure from true counter-current
flow.

where
true temperature difference, the mean temperature difference for
use in the design equation 1,
Ft = the temperature correction factor.

The correction factor is a function of the shell and tube fluid temperatures, and
the number of tube and shell passes. It is normally correlated as a function of
two dimensionless temperature ratios:

58

And

R is equal to the shell-side fluid flow-rate times the fluid mean specific heat;
divided by the tube-side fluid flow-rate times the tube-side fluid specific heat.
S is a measure of the temperature efficiency of the exchanger.
For a 1 shell : 2 tube pass exchanger, the correction factor is given by

59

The derivation of equation is given by Kern (1950). The equation for a 1 shell :
2 tube pass exchanger can be used for any exchanger with an even number of
tube passes, and is plotted in Figure 12.19. The correction factorfor 2 shell
passes and 4, or multiples of 4, tube passes is shown in Figure , and that for
divided and split flow shells in Figures

60

Temperature correction factor plots for other arrangements can be found in the
TEMA standards and the books by Kern (1950) and Ludwig (2001). Mueller
(1973) gives a comprehensive set of figures for calculating the log mean
temperature correction factor, which includes figures for cross-flow
exchangers.
The following assumptions are made in the derivation of the temperature
correction factor Ft, in addition to those made for the calculation of the log
mean temperature difference:
1. Equal heat transfer areas in each pass.
2. A constant overall heat-transfer coefficient in each pass.
3. The temperature of the shell-side fluid in any pass is constant across any
crosssection.
4. There is no leakage of fluid between shell passes.
61

Though these conditions will not be strictly satisfied in practical heat

exchangers, the Ft values obtained from the curves will give an estimate of the
true mean temperature difference that is sufficiently accurate for most
designs. Mueller (1973) discusses these assumptions, and gives Ft curves for
conditions when all the assumptions are not met.
The shell-side leakage and bypass streams will affect the mean temperature
difference, but are not normally taken into account when estimating the
correction factor Ft. Fisher and Parker (1969) give curves which show the
effect of leakage on the correction factor for a 1 shell pass : 2 tube pass
exchanger.
The value of Ft will be close to one when the terminal temperature differences
are large, but will appreciably reduce the logarithmic mean temperature
difference when the temperatures of shell and tube fluids approach each
other; it will fall drastically when there is a temperature cross. A temperature
cross will occur if the outlet temperature of the cold stream is greater than the
inlet temperature of the hot stream, Figure.
Where the Ft curve is near vertical values cannot be read accurately, and this
will introduce a considerable uncertainty into the design.
An economic exchanger design cannot normally be achieved if the correction
factor Ft falls below about 0.75. In these circumstances an alternative type of
exchanger should be considered which gives a closer approach to true
counter-current flow. The use of two or more shells in series, or multiple shellside passes, will give a closer approach to true counter-current flow, and
should be considered where a temperature cross is likely to occur.
Where both sensible and latent heat is transferred, it will be necessary to
divide the temperature profile into sections and calculate the mean
temperature difference for each section.

62

SHELL AND TUBE EXCHANGERS: GENERAL DESIGN

CONSIDERATIONS
Where no phase change occurs, the following factors will determine the
allocation of the fluid streams to the shell or tubes.
Corrosion. The more corrosive fluid should be allocated to the tube-side. This
will reduce the cost of expensive alloy or clad components.
Fouling. The fluid that has the greatest tendency to foul the heat-transfer
surfaces should be placed in the tubes. This will give better control over the
design fluid velocity, and the higher allowable velocity in the tubes will reduce
fouling. Also, the tubes will be easier to clean.
Fluid temperatures. If the temperatures are high enough to require the use of
special alloys placing the higher temperature fluid in the tubes will reduce the
overall cost. At moderate temperatures, placing the hotter fluid in the tubes will
reduce the shell surface temperatures, and hence the need for lagging to
reduce heat loss, or for safety reasons.
Operating pressures. The higher pressure stream should be allocated to the
tube-side. High-pressure tubes will be cheaper than a high-pressure shell.
Pressure drop. For the same pressure drop, higher heat-transfer coefficients
will be obtained on the tube-side than the shell-side, and fluid with the lowest
allowable pressure drop should be allocated to the tube-side.
Viscosity. Generally, a higher heat-transfer coefficient will be obtained by
allocating the more viscous material to the shell-side, providing the flow is
turbulent. The critical Reynolds number for turbulent flow in the shell is in the
region of 200. If turbulent flow cannot be achieved in the shell it is better to
place the fluid in the tubes, as the tube-side heat-transfer coefficient can be
predicted with more certainty.
Stream flow-rates. Allocating the fluids with the lowest flow-rate to the shellside will normally give the most economical design.

63

TUBE-SIDE HEAT-TRANSFER COEFFICIENT AND

PRESSURE DROP (SINGLE PHASE)
Turbulent flow
Heat-transfer data for turbulent flow inside conduits of uniform cross-section
are usually correlated by an equation of the form

where Nu = Nusselt number

Re = Reynolds number
Pr = Prandtl number
hi=inside coefficient,
de = equivalent (or hydraulic mean) diameter, m

Ut= fluid velocity, m/s,

Kf= fluid thermal conductivity, W/m 0C,
Gt = mass velocity, mass flow per unit area, kg/m 2s,
= fluid viscosity at the bulk fluid temperature, Ns/m 2,
w=fluid viscosity at the wall,
Cp= fluid specific heat, heat capacity, J/kg 0C
The index for the Reynolds number is generally taken as 0.8. That for the
Prandtl number can range from 0.3 for cooling to 0.4 for heating. The index for
the viscosity factor is normally taken as 0.14 for flow in tubes, from the work of
Sieder and Tate (1936), but some workers report higher values. A general
equation that can be used for exchanger design is

64

It is not really possible to find values for the constant and indexes to cover the
complete range of process fluids, from gases to viscous liquids, but the values
predicted using equation 12.11 should be sufficiently accurate for design
purposes. The uncertainty in the prediction of the shell-side coefficient and
fouling factors will usually far outweigh any error in the tube-side value. Where
a more accurate prediction than that given by equation required, and justified,
the data and correlations given in the Engineering Science Data Unit reports
are recommended: ESDU 92003 and 93018 (1998).
Butterworth (1977) gives the following equation, which is based on the ESDU
work

Hydraulic mean diameter

In some texts the equivalent (hydraulic mean) diameter is defined differently
for use in calculating the heat transfer coefficient in a conduit or channel, than
for calculating the pressure drop. The perimeter through which the heat is
being transferred is used in place of the total wetted perimeter. In practice, the
use of de calculated either way will makelittle difference to the value of the
estimated overall coefficient; as the film coefficient is only, roughly,
proportional to d_0.2e .
It is the full wetted perimeter that determines the flow regime and the velocity
gradients in a channel. So, in this book, de determined using the full wetted
perimeter will be used for both pressure drop and heat transfer calculations.
The actual area through which the heat is transferred should, of course, be
used to determine the rate of heat transfer;
Laminar flow
Below a Reynolds number of about 2000 the flow in pipes will be laminar.
Providing the natural convection effects are small, which will normally be so in
forced convection, the following equation can be used to estimate the film
heat-transfer coefficient

65

Where L is the length of the tube in metres.

If the Nusselt number given by equation is less than 3.5, it should be taken as
3.5.
In laminar flow the length of the tube can have a marked effect on the heattransfer rate for length to diameter ratios less than 500.
Transition region
In the flow region between laminar and fully developed turbulent flow heattransfer coefficients cannot be predicted with certainty, as the flow in this
region is unstable, and the transition region should be avoided in exchanger
design. If this is not practicable the coefficient should be evaluated using both
equations and the least value taken.
Heat-transfer factor, jh
It is often convenient to correlate heat-transfer data in terms of a heat transfer
j factor, which is similar to the friction factor used for pressure drop . The
heat-transfer factor is defined by:

The use of the jh factor enables data for laminar and turbulent flow to be
represented on the same graph;. The jh values obtained from Figure can be
used with equation to estimate the heat-transfer coefficients for heatexchanger tubes and commercial pipes. The coefficient estimated for pipes
will normally be conservative (on the high side) as pipes are rougher than the
tubes used for heat exchangers, which are finished to closer tolerances.
Equation can be rearranged to a more convenient form

Note. Kern (1950), and other workers, define the heat transfer factor as

66

The relationship between jh and jH is given by:

Viscosity correction factor

The viscosity correction factor will normally only be significant for viscous
liquids.
To apply the correction an estimate of the wall temperature is needed. This
can be made by first calculating the coefficient without the correction and
using the following relationship to estimate the wall temperature

where t = tube-side bulk temperature (mean),

tw = estimated wall temperature,
T = shell-side bulk temperature (mean).
Usually an approximate estimate of the wall temperature is sufficient, but trialand-error calculations can be made to obtain a better estimate if the correction
is large.
67

Coefficients for water

Though equations 12.11 and 12.13 and Figure 12.23 may be used for water, a
more accurate estimate can be made by using equations developed
specifically for water. The physical properties are conveniently incorporated
into the correlation. The equation below has been adapted from data given by
Eagle and Ferguson (1930):

Tube-side pressure drop

There are two major sources of pressure loss on the tube-side of a shell and
tube exchanger: the friction loss in the tubes and the losses due to the sudden
contraction and expansion and flow reversals that the fluid experiences in flow
through the tube arrangement.
The tube friction loss can be calculated using the familiar equations for
pressure-drop loss in pipes . The basic equation for isothermal flow in pipes
(constant temperature) is:

where jf is the dimensionless friction factor and L is the effective pipe length
The flow in a heat exchanger will clearly not be isothermal, and this is allowed
for by including an empirical correction factor to account for the change in
physical properties with temperature. Normally only the change in viscosity is
considered:

68

Values of jf for heat exchanger tubes can be obtained from Figure.

The pressure losses due to contraction at the tube inlets, expansion at the
exits, andflow reversal in the headers, can be a significant part of the total
tube-side pressure drop. There is no entirely satisfactory method for
estimating these losses. Kern (1950) suggestsadding four velocity heads per
pass. Frank (1978) considers this to be too high, andrecommends 2.5 velocity
heads. Butterworth (1978) suggests 1.8. Lord et al. (1970) take the loss per
pass as equivalent to a length of tube equal to 300 tube diameters for
straighttubes, and 200 for U-tubes; whereas Evans (1980) appears to add only
67 tube diametersper pass.
The loss in terms of velocity heads can be estimated by counting the number
of flow contractions, expansions and reversals, and using the factors for pipe
fittings to estimate the number of velocity heads lost. For two tube passes,
there will be two contractions, two expansions and one flow reversal. The
head loss for each of these effects is: contraction 0.5, expansion 1.0, 180
bend 1.5; so for two passes the maximum loss will be

From this, it appears that Franks recommended value of 2.5 velocity heads
per pass is the most realistic value to use.
Combining this factor with equation gives

Another source of pressure drop will be the flow expansion and contraction at
the exchanger inlet and outlet nozzles. This can be estimated by adding one
velocity head for the inlet and 0.5 for the outlet, based on the nozzle velocities.

69

70

Kerns method
This method was based on experimental work on commercial exchangers with
standard tolerances and will give a reasonably satisfactory prediction of the
heat-transfer coefficient for standard designs. The prediction of pressure drop
is less satisfactory, as pressure drop is more affected by leakage and
bypassing than heat transfer. The shell-side heat transfer and friction factors
are correlated in a similar manner to those for tube-side flow by using a
hypothetical shell velocity and shell diameter. As the cross-sectional area for
flow will vary across the shell diameter, the linear and mass velocities are
based on the maximum area for cross-flow: that at the shell equator. The shell
equivalent diameter is calculated using the flow area between the tubes taken
in the axial direction (parallel to the tubes) and the wetted perimeter of the
tubes; see Figure

Shell-side jh and jf factors for use in this method are given in Figures, for
various baffle cuts and tube arrangements. These figures are based on data
given by Kern (1950) and by Ludwig (2001).
The procedure for calculating the shell-side heat-transfer coefficient and
pressure drop for a single shell pass exchanger is given below:
Procedure
1. Calculate the area for cross-flow As for the hypothetical row of tubes at the
shell equator, given by

71

The term (pt do)/pt is the ratio of the clearance between tubes and the total
distance between tube centres.
2. Calculate the shell-side mass velocity Gs and the linear velocity us:

3. Calculate the shell-side equivalent diameter (hydraulic diameter), Figure

For a square pitch arrangement

4. Calculate the shell-side Reynolds number, given by:

For the calculated Reynolds number, read the value of jh from Figure for the
selected baffle cut and tube arrangement, and calculate the shell-side heat
transfer coefficient hs from:

72

73

74

The tube wall temperature can be estimated using the method given for
the tube-side,
a. For the calculated shell-side Reynolds number, read the friction factor
from figure and calculate the shell-side pressure drop from:

Shell nozzle-pressure drop

The pressure loss in the shell nozzles will normally only be significant with
gases. The nozzle pressure drop can be taken as equivalent to 3/2 velocity
heads for the inlet and 1/2 for the outlet, based on the nozzle area or the free
area between the tubes in the row immediately adjacent to the nozzle,
whichever is the least.

EXAMPLE:Design an exchanger to sub-cool condensate from a condenser from 95 0C to

40 0C. Flow-rate of methanol 100,000 kg/h. Brackish water will be used as the
coolant, with a temperature rise from 25 0C to 40 0C.
Only the thermal design will be considered.
This example illustrates Kerns method.
Coolant is corrosive, so assign to tube-side
Heat capacity feed = 2.84 kJ/kg 0C

75

Use one shell pass and two tube passes

Choose 20 mm o.d., 16 mm i.d., 4.88-m-long tubes(3/4 in x 16 feet) cupronickel.

Allowing for tube-sheet thickness, take
L = 4.83 m

As the shell-side fluid is relatively clean use 1.25 triangular pitch.

76

The coefficient can also be calculated using equation this is done to illustrate
use of this method

77

Checks reasonably well with value calculated from equation use lower figure

78

79

80

81

BASIC DESIGN PROCEDURE OF A MULTICOMPONENT DISTILLATION COLOUM

The basic background and understanding of binary distillation applies to
a large measure in multicomponent problems.
Multicomponent distillation are more complicated than binary systems due
primarily to the actual or potential involment or interaction of one or more
components of the multicomponent system on other the components of the
mixture.These interaction may be in the form of vapour liquid equilibriums
such as azeotrope formation , or chemical r eactions, etc., any of which may
affect the activity relations, and hence deviations from ideal relationships.
For example, some system are known to have two azeotrope combinations
in the distillation coloum.
Sometimes these, one or all, can be broken or changed in the vapour
pressure relationships by addition of a third chemical or hydrocarbon . To
properly handle the changing composition relationship it is almost essential
to utilize some electronic computer techniques if good accuracy is to be
achieved. Even three component systems become tedious using desk size
electronic calculator without significant internal memory. Computers can be
well programmed to handle the complexities of trial and check for
convergence to a present acceptable limit.
Technique for convergence of digital computer program are often the
heart of an efficient multicomponent calculation . There are several
technique incorporated into many programs.

KEY COMPONENTS
The two component in a feed mixture whose sepration will be specified.
1.Adajacent keys: Key component that are adajacent with respect to
their volatilities.
2.Split keys: Key component that are separated in volatilities by a nonkey component ,i.e., the system of components contains one or more
whose volatilities fall between the volatilities of the designed keys .
3.Light keys: The designation of the key component with the highest
volatilities of the two key components.
82

4.Heavy keys: The designation of the key component with the lowest
volatilities of the two components.
Hengstebeck present a simplified procedure for reducing a
multicomponent system to an equivalent binary using the key
components. From this the number of stages or theoretical plates and
reflux can be determined using conventional binary procedures and
involving the McCabe-Thiele method.
Liddle present a shortcut technique for multicomponent calculations
based on improving the Fenke-Gilliland correlations .

MINIMUM REFLUX RATIO INFINITE PLATES:

This is the smallest value of external reflux ratio (L/D) which can be used to
obtain a specified sepration . This is not a operable condition. Knowledge of
the minimum reflux ratio aids considerably in establishing an economical and
practical operation ratio. Ratios of 1.2 to 2 times the minimum in the
economical range for hydrocarbon chemical system. However ,it is well to
recognize that high reflux rate increase the coloum size (but reduce the
number of tray required ), reboiler size steam rate ,condensetr size ,and
coolant rate. For adjacent key systems, all components heavier than the
heavy key appear only in bottom ,all the component lighter than the light key
appear only in overhead ,and the keys each appear in the overhead and
bottoms in accordance with specifications.
For a split key system the lights and heavies distribute the same as for
adjacent key system. However , the components between the keys also
distribute to overead and bottoms.
At minimum reflux , the region in which the number of trays approaches to
infinity.(called pinch zones and region of constant compositions )are:
1.Binary system: pinch zone adjacent to feed plate.
2. Multicomponent:
a. Three component with no component lighter than light key: pinch zone in
stripping section adjacent to feed plate.
b. Three component with no component heavier than heavy key: pinch zone
in rextifying section adjacent to feed plate.
c. Three component mixture: pinch zones may be above and below feed
pate.
d. Greater than four components: pinch zones appear in rectifying and
stripping sections.
83

For system one side stream draw off, either above or below the feed.
Tsuo et al . propose a method for recognizing that the minimum reflux ratio is
greater for a column with sidestream draw off . At the sidestream the
operating line has an inflection. For multifeed distillation systems, the
minimum reflux is determined by factoring together the separate effect of
each feed. Lesi process a detailed graphical procedure for figuring
multicomponent minimum reflux by a graphical extension of a Mc-Cabe-thiele
diagram, assuming infinite plates or equilibrium stages. In this traditional
model the concentration in the distillate of the component heavier than the
heavy key components are assumed to be zero, and the heavy key
component reaches its maximum concentration a+, the upper pinch point.
Therefore ,this assumption is that only the heavy and light keys are presentat
the upper pinch point, similar in concept to the handling of a binary mixture.
The method assume:
(a) only the key component are distributed
(b) no split key component exist
(c) total molal overflow rates and relative volatilities are constant.
This method provides good agreement with the detailed method of
Underwood.
Yaws et al. provide an estimating technique for recovery of each
component in the distillate and bottom from multicomponent distillation
using equations and involving the specification of the recovery of the each
component in the distillate, the recovery of the heavy component in the
bottoms, and the relative volatility of the light key component. The result
compare very well wih plate-to- plate calculation, for a wide range of
recovery of 0.05 to 99.93% in the distillate . The distribution of components
for the distillate and the bottoms is give by the Hengstebeck-Geddes
equation
log (di/bi)= A + B log ai
Where

di = moles of component i in the distillate

bi = moles of component i in the bottoms
ai = relative volatility of component i
A,B = correlation constant

A material balance for the i component in the feed is:

fi = d i + bi
84

Then the quantity of component i in the distillate can be

expressed as a mole fraction recovered , or d i/fi ,. Likewise , the
molefraction of component i recovered in the bottoms is b i/fi , or 1-di/fi ,
substituting into:
log ( (di/fi) / (1-(di/fi) ) ) = A + B log ai
solving for recovery of component i in the distillate gives :
di/fi = (10AaiB )/(1+ 10AaiB)
from a material balance recovery of component i in the bottoms is
bi/fi

/(1+

10A

a iB )

The correlation constants required obtained by specifying a desired

recovery of the light key component LK in the distillate and the recovery
of the heavy key component HK in the bottoms. Then the constants are
calculated as follows:
A = -log { (bHK /fHK) /1- (bHK /fHK ) }
B= log { (dLK /fLK) /1- (dLK /fLK ) X (bHK /fHK) /1- (bHK /fHK ) } / log LK

STEPS INVOLVED IN MULTICOMPONENT

DISTILLATION COLOUM DESIGN :
A. UNDERWOOD ALGEBRIC METHOD ADJACENT KEY
SYSTEMS :

This system for evaluating multicomponent adjacent keys system ,

assuming constant relative volatility and constant molal overflow , has
proven generally satisfactory for many chemical and hydrocarbon
applicati((axa)D/a ) ons. It gives a rigorous solution for constant molal
overflow and volatility , and acceptable result s for most cases which
deviate from these limitations .
Overall coloum constant :
85

(L/D)MIN + 1 =((axa)D/a ) + ((bxb)D/b ) + +

((ixi)D/i )
In arriving at (L/D)MIN the correct value of is obtained from:
1-q = ((axa)F/a ) + ((bxb)F/b ) + +
((ixi)F/i ) = XFi / 1- / i
The q value is the same as previously described for the thermal
condition of the feed.

RECTIFYING SECTION ONLY :

Vr = DXDi /(1-/ i )

STRIPPING SECTION ONLY:

VS = BXBi /(1-/ i )
At the minimum reflux condition all the values are equal , and
generally related :
h i
STEP 1 : Expressing and q value by trial and error , noting that will
have a value between the of a heavy key and the of a light key
evaluated at or near pinch temperatures , or at avg. suggested
tabulation , starting with an assumed value , a :
Component XFi i XFi i i XFi / i
i XFi / (i )2
a
XFa a XFa a a XFa /( a ) a XFa / (a )2
b
XFb b XFb b b XFb /( b ) b XFb / (b )2

__________ ____________
(a)
(a)
corrected by Newtons approximation method :
c = (assumed) (a)/ (a)
Repeat the same type of tabular computation , substituting the
corrected the for the a. if the second corrected a ,checks closely
with a , the value of has been obtained , if not ,a third recalculation
should be made using the s value as the new assumed value .

86

Note that the average values should b used (constant ) for each
component unless the values vary considerably through the column. In
this latter case follow the discussion given elsewhere in this section .
STEP 2: Calculated (L/D)min by substituting the final value solving for
(L/D)MIN . note that this requires evaluating the functions associated with
at the composition of the distillate product. The values are the
constant values previously used above.

UNDERWOOD ALGEBRIC METHOD ADJACENT KEY

SYSTE M: VARIABLE
For a varying systems , the following procedure is suggested.
STEP 1: assume (L/D)min and determine the pinch temperature by
Colburn method.
STEP 2: At this temperature , evaluate at pinch and at overhead
temperature ,obtaining a geometric average . as an alternate , Shiras
indicates avg. value which gives acceptable result s when compared to
pinch and stepwise calculation. This suggestion calculates,
tavg. =(Dt0/BtB)/F
STEP 3: Determine uderwood value as previously described, using the
average a value.
STEP 4: Calculate (L/D)min and compare with assumed value of (1)
above. If check is satisfactory, (L/D) MIN is complete, if not reassume new
value (L/D)min using calculated value as basis ,and repeat (1) through (4)
until satisfactory check is obtained.
Where,

t0 =overhead temp., 0F
tB= bottoms temp., 0F
t..p = avg.temp., 0F

To aid in solving the tedious Underwood equation to ultimately arrive at

(L/D)min , Frank has developed , which applies for liquid feed at its
bubble point and whether the system is binary or multicomponent , but
dose require that the key component are adjacent . otherwise ,the
system must be solved for two values of . to obtain the necessary
parameters for figure 8-47, Frank recommends using the same
overhead concentrations that were used in or calculated by the Fenske
equation for the Underwood solution.( = Underwood constant ) .
87

CONCLUSION

STUDY OF CHARACTERISTICS OF RAW MATERIAL & PRODUCTS:Collection of data regarding the characteristics of raw materials
employed such as crude oil, its source & other chemicals and utilities
involved in preprocessing and processing of raw crude into various
useful forms.
Study and collection of data regarding the desired characteristics of
products obtained from atmospheric and vacuum columns like Liquefied
Petroleum Gas, Kerosene, Aviation Turbine Fuel, Motor Spirit etc.
STUDY OF
REFINERY:-

PROCESS

DESCRIPTION

INCLUDING

VISIT

TO

Study of various process involved in the Atmospheric & Vacuum Unit

starting from the transportation of raw crude oil from its source till the
processing carried out in distillation columns viz. Atmospheric & Vacuum
columns.
This requires a visit to IOCL Mathura Refinery for the purpose of study of
description of various processes being carried out in industry for
processing of crude oil. It also involves the preparation of flow sheets of
various processes involved showing various streams designation and
requisite equipments with their numbering.

COLLECTION OF DATA IN REGARD OF OPERATING

PARAMETER FOR VARIOUS EQUIPMENTS AND PRODUCT
SPECIFICATION FOR VARIOUS PROCESSES:
Visit to IOCL MATHURA REFINERY would also involve sourcing and
collection of data for the purpose of design of various equipments. This
involve noting down inlet and outlet operating temperature ,top and
bottom operating pressure ,feed flow rate etc. data would be collected
for various equipment such as heat exchanger ,storage vessels,
distillation columns ,furnace etc.

88

DESIGN OF EQUIPMENT :
Finally using the operating data of equipment and software like fluent ,
flosheet ,chemsep ,matlab, etc. and following design procedures as specified
in various references texts like coulson & Richardsons chemical engineering
series volume 6 etc.

REFERENCES
89

 L. C. Waterman, Crude desalting: Why & how, Hydrocarbon Processing, Vol.

14, No. 2, pp.133-138 (1965)
B. G. S. Marzano, Electric desalting in oil refineries, The Institute of Petroleum,
April-June, pp. 113-117 (1989).
G. D. Hobson, Ed., Modern Petroleum Technology, Part II, 5 th ed., John Wiley
& Sons, Chichester, (1984).
N. C. Kothari, H. K. Mulchandani, C. S. Sharma and J. Prakash,
Dearomatising of naptha-Techno-economics aspects, CEW, Vol.XXIII, No.3.
D. A. Bea, Jet fuel needs more kerosenes, Fydrocarbon Processing, Vol. 67,
No.12
Dr. Ram Prasad, Petroleum Refining Technology by Khanna publishers.

90