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If

THE

PEASANT

POLISH

IN

AMERICA

AND

VOLUME

DISORGANIZATION

IV

AND

IN

POLAND

REORGANIZATION

EUROPE

ComiBST,

tf^O
(":"f

1990,

AM

Made

THE

ia

GORHAM

the

By

Rights

United

PRESS.

Rigeaso

G.

Badosk

Resecvt4

Sutes

ol

BOSTON.

AHerka

U.

S.

A.

CONTENTS
DISORGANIZATION

SOCIAL

PART

PAGE

CHAPTBR

The

Concept

Socul

of

Disorganization

II

Disorganization

of

the

Famii^y

III

Disorganization

of

the

Coiocunity

IV

Struggle

for

Preservation

the

Class

of

45
the

Old

Social

Systeic

Attitudes

Revolutionary

87

Concept

of

REORGANIZATION

SOCIAL

II

Social

Reorganization

177

Leadership

181

III

Education

aog

VI

The

Wider

Community

Cooperative
The

Role

AND

the

Role

OF

THE

Press
.

Institutions
of

the

'

iS4

II

IV

II

The

'

14J

Religious Revolutionism

'

i39"i7S

Revolutionism

PART

^'

Peasant

"

24^

271
in

National

Life
....

506

INTRODUCTION
In the first two

it has been

as

have

we

ied
stud-

primary-group organizationof

the traditional
Polish peasant

of this work

volumes

handed

the

to the present

down

We
noticed
generationfrom many past centuries.
that this organizationhas been rapidlychanging during
the last fifty
years, so that there is probably not a
singlepeasant community where it could be found in a
bined
new
form; everjrwhere
types are compure and unmixed
with
the

In

third volume

our

of an
life-history

process

for

it.

of

individual who,

change, finds

himself, for his

have

we

followed

livingamidst

in his environment

no

this

place

attitudes

fundamental

correspond
entirelyto the old type of social organizationwhereas
by his social status he no longer belongsto this organization
and is thrown
without
guidance
any permanent
into various

new

conditions to which

and
always only partially

We

shall

now

try

peasant,
conclusions

our

and
occurs.

can

self
adapt him-

imperfectly.

to determine

which
types of social organization
for the old ones,
this substitution

he

in detail those

new

substitute themselves

the process by which


investigate
ish
Although limited to the Pol-

will
investigation

endeavor

to

reach

which

serve
as
h3rpothetical
general
may
laws, to be verified by a comparison with
sociological

other
^

societies.

For the

evolution
specific

leadingfrom
the primary-groupto a social organization
based upon
rational co-operation is a very general phenomenon.
vfi

\
INTRODUCTION

viii

The

primary-group is

and

among

it is not

and

rational

survival

all stages of cultural

sometimes

more,

societies

savage

found
institution,

spontaneous

in all classes,on

complex

only in

not

European peasants;

the past, but

sometimes

found

of

in all societies,

development,

less isolated from

the

more

social systems, seldom, if ever,

completelyabsorbing the interests of its members, but


stillconstituting
the most
important form of social life
for the immense
ize
realWe
must
majority of mankind.
that only in a few
the
large cities scattered over
the primary-group has lost its importance,and
world
there this loss beginsto be felt as a rather dangereven
ous
is shown

effect of social evolution,as


to

attempts
cities.
group

the

with

compared
is

community

stronger in the

higher forms

that of the peasant, stronger in the


than

in that of
town,

a
an

business

and
in

man

is reduced

stillon

case

minimum

to a

large city,of

of social

than

of

their

in

vincial
pro-

in the life of

a scientist,
politician,,

matter

of degree.

interests all through the world

stage where

ganization
or-

of the peasant

intellectual inhabitant

artist;but it is still only


human

on

half

primary-

of the savage

case

recent

in American

the relative influence of the

Of course,
as

the

reconstruct

by the

numerable
Inare

pursuitis chieflydependent
of the priand recognition
mary-group

the direct social response


ate
which constitutes the individual's immedienvironment.

for theoretic and


social process

It is therefore
for

important,both
practicalpurposes, to study the

.by_which

most

these interests become

pendent,
inde-

moral, intellectual,repojitjeal,
sake, and
pursued for their own
aes^ietic^jms,
ligiouJs,
social groups
become
organized for the purrationally
pose
of
of an efficientcommon
pursuit these aims. Our
economic,

INTRODUCTION

civilization,when

taken

ix

in its

only

not

highest pianifes-

tations

but in its totality,


is stillin the midst

process

of

the Polish

peasants

much

from

and

century ago

much

average

rational

in which

in

of

such

has

peasant

with

of

in cultural
richer

with

centers

stock

limitation

further

indispensable

was

actuallytaking

of

life.

for

twenty-fiveyears

^the end

"

of the twentieth

are

War

in Posen

centuries

limited
territorially

Russian

which

we

Poland,

formed

Congress

of

and

in

Vienna

for

and

We

what

are

of twenty

for

tain
cer-

data

our

rials
mate-

before

was

the

particular to that part

was

known

unit
as

the

to

the beginning

and

domination,
to

space

comparison

administrative

separate

and

^and, except

"

use

German

imder

period

nomic,
eco-

found

even

of the nineteenth

important points where


collected

have

purposes.

only

lation,
popu-

intense

more

We

methodical

into accoimt

in

similar

as

subject in time

our

given

merged

^not

"

social

heterogeneous

traditions,a

of

of

productive classes

more

intellectual
political,
that

far

refer-

are

interferingphenomena

occurring in culturallymore

processes
or

isolated,form

and

of

essential processes

certain

complexity

nance
predomi-

attitudes.

the Polish

simple

relatively

vanced,
ad-

it is still
very

enc^toJbis4)roJblem the.Jpecificimportance
experiment

among

teleolbg^calsystematization

control

of

same

more

the exclusive

from

but
primarjr7groupjtype,

evolution

The

the

on

distant

thoroughgoing

values

began half

it is

more

the

of

which

change

of the

of

since

it

the

Congress

Kingdom.

are

During

the

period

taking

into

account,

on,

of

went

the

wider

social

course,

milieu

in the

and
the

social

in
with

territories
evolution

continual
which

of

which
the

interaction
the

peasant

we

ants
peaswith
com*

INTRODUCTION

munity

getting

was

growing participationof

and

world-wide

even

of these

social processes,

features

of this evolution.

the
as

in

brought

community

50 to 75 years
in Poland

social
their

ago

organization,

little affected

very

progressed
there

course,

would

if the rest

been

had

social

classes

of

by

the

of

for

without

and

community

organization

which

latter and
Under

ignored
these

connection
is

the

social

so

slow

the

naturally a

more

the

the

less

the
the

ening
broad-

reflective
ing
call-

relations

tween
be-

community

internal

outside

community
or

and

without

the

conditions, the first result


between

that

side
out-

social environment.

within

world

of

lated
completelyassimi-

its wider

with

Of

with

contact

requiring any

existed

suddenly

years.

readjustment,

exclusivelyconcerned

world

was

institutional organization of

the

was

the

life,were

social

plahful adaptation and

All

had

infiltration

to

Their

immediately

been

thousand

two

continual

community

some

ties
communi-

values, though imperceptiblychanging


the content

and

that

religiouslife,

humanity

this infiltration

; but

merchant

say

and

have

influences, particularlydue

higher

elements

peasant

intellectual

their

regressed

or

inal
crim-

and

entirelyself-sufficient.

activities

economic

the

sideration
con-

tt^estate

outside

might

of

large part

almost

were

of

out

priest, the

life,we

eral
gen-

essential

most

leave

few

the

nobleman,

country

into

the

ignore

but

and

community on
tax-paying, military service

prosecution, and
the

the

could

we

his slow

of the

dependence

manifested

which

If

in nationwide

national

civilization,constitute

ual
grad-

ties,
communi-

the peasant

progressive incorporationinto Polish


human

The

touch.

of the old isolation

disappearance
the

closely in

more

life of
of
of

and

far-going

the

its limits.
the

the

ing
growoutside

process

of

INTRODUCTION

attitudes

disorganization; new
the

of

which

group

old social

the

tions.

The

tries to

group

the
this

; but

outside

influence

interests, loses

of
when

these

gradually
is then

longer how

no

how

but

all fields of

to

utilize them

to

of

permitting

for

to

rules

long

activity.

in

to remain

the

havior
be-

as

the

and

extend

The

problem'
attitudes,

new

how

expression,

revolt

individual

instead

where

status

of

its effectiveness

develop

to

to

particular field

of

more

suppress

in

this

against

as

some

institutional

merely

an

institu- /

sociallyproductive purposes,

them

themselves

press

to

social

for them

find

to

efficient

often

continue

contacts

itself

by

find

cannot

traditional

the

and

more

controlled

primary-group

limited

remain

members'^

consciously tending

of

endeavor,

contacts

they

defend

methods

disorganization by
strengthen

old

the

the

adequately

organization because
in

in

develop

be

cannot

expression

adequate

they

ex-

sociaK

and

revolution.

^Thisproblem

change,'We

periods of rapid

and

extensive

most

group

where

longer

the

the

much
that

easier

of

whole

community,
immediate
a

wider

much

produced

is

to
a

full

of

savage

society.
isolated

whose

national

and

of

the

is

no

nal
interof

case

is

this problem
group
For

or

the
upper

in

the peasant

sociallyfrom

an
territorially

race

in the

national

in the

But

the

politicalunit,

modern

belongs cultui^Uy
already

of

case

but

in

group

attitudes

new

solution

the

savage

modem

influences

complex national

environment,

of

activities.

however

and
civilization,

rapid growth

in the

than

find it in

western

effect of external

all societies

to

highly complicated

complexity of social
peasant community

the

of

with

in contact

brought

evidently common

is

its

integralpart
peasant
strata

civilization.

class

have
These

j
/

INTRODUCTION

strata

Upper
a

large

measure

able to

and

the

individuals

Ithis

who

undesirable

an

level and

make

to

the social isolation

consider

phenomenon,
the peasant

of the nation, who


I tural life
and

interests,

cultural level of the peasant

low
relatively

/tnunities

cultural

in

and therefore
primary-group attitudes,
clude
any primary-group isolation. They in-

overcome

many

social institutions based

differentiated

upon

merely upon

not

ready

possess

of their methods

conscious

are

tend

to

in
participate

thus able

and

who

the cul-

the leaders

This

class in social reconstruction.

of the peasant

raise

of their aims

become

to

com-

is

what
find in Poland.
we
precisely
Evidently,such a
condition is only temporary, and one
of the most
terestin
inthe growing
problems of the future is whether
cultural

development

unification

the

of

peasants

their

interests and
specific
their own
to their gradual fusion with
or
class-leaders,
other classes.
Both solutions seem
possible; in political
the first solution already
life,we find at this moment
tuted,
clearlyoutlined and a powerful peasant party constibut at the same
time, in spiteof the politicians,
ously
in social life the old class system is slowly but continuflexible
complex and more
yieldingto a new, more
as

one,

in which

only

for

class with

materials

naturallya
than

those

them

come

some

have

place

no

writers.

from
been

Almost
to

which
much

used

; some

written

is

there

own

for

peasant

class but

professionalorganizations.

The
have

their

will lead to

we

are

less direct

using in this volume


ter
and personal charac-

in the firstthree volumes.

and

popular newspapers

Most

of

institutions;

vestigat
by ourselves in personal inpresented by other
systematically

collected
are

every

newspaper,

document,
was

even

'i peasant letter

made
conscious!^'

by its au-

INTRODUCTION

thor
of

bear

to
a

more

on

is

; none
a

family

their

makes
it
on

and

letter.

forces
the
much

us

particular

some

as

While

this

to

intrinsic
more

rely

much

value
on

of

less
of

their

each

than

in

easy
the

document

selection

and

product

social
for

as,

character

relatively

understanding

about

unflective

and

naive

is

question,

reflection

methodical

less

or

xiii

instance,

the

documents

for

the

earlier
in

nomena
phe-

reader,
volumes

particular

systematic

ganization.
or-

PARTI

SOCIAL

DISORGANIZATION

CHAPTER

CONCEPT

THE

The
it in

the

and

institutions

behavior

of

in

consisting

responds

to

imagined

".,

in which

group

socially
rules

of

sanctioned

would

in

his

his

nor

as
a

those

of

uniform

other

would

members.

As

is

group

we

groups

behavior

which

individuals

and

in

organizing

their

in

organizing
their

own

social
differentiation

fiction

pure

find

are

their

conduct,
conduct

invention
rules.
is

and
use

to

the

exactly
of
in

by others;

traditionally

Moreover,

the

progress

growth

of
of

who

schemes

the

by

of

classes

besides

accompanied

ferentiated
dif-

rules

individuals

personal

same

least

the

used

be

perament
tem-

fact, such

certain

to

find

some

his

sanctioned

only

we

different

neither

even

supposed

not

make

matter

socially

explicitly apply

of

of

ently
differ-

schemes

be
a

still

conduct,

these

life-history

we

all the

accept

own

because

of. them,

out

if

Even

differentiation,

would

evolution,

personal

life-organization

his

systematize

cor-^

socially sanctioned

the

of

schemes

as

havior,
be-

of

exactly

would

but

none.

individuals

schemes

never

member

every

as

life-organization

internal

all

Just

upon

disorganization.

and

behavior

member

every

rules

as

systematized

lacking

group

to

socially systematized

disorganization

individual

use

primarily

men.

individual

with

personally

social

so

1.

imposed

coincides

exactly

nev^

in

embodied

to

shall

we

as

refers

volumes

secondarily

only

group-organization
schemes

disorganization

following

and

DISORGANIZATION

SOCIAL

social

of

concept

this

OF

tioned
sanc-

social

special

in-

POLISH

THE

PEASANT

in
stitutions,consisting
essentially

of

certain

individuals

of certain

and

organization

the

of

any

of

achievement

for the permanent

institutional

number

systematic organization
sociallyselected schemes
a

the

life-organizationof

stituti
in-

activitythe

whose

through

This

results.

dividual
sociallyrealized partly overlap, but one incannot
fully realize in his life the whole
tematic
sysorganization of the institution since the latter

is

always implies the


other
have

be

to

There
between

is,of
social

course,

of

many
of this

certain

organization and

have

che

on

interests

which

tution.
particular insti-

reciprocaldependence
individual
ization.
life-organ-

in Voliune

discussed

and

many,

has

outside

organized

We
which

individual

each

hand

collaboration

III the influence

organization exercises upon the individual ;


in this and
shall see
in the following volumes
how
we
of a group,
of individual members
the life-organization
particularlyof leading members, influences social organization.
of this reciprocalinfluence in
But the nature
each

social

problem

accepted in advance.
points must be kept in

to

studied,

be

not

be

to

)gma
These

the

question

define the latter

can

is

particular case

of

social

brieflyas

mind

if

we

to

are

disorganization.

decrease

of

the

derstand
un-

Wc

influence

of existingsocial rules of behavior upon indizndual fnent"


merable
This
decrease
pers of the group.
present innumay
degrees, ranging from a single break of some
particularrule by one individual up to a general decay
of

all the

institutions
in

ttion

with

whOvtever

^consists in

this

decrease

his whole

of
sense

the
has

individual
of

life for

the

social

group.

Now,

no

unequivocal

organizat
dis-

connec-

disorganization,which
individual's abilityto organize

the efficient,
progressive and

THE

tralized

by
tjiehelp of
he

POLISH

PEASANT

activities of the group

such

social sanctions

stabilityof group

the power

institutions

equilibrium of

of

is

of

processes

reinforce with

as

existingrules,
thus simply a dynamic

disor^nization and

This

reorganization.

when
equilibrium is disturbed
of disorganizationcan
no
longer be checked by
processes
the existingrvles^ A period
any attempts to reinforce
of prevalent disorganizationfollows, which
lead to
may
More
a
complete dissolution of the group.
usually,

however, it is counteracted
this limit

by

this

does

case

new

not

and

stopped before it reaches


reorganization which in

of

process

consist

in

in

decaying organization,but

the

of behavior

schemes

of

of

schemes

new

the

institutions

and

in

far

so

the

during

least of

at

part

as,

the

new

adapted

call this production

we

group;

Social reconstruction
and

better

of

of

production

institutions

new

demands

changed

to the

and

reinforcement

mere

social

struction.
recon-

is possibleonly because,

period of

social

members

of the

tion
disorganizahave

group

individuallydisorganized,but, on the contrary,


been
and
cient
effihave
a
new
more
working toward
personal life-organizationand have expressed a
tendencies
implied in
part at least of the constructive
become

not

their

individual

activities in

an

effort

produce

to

new

social institutions.

studying the

In

must,

of course,

science,try

to

of

process

in accordance

with

disorganizationwe

more

We

becoming.

(Methodological Note)
^ causal

fact contains

Whether

individual

or

general

less

or

facts

have
that

three

seen

of all

the chief aim

explain it causally,"'.e.,

complexity into simple


to

social

to

crete
analyze its con-

which

laws
in

could
of

be

termined
causally defirst volume

our

in the field of social

components,

ordinated
sub-

i. e.,

social,always has

an

reality
effect,

composite

CONCEPT

containing

cause,

SOCIAL

OF

both

DISORGANIZATION

individual

an

We
(objective)element.
elements
jectivesocio-psychological

social

themselves

the

of

more
we

value

influence
other

plus

words, by

influence

alone, but

tendency

of

scheme

"

behavior,

'partof

the

real

the

cause

in combination

with

gave

rise to this effect ; in other

As

words,

as

we

are

with

concerned

alone, leaving provisionallyaside


reconstruction, the

the

to

is the

rule

which

appear,
may

instead

influence

be thus several

lose its
an

the

if

and
efficiency,

institution,which

schemes,

can

fall

as

disorganization
we

to

want

attitudes

such

behavior

of

institutions.

these

of

the

and

Every

different ways
more

attitudes

rule

cial
so-

numerous

of 1
some

is disturbed.

in which

as

definite combination

of

still

explain!

influenced,

or

which

phenomenon

decay of social
expression of a

attitudes;

certain

can

the

ing*'
"feel-

following process

of
explain is evidentlythe appearance
of existing rules
impair the efficiency

thus lead

some

or

must

we

by an attitude acting upon


preexistingsocial value.

long

subjective tendency,

social value

There

preexistingobjective,social

which

some

to

into account

take

must

we

data

others

prcr

institution,a material

an

it by

do

cannot

"reflection,"but

or

of

or

acting upon

merely going back


subjective,psychologicalphenomenon of "will"

by

that

exactly,appealing to some
preexistingattitude,
to explaincausallythe appearancQ;'of
want
a social

product^we

provoke hi^^ \

and

social value

impose

remember

definite

realityof-

which

must

external

an

'

explain causally !

to

want

we

attitude, we

an

produced by

never

by an external
in
disposition,
or,

of social

as
individual,
given

^cUui^J.
If

the sub-

called

have

appearance

it is

If

the

upon
social

reaction

(subjective)and\

the objective,social elements

and

titudes

ways

rule
in

always involves several regulating


causal
into decay. The
ex-

"

THE

POLISH

PEASANT

planation of
demands

thus

that

social

of

particularcase

any

find, first

we

of

tion
disorganizaall, what

are

the

itmanifests
particularattitudes whose appearance
in the loss of influence of ^theexistingsocial
Iself socially

then

rules, and

Our

try

into

processes

limited

facts, and

causal

titudes.
at-

of

number

more

lesj;

or

this

tendency can be realized


the study of disorganizationif we
find that the decay
jective
differentrules existingin a given societyis the ob-

general
of

these

the^causesof

tendency should be, of course, toi analyze


cial
diversityand complexity of particular so-

the apparent

in

determine

to

manifestation

attitudes, that, in other

of similar

given, apparently different phenomena of


disorganizationcan be causally explained in the same
reach
We
cannot
tion,
way.
any laws of social disorganizawhich
find causes
i. e., we
cannot
always and everywhere
produce social disorganization; we can only hope
fto determine laws of socio-psychological
becoming, /. e.
Vfind causes
which
always and everywhere produce cerwords, many

definite
\^ain

attitudes,and these

disorganizationin

social

be found

background

given

rules

of
or

social

is the

task

who

does

which

material

environment,

happen

fundamental

and

underlie

those

to

as

attempt

changes

the latter

them

find

in the
but

general

reai

decay

oi

laws

sensual

searches
processes

attitudes.
chemist

physicistor
of

the

multiform

of

appearance
for laws
which

of the
are

our

more

supposed

plains
changes, and exdirectlyobservable
causallyonly in so far as it can be shown

they are the superficialmanifestations


deeper, causallyexplicableeffects.
that

the

of these

that of the
to

it will
the

are

alsc,

merely 'the objective,superficial

of the appearance

same

not

produced by
is

explain

in which

cases

disorganization,that

institutions

manifestation
Our

all those

that the attitudes

will

causes

of

certain

OF

CONCEPT

SOOAL

DISORGANIZATION

In the next
we

and

of the Family/'
section,
"Disorganization
offer an explicit
illustration of our method, analyzing
in detail the problems raised by every document

showing

reached.

the process

It would

by

which

be, of course,

and
professional
sociologist

the

conclusion

superfluousfor

tiresome

is
the

for the amateur

of
pursued this expositionof the technique
research throughout the whole volume ; in the following
sections we state therefore only the generalconclusions
with just enough particularsuggestions
the
to make
bearingof the documents quiteclear.

reader

if

we

"

CHAPTER

II
OF

DISORGANIZATION

We

in

have met

our

THE

FAMILY

firstthree volumes

We
partialfamilydisorganization.
but
there to explain them completely

of

to

In

few

of these

none

than

general indications
loss of

cases

active

terials
i

representedan

Perhaps they even

did not
limited

attempt
ourselves

of their

probablefactors.
did disorganization
go farther
and sometimes
solidarity
relling.
quar-

This is,of course,


.,

cases

many

the usual

average

showed

more

our
situation;

ma-

pictureof peasant life.


than
disorganization

C is found on the average among


Polish peasants, since
\ theywere selected from letters written by emigrantsand
Lta emigrants,and wherever there is emigration,lution
dissoof the family is progressingmore
rapidlythan
united
whose
members
remain territorially
in groups
and live in the

conditions

same

as

their forefathers did.

rapid survey of the materials published


in the preceding volumes
shows
clearlythat emigraIn

fact,even

/tion of individual familymembers

/
C.

tion oi whole Tamilies from


the two

main

factors

abroad

the country

and

to

emigfa-

the citv

are

of familial

disor^nization.But
^4t is evident that this generalization
and
is too vague
than a starting-point
to be anything more
superficial
of scientificresearch.
tor, but not

cause

is

combined
cause

conditions is

fac"

of social happenings ; it merely furnishes

influenceswhich
when

of
(Change

with

will

product definiteeffects only

definite

only togetherwith
8

attitudes
preexisting
the latter.

and

In individual

DISORGANIZATION

OF

FAMILY

THE

Cv~

I emigrationand
(

tain

in

changes

from

country

^ttitudgg^are produced

new

! .acting in combination

land these

social values

new

the

are

social realities

ultimate

(which underlfejFamily
^^tsoTgantzatit^^which
|nust jetermine and

attitudes^o hen
and

ily life
on

the

tail

but

explain causally,}But these


in spite'ofchanged
to appear

attitudes,which

other

han3,littitudes

of those

many

whp

old communities,

family life

affect
in

that influences

in the

city or

country communities.

organization is
and

less

influences

may

back

than

and

general

abroad

The

be

must

fact that

in the latter than

also

tive
ac-

family dis;
among

dividuals
in-

living outside of their primary


different explanations" either
two

which, in connection

less continuous

in cities

family

of

similar to those which

with

certain

attitudes, produce disorganizationare

spread

instead;

appear

are

fam-

families

admits

social milieu
the

are

so

tions,
condi-

not

moved

nave

whicn

new

undermine

not

we

ilies
only in individuals and famto the city or
abroad, but also it
stilllivingin the country, in their

disorganizationappear
that

do

its form,

only modify

other

^'^^aI^

withcerlaiHUieexiiitittgatliludes

attitudes

new

by

citylife cer-

to

in old

country

less

isting
preex-

widely

communities

of disorganization
foreign milieux, or the process
counteracted
is there more
efficiently
by
of fact,
efforts of social reorganization. As a matter
the two
coexist in various proportions.
reasons
which
The cases
shall analyze show
we
tion
disorganizaeither verging on or passing into crime.
Such cases
oT course,
We
almost
have
had
relativelyrare.
are,
in the preceding three volumes
be added
none
; it must
that we
could hardly expect to receive any
such data
the authors
whi^ collectingdocuments
directlyfrom
A
the relatives of the authors.
or
large quantity of
in some
criminologicalmaterials is contained
popular
or

POLISH

THE

lo

This

newspapers.

is due

As

shall

we

newspapgL^s

communities
tion-wide

bond

concrete

the

throughout
social

peasant

particularlyfor

in detail

see

of the

social function

the

to

destined

popular newspaper
class.

PEASANT

later

on,

unifying
and

country

the

peasant

the

peasant

all the

peasant

creating a

na-

Opinion partly by jmitating,

partly by modifying the type of


It
in Hie primary community.

social
has

found

opinion

regular

sional
occa-

or

correspondents in every community


whatever
things and events they consider

who

peasant
describe

portant.
im-

As

everybody knows, nothing stirs a primary


much
of its socrime, preciselybecause
so
as
a
cial
group
abnormality. It is not strange, therefore, that
crimes constituted, particularly
during the early period
of

the development
of the

from

of the peasant

informing

his peasant

obtain
to

itself to

adapt

modify

crimes
of

which

the

of

of

could

main

editor
had

tent
con-

received

publish

to

forced

order

in the

intense

Congress Kingdom,

development

stop publishing news

with

the constitutional

following years,

to

permit it gradually

Thus,

years

; this coincided

and

He

the

beginning was
its public in

would

these attitudes.

newspapers

1905

in the

the attitudes

only after 25
peasant

an

correspondents.

influence

an

which

letters

them, for the peasant press


to

press,

which

gave

some

about
evolution
dom
free-

some

of politicalactivities and,

by partly removing the


political
matters, permitted

prohibition of writing about


the popular newspaper
to

The
course,

offset

the
data

not

by

members
every

curiosityof
contained

very

the

to

constructive

more

terial
ma-

its readers.
in

popular

newspapers

are,

of

detailed, but this disadvantage is partly

fact that
of

offer

the

fact is described

they have been furnished


respectivecommunities
as

seen

by

the

by
and

community

ant
peas-

thus

itself,

THE

12

mother
or

the

keeping

bond

unified

group

other

by

anced
latter is counterbal-

partialdisorganization; only the


in its manifestations

at least

solidary. When
be incipient
may

and

is alive, there

father

even

or

farm; she is

of the

real manager

the

is not

PEASANT

POLISH

attitudes.

very instructive.
Disorganizationis limited to the economic field alone. It
situation

The

consists

in

here

in

as

from

know

we

Here

do
if it

show

not

much

as

decay

of

individual
find

we

social interest.

and
a

complete

income

common

the

as

own^^

"his

as

possiHe.

treated

from
all

separation
of

; every

jnem-

part of the

famr
famil}"sys-

the old

to

as

higher

land

info

property

ha/e

to

was

lower

come
in-

and

as

as

personal
The

income, i. e.,

fundamental

character
are

he

are

sold and

the money

used

for

expenses.

are

which

Under

inal
orig-

into progertyj_whereas
possible of income
the' tendency~Ts just"^the opposite:goods which
normally be classed as property (farm-stock) are

much

either

in its

matter

large

as

tendency of the peasant

normal

goods as possiblepass
economic^category, to turn

would

IgJhe

sign^of

sure

individualization

many

here

is

would

each

as

that
spiritof communism
form
implies no conscious

the

ber tries to set aside

tem

in it

interest

his personal property, which

were

unreflective

as

I, consisted

Volume.

abstractlyformulatfidX-^^^"
(though never
of income.
use
ownershipof property and common
bers
though individual memproperty is stillcommon

mon

of

family

actual

an

the

and

clear

of the institution of economic

decay

solidaritywhich,

is very

of

attitudes
new

these

needs

share

his

own

organizat
this social dis-

of

The

personal needsl

hedonistic-i-tht
cannot

back

is due

to

individual

directlywith

part, such

as

new

the

fact

and

that

they

pleasures

wants

others

personal

without
more

minishin
di-

varied

DISORGANIZATION

of

kinds

THE

FAMILY

13

food, alcoholic drinks, tobacco, etc^;


or

ademand

in

OF

for

based
socialj-ecognition

consist

longer

nd

on

importance oTIlie family, but .on the indiyiduars


clothes," jewelry, etc.
"showing,..off")
by fashionable

the

These

the attitudes

theh

are

in order

origin must
causallythis type

whose

to understand

be

plained
ex-

of family

disorganization.
We

that

remember

the process
social system has

of the old peasant


the

of

breakdown
New

mtmity.

needs

with
certain

to

kinds
the

of

the

isolation
thus

are

of

disorganization

come

of

as

the

result of

peasant

produced by the

comquaintance
ac-

mere

values
which
previously unknown
preexisting attitudes.' Thus, the

which

food, drinks, tobaccos


industrial

neighboring

center

or

peal
apnew

in

obtained

are

during

gration
emi-

season

hedonistic

Germany, by rousing previously unknown


reafctions,develop a hedonistic tendency,

search

for

sensual

matters

of

in

hfs

interests from

own

also the

the

from

away

and

fact of

mere

family

^those developed
"

ways.

the

the

break

First, the

city or

from

on

of

as

individual
new

recognitionwithin

food

as

was

haps
Per-

drinking alone,

In the other

who

ciate
disasso-

strength.

contributed

ground
community

in

family,whereas

long

eating and

the

abroad

individual

restore

group,

of these needs.
"

the

united

remained

sake, which

own

those of his

satisfyhunger

to

its

for

makes

consumption

tl^ese interests

merely

pleasure

the

to

vidualiza
indi-

type of needs

of the desire

for recognition

isolation

in

acts

brings with

him

two

from

clothes, jewels, etc.,


the

periences
ex-

community (mixed in
the beginningusuallywith unfavorable
attention)which
that his family
alone, since it is known
goes to himself
had no
share in obtaining these goods, as they had
fore
bework
developed.The recognitionwhich the
wage

THE

14

POLISH

gets is aesthetic rather

individual

his appearance

makes

PEASANT

purely personal

the field of the individual's


the

family standing be
recognition; ;outsideof
family is

external

from

in the social

such

fashion.

from

comes

into the

them

will become

from

the

In
a

lazy and

quite wealthy and

as

each

adequate

way

to

his

had

lawsuits

hardly

ever

who

man

personal
est
the inter-

have

become
benefit

any

loves

stillthere

What

the

They

ramble

to

people who

are

result is

see

can

we

of 13 morgs

besides,

he

so

also

he had

dowries.

given them

before

farmer

He

was

them

gave

5^

agreed to the willing away


all*right so lonf?
Everything was
even

old

were

people of

90

years,

they

so

longer, but their son supported them in an


tuitiltheir death.
Suddenly, after the parents had
any

liked to rinse her


that the parents
she

farm

cash

some

died, the elder sister,who

and

son

their brother.

to

work

not

more

And

daughters and

parents lived.

could

drunkard.

just. They

was

as

farm

the

place of
family.

villagein the vicinityof Radom,

off his two

of the

in

will ruin himself, will lose his time,

law-suits.

notary public willed

much

ognition
obtaining rec-

interest

that

sees

ostentatious,

use

of

why

social

following example.

certain

married

the

can

vidual's
the indi-

where

the

understand

cases
a

live without

not

can

more

to

means

as

Uie contrary, the

; on

in most

courts

has

he

Thus,

rating of

Everybody

broader

of

means

as

community,

and

more

It is difficult to

a.

the

strangers.

takes

appearance

relied upon

of distinction

marks

not

social relations,the less

known,

not

and

and

matter

Secondly,the

expression of family wealth.

an

economic

than

own

instigatedher
sister

drunkard

and

throat, explained to her

harmed

had

married

had

them,
to

agreed and

that

start

both

the brother
suit

sister

younger

had

self
her-

who

received

against the brother.

brought

suit in the

The

younger

munal

fend
The brother did not departitionof tlie farm.
the suit and the court, knowing nothing about the deed made
court

for

in the presence
vision
brother

of the

com*

of the notary, ordered

proceeds between

appealed and

showed

an

the brother
the

auction
and

sale and

sisters.

But

deed, proving his title

to

di*
the

the

DISORGANIZATION
So

famt

the

higher

court

for the brother.


in the

next

brother
think
we

been

have

you

will live in

peace." The

again she started


been

the

proper

begin again

made

suit in the

the

judge just as

aside the deed.

action

new

to

had

her

you
and

sum

claim

for

into court.

and

since

been

not

the

Since

certain

go

circuit court

district and

in another

you

still desired

one

settle.
a

suit

Thereupon

sister sold

younger

gives judgment

to threaten

rather

us

15

and

of the deed.

I will pay

harmed,

65 roubles, but the elder


had

sisters

"Stop that suing; let

says,

FAMILY

the decision

annulment

an

THE

reverses

The

for

court

OF

So
deed

the

confirmed

law

requires,the circuit

was

started

by

court

in the communal

set
court

A judgment of the same


kind as the
partitionof the farm.
issued.
of
first was
to buy the claim
Again the brother wants
ment
the sister,but the sister asks 300 roubles.
Seeing that a settlefor

is

impossible,the brother

dragging along nearly


spent about

they
...

the

lost

have

In reality sooner

and

later it must

or

Before

says

lawyers,

on

lot of time

the

brother

the

years;

each

roubles

150

proverb

two

The

appeals anew.

the above
than

farther

to

come

toward

which

mcdme
the

custom,

however

farm,

on

the

nominal

was

in

The

be

better

certain

matter

the

property, in other

the

property

in the

fostered

by

conditions

hands

of

one.

much
with

toward
the

old

right to keep

the

have

was
on

by

by
not

to

to

be

put

that of the welfare

equal
a

of

custom

in certain

an

the

been

communities

gradually reduced

sum.

4-

only the one


According to

ground of abstract justicebut


of the family as a whole, which
might

189s*

attitude

disproportionatemight

Galicia, the dowry


almost

ruins the eyes.

SwiqUcsna,

the

had

case

daughters' shares; indeed,


an

of

is broken..

in this

son

instead

as

traditional

it is the

but

family property

family

but
partition,

disorganizationhas gone
It begins also
preceding one.

attitudes,

economic

case

in the

neys,
jour-

on

spoiled their health.

have

rises,the dew

sun

sister have
and

costs

on

Gaseta

In

and

been

has

case

tions
condi-

division

concentration

Money

.was

never

of
of

i6

POLISH

THE

considered
of

PEASANT

the

the
selling
is in

of land; and the very idea


equivalent
farm and dividing
thus obthe money
tained
complete oppositionto the traditional

standards.
ber
a lawsuit against
a
Further,starting
familymemthe original
means
breaking almost irremediably^

of the familygroup,
solidarity
the element of fight
but makes
worse

^^

"

an

for it not

onlyintroduces

strangers and

^what is

"

arbiter of
an
political
institution,

abstract

familyrelations.
There are clearly
different attitudes underlying
two
The first,
this-^0""ss^-oidisorganization.
explicitly
stated in the text, is indeed of the type we have characterized
in the preceding
tude
attinote; it is ailiedonistic

expressedin alcoholism. The "bad sister"and her


husband are both drunkards,and it must be noted that
such a hedonistic need acquiresa particular
power when
it is shared

by

several individuals
"

husband

and wife,

brothers and sisters,


etc.,for this
parents and children,
givesit a kind of social sanction. Besides,alcoholism,

by

the

favors

destructive changesit produces,


physiologically
tions.
stillmore
the disorganization
of social tradiThis is

and social

where

case

individual demoralization

do go
disorganization

hand

in

hand, and

it

has been noticed that among


peasants in the country
drunkards furnish a disproportionately
largenumber of
whereas in cities the
individuals,
disorganized
socially
role of other factors becomes more
holism
importantand alcoloses

some

drunkenness, except

of
on

its

predominance. Of course,
ceremonial occasions,
is itselfa

it does
social disorganization;
signof partial

not

the latter,
but favors its further growth.
The other attitude which we find in this case

^ feeling
of having been

start

is the

wronged.In fact,this feeling

\ii

DISORGANIZATION

is

sides. ^Social relations

both

on

FAMILY

17

suits,
law-

peasant quarrels,disputesand

in

always present

THE

OF

are

longer

no

trolled
con-

but two, or even


by one system of norms,
more]
different system^coexistin social consciousness
and the)
individual
subconsciously takes the standpoint of the
his claim appear
makes
as
justified.In
system which
our

the two

case

of

that

systems
The

lawy

of abstract
in

and
consequence.

where

and

point
acquaintance with the legal standindividualistic justicehas contributed

dition,
decay of the family trathe development
the
has been
of litigation
This
is particularlymarked
in Galicia,

large

very

that of peasant custom

are

to the

measure

acquaintance with

than

is older

law

in the

gress
Con-

Exactly similar is the effect which the


American
laws on
marriage, support of wife, divorce,
in helping dissolve the Polish family life in
etc., have
this country, chiefly
by giving the wife an exaggerated
conception of her "rights/*
Kingdom.

In

3.

the

composed

of

Jozef, 30
and

village Soki

an

It

was

sober, but the greed and

everything. On
with

got angry

prayer,

expression about
rushed

franticallyat Jozef and


The

open.

wounded

well-to-do

years

old, and

family, religious

2gth, Jan, after


for

took

morningunsuitable

an

of the old mother

an

his

cut

eye

day amidst

same

stroyed
de-

recentlysharpened knife,

in the presence

the

his

having used

twinkling of

died

man

}an,50

impetuosity of the older brother

He

in the

family Kilijan,

peasant

sons,

rather

his brother

...

the

two

August

his wife.

of the maid

and

stomach

terrible sufferings.

Jan Kilijan toward his brother


died last year, bequeathed in
the fact that their father, who
The

was

the

and

old mother
old.

years

lived

presence

new

their

bam

cause

of

of the hate of

to his younger

cousins

nor

the

witnesses

their

son

better

bryczka (vehicle) and

Jozef, whom

he loved

in

neighbors succeeded

[brothers] at variance, and

hate

more.

the

Neither

reconciling the

led to crime.
.

CoMita

SwiqUcsna,

i8p9,

41.

i8

THE

In

4.

lived

father

ground
bushels

of

grain
corn

The

sons.

but

to

time.

Suddenly

him

with

he
he

as

each

year

as

in need

not

was

one

younger

the

the

other.

younger

from

drew

world."

The

me

to

grain

and

ruined

agreed

for

brother

foretold

The

the
to

and
The

older

annoy

gather

dently
evi-

court

hearing
**You

he

fire must

set

aloud

says

and

that he

will not

he

will shoot

collect

the older

as

that

farm-

in smoke.

up

friends

the

over

fire the

on

husbandry,

his

he

and

to

go

support

harm

all

yours

the

gave

son,

all his property

sent

However,

the

will

moment,

and

by

him.

forgive his brother

not

pension by

that

to

law-suit.

the

you

proper

in order

straw

did

son

overdue

the

get

father

g^ain, but

Watching the

brother

not

glad of the judgment, told him:

was

my

the

did

brother, desiring to

younger

unwise

buildings of his brother


The

the

feel

not

authorization

an

father

it and

of

adjudged the pension overdue.


that

bequeathed

obliged to. This lasted for some


brothers^ living in one
neighborhood, got

did

The

law.

to

father

old

pension. The

older, instigatedhis father

going

better be unknown*

not

every

as

give it

the

two

had

name

justly. The older soi^ got the smaller


furthermore, he was
obliged to give his father some

his

angry

PEASANT

whose
village,

with

the sons,

to

part, and

claim

certain

POLISH

him

at

the

first opportunity.
Gaseta

3 "and

Documents

the

old

and

the

starts

with

the

two

fathers

property unequally without


for

reasons

group

such

division,

welfare

justice is complied
who

have

the

nor

received

with.

the

The

result

shares

bond
the

between

them

and

there
their

old standard
individual

of

is that
have
is

their

family

any

"

the

standard

feelingof being wronged


moral

new

worse

divide

who

case

i Neither

The

attitudes.

new

in

a^

"

ment
maladjust-

effect of

between
trouble

of

the

show

Swiqtecsna, 1898, 47.

no

rivals

the

an

sons

gated
unmiti-

recognized
who

gated
insti-

from
the standpoint
unjust division, which
of the primary group
that revenge,
psychology means
provided it is not excessive, will appear as justified.
This being established, the chief problem whicfi pri-

"cupidity"desire
satisfaction

PEASANT

POLISH

THE

to obtain

economic

for hedonistic

values

are

here

ity
van-

or

dent
indepen-

not

the realization

for

instruments

aims, but

means

other

of

/^aims. /in the exact sense, cupidityshould be defined as


1 desire Tor
values.
personal possession of economic
Mliere exists also what' welnay call "social cupidity"

v".

"

the desire

to

see

social group

cupidity among
(

The

tem.

life

opinion of

in the

interfere

very

the peasants

under

with

the

exist between

to

community, whereas
disapproved
cupidity attaches
values-^a

ily
fam-

as

the

family syspersonal and fam-

development in Polish
i) family cupidity has full sanction
the community as long as it does not
minimum
of duties of solidarity
posed
suptheir

in

are:

marked

was

chief differences between

taken
,ily^cupi^ty_

peasant

this

and

"

ject's
possessed by the sub-

values

economic

full

belonging to the
personal cupidity is still very
families

of

moral

on

itself

mostly

definite

to

piece of land,

concrete

head

tinctly
dis-

family

grounds; 2)
present,

same

of

nomic
eco-

cattle,

and the growth of family


agriculturalimplement, etc.
wealth
is rather a gradual accumulation
of values
which
to moment
are
right within reach from moment

an

than

"

realization

of wider

economic

personal cupidityin
from

family bonds
itself in

express
and

takes

abstract

and

of its

the evolution

value

form

the

on

trary,
con-

its liberation

development, tends

own

of

money.

"

of

measure

far-seeing plans

prevalentlythe
economic

the

plans ;

of
a

economic

desire

At

to

advance

the

for

most

certain stage of

from

family to individual economy,


ity
cupidbecomes
of
personal instead of social, in the sense
being a desire for personal, not for family possession,
and

yet it preserves

of

some

the

characters

cupidity;it is, just as the latter, a desire


values
rather
than
for
^land,stock, etc.
"

"

of
for

family

concrete

money,

and

OF

DISORGANIZATION

individual

the

with

of its manifestations, feels

as

of his

This

in peasant

assumes

his

environment

of his

expense

family group.

radical

most

and

for the maintenance

if he worked

he would

the

even

has

become

righteous in pursuing

as

personal profitsat the

own

21

it has

moving spring

whose

feelingof guiltconnected

no

FAMILY

THE

life

and

power,

dominates

and

this is

preciselythe stage

is the stage where

pidity
cu-

surprising importance

emotions

all other

perity
pros-

which

tendencies

and

find in

we

two

our

examples.
Maciej B.,

5.

his

daughter

made

and

feeble

As

claim

him

he

and

at

of the

to

ill and

son-in-law

the

aid, lay

summon

father's

Her

she

The

of hid
would

death

that

of

callinga

secretly to

man

unfortimate

an

father, not

fetch the

decided
breathed

moved
Unction.

from
The

him

father

and

home

he

to

and

take

the

old

his

last at

the

the

stable

and

old

burial, had

and

food

man

on

it

not

been

old

the
up

At

in

man

when

died

without

probably

for the

he

fortable
com-

distress,

crevices

one

in the

of the

into his home,

moment

the

of brushwood

the

last

that

and

warm

passion
com-

Finally the

boy, insisted
bundle

closed

man

would

home.

her

the

on

against the cold.

him

to

her

excite

not

give him

laid him

Others, taking pity

protect

did

condition

the details from

learned

stable.

to

the

on

loath to take

was

brought bed-clothes

decent

aged

became

the home

at

the

unnecessary

instead

son,

the

an

port
sup-

both
he

as

being

apparent

was

his fate.

to

bed, but instead

man

it

priest,removed

left him

neighbors, who

walls

soon

as

with

day, the wicked

any

son.

and

in

but

work

vision
pro-

ground nearly frozen to


A
boy from a neighboring villagehappened to pass by
Maciej 's request notified the daughter concerning the vile

able

death.

act

and

field and

being

able to

was

him,

upbraid him

to

became

almost

physician

he

as

spent the latter part of his life

He

son.

long

welcomed

they began

open

As

son-in-law

burden.

days, having given

an

until his death.


son

in his

equal share of his property, had a


to give him
whereby each of the children was

and

son

wealthy farmer

was

neighbors
the aged

but

about

to

be

receiving Extreme
not

have

received

villagebailiff who

ordered

22

the
such

do

to

son

THE

POLISH

This

deed

so.

degree that they


Madej's children.
a

PEASANT

has

provoked the entire parish to


threateningto bring a lawsuit against

are

Swi^eeana,

Gaseta

6.

In

years

and

willed

that

from

and

such

the forest.

son-in-law

The

hell

in

and

began

the

at

field,a

fourth

was

his

with

angry

son-in-law

The

against him
ting
daughter, forget-

horses

neighbor's runaway

and

commandment,

divine

ran

the

secretlyrejoicingat

were

their father's accident, thinking that

perhaps he would
nothing happened to the old

longer. But
days he again went

them

any

few

to

he may

live

even

himself, he
would

and
at

villagethat he

to the

once

stay there

struck

upon

Siberia

in

end

to the

He

strength with
right hand

the

son-in-law

the worthless

to

and

would

that

he

commune

not

would

dies

announced
mile

away

indeed, but returned

went

was

But

axe.

an

instead

the

of

became

father-in-law
condemned

to

...

head
a

hit the

he

and

cut

and
cripple
in

settlement

of his life.

Jan Lewiiiski,
of the

mayor

strong,

so

tillhe

He

his relatives

Giuita
7,

curred
oc-

through a hole made for potatoes


dark
his sleeping father-in-law.
the

fingersoff. The

of his

three

all his

with

steepingman

night.

over

having found

him

going

was

world."

the

in

into the basement

night,crawled
and

from

removed

thought

wait

to

and

man

is

father-in-law

my

bother

not

terrible

I ; it is useless

longer than
be

must

"Since

Then

plow.

to

the son-in-law

for

father-in-law

his

[the son-in-law's]goods. Quarreling


Once, when
Kapuscinski was
ing
plow-

home.

nearly killed him.


the

Kapuscinski had

easily arise.

life

arbitrarily
dealing with
and

that

It is evident

himself.

managed his property at will and thus even


asking his son-in-law,he started to cut trees in

without

now,

could

of

6 morgs

"

the reservation

he made

But

farm

would

will discord

his whole

during

of forest.

he

fortune

whole

his

Grabowski

Wtadystaw

to

45.

Kapuscinski had

Michat

daughter

people

4 morgs

his death

to

his

married

the young

to

land

up

villageBary, the fanner

before

two

arable

the

iB^

boy scarcely 19

Brudno

listen to
disinherit

any
him

near

and

old,

years

Warsaw,

admonitions.

Swigtecgna, iB^
of

son

behaved
.

His

4^
the

badly

father

told him

presentlybequeath the whole

DISORGANIZATION
fortune

OF

THE

FAMILY

23

strangers. The son, fearing that his father


fulfill this threat, rushed upon
him
he was
at night when

and

to

killed him
himself

the

call

with
and

what

saw

also.

who

he

of

avail

no

In

of

well-managed farm

days,

old

reserved
and
.

his

and

would

and

father

all

father

right,but

refused
He

6 morgs

after

the

each

100

the

to

and

roubles

himself.

The

the

and

lawyer

to

father

But

daughters.

leave

to

he

whom

time

some

sisters

the

lived

third

began

thing
everyto

sister to

urge

them.

ready]
enough land albequeathed the whole

and

here

reserved

this

from

also

daughter

daughters instead

hundred

for himself.

The

morg

one

of

land

200

daughter with

son-in-law, though dissatisfied,did


in order

the two

sow

allowed

morgs

them

to

wheedle

that he had

not

from

him

for

reserved

profitof the land,

to

in

roubles

500

married

their father

upon
and

having

[saying they had

taking

two

kept

lived

fawning

cease

the

to

queathed
be-

daughter, a cripple,of her


quarrelled with
instigations,

of

part

his

He

his son,

with

one

married

crippledgirl,having

the

cash, gave
he

agree

went

for himself, and

whom

the

to

roubles

to

both

in

rest

to

they hoped that the

daughter. For

one

owner

children.

three

the

these

to

soon

bequeath

to

father

The

listened

to live with

went

was

their

obliged to reward

old man,

an

18L

1907,

lodging until his death,

of them, for

one

he

when

incite their father

to

deprive the third unmarried

and

son

and

day

his crime.

building to

between

rest

either

to

feel

The

part.

the

daughters began

move

would

the

for himself

divide

to

his

between

farm

the

and

Wanting

morgs.

morg

married

son

12

only

two

lives

of the land and

one

Swiqteczna,

one-half

resolved

father

his

divided

he

of

that

next

and
.

villageKrzczonowice

the

; the

murderer

Gaseta
8.

afraid

was

against him, he confessed

were

fend
de-

slept in the kitchen

was

the

was

asleep

tried to

man

help ; the murderer

all this

But

that

proofs

unhappy old

by the maid

discovered

was

The

axe.

called for

heard

was

killed the maid


it

an

would

but

he

in a rag and
wrapped them
"If
it in a barrel under
concealed
feathers, saying to himself:
the daughter is good to me,
after having plucked the feathers,
let her take the money.'' But the impatient daughter and son-in-

did

not

law

tried

to

the

give

to

the

guess

conclusion

100

roubles; he

where
that

he had
he

gave

concealed
it to

the money

neighbor

to

and

keep.

came

Hell

THE

24

began

beat

the

before

hour

an

took the money,


the money

old
he

went

said

and

in

wrong

PEASANT

home, until finallythings went

at

son-in-law
half

POLISH

."
.

back

came

with

me

the

Then

lay for about

consciousness.

to

daughter:

and

having g^ven

son-in-law

the

then

the bad

and

and

"You

were

to

money

gan
daughter be-

wring their hands

He

...

his son-in-law

to

fellow

poor

unworthy

street, called witnesses, unwrapped

the

upon

reproaching

neighbor.

The

man.

far that the

so

reproach each other tmtil,


finally,
they had a fight. And the old father lay for a long time
sick with his daughter, the cripple,
where he has at least solicitous
to

to

care.

SwiqUczna,

Gagita

la

1909,

Friday, June 12th, some


strangers passing with a wagon
the villagePyry left an impotent, sick old
through a forest near
9.

that

woman

it from

saw

old

the

to

from

stand

The

woman.

their house,
a

useless

impotent mother

they took her

so

out

feet

the

zo.

The

married

Antoni

farmer

of

trace

these

of this

burden

In

forest

cruel

unhappy

for

them

in

in the forest like

past year

consistingof

only support

over

for life.

morgs

On

Day,

when

choked

old

father

the

20

the

...

Annunciation

Swiqtecgna, I9"4

^*

villageOlszanka,
and bequeathed to him his

Kalinowski, from

in November

son

entire property

son

they

thing.
Gaseta

the

the

speak, so

or

left her

and

was

that

proved

children

was

habitants
the in-

the latter

in the

left her

spite of this they have already found


that they are
the own
people. It seems
old

and
It

her

on

had

who

her

informed

in Wilanow,

who

Passers

hunger.

the old woman,

longer

no

from

stop the wagon

not

commune-office

learn

not

could

villageabout

could

woman

could

but

afar

of the

brought

might die there

she

the

for himself

25th of March,

all the inmates


in the

he

bam

at

were

and

to

served
re-

cisely
pre-

church,

conceal

the

covered
disrafter.
This was
a
hung him, dead already, upon
with a
came
only the following day. The elder soon
physician from Wyszkow, with clerks and police. The physician

murder

examined

the corpse

suicide.

The
.

is

now

in Pidtusk

and
son

locked

decided

that the old

man

suspected of the murder


up

awaitingthe

did not

of his father

final trial and

Gaseta

mit
com-

Swiqtecgna,

sentence.
1904,

21.

DISORGANIZATION

The

feature

common

in 5

FAMILY

THE

to

25

the
isc!

lo

family

of

attitudes

the, primary

OF

reversion

when

egotism

the

to

com-

'

has

ceased

perform

to

life is treated
tends

Si

"

doings

group

is

has

of

the

grown

family group

cases

himself

until the

its rules

striking.:.
of

slightvariation

father

has

lost

deprived
tion,
family func-

"

the idea of the other

all control
member
the

and

is felt

estate

form; it

is combined

individual
in 5 and

10

an

with

also

"

"

the

clearlyin

egotism

^whose

found

seldom

now

cording
acsign
re-

essary
unnec-

hold

some

on

additional

as

latter,however, is

The

keeping

But

should

he is considered

persistsin

yet

he

members,

incongruous and gives an


display of group egotism.

the

for

reason

the fact that

same

rather

or

"

the

only a part of his


voluntarilyof
since he stillpartlycontrols the property.
to

low
fol-

not

closely,and

members

enforce

to

8 present
the

opinion does

social

community

very

In both

motive.

most

aroused

not

6 and

Cases

In

still vital,but

the

offense

the

in family

(particularlyin 5)
the community interfering,
though usually too
proof that social standards
enforcing family

solidarityare
the

function

of which

who

mother

or

reallyuseful

burden

itself.

rid

to

see

we

late

as

father

The

loses its influence,

munity

in its

inal
orig-

cent
rerelativelymore
and
6, 7
8, probably

background

is that attitude

of

cupidity which we have analyzed in note to


family egotism gives the offenders a certain sub-

individual
3.

ilf

consbious

feeling of

individual

pushes
It

the individual

must

peasant

be noted

behavior

help, when
what

cupidity

the

furnishes
as

far

that

for

their

behavior,
which

mc^tivepower

r^

crime./

as

crime

the role of

the individual
he thinks

sanction

moral

means

sees

he is entitled

often

seems

no

to

to

of redress
other
have.

way

play
or

in

self-

ing
of obtain-

iThe "habitual

POLISH

THE

26

offender"

is

relativelyrare

crimes

of the

of

lacking in
entirely

Teodorowka
.

by

and

Nine

daughter Maryanna.
But

the

heard

long

ago

Kasia

sold

beg

without

Thursday

until she

house.

Here,

and

went

one

after

calmly
the

elder

in the

"I have

day he

each

vras

their

asked:

the

mother

came,

entire

body.

office and

at

the

once

to

the

send

to

her

body

Kasia

that her

boards."

found

came,

dead
the

one

began
had

commune's

been

examine

to

been

killed.

office and

well
The

bruises
to the

killed.
the

they

lowing
folwere

her

But

her
upon
conmiunal
The

body,
to

old

The

munal
com-

and

murderers

thence

your

the

[to the church].

daughter had

next

is

and
certificate,

and

body
Every-

village-elder.The
answered

The

morning,"
no

the

piece of cloth

where

I have

poor

into

her

"And

police,took

the

them.

stopped the exportation,went

She

declared

proved that

the

to

this

coffin,but

examined

authorities

died

"She

evil

the

his work.

going with

not

thing.
anyhave

dower."

beat

and

went

rels.
quar-

parents, they put

with

to

Fiedorek

make

ciliate
con-

you

whole

carried

her

informed

already preparing

taken

with

wife

to

to

know

which

Marysia,

them

blacksmith's

came%,to

ried.
mar-

continual

my

daughter-in-law?"
man.

of

morning

Kasia

why

how

instigationof

the

bench, covered

upon

got

son

don't

cow

my

cruel

deliberation

"I

it is

Why,

both

Then

died.

wondered
.

me

help of the

the

with

Lukasz

son

know

were

tears:

back

knowledge.

my

Kasia

dead

saying with

only, give

you

there

home

night Lukasz, evidently at

spiritand

the

At

family

peasant

the

not

village

neighbors,digging potatoes in the field,


reproaching Kasia, Lukasz's wife, about

some

the mother-in-law

something' and

day

family.

in the

the

ago

daughter-in-law did

young

the husband's
Not

followed

months

is

There

later.

father, a mother,

tificat
jus-

the behavior

study

province of Lublin, by

of the Fiedoreks, constituted


a

shall

we

Most

moral

some

himself.

instigationof Sat^n has been

An

IX.

is

which
criminals^,

of habitual

have

to

seem

of the criminal

which

tragicelement

the peasants.

among

find

do

we

in the ey^s
a

PEASANT

ZamoSc

it

were

to

a
good
morning, the peasants gave the old man
lesson with ropes.
They searched for his wife also, but she ran
seizes everybody at
and is hiding up to this day. Horror
away

jail. Sunday

28

THE

POLISH

PEASANT

admonished his father to come


back to the rightway
frequently
and cease
to be a disgrace
to the world, but the father did not
the requests of his son and did as he pleased. At home
mind
there were, as a consequence
of this,frequentquarrels and
fights.The son, seeingthat his requests had no effect and that
his familywas
deeperand deeper into thieves' life,
began
falling
from despair.He began to threaten that he
to lose his reason
would killall of them if they did not live honestly.
On the
home
with a revolver and shooting
eveningof April23rd,he came
in
killed
his
and
stepmother
everybody
turn,
[step]sister
his father and his 17 year old brother.
and wounded
very severely
the whole nightabout the city,
Then
he ran away and wandered
toward morning he killed himself with a revolveruntil finally
.

shot.

Under

^'

no

conditions

can

the

CoMeta

SwiqtecMna,1906; i"

mere

lack of social

trol
con-

characterizing
cityas againstcountry life account
that shown
demoralization
for such a far-going
as
by
tors,
the majority
of the Miziarski family. Active social facwith a criminal milieu,
at least a continuous contact
are
necessary to explainthe decadence of Pawel and
his wife, whereas other active factors,probablypermanent
with
idealisticprofessional
contact
some
group,
The fact
explainthe high moral standards of Roman.
that the whole family is no
enclosed
longer entirely
in
within one
participate
community but its members
different groups with which theyare connected by work,
or political
interests,
etc.,is the main
religious
pleasure,
for the divergentevolution we notice here.
reason
And yet,in spiteof this divergence,
darity
the familysolimembers
is too strong yet to let the disagreeing
break the familyties and go their own
Most of
way.
arise from this conflictbetween the
the familytragedies
social unityof the familyand the attitudes which individuals
have developedin connection with the outer

DISORGANIZATION

In

world.

the

old

the

social
and

have

could

obtain

social

ation
situ-

the

individual

the

would

system,

29

of
difficulty

that

fact

the

by

FAMILY

THE

the

particularcase

our

is increased
under

OF

the

who,

help

of

brought
is now
the disorganized members,
entirelyisolated)
powerless to modify the attitudes of his family.
these conditions
appeal
only two ways are open

community

upon
and

Under

pressure

"

to the

of the

power

former

The

heap

would

be

it would

for

bring

state

him

upon

even

of the shame

some

his relatives

upon

"unnatural,"

isolate

Roman

took.

leaving the

than

worse

only

not

which

the way

or

ily,
fam-

the

individual, but

which

societywould

besides, it would

appear

quite

as

sin

against family solidarityas bad as


real crime.
The
second
thus the only one
was
way
ing
psychologicallypossibleand there is no need of assumtemporary insanity,as the writer of the document
a

does.
In

23.

in

attic,lived

an

old

years

the

The

warned

left
.

oldest

of

evening
Jan

of

after

oldest

the

girlsto

the

roomer,

to

take

stay

with

like

many

old,

and

But

those

She

warned

started

sick

fact that the

and

did not

drive

to

two
out

not

other

at

in

stayed.
stand

reproach

the

girlsdid

invited

the

her,

to

to

name

girl,

youngest

remind

her

the oldest
at

the

of

mother.

strange and

blame

the guest, but got angry

same

factory,

same

his

The

unworthy behavior

more

not

herself

days.

tell everything to her


And

ill;

taken

few

The

formed
in-

was

she

changed

the

from

was

the

the

workers

were

and
a

home,

fools

not

help.

one

worker

and

her that she would

warnings did

the

other

guest arrived

The

sister.

the

12

All

widow

of themselves

care

old.

fived in Lodz

who

16 and

19,

distant

the
.

lodging

small

years

wiorsta

Christmas

sleptwith Agnieszka, could

God

girl25

remaining daughters

Krol, who

her

in

daughters,

factory, a

daughter

fellow, 19 years

three

her

Krolikowski.
who

with

Kunicer's

intending

lived

Sunday

that
she

widow

city of L6dz,

exception of the youngest, Stanistawa,

Hajncel and

house.

the

near

there also

girlswith
in

Widzew,

sad

is

sister

worthy and

THE

30

POLISH

PEASANT

unspoiled little sister for mixing

in

sister

her.

said that

and

asleep.
woke

At

5 o'clock

her to
not

the mother.
and

beat

choked
she

to

that

meet

like

up

hide

sin to

the

After

head.
in

mother

the

and

wanted

They

defend

and

family

they

live

only

in the

are

of

from
or

the

very

could

beat

to

her

to

long

middle

the

ago,

cities with
moral

and

old

less,
sense-

the

fortunate
un-

throat,

cut

murderers
that

that

others

the

house.

and, locking

the

key

people

face until
; the

the

on

Agnieszka

were

went

to

it looked

police were

SwiqUcgna,
to

began
and

They

origin.
in this

the

part of

districts,children

much

where

to

develop

its suburbs

Poland,
of

than

the

aesthetic level is much

2.

town

poor
comes

are,

ants
peasers
farmmuch

in old cities,

industrialized, have

social cohesion

civilization

I903"

probably

Disorganization

primary
an

mortar

on

so

of

past century

recent

latter, however
of

from

her

her

death

Lodz

since

of the

nearest

moved

have

not

manor-servants.

remnants

made

and

in her

stones

the

entered

crowd

centers
mf^i^^^fpipl
fa^t^r i" f;iirVi
piir#"ly

for

actions

factory-workers

like most

bad

her.

still more

would

threw

Gazeta

This

Stasia

roubles

Jan

the

But

they thought

few

Then
.

threw

all of them

to

to

it

begged

cut

had

factory. They

discovered

prison.]

to

mask.

went

all this both

murderer
trunk

the

was

her

that

himself

When

pillows.

hand,

and

she had

when

girls fell

them

sister

youngest

oldest

clock

and

to the mother.

and

stranger

some

[The murder

hardly able

and

face

to

Lodz

got

Jan. He threw
completely. He

to

kill her

went

to

taken

showed

longer alive they opened the window

door, they

road

knife

her

from

took

They

the

head

bleeding child

think

should

the

child

no

was

her

on

cut

be

them

the

the

and

her

Agnieszka grasped the pestle from

sister

the

of

Both

it would

handed

ear,

roomer

anything

say

Then

the

she

an

to

saying

swear,

the

o"

In the end

night, Jan moved

Agnieszka woke

not

swear

beat

at

sister and

already.

factory. Then

off

o'clock

three

the middle

was

Jan could

actions

the

some

in

left; moreover,

general intellectual,

higher, owing

to

the

DISORGANIZATION

existence

of

the

has

been

An

individual

the

equivalent to

all the interests

left

finds

organizations which

him.)

into

Of

milieu

like the

average

the

is there

give

satisfaction
has

and

new

at

least in
In

of

he

family

Miziarski

cities whose

(case 12)

not

be

to

science, the

could

give

least in part

any

finds

positive ideals

the lost connections

in the

Catholic

Church,

is

criminal

but,

the

on

old

tem
sys-

by

first,

cultivated

highly

art, literature

milieu

which

supplement

to

with

put

ing
of hardwork-

at

primary

strong

except for religiouscenters, whose

g^oup,

ideals

in the

social

no

ing
hav-

mainly composed

class, without

leisure

individual

him

ticular
par-

supplemented

number

small

social

of

the

if not

is

population

intelligentspecialists,without
or

isfy
sat-

some

new

disorganization of

likelythan

sociallyactive

to

get into

culturallyhigher system,
the second
generation.

new

to

good chance

also

may

factory-workers,with

and

each

life raised,

course

more

group

used

diversified

and

numerous

inevitable

one

which

city

imperfectlysatisfied by family

his cultural

level of

in

any

influence,particularly

continuallydecreas-

particularlysocialistic organizations
ing. Only political,
fulfilled this task; but

necessarily
study

these

had

government,

to

in

limited

their
made

least

were

against

the

at

growing

social

forbidden

were

work

later the attempts

organizations

nX

classes!

lower

group

find

cannot

type of interests, and


the

family

community

country

life,nevertheless

his

he

though

the

organizing

from

away

Warsaw,

like

in

active

only

not

which, particularlyin Poland,

but

standards,
very

31

intellectual class which

amumerous

sets

FAMI^""

THE

OF

by

secretlyand
membership.
since

1905,

were

thus

We

shall

when

permitted,
chaos

the Russian

to

cultural

struggle

by economic,

educa-

POLISH

THE

32

tional artistic associations

Church

the

of

morally
see

the

We

of
of

old

\he

it.

of the three

the

of

source

no

the

attempts.

community

other

influences

new

the

between

girl,evidentlystillunder
that

these

rapidly in particular individuals

on

contrast

attitude

of the youngest

mother's

her

authority,and

people, shows

young

disorganizationlies outside

hard

of

normal

and

work

monotonous

set
off-

to

of

clearlythat
home, prob-

ably in the general social atmosphere of those


meetings of young
factory worker ")of both sexes
are
sought continuallyas a necessary relaxation
days

as

centuries, but the process

of many

generation, with

young

supremacy

precedes all
system stillpersistingin

decay going

the

social

institution.

the acquired power

by

its

also the efforts

see

described

here

case

shall

; we

maintain

to

constructive

The

PEASANT

and

social
which
after

in which

the

for

desires

and
new
perience
exrecognition,response
take
sociallydestructive forms of unlimited
display of sexual vanity, sexual relations unmotivated
and
alcoholism
by either family or romantic
reasons,
for

search

There

is

incites her
latter
a

lover

by the

the mother

backing

to

her

murder

about

this story; the

in

for

sister

stvat

enough

fact

of social

human

other
14.

"

with

that

opinion and
in power

was

[matchmaker].

In

and

banns

girl

that

the

Thus

^stillpersistsafter

"

can

perhaps

respect to sexual
has

morality

the unrestricted

that social control

longer than

plain
ex-

social

of

ual
sex-

control

of

\
activity.

fanner

certain

fear

misbehavior.

her

is the representative and

life remains

his

strikingpoint

one

fear
family attitudes
We
disorganizationof all others.

any

pleasure.

of

it

and

,willtell the mother

remnant

the

excitement

were

even

courting
the

girl with

the

help of

well
beginning he succeeded
published. But later something

DISORGANIZATION
turned

and

wrong

courting fanner

do ?

had

Then

banns.

sued

bridegroom

the

There
30

father

the

copecs.

of Makow.

only

for

turn

offense

the

entire

the

of this, so

the

for

suing

that
the

is

the

of the swat.

and

"

sublimated

money

The

general decrease

In

new

parishes

More

one

boy

than
or

different

by

which

order

grave

of his

abnormal.

larger public,

be

trying

family pride

the writef
in the

check

to

the

matter

should
"

as

past had

be

radation
degbeen

nected
conreligiousceremonial
evidently lie in
explanation must
of the feeling of the importance

near

to

to

the

increasing

quaintance
ac-

values.
the

Prussian

widows, who
girls,and even
their companions of
bring thence
in

31.

fore
preciselythere-

the attitude of

felt

that

widowers,

1903,

very

doubly

as

would

social values, due

with
15.

only

social and

the

it

traditional

of

Secondly, it gives
proposition,which

social value

by

with
the

of

that

unconsciously is
of

ment.
entertain-

Swiqtecgna,

before

attitude

normal

character

felt

loss,

awarded

court

But

appears

offense

gossip. This shows


completely decayed.

the

the

of the suitor, but

only

costs

First, it brings the


the

of the

cost

as

all the

is, indeed,

agreement

dignity not

family and

whereas

girl for this


rejectedall

court

of

cost

and

"

ization
significantfor the beginning disorganThe
ing
breaktraditional marriage system.

marriage

to

go

is

case

to

of the
of

of the

roubles

Gaseta

This

all his calls

much

The

this

did

What

girl,unwilling to bear

of the

much

not

was

in

33

[Polish] miles

awarded

and

how

the father

sued

court

travelingexpenses

the

than

cost, and

down.

calculated

he

more

in the communal

money

FAMILY

THE

affair broke

Well,

"

the banns

also

the whole

girl for he had

the

on

OF

tie up

frontier
to

went

work,

it often

Germany

happens
to

work,

compatriots, boys

in matrimonial

bonds

with

or

them.

girlhas actuallybought wedding-clothesfor such

widower

brought from

part of the country

; she

Prussia
bears

and

coming

all the cost

from

of the wed-

POLISH

THE

34

ding and

festival herself

her.

it does

But

candidates
and

or

even

or

widowers.

of

as

much

time

during the

in

he

as

situation

conditions

here

season

takes

away

of

men

many

establishes

does

not

is

return

the

banns

any

more.

Swiqtecana,
result

marriageable

connections

different,often

far

in the

in both

the

of

girl goes

far

enough

felt,as

long
as

at

least

social

the

as

boys

and

latter

from

consultingher

necessity,and

girls

not

dependen
in-

contract

to

an

family

marriage,
latter is
in

girl remains

is

former

Personal

begin sexual relations before


forego marriage altogether; the

to

cific
spe-

and

the

communities.

distant

5.

and

age,

to

even

1907,

individuals

between

marriage without

of

engagement

not

his betrothed

created

develops personal independence

or

fellows

by intense emigration
in districts where
emigration to America
The
emigration to Germany coexist.

found

and

worthless

disappears before

described

such

amcmg

having wheedled

can,

marry

lors
pretending to be bache-

Gaseta

The

should

For

be

to

men

banns, and

of the

he

that

marriage.

happen

rogue,

money

order

married

rogues,

Such

in

end

there

matrimony

to

sometimes

out

only

always

not

PEASANT

but

always

her

munity,
com-

being married,
sexual
lations,
reillegal

independently of the question of


stillis a disgrace. Only in cities,
maids,
houseamong
this attitude is sometimes, slowly and gradually,
if a g^rl
perfectly natural
dropped. It is therefore
even

is
of

the

shame

is

men

our

of

without

and

than

note

upon

way

in

which

document

general

else

anything

tendencies

and

we

and

makes

fact

the

acts

man

than

The

behavior

that

season

helps develop

have
thus

even

rather

fortune

old maidenhood.

explicable,first by

more

hedonistic

sacrifices,to accept

any

origin

unknown

incur
the

make

willing to

characterized
in

marriage

in

of
gration
emi-

those
in

ing
demoraliz-

particular,

POLISH

THE

36
half

PEASANT

from

which

standpoint of

the

Individualization
is here

complete
The

community.
The

banns

mal.
is abnor-

the system

marriage

family goes; it has


pertainingto the opinion of

in matters

begun

even

ior
behav-

of the attitude toward

far

as

attitudes,

factors of

persistentthan others, become

more

certain

-disorganizedtraditional system

main

the

as

attitude

not

the

opinion.

is fear of social

be a disgrace
being published; it would
if because
of the obstinacy of the father
the wedding
We
could not be celebrated
properly for lack of money.
need hardly say that, both here and in case
vidual
13, the indiwhen
performing the crime which, he knows, is
more
radicallycondemned
by the community than anything
he

are

The
and

crime, and

crime

is

crime

remain

to

in other

chosen, just as

discovered.
un-

disgrace

between

be

to

seems

Jozef Pawtowski, blacksmith

17.

cin, after

bidding good-bye

children, had

to

fickle.

woman

Temptations

came;

sold

Having

way.

wrong

whatever

she

it

cases

sleepingin

could

cradle.

could

she

"

She

pigs,grain

cows,

journey] abroad
at

away

covered

them

husband
roubles

what

is

boy,
bam

the

tained
ob-

"

money

left them
The

America.

to

ago

he

she

children

her

and

straw

the

went

young

from

war

worse,

and, taking the

with

that she went


pity. It seems
six weeks
did not perish in war;

distant

from

night

without

the

to

lover,

little

two

resist and

not

her

and

wife

pretty and,

was

bed-furnishings,ran

the

villageof Parcho-

the

his young

to

colluded with

passport for [a

from

soldier of the reserve,

as

go,

The

Manchuria.

in

so

choice

the

be suicide.

may

and

do, expects

ever

may

sent

even

50

home.
Gaseta

Sexual
We
which
but

love
must
not

alone
assume

is not
a

back

Stvigtecsna,igoS, 8^

strong desire for

only induced

probably prepared

her* to leave
th

ior.
behav-

of the woman*s

way

for

ence
experi-

new

home
her

and
new

dren
chillove.

DISORGANIZATION

It is desire

for

offers,that

many

the

of

break

the

gration
of the emi-

cent

America

and

of

peasant

children

with

woman

is

this line

forced to resign all aspirationsin


practically
unless the whole
family emigrates.
Last

x8.

the

on

year,

of

day

the

Transfigurationof

Lord, the wife of Wojciech Przydatek, farmer


The

disappeared somewhere.
her

husband, but he

had

always intended

and

evidently had

woman

did not

for

everybody knew
Then

clear.

in

such

Cz^tochowa

to

But

now.

interfered
her

and

step-sons,

stepson

Przydatkowa

fortune

Her

and

that

this

case

was

the

hastened

and

and

of

brother

They

home,

had

honest

woman

kept

learn

the

and

step-mother.
everybody

and

woman

to have

seem

not

found

were

killed his

crease.
in-

to

were

difficult to

was

step-sons

cause

and

it

the lost

of

the

the crime.

The

her

coveted
murderer

serts
as-

not

guilty,that

he

mitted
com-

GoMiia

Swiqiecena,

1910,

14.

are

alone.

can

be

in first.

evidentlyan

have

indications

some

good

husband
was

but

compared with
the family and

adaptation between
in by marriage, and we
came
II that in second
marriages
than

passed and

arrested.

were

that he

confessed

his father

the crime

The

weeks

some

the husband

examined,

and

work

to

about
family Przydatek was
people began to whisper that the affair was

sons,

regrets her.

Prussia

to

or

the

that

Only latelyin March,

older

the

Lipcowka,

neighbors began to ask


explanations as that his wife

although she should

return

jailin Tartow

truth.

to go

in

our

astonished

them

gave

gone

Authorities

his two

and

sibilitie
pos-

isolation

community

for at least 50 per

accounts

satisfied,a married

be

37

many
season-emigration to Gerportant
desire for economic
advance
being the other imhas
factor.; And, while a young girlor a man
in which
his desire for new
experience can
ways
to

"

FAMILY

THE

experience, stirred up by the

new

which

OF

But

economic

here
factor

know

1 1

it

as
,

the

implies mis-

member

new

from

'

Volumes

who
I and

assimilation

is

more

cult
diffi-

the situation

involves

also

which

characterizes

it

as

POLISH

THE

38

PEASANT

but
to the primary family-egotism
onlyregression
fluence
of marriage under the inalso as a disorganization
the peasants is
of cupidity.Marriage among
the
on
becomingmore and more a business proposition
not

side of the

the

because

man

rapidgrowth of the

try
coun-

and the limited amount


of land which
population
each peasant familyhas force a peasant who wants
to
to
go on farminglike his fathers and his grandfathers
itary
count
a largedowry in order to preserve the heredon
farm
in

undivided and
in order

cash, or

to

pay

his brothers and

purchasea fragment

sisters

of

some

estate in addition to or instead of his


parcelled
nobility
in order to have
share of the parentalfarm, or finally,
tensive
the capital
modern
and innecessary to pass to a more
form of farming. Of course
the individual has

other ways

of

gration,
season-work, emisolvingthe difficulty,
gradualimprovementof farming,etc.,but the

of these methods

use

shows

certain break

individualization of economic

an

than
far-going

in the present

tion,
with tradi-

attitudes

; and

more

it is

precisely
when this individualization is only beginningthat,as
is most
have seen
above (cases4 and 5) cupidity
we
the woman
powerful. The economic motive for killing
is

evident;she

going

was

to

case

have

child who

would

less
property,whereas after a childdeath the property would be inherited by the husband.

have been

heir

In the

19.

to her

village
K^olewnica

married

...

the fanner

Jacek Duda

after the wedding was


taken to
soon
very young
The .young wife did not pine for him very IcHig
the army.
; she
hired a parobekand began to farm, not desiring
band's
at all her husreturn.

and

But after

home
returning

he

soon

found out

He dismissed the pcrobek at once


wrong.
he
would not tolerate any scandal. The parobek
and told his wife
that

somethingwas

DISORGANIZATION
hired

himself

at

OF

neighbor'sand

FAMILY

THE

began

39

wife

persuade Duda's

to

and marry
him.
He
poison her husband
bought arsenic
Radzyn and gave it to her, incitingher not to be long about
[She gave it to him in sour milk and he died. The neighbors

in

to

the authorities.
wife

the

same

inquest showed

he

was

prison instead of the altar. The

to

ninth

forgettingthe
wife

of

wife's
dead
it

and

food

buried

was

her

was

and

after
it did

who

wife

had

his

to

flect
re-

into his

this world.

from

But

died, also after short but violent

arranged the funeral


business
At

quite clean

husband

with

the

and

inquest the widow

the

her

but

soon,

very
not

was

...

poisoned

and

own

the

sufferings died. The


to anybody that
occur

even

her

with

put arsenic

he

short

removed

neighbors guessed that the


informed
the villageelder.
she

fell in love

...

not

Wincenty Makowski,

hate

to

Finally

Wojciech Koziot

sufferings. His

that

began

woman

and

husband

after this

soon

the

farmer

commandment,

get rid of her.

to

one

divine

Koziot

Wojdech

how

formed
in-

poisoned and
arrested and confessed.]
parobek were
two
went
people in the villageCadowa
way

and

In the

The

it.

fessed
con-

arsenic

at

the

who
her
also had furnished
instigationof Wincenty Makowski
also somehow
the poison. Then
people recalled that Makowska
taken out of
died suddenly. By order of the authorities she was
her

and

grave

it

proved that she had

been

also

poisoned with

arsenic.

Swiqtecsna, 1899,

Gaseta

In

ao.

went

every

wife
to

say

year

children

and

told him

talk and

continued

Koztowski's
.

Lipawa

to

stayed

that Koztowska

husband

lived

village Hela

the

to

to

wife

this,but he did

leave

rewarded

him

the

in

pretexts tillevening and

various

to kill her

undertake

being

him

found.

was

married

roubles

he

few

years

husband
He

and

ago

agreed like

to

she

town,

searched

certain

father

wild

beast

friends
attention

pay

of her
to

honest

an

was

this
man

and

get rid of her husband.

kept
for
And

him

of three
seek

there

under

who

would

bandit
such

Malejszko,
to

his

people began

ago

The

He

for money.
a

was

not

and

summer

badly for his confidence

this be discovered, decided

Once, being with

years

year.

every

fearinglest

few

behaving badly.

was

about

the

during
A

home.

at

He

family Koztowski.

the

work

31.

an
a

children.
the

unnatural
man,

young

For

life of

three
a

man

/
/
\

POLISH

THE

40

PEASANT

"

againstwhom
when

he did not

the Koztowskis
afar and

them

from

and

began

unnatural

The
had

done

his

that

some

man

In the evening
grudge.
returning,Malejszko followed

were

having selected

Koztowski

beat

to

bear

even

wife

stood

with

...

place overtook them

proper

pieceof

bdiind

and

tree

iron upon

the head.

when

Malejszko

and gave him two roubles


job left her hiding-place
which she had not paid before. The bandit returned to the town
while she ran to the neighboring
village
Madciany with the news

people did

But
.

inquest.
.

of the forest and

to 12

was

condemned

to

years'hard labor,

xo

years.
Gateia

Sexual

killed her husband.

believe her story. They guessed that it


imprisoned and told everythingat the

Malejszko was

Koztowska

out

not

She

work.

her

was

rushed

is

love

of all three crimes

the
evidently
here

Smqiecgna,

I9P3"

4"

background

emotional

in

described,and its appearance

only dissociated from, but opposed to the


vidual
is a clear sign that for the indifamily organization,
the iamily.
has ceased to be the milieu satisfying^
form

not

(a

personalrieeds,that the individual no


longer identifieshis personallife with family life. But,
for the peasant, familyand marriage stillpreserve for
all his intimate

long time

objectivesocial realityeven

all their

him; they are


theyno longersatisfy
a

of coercion

power
to

ignorethem
and

temperament

Crime

will do.
thus

not

permit

wielding

ual
the individ-

either
way ; he must
entirelyand it depends on his
own

social conditions

other

here, as in several former

whirh

cases,

he

marks

when
the
stage of incomplete disorg^anization,

old institution has


in

ceased

accordance

with

to

determine

tudes
individual atti-

social demands

and

social

vidual
by the indivoluntarily
accepted
c^\\\\
as his own,
p^gggjj^f**^^
\^\ t^^ inQtitiitipti
the social schemes, owing to the external sanctior^L

j^che^eg are
and

on

does

go his

and

the bond

break

yieldor

which

stillfelt as

when

no

longer

DISORGANIZATION

OF

attached, still impose themselves


undesirable

something
We

can

data

our

draw

now

which

laws,

and

but

observation

the

by

as

real.

general conclusions
as
hypothetically
propose

be verified

to

the individual

upon

hateful

41

certain

shall

we

FAMILY

THE

from
logical
socio-

of other

societies.

/f\) The

real

of all

cause

of

phenomena

family dis-

sought in the influence of certain


sources
nejuLxaluss ^new for the subject such as : new
of hedonistic
satisfaction, new
dividua
(invanity values, new
forms
organization,new
types of economic
of sexual appeal.: This influence presupposes,
of course,
between
the individual and the outside
not
only a contact
orgamizationJs

be

to

"

but also the existence

world

certain

of
to

these

social

"

attitudes

values

new

which

^hedonistic

"

recognition,desire
sexual

in the individual's

aspirations,desire

The

in

or

preexistingattitudes under
values,resultingin the appearance

less different

that, while

the

system
for

needs

group),
acting
'T'-attitudes

dissociate

the

new

upon
the

his consciousness

family.
with

his hedonistic

Such

which

an

such

under

the

way

ily
fam-

ual
(the individ-

sires
tendencies, his de-

security,his sexual
ily
aspirationsof his fam-

and

attitudes, produced by the


those

attitudes,

old

individual's
from

more

economic

tendencies

the

"

in

of

fication
this modi-

of

**we"-attitudes
essentially

recognition or

from

of new,

nature

existed

which

attitudes

were

did not

The

of

the influence

generally characterized

be

can

attitudes.

vance,
ad-

tion
modifica-

definite

of those
new

for

securityand
specific phenomenon

family disorganizationconsists
the

respond

economic

for

instinct.

him

make

sonality
per-

those

evolution

the individual

wishes
of

other

essentially

are

separated

are

members

implies that the


gets in touch

ues
val-

new

are

new

of

in
his

values

individual-

THE

42

POLISH

jstic in their meaning,


the group

as

is thus

group

preciselythe

the

of

Disorganization

values.

this is

and

individual, not

the

to

to

ter
charac-

hedonistic, sexual, economic, vanity-

modern

of most

appeal

whole;

PEASANT

unavoidable

an

family

primary

as

modem

of

consequence

y civilization.
^

/2nThe

by

cause,

the effects of other

effects which

of
of the

attitude

new

is

back

pushed

into the

influences
chiefly
the

is

family
and

standards

the

of

tendencies
lost its

as

family
cies,
tenden-

him

to

accept

his

upon

is isolated

coherence, if the individual

vidualisti
indi-

community

if the

But

wrong.

th^com-

with

look

are

which

of

favors

in touch

to

that

family

individualistic

and

group

"

has

the

main
re-

action,

Causes

recognitioncompels

for

to

itself in

opinion

against any
individual keeps

his desire

sion
suppres-

the, primary community

reacts

if the

munity,
the

within

bination
com-

allowed

subconscious.

If social
part. ',

solidarityand

of

of

form

manifest

to

or

individualization

counteract

the

given

is

result

the latter is not

in full consciousness

but

effect of

; the

causes

takes

atti-

individualistic

new

counteracted, like every

be

tuaCSmay

the

of

appearance

from

it,or
or

if his touch

the outside

with

of

independent

less

milieu, there
counterbalance

opinion
checks

social

no

are

the

him

make

world

immediate

his

of

more

important enough

to

disorganization.
,

f^

The

inoividual
titudes

they

and

manifestations of
behavior
of

must

be

have

for

outside
in his

effects of

the

taken, of
the

to

course,

with

acting individual
If

his

the
new

individual

the

subject's atsocial

the social conditions; these

observer.

family

the

are

ifamily
disorganizationin

meaning

himself,
finds

individualistic

not

no

tions
condiwhich
for

the

obstacles

tendencies, he

ization

new

of

the

basis

that

family
of

"

harmonization
of

PCa^ISH

THE

44

common

of

purposes.

is

then

moral,

individual

PEASANT

possible^
reflective
attitudes

an

entirely

co-ordination

and

but

on

ior

the

pursuit

CHAPTER

III

It is difficult
facts

illustrating the
those

and

draw

to

showing

the

seen^

the

dividing

exact

an

keeps

control

social

of

as

latter

have

we

life

family

The

opinion.

between

community

since,

over

the

line

the

of

family decadence,

principles

against

COMMUNITY

disorganization

community

overstepping

THE

OF

DISORGANIZATION

and

also

means

fending
of-

is the

community

^,

of

bearer

in

tradition

of

traditions

all

showing

as

hand,

however,

whole

may

therefore

the

of

and

how

and

rules

is vital

community
with

all matters,

which

possess

these

matters

toward

approximate
considered

by

the

When

sorbed

in

to

into
matters

in

details

solve
on

is

community

of
of

when

and

is carried

gossip,

or

that

any

45

The

is, mstead

acts,

attitudes
reach

to

action

common

decaying

as

defined
tion.
coopera-

social

of

are

itself

able

harmonious

Of

there

its

in

of

status

individual

situation

life.

ditions
tra-

concerns

the

public character,

private

the

and

as

lar
particu-

any

when

consistent

are

other

observed.

opinion

interest,

public

the

It is not

whether

are

happenings

unanimity,

opinion

degenerates

social

outside

necessary

social

ested

when

they

of

of

question

well

preted
inter-

consistent.

is indicative
the

but

be

certain

drop

dissolution

or

On

break

community

may

and

strong

which

behavior

given community,

common

latter

preservation

the

of

the

may

its influence.

of

the

this

of

members

standards

remaining

the

its

by

decay

evolve

while

rule

line

any

view

in

and

opinjgn )

being

inter-

it becomes
course,

the

ab-j
cri-

THE

46

teria of

it is easy

but

draw

to

happenings
rather

and

in

shown

as

the

if it remains

able

its

gone.

being
vitalityis

divided

to

action, from

aesthetic

an

should

interfere.

consiste
itself in in-

shows

attitudes; if social

its

moment

to

ment
mo-

important problems

on

to

come

of

much

agreement,

an

equally certain sign


to pass from
tion
appreciainability

Finally, an

disorganizationis the
to

of

vate
pri-

accompanied

is not

opposites from

between

without

is of

gossip

community
community

disharmony

opinion hesitates

epoch and from


for any community

to

the distinction, for the interest in

Further, the decay of the

of

time and

for any

feeling that

or

epoch

practicalcharacter, and

than

the

by

from

privacy change

to group,

group

PEASANT

POLISH

definition

common

to

tion
solu-

common

the situation.

of
All

those

phenomena

show

that the attitudes

lying
under-

In primarycommunity life have been modified.


psychology all interests are fundamentally social
group
and only secondarilyeconomic, intellectual,
etc.
religious,

When

the

community

to have

any

is in full power,

the approval of others

particularsituation

situation

in

adequate

if

which

way

may

social

be

tant
impor-

more

definingand

to define

and

ing
solv-

the

this

solve

successful,

more

judged exclusivelyfrom

more

economic,

tellectu
in-

hedonistic

It
point of view.
that the individual
consciously chooses between
between
recognition and practicalefficiency,
group

religious,even

is not

than

in

it is

standards

and

hedonistic

objective economic, intellectual,religious,

standards; it is that, dominated

by

the

sire
de-

considers the way


recognition,he unreflectrvely
definingand solving situations by which recognition
the only right way
obtained
and
refuses
uncritically
for

of
is

to believe that other


can

be

more

ways,

efficient

not

sanctioned

practicallyin

by
the

social

long

ion,
opinrun

"

OF

THE

validityof

any

DISORGANIZATION

refuses
of
jT'

the

see

47

standards

than

those

his group.
v

the

Disorganization of

/soon

begin

its members

as

community
to

define

in fact

starts

as

\
.

situations

^^w^m

exclu-

\^fji^^

hedonistic, not
sivelyas economic, intellectual,religious,

\X

to

CX)MMUNITY

I
I

as

need

their

social, when

for

becomes

social
^ about

of

^success,

"

^^^^^-wsa/ia^

in any
specificline tJ-.-'^"-^^
they see it themselves
L ^
more
important subjectivelythan the need for ^j^^Sux^
recognition ^when they dissociate social opinion^txC^^^^^
from
the merit of the case.
'^IlX^i
a case
as

course,

success

"

"

Thus

disorganizationof

some
as

world

outside

its

than

the

is

avoidable
un-

with

the

becomes

ards
acquainted with other stand-

This

incipientdisorganizationcan,

own.

be in

however,
of

and

community

latter gets in touch

the

as

soon

the

have

group

if the

counteracted

large measure

special interest

in

bers
mem-

maintairb

cies
tendenUp to a certain degree the new
be simply suppressed. This
happens mostly
may
of the
the
traditions
they are radicallyopposed to
structive.
be sociallydeand, if left free to develop,would
When
not
distinctlyanti-social but merely

ing its unity.

when
group

different
the
^

from

the

set

of attitudes

tendencies

new

are

very

left outside

of

struggle,simply
by public opinion, are
Thus

between

the

more

treated
intense

of
as

and

sanctioned

often, after

by

tion,
tradi-

period

sphere
being of private

controlled

the

extensive

cern.
con-

the contact

community and the outside world, the wider


the sphere of privacy which its members

i
/

usuallybecomes
are

allowed
The

to

have.

interest by which

members

of

primary group
moved
organizing
are
to keep the group
together in spite of disexternal
influences is the same
terest
general inwhich
tmderlies family life,that is,the desire for
manifesting itself in unreflective social soliresponse,
a

THE

48

POLISH

darity. Family life is,as


satisfyingthe desire for
is the main

know, the chief

we

milieu

in which

degree, and
other

from

primary

members

group

of his

the

only

member

munity
com-

for

the desire
is

of

means

whereas

response,

satisfied;but the difference

is

of

PEASANT

ognition
rec-

ence
differ-

wants

community,

sponse
re-

not

even

ily
belonging to his family, just as he claims from his famAccordingly,
recognition in addition to response.
in the first volumes,(jsocial
have
solidarity,
seen
as
we
xi
and
of those emotions
acts
through
\f^ i. e., redprqcity
N which
social response
is obtained, is expected to bind

community intKe same


way, though not
of one
ever
to the same
degree, as members
family. Whatstroy
be the disorganizing factors which
tend to demay
the unanimity of a social group,
the latter can
while
and, even
struggle victoriouslyagainst them
of its opinion, preserve
its coherence
changing the content
as
long as it remains
sociallysolidary and its
members

of

members

one

need

each

other

for

emotional

and

response

is definitive only
practicalhelp. Its decadence
this unreflective,primary solidarity^
is broken, and

when
then

the

the community not as


only remedy is to reconstruct
but as a cooperative organization on
a primary group,
the ground of some
which each
specialegotistic
purposes

individual

can

better

attain

for

himself

if all of

them

together.
C
Iijshort, disorganizationof the community includes
I both
i) decay of social opinion and 2) decay of com/ munal
and the problem of causal explanation
solidarity,
act

\ of the respective phenomena implies a)


I planation of the attitudes which make the
lect the

recognition of
\ other, personal aims ; b)

I
^

titudes

which

make

his
the

the

causal

individual

ex-

neg-

community for the sake


causal explanation of the

the individual

act

in

antagonism

of
atto

DISORGANIZATION

other

members

of

the

the

these

tween

[From

21.

types of causal

two

the

with

comparison

description

the

be-^

processes.

village Ozarowice
of

break

relation

the

of

study

49

thus

and

community

solidarity;c)

communal

COMMUNITY

THE

OF

reply

in

for

request

to

village published forty

the

years

before.]
There

is

music

no

then, forty years

as
no

it

strong

drink

people

do

it up

ears,

reigns

also

upon

the

Far

from

so

it.

they

these

go

play cards

they

the

vesper-time

there

I do

what

German

had

better
one

not

years
a

more

man.

To

ago

liberal

daughters d[id

not

were

tell the

quantity
go

to

can

have

bring shame

the whole

to

here

girl

truth

mostly

they

earn

everybody
fore
There-

care.

earns

in

more

have

we

pared
com-

as

here

much

here

girls brought

land

And

to

than

and

yet

family.

thus

ready
al-

from

even

body
every-

Therefore

now.

work

self-respect,keep one's self from


upon

self
my-

girls

farmers

Germany

supervision of their mothers.

air, and

propagation purposes].

fewer
of

accustomed

worse

Polish

as

[as

people

except

parental

if for

seeds

not

life there ; but

acquisitions,which

there

newspaper

in the

How

work.

or

do

The

German

Poland

to

Forty

Polish

such

two

Prussia

that

of

been

without

laugh

crowd

whiz

turned

is their

when

summer,

money.

ago.

for

commit

girl can

women

than

Prussia

years

what

nor

have

have

to

seem

domination

know,

not

to

night.

play for

not

forty

was

Prussian

till

others

I do

but

things

what

will guess

their

eicample of

that

so

with
work.

book

They

so, alas !

under

sometimes

see

happens that
hired

go

money.

much

too

themselves

In

some

the

with

youth

for

treat

who

is

There

even

It

soul.

the

themselves,

to

card-playing

stupid cards,

And

and

body

carefully

as

ago.

years

Perhaps they read

waste

from

40

none

was

occasionally,

is sometimes

particularly the

lawn.
.

there

through the village,you

pass

you

it

begrudge

not

Kmiotek

but

kills the

their

to

There

which

there

as

somewhere

happens

paper

God,

to

Sundays

on

watching their daughters

in that

thanks

tavern,

if it

mothers

written

was

revelry

but

ago,

notice

cannot

one

and

and

were

among

under

ers
strang-

ignominy

and

v^

POLISH

THE

so

PEASANT

Swiqtecsna,

Gaseia

The

aa.

girlswho
hair

as

for

the

dress

soon

they

as

one

but

do

There

stylishsuit of
who

stop

to

reflects thus
a

with

converse

shoes,

better than

dressy

however,

filth. Such

dirt and

Therefore

ago.

during

his

the

not

it is not

to

good-for-

some

overcoat

salute

not

I may

possess

Should

him."

to

never

that

suppose

you

such

is filled thick

house

the

of affairs in Ostrow

state

did

find

not

with
years

Soczewka,

Roch

at that

ago,

years

does,

one

wondered

be

several

stay here

cordingly,
ac-

disgraceful

only would

speak

would

you

was

dress

to

and

say,

not

that

lives there, for

man

young

want

pretty, nice looking

bigger fortune; then why should

visit his home,

dare

bobbed

not
even
peasant's coat, but would
Every one of these profligateboys

him.

**I dress

and

wears

are,

donned

clothes

perhaps,

many

so

see

jacket or

or

it is shameful

realize that

villageyouth.

reverently one

kind

of the worst
not

pitifulto

stylishskirt

the

localitybut

this

in

It is

youth.

see

nothing boys who, having


or

modestly

said of the

by

worn,

folks

be

not

can

same

old

ij.

1903,

any

elegance

reported to the Gazeta that all the inhabitants of Ostrow


of the girlsdress above
dress modestly. Today nearly one-half
also several who
not
and there are
their means
worthy of
are

and

mention.

Swuftecsna, 1893,

Gaseta

The

23.

and

folk

common

developed. The

well

in

community

our

youth might

be

termed

except that great opportunitiesfor corruption

girl and
work

line.

boundary

the German

married

even

from

ruined

home

girlsreturn

do
and

across

go

throughout
They

evil.

as

soon

women,

stay there

and

As

the

are
a

are

quite discreet
promising one,
afforded

across

spring comes
every
the boundary to
wothout

summer

5.

any

boy,
seek

tection
pro-

they please; consequently the


corrupted and the boys addicted to
as

drinking.
Their

mind

it

parents

long

as

to

Friday and
life and
Priests

to

go

their

compelled

work

to

corruption but they

give

the

next

their

them
season

religiousduties properly,

Saturday,

plead and

the

of

aware

their children

as

girlsrefuse
attend

are

to

are

coaxed

work

beg from

into

until

the

an

noon

pulpit at

immoral
on

every

earnings.

because
must

do

eat

and

they
meat

not

cent
Denot
canon

indecent

Sunday, etc., etc.


opportunity that

POLISH

THE

52

complaints about
of
for the

to

In

their

children

the

are

stones

is

only

whom

to

parents,

it is

possibleto

nothing of

say

go

work

to

in

for later years.


and

well

good heart

no

old

and

deride

To

decent;

are

meeting

respect

shameless

in the

be

can

in the

their

for

even

all,

at

of

Many

well

are

put something back


in drinking

wages

village. Even

Some

seen.

throw

to

theft.

they spend their

and

have

obedience

people, no

live better and

one

any

the young

amusement

an

no

most

of this

town

themselves

show

cannot

when

And

as

shame

for the better.

only old people

converse.

other

and

Instead

riotingin the

of this it is

leather-factoryat Krynki; they

paid and could dress

so

"praise God"

who

ones

bring a change

happenings, would

sad

in this respect

change

no

they practicehabituallythe

them

would

Instead

completely wild; they regard it


at the passers-by. They have

gone

and

that time

fluence
in-

the

banditism, under

even

better.

villageof this parish

with

and

and

hoped

we

stances
ignorance of the people,in-

and

better,that the parents, seeing such


that there

say

they

drinking; but

educate

to

try

wildness

the

quoted of theft

were

PEASANT

dren
chil-

among

crippled children

poor

village; the others

laugh

them

at

deformity.

their

it is the fault of the parents

large extent

who

raise their

pigs, not caring about their souls, not developing


small
So long as the children are
virtue in them.
they fondle
selves
themwalk the parents don't concern
them; but when
they can
what
about
much
they are doing. Many parents say to
children

like

themselves

good principlesimplanted
neither
.

of
a

people nor
in the

it,because
school

and

its

them."

will teach

"People

at

school

and

home

growing

have

We

worse.

Prsyjaciel,
We

27.

have

biecko] because

little fruit

very

we

little to

care

us ; the
prevailsamong
of other people. When

young
fruit

unpeaceful days and

has
gangs

at

night and

and

destroy

of

swearing

are

heard

our

plant trees

people do not
is ripening on

nights, because

where

branches.

in

there

are

Scuffles often
many

times

apples

happen
in

the

proof

write, there has been


and

worse

no

good examples

no

him.

which

child has

if the

sees

will teach

village about

pupils are

But

neighborhood
and

custom

the

property

the trees

or

at

air.

[Sto-

nasty

respect

the

46.

I9i3t

the

owner

in

boys wander
pears

ruin

night and
Then

them

sounds

they

are

DISORGANIZATION

dragged into
allow

lived
and

to

such

along,

When

cigarettesand

or

But

there

people who

are

Sunday

them

to

go

the young

comes

Fairs

for children

the children

From

villagesin

Kolno

with

crowd

come

much

their children

boy

Prussian

gives for

clothes and

and

who

gather before
workers

his work

The

but

the

Prussian

also the littlehired

offers

The

under

bargain
Then

misery, and
too

leeches

many

These
the

leeches

taken

to

people, growing

up,

demoralized.

from

go
In

the

earnings.
from

summer

the winter
*

The

and

And
.

his

Stviqtecssna,
igog^

them

to

there

is

18L

enough

of their
dealers

who

cigarettesor
parents.
work

and

neighbors.
teach

candy for
The

young

they

return

tirely
en-

winter

time, having no occupation,


all
evenings in the shops and waste

all that the

grounds is

it is necessary
verse:

enough enlightenment and

father

harvests

original is in

seal it in

to

go

good, but

their

Prussia

to

ask how

only the parents,

not

the weakness

steal,giving

they spend their days and


their

on

the last,until

to

up

tavern-keepers and*the

stealth

by

is

there is not

live

the

are

boys

country

things

who

such

drink.

Skomlin

this is because

and

to

come

To

age

they

liquor that

servant

in

ground

mothers
tavern.

Caseta

ag.

parents of the boy don't agree,

fiftyroubles; they clamor and


finallythe agreement is concluded.
and

27.

boy is 12 years old, the


forty roubles, three suits of

thirtyor

ask

tavern

Swiqtecsna

Gazeta

If the

costs.

pair of shoes.

under

Of course
place in Kolno.
sold,but fiiredfor work.

want

another

or

revelries.

any

themselves

bought and
the neighborhood fathers and

Prussians

one

not

are

to

their

up

take
.

bring

Swiqtecgna, 1904,

Gctzeta

[The parents
dance.] Many

agree

perfectly;they don't allow

a8.

to

people amuse
observation
of their parents reading the
singingreligioussongs in church.^

the

willingly. They rather get


bread, provided their children have

without

say,

everything they need.


children

law-suits.

in her

disgrace they

they

as

S3

youth lost her garland [innocence]and


her parents care
herself disgraced. But
little
very

see

to

COMMUNITY

THE

on

carry

people to smoke

danced

girlwho

and

courts

the young

OF

during the

by the ''Prussians"

eaten

up

to

borrow

money

for taxes.

during
And

POLISH

THE

54
in this way

Strangers

come

PEASANT

greater misery steals into

greater and

flowing, buy the land and

local inhabitants

down.

go

"

The

"

defect

wdrst

and

jealousy when

few

weeks

survey

and

scattered
the

is

there

Skomlin

of

of the peasants

for

ago,

estate

example,

at

in 6 and

majority of

in 8

even

the

the

had

stirred up

some

shop-keepers,Jews, contributed
were

that in

afraid

unified

general
has

lots

but

after

against it. The

local

great deal because

they

the others
a

the

by the priest,

this

farmer

each

signed their

to

for

vote

of

owner

Persuaded
"

names;

villagethey would

dwelling and that their trade would

be unable

to

get

be ruined.

Swiqteczna,

Gaseta

The

the

priest and

places.

farmers

question of the public good.

meeting advised

is stubbornness

of Skomlin

unification of the farms, because

leaving the office

the

village.

our

1903, 27.

ting
people of Zagnansk have been latelycommitdoings worthy of penalty. They break windows, throw

30.

sheaves
etc.

young

the

of

out

When

I asked

me

bams,
once

It

that

means

increasinglicense

earnings and

go

in

themselves,

fault is it?" he

"Whose

farmer,

"Money's,"

clothes, fight among

tear

together.
Zaranie,

31.
to

There

are

steal.

For

And

quartern.
bushel.
take

they
together.

in the

"in

the child is accustomed

company."

of cultural

reconstruction,

changed, which

to

"rogues" notice that he is

community.

stage

37.

dren
[Ulany] store-keepers who teach chilgingerbread, candy, they take barley by the

They

[Continuous thefts

same

traditional
no

the

him

1913,

here

when

When

ing
increas-

country

our

swered
an-

no

proves

The

steal

it,he will take


a

sincere

rogue^

together,they drink

lage
reported from another vilcommunity represents a purely
are

development and

schools, poverty.

But

rather

low

one;

have

costumes

disintegration.]
Gaseia

Swiqteczna,

I904"

^^

getting very spoiled. Young


for liquor,
boys steal grain from their father and give it away
for in every
villagehere clandestine tapsters trade in liquor. In
with knives,
another
cut
state
one
Perespa boys in a drunken
33.

and

one

Our

youth [of Duba]

of them

will

probably

is

pay

for it with

his life.

All this

DISORGANIZATION

is caused

only

the

In

by liquor.

iliesyof wh(Mn

THE

OF

3 have

COMMUNITY

I^erespa
live

same

small

shops and

In

began

from

was

lock

not

are

the

wants

The

secure.

wants

he

the frame.

with

remember
from

took

prison, another

half

In

the

Kielce
a

judged

iron bars.

which, about

gang

year

they

that"

took

few

years

did not

they had

for

was

of

the

get out

700

they

as

of

And

now

one

Swiqiecgna,

stables
con-

it

was

other

of

year

each.

three months

1903. 25.

provincialcourt in
of having belonged to

long time

the

fright and

The
.

investigation
alone during a

committed.

were

In

testified in court, "for

some

several

dtmg," because, fearing for their stock,


spend their nights in horse or cattle

stables.

continually to
In spite of this, in the villageBalkowo,

Radkow,

during 3

years

brought

got

province.

robberies

whole

the

accused

of 33 persons

than

villagesthe farmers,

father

called to each

three of them

and

i8go,

He

that in the district of Wloszczowa

more

years

he

that the thieves

One
.

days of this month

plague of the inhabitants


disclosed

the

open

investigationbegan.

case

works

city fashion,

threatened

the thieves, for

*'You

the first

father

broke

Gazeta

34*

in this village,

men

in the

and

farmer

but with

and

Frampol
this," and

under

So

The

windows,

difficult to discover

"You

whiten

to

pantry

The

dress

wealthy farmer

in the

pec^le

body
villageno-

only linen left

laborious.
to

12.

they collude to rob. And this


but finallyit broke down.
One
of them

for 3 years,
to

in the

everything is expensive and

for luxuries.

money

by night

not

And

igog,

the roads

on

farmers, older

revel, whereas

vrindow,

even

hidden

was

steals,for

succeeded

would

what

even

liquor.

frequent robberies

the town.

and

to

went

from

or

honest, well-to-do
son

gives no

attacked

in

Swiqiecgna,

of his property, for not

stay, but

was

and

fairs

sure

not

Frampol

lately. Robbers

to occur

retunung
did

village near

one

Jewish fam-

17

14 trade

Caeeta

33*

Si

35 horses

and

cows

were

of

commune

stolen,in the

cows,

and

during 6 years 22 horses and


in the little villageBelnow
during only one year 8

horses.

The

thieves

village Lachow
4

among

others

the
went

near

Wloszczowa

were

robbing unpunished because

wronged people complained


to

court

as

witnesses

and

about

testified

one

if
of

anybody

them

the

falselyin favor of

POLISH

THE

S6
the accused

one,

and the

had

him

free.

to

set

robbers

in revenge

finallypreferred
a

still greater

the

robbers

Una.
than

the

stolen

usually for

to

ransom

stolen

horses

and

or

not

paid

was

cattle to

examined

and
than

more

case

five

more

the

of the gang
robber

an

robbers

the

gave

ai^rently

were

the

same

doing

harm

for
had
dict
ver-

penitentiaryor
Having settled

2^ years]

to

the

lasted

This

following

to

"

or

of the bolder

which

sent

court

and

Be-

horse

own

Twelve

of

More

ransom.

only recently. The

of Wtoszczowa,

gangs

in

tavern

lasted

months

cattle,

inquest began which

^allpeasants

"

full.

risk

forests

the
a

the

soon,

will

court

in other

judge

parts of

borhood
largestone of these, from the neighof Jedrzejow is composed of 90 participants.
The

province of Kielce.

Swiqteczna, i8g8^

Gazeta

35*
my

in

for his

more

witnesses

200

labor in Siberia from

the

time

too

was

finished

was

[23 condemned
hard

of

head

[more distant towns].

long, but finallythe measure


robbers were
imprisoned and
years

horse

or

the

people

than

some

roubles

Thus

in silence rather

particularlynear
people brought them

25

pay

If the

for

badly oS,

in smoke.

up

go

their wrongs

wronged

cow.

nearly

plaintiffwas

the

Having

it

ground of these testimonies

Wtoszczowa,

or

had

one

bear

to

kept

There

And

the

on

let his property

loss.

Nieznanowice

court

PEASANT

I have

native

lived for
I manage

town.

is

Drinking
actusd

holy fathers

of March,

the

the

uninterruptedly in

years

work-shop

in

How

priest in

12

small

developed

Dzialoszyn and Pajgczno.


the

than

more

whole

parish !

came

here

In

on

worked

of

here, particularly
the

at

1910,

mission

on

count.
ac-

own

my

environment

clergy has

my

44.

ning
begin-

^the Pauline

"

^and worked
Jasna Gora
strenuously not only
against drinking but also to develop reading, that is, reading of
Fathers

from

good books
lections''

"

and

papers.

In

191

in the church

the movement

stayed in the
home

our

priest organized "recol-

[preparation for the obligatory annual


Capucines from

Easter] ; he invited the Father

at

church

without

in' the

church

Three

thousand

care,
to

the

and

was

because

life

Nowe

; for whole

enormous

all other

confession

was

everybody who

an

they bought patents of temperance

Miasto, and

days people

stopped ; the sick lay


was

healthy listened

fieryteachings of the Father

people took

Caupucines.

oath, that is, renounced


and

at

put them

behind

liquor;
the

pic-

DISORGANIZATION

OF

THE

COMMUNITY

S7

[holy pictures on the walls of their rooms]. But unhappily,


they are
habit and
returning gradually to their former

tures

of life. A

has

passed since they renounced


liquor and I know a dozen who drink as they drank before, and
others who
that they parted with their dear
regret very much
liquor. Poverty reigns in the country, the darkness
[ignorance]
manner

year

is terrible,the lack of

enlightenment
Once
to

have

can

I tried to

paper

long, let them


answered

is very

noticeable.

Because

only

me

we

going
time

no

The

have

oldest

farmer

near

rouble,
Kielce;

it will cost

the last

on

because

in the

are

he

But
for

each

[of carnival]

Sunday

about

us

scribe
sub-

to

evenings

things,"etc.
33 weddings,

to

go

ought

the

sons,

many

must

son

papers,

that he

grown-up

and

to read

roubles.

10

We

all the young

sununer

Prussia."

to

go

persuade

"You

"My

give him

are

read, they will learn

I must

people

schools

yet

good result and it is just what we lack.


reading is increasing the fact quoted below will trate.
illus-

How

have

not

editors of the Deiennik

L6dzki

proposed a

series of questions

in the introduction
workman
concerning drinking. One
of holy truth
^that our
speaks [these] words
factory-owners
who are drunkards
write these words
prefer workmen
; and I who
"

add
a

that

only

craftsman

small percent

who

is not

of the

people prefer a workman

drunkard.

drunkard

has

or

friends

...

because

he

workmen

treats

and

he

them.

drunkard

The

receives

is entrusted

with

hiring

for

treating. This about the


factories.
If you are a small tradesman
in a village,
the friends
of the glass [of drinking] send you their acquaintances; wherever
you

throw

stone

money

[wherever

you

turn]

meet

you

friend

of the

at the school
glass. At the present time there is often work
[building]; if you don't use alcohol, surely this work will get by
friend in the committee, and there they
you, because
you have no
are
waiting for a treat and a bribe from you.
Only if you are
strongly protected by the priestor the teacher you can do with*
out

treating and

cheaper, and
work,
him

and
When

the tavern

they talk

and

over

live in

you

hands, have
alcohol

if afterwards

to

goes

graft. The

numerous

it does
and

drunkard

to

agrees

not

work

leaves

him, he

pay

drinks ; the committee

much

drinks

his
with

raise in wages.

small

town,

live

family and

cigarettes,people throw

only

don't

on

the work

occupy

stones

and

of your

yourself with
thorns

under

POUSH

THE

S8

the

feet, because

your
crows,

croak

they do,

as

Mariamta],

sect

I know

had

will be

sons.

of them

alcohol, and because

only

to

himself

"He

to

his father's

drunk

was

broke
at

"What

He

money?"

took

four

youngest

and

the

garret, sold

by night with
than

only four hundred


with
to

More

than

children

get

them.
who

and
go

have
the

to

At

Often
answer:

whatever

and

and

drinks

only about

think

about

the

Speaking

world.

other

gets sick

father

other

children

poorest funeral
I remark

to

"There

day
a

"

of

only

was

people:

would

be

this

order

it is almost

so,

drank

that

papa

received

20

bandit.

how

their

papa

that

children

how

then

old.

years

country,

or

the

country,

the

bam

to

he

ing
wrong-

children

bring

him

quietly

can

parish where

same

[government liquor-shop]'

course

during the carnival.

now,

for

"What

nobody

the club.

bold, is

priest,and

large bottle

the

not

[threatening them]

the notary,

liquor; the monopole


a

was

drunk, he clinked

was

our

about

and

and

from

from

in

near,

the

received

in

"

son

could

^he

pigs

from

corn

becomes

drunk

parents

lived

he

he

facts

other

for the

killed with

been

of his parents

farm

go

giving him

not

who

he

not

for

Happily this

the

And

brandy, [the

son,

he

at

money

[get on].

potatoes

have

But

heads
the

the will ; then

corpse." And

me

Often, when

he

500-600 roubles
the

with

his

Jews

any

he owed

bottle of

family stole

same

many

him

people renounced
earns

his fortune, neglecting the other

When
with

are

take

mash

to

him

man,

[paper-reader] did

roubles, while

old

their

new

call it here)

^which

"

himself"

to

his door.

the

to

the

quote

will them

may

the

when

one,

could

And

went

and

will him

them

make

to

each.

above

chain

club used

companions.

his

the

devout

very

give

not

not

angry

thousand

did

did

and

instructed

more

was

! is he

of

to

ernist,
mod-

of

busy (as they

not

was

surely he would

son

wish

are

you

members

father,

"paper-man"

windows

because

don't

father

and

"

The

more

already

his

home,

this

name-day

said] :

father

give advice

will

this son,

once

he

the dear

"

all, saying:
when

example.

with

if you

for

name

the

among

etc.

mason,

One

came

avoided, because

[popular

still another

three

"You

says:

they do"; and

as

you

fnankietnik

proverb

croak

must

you

PEASANT

the

is

"

use

sing and

to

in fact.

5 roubles

"

is

of
to

emptied.

it?"
carry

They
the

6o

THE

adornment
and

POLISH

the country !

to

PEASANT

It is perhaps better to sit at home

...

day to feed on soup with potatoes than to work in


these factories,
destroyingthe health of body and soul. It is not
such a population,
occupiedonly with work
strange that among
for their temporalbread and forgetting
about the spiritual
bread,
any evil incitement,any influence sowing trouble and greed of
is easily
der
accepted. Thence violence done upon peopleunmoney
various pretexts, thence thefts, night attacks, robberies.
Gangs of bandits have been formed which attack defenseless
of
and deprive them
people in neighboringvillagesand towns
ilies,
fortune and life. In Zawiercie,Myszkow, 2arki,etc.,whole famfrom
known
torn
by such knaveries,live on money
away
wealthier people. The policecannot
help,for it is not numerous
The bishop of Kielce has pubenough for so many robbers.
lished
circular letter orderingprayers
with supplications
to be
a
performed every Sunday and holidayin the churches.
May
much
write
about
Lord Jesus listen to us.
so
our
People
today
various
about
the
improvements, alleviations,
betteringof the
littlefor the needs of the soul.
lot of all classes,but they care
Wealth, welfare, not based upon the Catholic religion,
change
Thence
abuses
into
in
the
an
so
man
country!
egotist.
many
It is sad above expressionthat in our
vicinity
you never
once

....

in the church

see

shops
have

no

they

turn

or

and

confidence

the confessional the managers


various
industrial institutions.
in

them, saying:

"He

is

not

The

people

ours!"

And

of any newcomer
istic
[socialagainstthem at the instigation
and
More
in
the
faith,religion
godliness
agitator].
upper

classes,and it will be well

in

our

whole

country.

Gazeta

39.

The

to express

letter of the

few

localities as

we

have

of life,
therefore also such
therefore
precisely
the whole
The

35.

remarks.

intend in my writingto prove


in that letter. On the contrary, in such
various

Swiqtecsna,1905,

respectedpriest[above] compels me
that there is untruth

I do not

from

tories,
of the fac-

at

it is

collection of

here there
as

are

are

people

festations
various mani-

described there.

impossibleto apply the

same

measure

But
to

district.

district of

Bfdzin differs from

many

others

by the fact

DISORGANIZATION
that the soil is here

OF

and

poor

very

THE

COMMUNITY

fanner

with

6i

his

family finds

it difficult to live.

Secondly, many
mines

and

this makes

work

for

factories have

the inhabitants

in them.

fourteen

With

old

years

started

little son,

job. On
the

cattle,and

and

my

boys of

saw

hungry,

for

same

also

me

than

searches

here

for work

herself.

She

feeds

cheaper than

Moreover,

Such

the

of

with

where

children

often

dark, sultry,damp.

What

do ?

fresh

He

air.

must

As

preparing food
without

No.
money.

has

such

and

is

if blackened.

as

in the sultriness

day

whole

in

night, where

the

people live in

found.

are

working

poor

of the gate in order

incidents

pale.

during his

tomb

it

to

course,

happen.

comers,

The

room

man

or

is

girl

breathe
a

one

some

tion
conversa-

in what

But

none?

what

But

loaf,their mothers

who

their

for

care.

myself

wanted?

is emaciated

boys often meet, and, of

children

those

to

the

sick persons

begins. Well, and sometimes


there

for

dry bread, for

is in

for

home

outside

go

Girls and

society are

she

family, numerous

poor

depth of the mine,

coffee and

boy, having spent

some

I, barefooted

so

soul

my

in the mine

works

and

to

black

on

factory, returns

room,

in the

already he looks sad and

girlor

oldest

daughter leaves her parents and


order to help her family and to cover

fresh; therefore

who

therefore

life,and

in

was

one

herself

the

man

the

was

for bread

search

everything that

more

way

resign everything for the sake of this

to

search

running merrily after

age

earned

money,

many

Sosnowiec, searching for

own

to

hunger,

was

are

thus.

was

fell sick.

of

my

there

neighborhood

example, it

there

direction

I went,

still I had

In the

is

home

family. Did this

constitute
And

At

built and

of this

father

my

in the

the way

for

me,

when

the children.

among

been

can

be

they leave

so

roomers,

are

done?

Have

we

occupied
the

with

children

kindergartens

for the children?


As
who

spend the
be

cannot

way

spending

to

could

money

said of
be

all.

it

seems

they

earned

How

many

waste

ascertained

that

true

have

investigationof the whole


And

drink, it is

on

wages

we

in the

in

that there

are

drinking,but

their

savings-banks

some

this

earnings in this
or

after

good

district.
also

feel

hunger for spiritualbread.

contributions

working people?

in

As

thieves, we,

people

have

the

earned, and

in

but

the

on

Four

Mazowiecki,

of

Is it
.

the

in

obligatorilyin
has

and

criminals

The

Swiqtecsna,

is the district-town

condemned

oversight of

the

the

inhabitants,and

steal and

parts of

and

be

they

pay

even

tries

is

by rail,so

be

sent

people

Minsk

to

and

not

it is

Moreover,

opportunity
thieves profitfrom

480

well

as

as

it and

go

tersburg
Pe-

and

swer.
an-

various

be

to

is

no

criminals

that

say

for it. Minsk

big money

to rob.

The

work,

to

Minsk, but they receive


But

live

as

many

local inhabitants

people pass through it every

locality,
many
there

from

to

there
to

possibleto send the pobytowy into

endeavor

today

peasants in the neighborhood.

as

Russia?

enormous

themselves
thence

it not

merly
for-

police.

as

of them

None
rob

to

well

as

but

Warsawians,

numerous

kept there.

people

and

summer-resort

as

Minsk

government-authorities keep

take the thieves

Would

so

are

1905, 41.

inhabitants, continually ruined, petition Warsaw


to

so

the

are

to

town

newcomers,

by

summer

they continue

have

we

workman.

suitable

five thousand

or

work,

fault that there

our

Warsaw

localityunder

that

money

'^pobytowy," that is, criminals

four

of these

from

because

empty,

by them.

at present

localityvery

so-called

town

great

after

going home

we,

way

miles east

inhabited

many

with

mostly attacked

Gazeta

almost

for

is cared

panies
com-

our

district ?

our

Self-taught peasant,

40.

about

something

are

also beaten.

often

thieves

many

from

glory

poor,

watchmen,

frequentlyrobbed

are

God's

founded

ours,

as

churches.

our

to

also say

pilgrims. And

of

Rich

of

Cz^stochowa could

And

honor

divine houses

boast such

district can

What

PEASANT

POLISH

THE

62

moved

very

mated
ani-

day by railway,
near

to

Warsaw

frequently to Warsaw

to

steal.
Gaseta

41.

of

Good

B^zin]

all the bad


The
and
or

would
news

not

desire

for

entertainment

occupy

could

greatest evil in
a

from

sent

news

not

our

revenge
some

one

this

very

Swiqtecsna, 1906, fi.

much

be contained

for

the

is stabbed

elders.
or

and

in the Gaseta

space

lack of space.

village is corruption
among

district ^v

vicinity [Dabrowa,

among

At

every

the

youth

wedding

shot, frequently to death.

DISORGANIZATION

There
in

is

called

gang

of

case

pal

broke

or

hardly recovered.
wood

him

Once

ran

Several

badly bruised
the

hospital. The

had

taken

They

of

"

all

and

B^in

the

other

three

of

the

Czerwonka,

first

one

injured man

lived

until

years

of age,

leaving
at

ten

three

the

an

murderers

boys,

he

is said to have

shtmned

their

drinking bouts
above

named

ously
previ-

was

company,

and

other

lies here?"

the

fortunate
un-

Olgdzki."

and

The

barely

he

twenty

some

man

young

had

of

the

of

traces

their
with

hatred

After

spent the

murdered

and

their
not

found

was

"Thaddeus

he

farmers

been

the

village of

the

Czerwonka.
village,

home

by

In

regained consciousness.

of this very

of

1896, 4.

one.

street

completely shattered

discovered

were

in the

was

attacked

sons

in

never

organist,at whose
was

good

answer:

and

the crime

strangers.

SunqUctna,

"Who

clothing; and not denying


that they had battered Ol^dzki's head

boots

who

one,

had

who

and

inhabitant

o'clock, he
grown

to

Ol^dzki

morning.

of

asked:

still able

was

fell unconscious

skull of the

to

prison and the others

to

pool of blood

When

by the night watch.


then

girl so
her

were

this month,

of

Sunday

lying in

man

fond

is not

evil person

evening of

He

cident
in-

"

"

An

the

the

arrested, four

two

GoMfta

43

the

remove

were

them,

sentenced

were

about

caught except

six that

the

pursued
to

found
to

small

across

swam

necessary

were

and

D^browa

prison terms,

acquitted.

scoundrels

and

he

boy, scenting

the

authorities

scene

was

girl. Of

the

tried in

served

that it

assaulters

pity on

were

the

to

beaten

and

residents

notified the

men

that

badly

so

one

he

of these

girlpassing through

speed. The
he plunged and

went

men

up

by

whether

seven

all his

he

opposite shore, where

him

sicked

are

andrusy, but

seven

the river, into which

to

were

boy and

with

away

beat

others] who,

matter

no

instance

one

and

by

attacked

were

trouble,

In

house

man's

fellows,

two

63

beat

to

unmercifully

close relative.

into

between

beat him

and

COMMUNITY

THE

andrusy [men hired

argument

an

the other

onto

is

OF

in the
same

blood

towards

street

by

village. The
found

guilt,they
stakes.

evening

The

on

their

confessed
cause

of

Olgdzki, since

desiring to participatein their

indecent

fellows, several others

actions.
were

Besides

also arrested

the
who

three
are

THE

64

POLISH

PEASANT

of the murderingof Ol^zki. The


supposedto be the instigators
villainous father of

one

of the criminals is

of their ntunber.

one

GoMtta

Swiqtecana,iS^,

[See our remarks on document 2.]


43*
I heard that in one village
a peasant wanted

gi

to sellhis whole

and 15 morgs
of
farm, composed of a house, farm-buildings
I went
this farm.
land.
to examine
[The farm makes a
...

in one
good impression;it had remained for many generations
prive
family. The writer asks the proprietor:]**How can you dethis
Is
of
father's
land?
dear
to
not
yourself your
place
you where you were
put so much work?"

The
gan

cost

reddened

farmer

on

you and your ancestors

have

be*
and, stammering in the beginning,

long he had

to tell how

how

educated,where

to

sue

his

neighborsand his stepson,

they were ruined and he fell in debt,for the law-suit


for
the one hand, the lawyersdrew from him money

him through
hand, the Jews also exploited
that nothingcould be
to this,
interest,and finally
thingscame

expenses

on

the other

done except sellthe farm.


"Would
it not have been better to make

an

amiable agreement?"

I asked.

"But he did

it,"he answered,

I offered to

givemy
due him after his mother's death,and I
step-son whatever was
his
have
would
wedding expenses also. But he revolted
paid
me."
and said that he would absolutely
sue
"Is he so quarrelsome,
so insolent?"
"No," answered the farmer, "he was even a good boy, quitt
and obedient,only people meddled with us.
gated
Neighbors instihim ; moreover,
there is a certain clerk who is alwaysgbd
another in order to wheedle them out
to set peopleagainst
one
of money
for petitions,
complaintsand advice. It is he, this
gypsy, who has ruined my step-son and myself."
I asked.
"And what was
the motive of the neighbors?"
ries,
''What ? As usual among neighbors.Quarrelsabout boundaor about some
doing damage, and thus from
goose or cow
it comes
We disputedabout one
to a biggerone.
a small matter
My
thingor another,and the clerk incited both of us to sue.
married
with
and
then
his
daughter
neighborgot
step-son
my
him
me."
instigated
against
not

want

DISORGANIZATION
''So these

affairs

frequent

are

"Certainly!" he answered.
do

"Well, and
I did

But

We

voices.

went

the

smallest
in

other
her

it and

saw

ran

they settled the

of the

girlcursed

with

him

and

said, evidentlyknowing these


will
mother

of the

I grew
a

nice

and

and
should

will

portion of

you

inhabitants.

the

and

him

make

field

another's

example,
is

two

godmother
Pawtowa,

and
to

of

swallow.
his

or

even

seeks

price

was

revenge

upon

by

the

and

the

insults."

The

not

high, but

very

continual

relling
quar-

concord
ruin

can

does
his

among

another

For

animals.

fact that

in

damage

of them

one

other] got angry with each other


spite Ignacka, gave a nail to the latter's cow

to

malice

Through

again, one

From

this

neighbor broke
comes

moreover,

wildness
near

the
and

such

legs
hate

holy

Swiqtecina,

1910^

5a

C, of a villagein the district of Gr6jec,


Gora-Kalwarya to a fair. Having bought what

farmer

to the town

bor
neigh-

child of the

Gaxeta

went

this

fellow-countr3rmen1

related

[women

neighbor's horse.

The

listened

listeningto all this. That

in

bag [begging]. He

with

place [Cz^stochowa]

44*

his

ago

host

now

and

no

Christians, Catholics, and

among

mother

meadow

village I found
Everybody rejoices if he
in

go

kumas
to

the

brawls, feuds, envy,

such

and

land

our

the

me,

them

sue

Perhaps in other villagesit is better.


through a large
say? I searched and went

trouble?

and

What

into

I get

and

brothers

neighbor

years

"See,

nicknames

benumbed

pleased

soil

the

for

him

sue

more

Nice

country!

farm

why

girl will

more

well

matters

shorten

The

My

each

shrieks; finallyhe

these

to

girl for having trampled

the

sue

two

The

To

rouble.

that

at

ones.

he would

children.

interest

children

mother.

him

reminded

and

pleasure

him

terday
Yes-

scratched

ones

that

gave

quarreling

neighbor. The

woman

of her

one

older

again.

learned.

we

the younger

two

of

in

left four

to call her

and

matter

struck

evident

manage

tell this

to

came

or

not

the meadow

unless

boy pushed

field and

girlwent

the

across

now

the

there."

?" I asked

way

drowned

was

bor
neigh-

his

sues

settlement

this is what

awfully and the

cried

she

to

girl could

iight. So

way

went

oldest

one

seeks

for it

listen and

to

mother

The

home.

everybody

thing and

the answer,

65

you?" I asked.

among

they settle things in that

hear

not

COMMUNITY

"Here

for the smallest

in court

THE

OF

W.

66

THE

he needed, he

it

tt

prepared

Neighbor, sell

with

this mare."

me

sell it for

I will

PEASANT

leave, when

to

his way

J. B., crossed

ance,

POLISH

roubles."

280

"This

"

other, "take 5 roubles off."" "WeU,


5 roubles

take
of

roubles

100

"And
who

each

roubles

75
have

give

to

agree." And

of

into the hand


he

of

in court

W.

J.

that his wife

had

speak

to

both

priest ordered
back

money

the

but

culpritand
When

of

parish-house and

the

"

not

any

suits in the

any

more

them

to

An

the

to show

court,
from

them

old peasant

the

at

with

pigs.
There

in

however,

put

priestin
and

wanted

But

W.

C. had

the

church

in
to

obtain

to
at

come

Holy
them,

[The

determined

The

pardon.
hour

to

J. B. confessed that he had taken the


C. forgave
to cheat his neighbor. W.
court

yourself before
for you

my

eyes

the

and

from

the

the

people present

began

Communion,
went

robbers]

to

first time

th,e next

that

fettered
and
the

passed

night, also

neighboring village

penance

5.

participatedtogether with

and

were

to

J. B.

Swiqtecstna,1906^

parish of Bialotary

his sons,

with

to start

not

I shall njot accept

false and

are

All

you."

jailthey will do
not

nesses
wit-

as

traders

point with their fingersat the discomfited

confession

Easter

He

an

J. B. A few
Slomczyn and begged

Gaseta

45*

fused
re-

brought

swear

it back

gave

to the

came

here

wanted

suits
to

B.

signed that he pardoned him.


and said to the culprit:
C. signed,the judge arose

W.

laugh and

J.

and

The

would

he

and

later in the

''Remember

that

him.

this money.

C. in his favor

W.

to

don't

We

But

roubles.

225

taken

not

the money

with

were

this money

days passed ; then J. B.


him

C. for

said

and

took

joke,

agreed price of the mare.


and forciblyslipped it

the

having taken

who

B.

witness

one

mare.

B.

traders

J.

bills

It is you

talk.

back.

money

was

C, "I

^"This is

to

teason

the

the

the

"What?
"

no

said

two

of

owner

change."

the money

C. took

against W.

that

swear

also

see

give

to

later denied

those
to

"I

wanted

he

the wife

action

W.

the

latter.

of

roubles

buyer took

The
to

the

asked

25

me

them

gave

C,

mind," said W.

never

trade !"

accept, saying that this

to

But

and

more?"

brother," answered

Then

it is

off and

W.

much,"

is too

said:

and

right/'answered

"All

"

aoquaint-

traders

of

group

of his

farmer

and

sent

to

...

to

the

repent their sins.

worthy

sons

have

gether
to-

steal
town.

It is,

been

in

POLISH

THE

68

PEASANT

everything was
immediately taken to Tokary.
There

office.

explained; the
The

murderers

Gageta

47.

good

man,

years

ago

who

had

and

for

her

father, his wife

last

Advent, both

had

something important

the

waiting for his wife


the

at

was

time

same

proved, a worthless
friend

of

and

the

Kurowskis

she
her

and

kunuk

forgot

fast and

"Say,

perverse

leave

to

will yet overtake

only straightto

the

they had

at

of

money

robbing

them.

all the

over

mamma

so

much

home

and

She

rushed

this and

at

for

the

little girl and

the

poor

began

child gave

neck

her

table

confessed

she

so

taken

was

she

choke

to

and

The

48.

to

money

of his

money

collected

what

This

says

for

home,

very

home"

not

thought that

and

room

in

is this ?

that

have

you

tortured
she

Then

hanged her

to

put

As

soon

until

her
a

drawer-hook

little

searching
jumped at

woman

She

her.

been

turn

to

The

comers.

"What

began

noose

of

of the

deress
day at the inquest. The murprison, together with a little child which

the

Kuc

peasant

villageZaborze.

cover

be

to

kutna

I will go

She

next

Sxffi^ecsna, i8g8^ 6.

Gageta

the

pretended

suckling.

was

lacked

it later

as

return

this villainous

And

ing
Dur-

without

back, but

search

spiritto God.

her

string around
"

to

the

finallysaid

something."

all

neighbor who

this

way

ran

at

Tuszyn.

away

her

Kurowskis.

into

I shall tell her

comes

went

children.

She

The

possessed by the sinful thought

was

hiding-placesand

orphan looked
as

for the

of the

fair in

I must

on.

you."

house

the

few

of 9 years.

but she

On
.

bread

some

he

very

feel

not

latter was,

woman,

slowly

go

to

The

daughter.
did

later with

Kurowskis.

Kurowska:

to

went

went

and

settle,so

to

Mala,

own

the age

to

up

1903, 15.

little orphan

his

mother,

her

put in jail.

were

villageGadka

if for

as

orphanage. They brought

He

in the

were

men

Swi^ecsna,

children, adopted

no

cared

child called him


its

Kurowski

certain

poor

was

Lately Kuc
for

own

from

going

the taxes, and


did not

for 9 years

was

please Kuc

to

liquor,began

farmers

on;

the

began

the

for

in the
village-elder
he
drink, and when

the

to

But

tax"s.

farm-stock

spend

of

Kuc

on

soon
was

drinking
they
sold

ticed
no-

to

villageelected another farmen for elder.


that he would
and he began to threaten

DISORGANIZATION
take

revoige
five fires were
that

the

his

on

OF

neighbors. And

in the

set

incendiarywas

condemned

THE

during

village. At
the

Thursday, April 20th,

Zaiesie
"

Wieprz.

Ja",

began

years old, son


in playing to knock
off

which

the

him

do

to

not

had

broke

off

their calls

drowned?"

began

to

!''

the

But
"I

cry

farmer

that

his

hand

to

the

father, having lost

In the

in the

on

house

guests returned
a

of

the

The

from

to avoid

wanting

after him.
The

He

further
overtook

the

said, "my

run

and

he

his life.

altar

was

The

was

taken

to

In

province
existed
the

the

for 6 years,

reach

not

his

with

going
wedding-

was

the

as

19, drew

boy of

18.

as

boy,

of the house, the groom

out

fell down

with

in

few

minutes

and

almost

and

knife.

struck

from

before

jail.

[the same
see

[The

quarrelled. The

They

Swiqteczna, 1904, sa

district

village Biezanowo,

of Kielce

away.

angry

soon

Gaseta

51.

will be

groom's pocket, probably

bound

go

will get

Swiqtictna, 1899,

in the field and

was

to

else you

went

of them,

one

maining
re-

last year.

As

dispute,ran
him

groom

hurry

wedding feast

...

The

horses

or

away

back

offended.

boy, mortally wounded,

ended
the

got

groom

in

not

was

DyL

the church,

from

package of tobacco

joke.

farmer

the

river.

Jas is getting
children, "save him,

against him

villageStrzegom

warned

"Whose

GmMtta

50.

shore

getting drowned.

was

Ja" because

law-suit

river

the

revengeful neighbor did

drowning

the

Jozef Tokarski,

into the

JaS

somehow

The

drowned].

was

village

large pi:;ceof the shore

asked

entangled. Let Jas swim, and you


drowned."
Saying this, he turned
boy

the

stick parts of

time," he

no

"

la

1909,

though other children

and

came

have

near

farmer

the boy

carried

farmer

river.

the

to

^"Tokarski's," answered

"

him

save

suddenly and
children

At

with

from

meadow

indeed,

And
.

on

the

undermined,

it.

was

Swiqtecgna,

children

of

river

people noticed

village-elder.He

few

pasturing cattle

were

less than

no

year

labor.
GoMtta

49.

69

last fire

the

former

of hard

to 4 years

COMMUNITY

district in which

document

neighboring peasants, August

34]
Rak

of
a

gang

dissension

and

Wloszczowa,

arose

ZidHcowski.

of robbers
between
ZioHcow-

\^.'

ski,a
for

rancorous

One

vengeance.
and

matches

decided

man,

went

foresaw

Ziotkowski

the

owner

jumped

had

took

bottle

the time

him

at

the sticks he

that under

he

and

and

to

set

began

breathed

In

Many

from

siak

had
a

Psucin,

boy of

21,

grudge against Fabisiak.

still greater
into

went

and

together and

and

tavern,

Czylka, and

them

he

When
to

skull broke

in

to

places.

two

He

fled.

lived 3

...

spiritto God.

his

gave

come

wood

out, gave
Fabisiak

days

those

the easiest

the
and

at

the

have

and

access

attitudes of the young

new

time

same

the

these

greatest

him

he burned

with

Fabisiak

are

it

out, strike him

the

and, having

cart

such

that the

stroke
and

the

sufferingsand

derers
mur-

Friday

arrested.

were

we

Swiqtecmia, 1903,
have

selected

3.

to

the peasant

community
to the problem in which
generation are described;
perhaps the most typical

disorganizationof

us

who

comes

in great

illustrate the

give

fair.

Ruszkow,

fell down

which

documents

these

was

of the cart, gave

Capita

Among

awfully

so

himself.

out

him

criminals

The

of

sons

from

avenge

Fabisiak
as
Czylka, saying: "As soon
right away." Czylka hid himself behind
for Fabisiak

the

Mikotaj Fabi-

were

saw

to

waited

good watch,

brought his companions, Welcz

piece of

there

Rebecki

and

Rebecki

taking

dently
evi-

Rak

SwiqtiCMna, 1899^ "

Warsaw,

among

decided

and

anger

But

him

beat

to

and

work

to

neighbor

kerosene

his last.

Nasielsk, province of

people came

of

kept

Gazita
52.

of his

intention.

threatening him

was

before

the house

fulfil his wicked

to

for

bum

to

night

what

PEASANT

POLISH

THE

70

importance

for

sociology,since

generation through which


everywhere the young
and
the
attitudes mainly penetrate a community
new
ways
social tradition and social novelty alstruggle between
it is

\x'

becomes, in
the

some

opposition between
If

search

we

had

measure

at

the old and

find the

least, identified with


the young.

titudes
general difference of atshould
underlying this opposition,we
perhaps
for it in the standpoints taken by the individto

most

DISORGANIZATION

uals

their

toward

the members

lead

to

the

individual
individual

becomes
the

is

the

of

of

future

transported

future; but, conscious

the

for

perience
ex-

those

among

relative

conditions, this field


how

know

not

to control

he faces
inability,

this

of

new

stability
which
new
possibilities
narrows
rapidly. If

to new

indefinite,for he does

Among

changing and higher


the early developing desire

more

the field of

in

sees

71

the desire
earlier than

because

conditions

COMMUNITY

social future.

much

life; because

security and

of external

the

die out

complete,

more

intellectualized
for

personal and
primary groups

of

seems

who

THE

OF

the

ful
experiencewith fear rather than with hopeexpectation. And in view of the great dependence
of the primary-group member
his social milieu, it is
on
quite natural that his desire for securityshould extend
and he is as much
concerned
to his community
more
or
the stability
of the community
about
organization as
possiblenew

that of

about

his economic

family situation,and as
much
afraid of new
possibilities
appearing there.
In fVip
gfflfirP^^^", ^^ff contrary^ the desire
for new
experience is always stronger originallythan
npw

the

desire

social

^"

for security

and

checked

becomes

oinryby

limits the field of

training which

ties.
possiblenovelin the most
conservative
Even
primary-group,
of social control
ficient
the methods
are
particularlyefin producing an
early stabilization, the period

where

when
have

or

experiences outside

new
a

beyond
period

of

the social routine

strong appeal for the individual


the age

of

twenty.

of

five to

ten

individual

is both

open

suggestionsand
suggestions.
When,

years
to

This

certainlyextends
that there

means

during which

almost

sociallyprohibitedor

able to act in accordance

therefore, the community

still

enters

is

every

seen
unfore-

with

these

in contact

THE

72

with
to

the outside

develop

not

attitudes

new

and

these

by educated

directed

PEASANT

world, the youth

that under

is evident

POLISH

to

naturallythe

are

import

conditions
and

if

movement,

leaders, is

mature

It

values.

new

the

first

not

likelyto be constructive,since only those attitudes tend


ual
to develop and
only those values appeal to the individwhich
The undirected
he is prepared to accept.
tention
atof the peasant youth is thus most
easilycaptivated
by superficialaesthetic and hedonistic objects
Our
clothes,trinkets, smoking, fancy foods and drinks.
show
documents
that the disorganizationof the old social
"

system

in this way.

starts

We

have

also confirmed

this while

son
personally investigatingthe effects of seamains
emigration. Only a small percentage of youth reeign
uninfluenced
by the attraction exercised by forin
dress and foreign pleasures,so that any locality
this emigration is intense loses after a time all
which
social traditions.
the superficial
Usually, however, the
effects of foreign influences do not go much
deeper. At
of leisure
first,indeed, the changes of dress, of manners,
the young
activities, which
emigrants introduce

after

their return,

arouse

violent reaction

this sometimes

generation, and
that the

the

fact

and

its bearers, may

youth, once

external

mores

but

without

which

the

has

disastrous

revolted

reject not only


even

those

of the older

effects in

against tradition
the

superficialand

social rules of

behavior

exist.
After
a
community cannot
time, however, we
see
a
gradual reciprocal adaptation
the old and the young
between
by
generation,mediated
those older members
of the group
who
participatein
and by those young
abroad
work
season
emigrants who
of the comsettle and become
munity.
regular landed members
The young
comply with those traditional mores
for which
they find no substitute in their life abroad and

DISORGANIZATION

which

therefore
feel

they

with

the

on

THE

them

to

appear

dependent

COMMUNITY

and
as

standards

ceremonial
of

some

for

hedonistic
aesthetic,

new

note,

the young

leniency toward

as

in

"

imported

documents

our

long

old accept, not

their children, the

for

but

as

particular,
expressed
as
solidarity

primary-group

principlesof social
The
help and response.

themselves

73

essential

as

the

in mutual

and,

OF

from

show

generation

abroad
able
remark-

and

pathetic
sym-

pleasures which they


do not share personally an
is explained
interest which
of personal into
familial aspirations
by that conversion
turity
which, as we know^ usually follows the social mainterest in ambitions

and

"

of

the

effect Pf

peasant.

^his

decrease

munity

and

when

absorbed
have

The

in

learned

with

are

treated

which

by

the

their

com-

Emigration

to

whose

life

was

Ajj\er\c^ pl^y*^^ felativelyynimpnr-

part in the progress


muniiy. Our doctmients

disorganizationof the
contain
almost
nothing
from
problem, and we know

directlyon this
investigationhow
emigrants
field

"

^and

social
lower
reached

Umits

of

small

exercise

itself

over

almost

influence

is the

which

com-

ing
bearsonal
perturning
re-

community life. This


entirelyto the economic

improvement of the standards of living


of
add perhaps a slightdemocratization
we
may
But
relations.
is much
emigration to America
numerically (its highest tide, in 1912-1913,

certain

130,000

grants), and
of town

mem-

milieu.

tant

influence

completely I
\
these systems is taken
by individuals who
from
to live for certain
a
periods away
J

regulated social

"

ni

of the seriousness

family systems
the place of those

permanent^
a /
yq^p^rJ^%^f^[RJi^

important

most

pprindicalahspnrp

marked

bers

"

as

against 800,000

this niunber

includes

population,whereas

the

of

certain

season-emi-

percentage

season-emigration re-

cruits itself

Further, no

from
exclusively

more

return.

PEASANT

POLISH

THE

74

the

country

population.^

grants
40 per cent of transoceanic emiof these leave Poland at
Finally,
many
than

fixed,
age when social attitudes are in a largemeasure
which
and find in this country a community organization

an

to

degree at

some

communities.

home

America
of

least is

may

for

short

and

of the group

soon

He

an

in the lifQ

absorbed

becomes

only those have a


tests applied by soci^

of his innovations

social influence which

opinion.

substitute for that of their

emigrant returning froni


time attempt to play the role,

Thus,

innovator, but

an

bear

the

contribute

may

to

the evolution

of

the

in certain special
matters, but c^
community positively
hardly be a serious factor of social disorganization.
effect
Transoceanic
emigrationhas indeed a disorganizing
rect
indithe life of the primary group, but in an
on
by actingon the imaginationof those who
way,
The community is no longer the only possible
remain.

social milieu,in which


and

to

which

he must

the individual has to

adapt himself

outside of it,and
possibilities
it than

on

in the

stay for

ever,

j^thereunlimited

he

are

feels much

pendent
less de-

past^

permanent, is thejlisdeeper,because more


of the VOm^
Organization
gpner;^finn fh^ rntntniiT^jfy
the
wHeriit is producedby strangers, who settle among
local inhabitants,bringingwith them different mores,
Much

in

sons
through racial reaenough to be independent of the
the community. The
keeper
Jewish shop-

and either fail to become


or

social

numerous

are

opinion of

assimilated

represents the first class; cityworkers


centers, and
a

small town

in
without

released criminals

represent the second.

sent

The

is usuallyalso
peasant village

license,a banker

lendingmoney

near

dustrial
in-

to settle in

keeper
Jewish shopa

at

liquor-dealer
usury,

often

THE

76

the autochthonic

with

villagessituated

in

includes

large

near

is left of

But

this invasion

not

go

the

point

to

the

problem,

solidarityof

unsuccessful

influx
and

sooner

of

in

social

radical

more

ganization when

the

industrial

some

generation

within

center

This

has

been

last

new

and

industrial
between

working

in the

close

even

the rest

closer
of their

ones,

character

integrity
and

vague

disor-

connected

with

th^yoifng
very frequent

when

various

of

in

quence
conse-

cities and

old

innumerable

peasant

but

suburbs

intermediary between
In

workers.

members

city and

tinual
con-

of

practicallynothing

became
has

where

of

contacts

with

becomes

community

the

its

is the process

rapid

and

struggle

organizations of

appearance

population

or

old

reasserts

has

which

of economic

peasants

eration,
gen-

formed.

are

to work.

goes

communities
whose

does

the

the

run

fiftyyears,
development of many

the

own

group-action

preserve

which

commercial

or

during

occurrence

of

old

of

group

itself into

dissolves

body

long

cannot

completely diflFerent type


Still

the

the

community

strangers
later

or

incoherent

f^

villageor commune.
the community

violent

to

even

Nevertheless,

(p. 67).
always

they

strongest is precisely in admitting


with
land-ownership. Here, in connection

itself,leading sometimes
is

unless

resistance

the

where

autonomy

the part of the

on

the

except

is the

community
land

of

dissolution

struggle

lation
popu-

commune

excluded

are

whose

community

limits of the

and

without

on

and

the

the

within

real estate

old

cases,

original 5nhabi-

than

villageand

the incomers

which

strangers

the

radical

and

centers

strangers

official organization of
from

in the most

group;

more

nothing

tants,

PEASANT

POLISH

such

the young

cases

the

cial
so-

generation

become
as
city groups
those
which
than
they maintain
community; the latter is reduced

DISORGANIZATION

to

OF

role similar to that of

COMMUNITY

THE

77

"neighborhood"

in

ican
Amer-

an

munity;
city. City mores
penetrate rapidly into the combut^as they offer little or nothing which
could
in organizing
take the place of the old country mores
individual
life, social disorp^anizationis often
panied
accom-

demoralization;

personal

by

in rather
locafitiesusuallystand

in

this is also due


undesirable

are

to

neighborhood,
the

upon

the

individual

There

and

of

standards

is not

only

stock

of

while

seldom

to

fool

dares

to

those

who

to

easier among

city from

outside

whole

group

character
of

fun^

common

tional
na-

it

or

only by

social milieu; he

that in certain
is lowered.

members

of social

relations

migrated
im-

villagesand
control,than among
What

sometimes

respects the morality


This

matters,

of

have

distant

social

of any

who

those

more

honesty in economic
I how
explain in Volume

dealings between

the

concerned.

do

can

stilllive in their old milieu.

happens, indeed, is
of the

ondary
sec-

opinion of the community, but he


defy it. In general,therefore, personal

into the
find themselves

on

the

is much

demoralization

influence

individual

an

group

try

may

permanent

some

but

tice
no-

ing
far-reach-

as

solidarityare

act against it, he


may
concealing his doings from his wider

small

perhaps,

whenever

human,
and

And

opinion, divided

social

morals,

also

mere

preserves

its

common

as

course

must

is not

unanimous

remains

matters,
damental

community

Of

influx of many

an

the

generally speaking, demoralization


as
might be expected. EVen

suburban

repute.

city. We
interestingexceptions.
from

elements

that there

bad

large measure

Those

w^

in particular

concerns

and

we

have tried

happens, fxonomic
primary group have the

this
a

subordinated

to

the

ple
princi-

ordinated
relations subnot that of plainbusiness
solidarity,
valuato quantitativeimpersonal economic

THE

78

POLISH

PEASANT

I
I

When

tions.

the peasant
he usually
extends to them
,

is

and

than

more

deal with outsiders,

beginsto

firstthe

at

fair.

of
principle

darity
soli-

Later, however, if the

relations

of
multiplyand he finds that the principle
is not applied
solidarity
by the outsiders,he goes to the
and implicitly,
other extreme
or even
assumes
explicitly,
that economic exchange is not regulatedby Wiy principles
is
that
the
whatever,
onlypolicy to give as little
and to get as much as possible
as possible
;
by any means
it takes
as
^

esty
time to learn and appreciate.
business honmethod
of economic success.
.And one of the

some
a

is
^igns of commimity disorganization^
when he beginsto applyto the members
of his own
group
the dishonest methods used with regard to outsiders.
But this is a problemwhich concerns
rather the old than
which we are discussing
I
the young generation
now.
/^ A very interesting
feature of the .disorganization
marked

most

"

which

starts with the

1 purelyindividual
Hs

but

same

thus

interests and

common

each

from

the rest of the

work

of
in

other and

the

work

and

memories
in

separate them

community.

peoplewith

attitudes to form

rangingfrom

vague

intercourse to

But

an

and

new

together,

unify them
measure

some
even

the

when

more

group

or

tioned
non-sancsocially

less close

united

by

organizedgang.

the
usuallynotice efforts to prosel3rte

1";
I

liof the community and


those who

or
village

same

is infiltrationof strangersor
disorganization
there is a generaltendency^
neighboring
city,

of the young

of

This
group character?!
gration,
emiit is the effect of season
a

season

with

source

it seldom, if ever, is

emigrantsfrom
neighborhoodusuallygo

for

and

assumes

when

natural
perfectly

the

youthis that

fail to

very

respond. The

marked

mere

associations,

frequency

Moreover,
rest of the

we

youth

ill-willtoward

individual

seems

to be

OF

DISORGANIZATION

able
the
and

COMMUNITY

THE

79

emancipate himself from the dependence upon


large community only by relying for social response
recognition on a smaller community with congenial
to

interests.\

This

tendency

stronger

seems

among

young

the former
people,probably because
the censorship of public opinion
less able to escape
are
munity
by way of concealment, and also becaus^thelarger comdoes not satisfysufficiently
their desire for recognition,
than

older

among

whereas

of the

group

prominence^From

for

aspire

in

formation

of

of

groups

they can
standpoint the

same

age

the latter

people

young

almost

seems

limited until recently by the


necessity./It was
which
prevented
powerful cohesion of family groups,
solidarityof the young
generation against the old
any
from
gether
toappearing, so that the youth of a villagecame
social

only for
ily life going on
of young

course,

these

made

people

groups,

for
some

as

decadence

the

parallellywith

isolation of communities
groups

but

amusement,

of
of

breakdown

the

the formation

fam-

the

of

solidary
possible* OfH
any
purposes
of our
documents
show,

possessing the same


degree of cohesion
less,
Nevertheand
solidarityas the original community.
their importance can
As
hardly be overestimated.
factors
of social disorganization they not only help the
are

far

from

individual

to

free

opinion^bytserve
whom

himself
as

of

centers

attitudes

the

is formed

group

innocent

interest^

under
"

its activities
matters.

groups

On

control

attraction

sociallynon-sanctioned
developed. Moreover, through
organization is apt to widen; it

such

the

from

them

the influence

those

have

not

in

yet
dis-

-*

happens that the


of

some

dress, smoking, games


extend

for

field of

the

often

social

of

begin

to

the

other

hand,

under

have

been

often

utilized

to

"

more

proper
for

relatively
and
ally
gradudangerous
leadership
purposes

of

social reconstruction, as

/which
v

type of

This

the

PEASANT

POUSH

THE

80

shall

we

the

disorganizationof
with

starts

process

in later chapters.

see

the

young

and primarily a dissolution


\essentially
{he
The
community begins Dy losihjgf

attitudes

which

action

common

it into

breaks

made

of

or

more

tendencies

of

of

uniiormity

of

of

cial
so-

values

new

different

with

camps

action.

is

social^

possible;the introduction
two

in

appreciation and

common

interest, different standards

of

community
generation

centers

appreciationand

If the
.,

vergent
di-

continues,

process

social

opinion degenerates Into gossip; public interest


of curiosityinstead of those of social
centers
matters
on
of the most
importance, and except in the condemnation
radical

crimes,

unanimity

no

As

a
point.
consequence
basis
opinion, unless a new
a

comes

both

of

more

divergence
and because
hostility

because

breeds

solidarityused
enforced
moral

It must

be

of

on

of

unity is reached,

of the forms

there

itself

are

in which

longer
rely only on
no

by social opinion and


feelingor desire for response^
understood,

any
social

decay of social solidarity,


appreciation and action

most

manifest

to

reached

this dissolution
of

less marked

or

be

can

of course,

that

the

quately
ade-

dividual
in-

process

disorganizationwhich starts with the young generation


is a complicated matter.
certain
of
As
a
group
people grow older and take the place of their paryoung
ents,
their new
in
moderate
attitudes
to
they have
adaptation to traditional problems and to old responsibilities
which
they are forced to face ; they bring indeed
of

and

new

discordant

element

into the

community, but
might have been

and discordant
as
radicallynew
At
the
expected judging by their earlier attitudes.
of young
time, however, a new
same
people has
group
not

as

taken

their place

as

the

revolutionary factor;

the

atti-

DISORGANIZATION

of these

tudes

but

OF

different

are

be

may

group.

chaotic

which,

evolution

shall

toward

channels
the

by

formation

on,

this

apparently
lead

itself,might

is directed

leadership

organized

to

into
tends

and

social system, less


better

the

of

increasing

cohesion,

new

and

those

with

how

if left to

conscious
of

from

so

later

see

multiform, wider

more

And

8i

of the old generation,

those

different

all social

complete decay of

definite

from

also

preceding young
complexity. We

COMMUNITY

THE

rigid,

than

the

old .one.

IA

very different type of


manifests
itself not

munity
disorganizationof the comof'
in a divergent evolution

within
generation but in a social disharmony
young
the old generation^ Here
the unity of social opinion is
the

not

originallyaffected; we

find

revolt

no

against

dition,
tra-

ards.
validityof old standThe
in a sociallyproindividual
who
behaves
hibited
of being wrong
either has the consciousness
way
and tries to conceal his actions from
the community, or
else interprets
in his favor and
standards
the traditional
tries to justify his behavior
from
their
standpoint.
There
is disorganizationof the community only because,
and in so far as, the individual members
act against the
principleof solidarity.
Now, this form of disorganizationis not a new
nomenon,
pheno

attempts

does

it has
For

not

to

contest

need

the

external

always existed

contacts

within

even

individual

attitudes, this attitude

with

equallyoriginalones,

harmonized

isolated

Although

on
solidarityis psychologicallyfounded
which
is,for the sociologist,
one
response

be

be

duced;
promunities.
com-

its origin lies in the original,temperamental

attitudes of the individual.

other

to

only by

an

and

the

communal
desire

of the

frequently
these

for

original
conflicts

conflicts

can

adequate social education.

82

We

nave

seen

in

that

manifestations

attitudes
the^emperamental

but

of

preciselyto
subordinating them to
is not

which

behavior
social

rules

rules

which

is

but

lack

while

sure
pres-

social education

by

practicewith
knowledges
explicitlyac-

in

rather

educational

community,

to

happen in

these

The
values

life open

rules

education
them
their
new

environment

bound

are

and

strong

of

less

and

doubt

no

have

breaks

explanation

of this

outside

from

new

behavior

did

that

the

and

number

greatly increased

in

into the

not

in its

suggestionswhich

their
these

life-organizationbecomes

community

which

or

more

the traditional

social

The

foresee.

did not
of

integrityin

the
less

or

pare
pre-

ing
maintainface

of

changed

conditions, every
more

the

that

to be

seems

the old

Under

and

everywhere.

situations

for many

offers.

breaks

the isolation of the latter disappeared.

since

social character

every

reaching

far

generation received
for the difficult task
sufficiently

which

members,

and

coherent,

or

always

introduced

the way

primary

failures

communities

peasant

by

all its

occurred

of

used
to

Nevertheless, there is

importance

fer,
dif-

temperaments

methods

more
solidarity,

frequent, have

social

given

uniformly applied

however

communal

the

by

individual

since

educational

the

are

demanded

character

And
environment^^

all the

the

of

the

into

new

to

Every case of anti-social


the explicitrejection of

compliance

of

moment

manifestation

their

to

social

individuaWmplicitly or
in theory, marks
tion,
failure of social educaa
titudes
imperfect organization of temperamental at-

an

group

due

aim

dividual
in-

an

in their

from

The

organize
rules.

of

other, under

each

personal needs/

actual

is

of

themselves

express

troducti
III, In-

(Volume

volume

preceding

independentlyof

moment,

some

PEASANT

spontaneously regulated

not

are
t

POLISH

THE

dividua
in-

less dis-

POLISH

THE

84

PEASANT

The

is gradually shaken.
/fstandards
rejected,but begin to
explicitly
it would

which

wishes

1possiblefully to
Inot

be treated

desirable

be

at

practice! Public

realize in

it is im-

its

loses all interest in facts which


vital these

control, however
of
in

the

first type of

the

it does
facts

is weak

how

curious

disorganizationit

to

the

for

be

and

know

not

may

/Xnd, by

community.

is when

condemnations

and

approvals

is

opinion

into

once

in

hesitant

while

which

but

pious

mere

as

not

are

opposite^camps, as it
generation revolts against the old,but

divided

;the young

'and

standards

istence
ex-

contrast,
is

usually

traditions
dress,ceremonial, leisure time
superficial
ers,
organization ^which begin to decay before all the othand the fundamental
principlesof social morality

the

"

"

remain

often
of

foundation
formal

in

unshaken,
social

this

cohesion

sanctioned

observances

second

weakened

is

by

type the

tradition

rigidlyas ever. ;
This
decay 6i the active moral
community exercises over its members
of
the growth of a specificform

very

while

the

kept

be

may

as

already mentioned
ter"^the tendency to individual
the community is efficient and
as

redress

whatever

the

group

preceding chap-

self-redress.

As

its standards
who

and

thinks

in

disharmony

social

applied,the individual
himself
wronged can obtain redress
and
either voluntarily accepts or
believed

the

results in turn

in the

which^we have

which

control

is

generally
imagines

or

through

long

his group,

is forced

accept

to

J But
justified.

when

the

are
no
longer
community is inactive or its standards
seriouslyand unhesitatinglyacknowledged by its menv^
and executive authoritycan
no
longer
bers, its judiciary,

have
course,

influence.

any

the

state, and

individual

in most

cases

According
should
the

to

seek

peasant

ideas, of

modern

redress
does

through
this.

But

the
we

OF

DISORGANIZATION

that

remember

must

the state

during

nationally foreign,

period of

the

by

run

was

C"MMUNITY

THE

his

wrong

had

and

measured

by

his

were

the

been
numerous

have

of

cases

which

quoted

in Volume

few.

V, with

also

Polish

the

from

is
the

peasant
that

add

and

similar

refernce

than

murder

to

where

cases

the state

even

the Russian

of redress

in which

cases

self-redress

which

compare,

he

will be

he
for

can

we

found,
the

among

jurisdiction,

system.

the standards

dress
re-

avenge

unfamiliar

more

of

will be

explanation
similar

he

of which

and

popular press

and

might
This explains*
geance
through ven-

the wrong.

arson

satisfied with

never

Then^

forms

and

means

primary-group member,
the
community control under

forms

always

hands.

own

first

immigrants in this country,


though less inefficient,seems
the

to

with

find in

we

the

justice of the

opportunity to
disproportionatethe vengeance

compared

as

the

which

his revenge

the

took

himself, however
have

in

cases

many

generallyas

often

urally
Nat-

by his wrong
subjectivegrievance. Moreover,

he

littlechoice

nation
domi-

inefficient,
corrupt and

an

peasant, not trustingin the abilityor


state authorities,took redress into his
course,

Russian

hostile, bureaucracy.

even

therefore, there

of

85

We

to

may

when

passing
state
tion,
jurisdicof justiceand

obtain, and

there

inclined

resort

to

instance,the long survival

are

to

of

duels.
.^

It must

be

realized,of

course,

that

the

two

types

have (
we
community which
tried to analyze and to explain separately,
disw^r.^.rflie
[
organizationwhich affects the young
generation and be- \
gins by a disintegrationof publicopinion,and the dis- \
organization which bears directlyon the old generation I
/
and begins by a decay of social solidarity,
usuallygo on
simultaneously,though either may
prevail in a given
of

disorganization of

the

THE

86

during^

community

of
where

as

is

type

remain

feels
the

the

with
old

the

the

whereas

the

the

against
fail

to

situations

old.

such

We

must

organized
\

in

at

least,

is

the

only

whatever

and

integration
of

is

group,

conscious

the

harmonious
bound

to

but

demand

not

rouse

also,

efforts

among
to

remedy

ing
revolt-

far

reflective
of

it.
.

of

gration
disinte-

as

to

its

stroy
de-

regulated,
social

Thus,

some

later

process

for

only

do

temporary.

social

as

life.

up,

or

entire

goes

social

of

only

(For

never

breaking

sooner

the^

by

influences

new

usually

temporary.

group

chiefly

think

community

that

form
the

the

are

however,

say,

entirely

whole

described

as

/disorganization
in

the

penetrate

since

But,

the

where

is

not

in

position

maintained

does

it

because

and

solidarity

generation

young

generation

precisely

is

world

first

the

communities,

communal

der
bor-

Galicia,

old

prestige

its
other

some

outside

generation,

the

perhaps

munities,
com-

Western

emigration

season

defend

to

In

community.

contact

not

it

of

are

Western

in

whereas

far,

solidary,

need

the

and

of

very

There

along

Kingdom

consequence

pushed
to

seems

period.

particularly

Congress

the

given

indeed,

PEASANT

POLISH

dis-

tion
atten-

members

CHAPTER

FOR

STRUGGLE

THE

IV

PRESERVATION

THE

OF

OLD

SOCIAL

SYSTEM

When
the

disorganization

the

object-matter

its members,
is that

of

the

against

traditional

or

be

to

different

its

satisfactory

and

itself

viewed

is

be

to

evil which

Such

the

judgments

groups

this

secondary

of

reflection

they

they

real

chief
are

task

found

constitute

in the
are

the

the

most

and
of
not

complex
of

backbone
87

or

social

life,

But

society

of

social

less

or

social

a
as

long

as

tion
disorganiza-

in

most

all coercive

the

matter,

is to

main

and

itself

existing system
of

only

the

that

standpoint,

important

still the

milieux

matter,

the

to

quence
conse-

more

broader

factor.

reference

as

the

order

discloses

being disorganized, phenomena


judged

are

old

of

variety

social

with

exclusively

which

social

than

rather

symptom

the

problem

From
is

group

and

difficult

indefinite

an

the

possible,

simplicity

very

faces

social

as

of
of

forms

new

system

negation

either

appears

solutions.

disorganization

of

seeming

evolution, offering

which

other

ing
aris-

phenomena

mere

"

with

order

complex

social

later, when,

only

realization

loses

very

alternative

contact

social

as

of

part

immediately

The

problem

It is

closer

growing

problem
as

chaos.

complete

the

the

simple

first

at

the

on

existing

the

becomes

group

attention

decadence.

appear

order, and

of
of

of

process

social

tendency

spontaneous

Strengthening

disorganization

seems

reflective

of

the

of

overcome.

primary
content

ant
peas-

of

civilized
and

cial
societies,
so-

repres-

POLISH

THE

88

sive

all "social reform**

of almost

and
legislation

The

PEASANT

difference

between

primary

peasant

ties.
activigroup

complex and fullycivilized societyis in


this respect mainly a difference in the degree of sophistication.
The
attitude of the peasant
community is
in trying
both in appreciatingthe evil and
naive
more
to deal with
it,and the entire machinery of repression
is incomparably simpler, its motives
and
reform
are
and

modern

Even
old

when,

the

social
of

traditional

of the

agencies, while
they

than

and

when

the

their

show

and

do

with

dealing
they

and

preservation

peasant,

motives

critical social

more

in the

in contact

are

the

sophisticated

in peasant

values

for

struggle

more

interested

are

sincere.

more

the influence

on

agencies which

methods

the

partly under
higher developed and

help of

most

expression

present case,

our

is carried

system

with

in

as

their

and

transparent

more

life,these
fined
re-

explicitly

more

with

higher

For

classes.

less

use

all

cated
edu-

these

struggle for the old system


should permit us to reach conin peasant communities
clusions
additional
which, though they can
not without
to apply to more
complex and
investigationbe assumed
the

reasons,

study

of

In

to
conseryatismin its^i;elation

these

studying

in mind

the

fact

with

and

other

evolution.

As

coherent

values, it does

"

long
and
not

as

which

tend

any

keep

class is not
is in

an

tact
con-

nobility,the

to

influence

community

its traditional

to need

basis

tion
explana-

must

we

societybut

the peasant

preserves
seem

"

social disorganization.

clergy, the

^the

cityclass

middle

and

peasant

isolated

and

classes

Polish

as

serve

questions,however,

that the

entirelyindependent

and

nevertheless

general hypotheticalcharacterization

lower

the

societies,may

differentiated
for

of

its

is strong

system

initiative or

of

leader-

PRESERVATION

FOR

STRUGGLE

OF

SOCIAL

SYSTEM

89

of other

classes;its social life rtms


with very littlereflectiveattention,
its evolution for,

ship of

members

"

of course, it is never
perceptible,
entirely
stationarygoes on by imalmost continuous changes,
and isolated phenomena
"

of

dealt with

are
disorganization

ity,
by the major-

in which the active power of social control is vested.


But when the process of disorganization
continues at
an

the peasant community becomes less


deal with it by its own
outside
means,

rate
accelerating

and less able

to

help and initiativeare

needed

to defend

even

system againstdecay. It is the Church


this need,and

we

which

the old

supplies

ods
shall see in this chapter
by what meth-

and with what effects. The

of
leadership

more

scious
con-

and

highereducated social elements is even more


to direct the evolution of peasant communities
indispensable
toward
but in this

the formation of

social system;

new

it will prove that the very progress of


this social reconstruction tends to developa new
kind
of
the

case

autonomy of the peasant class,an

growth of

autonomy due

to

this class itself.

within
leading
minority

rectly
[Here the power of traditional social attitudes is diWith such a psychology,
opposedto socialdisorganization.
crime againstpersons is possil^le
only either as reaction against
real or supposedbreak of solidarity,
some
or as an
individually,
abnormal phenomenon ^the result of a temporary
not socially,
of the personality.]
or
permanent disorganization
unknown
Last fall,in the villageof H
derers
mursome
close
killed a farmer, Maciej Tryka. The trial did not disdenly,
and the crime remained unpunished. Sudthe delinquents
and Jan Sprysak,
few days ago, Michat Olszowka
a
of
to the judge who
of
the
vicinity Krzeszow, came
peasants
to conhad the inquestin charge.
fess
voluntarily
They came
that it was
they Who killed Tryka. Nobody knew anything
53.

"

about their connection with the murder


would
to

not

give them

peace

until

but their conscience

they decided

confess their crime and to do penance

i
4

for it.

to return

POUSH

THE

90

PEASANT

SwigUesna,

Gaaeta

[An example of

54.
on

We

the

epidemic character

are

attached

seldom

that

happens
In

home.

only

even

or

one

But

people deserve

our

handicraft, but
inherits

only

for

farms

one

moreover

morg

will farm

divided

are

scattered

so

place to build.

"

also

country

scarcely

have

leave

not

blame, for they do


land.

the

wants

his

upon

it himself.

into smaller

that the

around

The

farmers

changed
their
who

only

and

places

to

receives

the construction

new

There

life-pensionand

place, a thing which


land

of

is bad,

parts, and

are

simply have

their

no

seldom
.

Its managers

owner.

retired

The

the

families of

half

another

one

here

[and live

very

give

workman
bricks

for

men
steady work-

by marriages.

As

attached

the

are

among

also

often

not

dug clay for

happens
.

do

still lives

life.]

for almost

existed

25.

who

factory.

own

industrial

steady workmen

ones.

of the

of all this, the workers

consequence

have

and

frequently unified with

are

sell it

SxMfiqtecgna,
1904,

in

has
.

changed its

once

seldom,

very

body
some-

not

this

And

try

sugar-factory Michatow

century

will

smaller

and

not

if

Even

father, he

from

[Old social principlespreserved

55*

it very

his

yet they do

Gaseta

It indicates

and

and

farmers

some

some

everybody

his brother, but

to

land

his

of land, and

morg

influences.

new

place [Lubochnia]

leaves

anybody

organized

disorganization.]

native

our

remains

4.

village. [The parish is backward.]

their

any

of

neighborhood

our

...

three

to

spite of

in

purely traditional basis

which

community

1900^

to

do not
people who
respectablelives].

factory accepts only unwillingly,forced by


beets are
dering,
prepared, a few wannecessity during the time when
because
homeless
workmen,
they often make trouble in
And

therefore

the

factories.

Swiqtecsna,

Gaseta

In the

56.

villageOlszewica

tled"supporting themselves

opened
a

few

very

poor

roubles

worth

briskly; however,

populous and

by trade.

little shop in which


of

goods.
in

noisy. The

...

the

The

there

The

few

Jewish families
father

of

each

sometimes

was

trade

1900,

therefore

evenings, in

every

8.

set-

family
scarcely

did
store

not

it

go
was

half-grown boys of the village as-

those

only neighbors, but

Not

district.

the

of

PEASANT

POLISH

THE

92

signed the resolution.

outcasts

Swiqtecjma, 1898^

Gaseta

I asked

58.
used
but
a

decided

we

would

theft

the

[of

thefts, particularlythey
at

be

meeting

communal

for

excluded

ever

**

Formerly there

stealinghorses;

were

whoever

that

from

26.

villageKowalowka]

said

he

is afraid of theft and

awful

be

to

of the farmers

one

there

why nobody

of

relatives

even

the

committed
if

and

commune,

voluntarilyhis property would ,be sold


be given him
be
and
he would
would
at
auction, the money
Since that time there has been no
driven away.
stealingin our
he

did not

want

leave

to

commune."
Swuftecsna,

Gazeta

In

Sg.

his

Antoni,

son

old

Makoszyn.

with

beat

flails his father-in-law, a

The
Jozef Majda.
against his son-in-law

Majda

wronged

man,

and

his

7.

help of

the

Andrzej Lekarczyk with

1903,

white-haired

brought

grandson and

plaint
com-

the

court

condemned

and
Antoni
to
Andrzej Lekarczyk to 3 months
But
weeks' imprisonment.
Majda begged the court to commute
this punishment to a church-penance. And
done.
it was
so
with

conformity
for

three

service
in such

demand

the
in

Sundays

In

Majda, the Lekarczyks stood

parish church

the

the flails with

with

of

they had

which

during the divine

beaten

the old man,

It was
a
place that everybody could see them.
great
for them.
shame
Now
people laugh at them, point at them with
their fingersand
them
for a long time about their
will remind
should
the Lekarczyks running
see
disrespect for gray hair. You
a

home

from

They

coats.

without

ran

their flails hidden

with

the church

looking around

their

under

only dust

rose

behind

them.

Swi^eczna,

Gaseta

In

6o.

for

part of

priestsevery

year

this is called

and

the

even

When

the

house

look

joy

our

and

poorest

in

the

country

January
with

for

call

on

9.

it is customary
their

parishioners,

going
They do not omit
hut, provided it is inhabited by Catholics.
the

priest is expected
out

to

[Kurow]

1899,

him,

wait

to

kolenda.

come,

for him

good-willthey offer him

the
with

inhabitants

joy, and

the so-called kolenda,

of

from

the

this

composed

STRUGGLE

FOR

vessels.
.

eat, such

to

of
in

"Well,

this

that

and

whatever

his

people offered.

He

of

score

in fact this

the

and

cart

it
others

began
that

so

carts, the

the

the

to

oats

the

where

did

not

oats

them

the

the

when

But

elder

with

oats

and

gave

J. said

us

bushels

walk

learned
from

one

bushel

has

roubles

they

stolen

bring
will

gamiec

at

give

it

eaten

you

constables, an
up

to

off

give
The

oats.

in

kolenda

as

but

they
ished
aston-

he

was

acquainted with

was

that they
village-group,

the court

house

of

that

should

They

then

back

indictment
a

and

decided
the

for the organ,

for

take
who

stain the

have

been

said:

"Let

[8 bushels] oats, for

by the horses,
"Give

ascertain

and

there

korzec

so

must

?"

oats.

two

"We

this wretch

should

Having

J. and said:
give 100 roubles

once

to

proved

each

to

and

and

inquired

priestswere

this,they said

Why

give back

for the church."

went

gave

oats

The

to

They

nobody

the

stained himself

perhaps

was

them

J. told the truth, for

house

much.

him, let him

to

go

of 9

dained
justiceor-

in this way.

Well, after verification


nine

to

But

kolenda

the

oats.

no

[to the cart]."

farmers

how

drink.

ordered

they loaded

that

him

went

finallyhe

took

and

that

suspicion fell upon

us,

J.

man

"Well," said J.,"they loaded


doubt

priest,

full, another

was

When

and

were

how

saw

not

villageif he

whole

and
I

cheating people

were

that

oats.

treat

there

out

priests. Thus

cart

probably Divine

all the

the

the

immediately approached

He

them

long stretch, for the

pious and god-fearing and

always considered
the

sing

collect after

to

and

priest'shouse

house."

one

him

going with

his

When

But

were

they did

but

rather

But

took
the

to

"Why,

carry

went

horses.

than

more

order

he wanted.

priestgave

priest said:

team

rob.

to

he

back

went

was

in

houses.

what

not

was

with

go

pretext of giving the horses

farm-yard under

else other

or

acquaintance of

an

came
village-elder's,

the

team,
his

J., as

man,

with

priest visited

who

boys

village the priest vicar

followinghim

was

93

priest,coming in,

[here Christmas-song].

kolenda

the

and

God,

The

apples, etc.

eggs,

as

Lord

stanza

kolenda

SYSTEM

They give rye, barley, oats, buckwheat,

praises the
one

SOCIAL

OF

gamiec of grain,usually of three kinds, packed in three

of several

things

PRESERVATION

or

let him

among

otherwise
written

greater shame."

100

themselves,
that you

oats

will be

pay

we

and

J. was

have
will
we
con-

POLISH

THE

94

fused

said

and

But

the

But

he

'1 will

did

farmers

they agreed

there

But

There

such

are

keep the honest


it,everybody knows
found, and
it

help,

does

people

in terror

where

and

his house

happens

also

free

not

or

the

from
in the

time

had

they simply belonged

that

in

look

the

upon

last few

the

thief

the

seldom

only during
People tolerate
such

they

the

terrible

take

went

Reska.

crime.

Michniewski,

sharply at

once.

of

the
Then

It

certain

this

hate

sheep

thief

and
it

stolen

were

learned

in the

village Swinikierz, and


Michniewski

led them

silence

thieves
quently
fre-

very
even

now.

sin

into

that
him

happened [in
at

night from

it in the

ing,
morn-

community, Jan

started
to

to

up

torture

writes

farmer

farmers, having

thief well-known

strange

of

happens

gives up his spirit. So


a

proved

time, but finallyfall


the

which

the

oppression

minding the heavy

catch

it

happened

it

and

years

some

ago

and

humility
the

for

But

Other

straightto

in

ciates
asso-

exasperation

enemy.

that

...

the farmer

worst

not

tion
popula-

half

way.

has

the

to

happened

to

he

It is not

also

about
following case]
In the village2elechlin
.

and

that

does

example,

bear

souls, they

until he

for

to

as

thief

constables, for

bear

that, without

their

upon

for

thing can
other

defend

year

their

last two

thief up

anger

like executioners
the

the

is to

bers
rob-

he fears

some

sometimes

come

to

far

as

in

of thieves.

forced

were

community

gang

upon

as

stolen
for

him,

case,

country

40

accustomed

years,

thieves; it very

pushed

from

of

everybody knows

word,

duty

the

people

oppression,they

every

of

conditions

such

whose

to

the

themselves

of Bedzin, where
dismiss

to

fear

15.

1905,

handful

denouncing the

was

that

and

be

to

were

whom

say

community

This

district

authorities

to

even

those

thieves.

and

with

avenge

that

preciselyamong

where

communities

stillnobody dares

they will burn


And

him

Swiqtecgna,

Gaseta

be

carry

be."

must

6i.

finally

should

with

went

and

that

30

that he

farmers

priest counted

roubles.
curate."

few

only

pay

roubles.

50

only 29
I beg, priest
And
"Let it be this much
J. said:
the priestanswered
"No, what the village-group
:

decided

priest. A

The

witnesses.

let him

to

of oats/'

6 bushels

this, only remitted

to

Only they demanded

the

to

much

and

roubles

lo

agree

so

this.

to

[thismoney]

not

them

begged

give

PEASANT

the

the

matter

neighboring

STRUGGLE

FOR

PRESERVATION

villageWggrzynowo,
under
in

his home

i".hiding
of

night

Beneturek.

well-known

2elechlin searched

the farm

time

to

the district-town

him

so

that

and

asked

ago.

for

of

took

But

The

ended
he

his life in the

had

hospital. Before

given by farmers
horse-stealing. One

to

the

men

Swiqteczna,

to

letters,that of J. J.

letter

follows

as

For

two

The

The

him.

repliedby

already the inhabitants

Last

year

in

wedding-festivalfrom

of

Grzegorz Chachula

and

to

searched

cows

The

which

it.

After

some

Against all of them

time

Labuk

cart, for

stood, together with

night also Jurga

went

to

the

with

pasture

these
Klima

but he feared

week

it,but they feared


neighbors knew
horses
brought and taken away
were

well-

Jozef

brought

[stable]. The
Moreover,

cows

Kwiatkowski

Domanski, Adam

Klima

speak about

picion
sus-

The

prove.

horses.
or
[to steal]his cow
them, recognized and frightened [them] away,
to

came

horses

at

stolen

were

farmers.

impossible to
for them.

they could

uttered

were

known

saw

Domanski

Antoni

two

of these

Jozef

Labuk,
by Jurga and also by Mateusz
Once
thief livingin Budziszewice, district of Rawa.

threats

one

collective

Romanowo,

and

winter

one

Jurga, but it was


Andrzej and Antoni

found.

found

published

Gaseta

farmers

fell upon
were

ceived
re-

were

:]

years

catch

during

two

letters

suspected Jurga of keeping stolen things, but

never

ing
beat-

innocent, that the horses


them.

6.

1907,

of

account

Two

Pytka, Piotr Owczarski, Jozef Owczarski


had

that

neighbors suspected of

death.

to

were

reallybelonged

their

of

two

beaten

was

claiming these
of

man

dying he confessed

Swiqieczna published an

[The Gazeta

them

led

and

unhappy

Gaseta

with

sheep himself.

stolen the

62.

found

they "judged"
to the hospital

him

medicine.

who

tants
inhabi-

and

way

to take

were

Mela,

Beneturek

the

on

munity
com-

there

The

Beneturek

They

95

in the

said that

He

they had
and

doctor

known

Jozef Michniewski.

Rawa.

finallyin Rawa

SYSTEM

thieves, a certain

and

some

SOOAL

Jozef D.,

himself,Klimczak

spade stolen
him

his friend

to

the nickname
last

OF

to

at

them

pair of
in Jurga's
a

betray

and

night
as

it.

far

as

Modlica.
In

the

spring Jurga

having quarrelledwith

set the

him

house

about

of

Jozef Owczarek

horse.
.

; he had

on

fire,

threatened

96

THE

before

him

in

succeed
When

POLISH
and

much

very

PEASANT

he

fulfilled his threat.

did

He

not

trying to put fire to the buildingsof Antoni Domanski.


the mayor
and clerk from Rzgow came
vestigati
into make
an
concerning the fire

about

evil

was

thief among

no

left,people said:

"There

order."

to

and

began

to

people, thieves,incendiaries,the inhabitants

that there

the thieves

Owczarek's

at

So,

village-elderSzychowski

is

them.

When

question but

no

swered
an-

ties
the authori-

bring

must

we

the request of the community,

at

quire
in-

the

formation
day (in July, 1905) the inthat there
[to the authorities]through the watchman

three

were

sent

strange horses

next

with

Sliwkowski

Tomasz

and

Antoni

Jurga.
Constables
Labuk

in

returned

and

did

he

would

find

not

through the villageand

Jurga

of Romanowo

Sliwkowski, one

from

home

Rzgow.

ran

think.

from

threatened

The

walked

he

the whole

this
horses

Jurga. When

the horses

to

away,

get certificates for the horses"

to

inhabitants

the

taken, one

from

once

Budziszewice,

is,at least,what
were

at

came

Jurga
night

at

village,saying

that

hang, roast like crayfishesall the inhabitants,and


he promised the village-elder
that he would
hang his bowels upon
the poplar-tree. Before
first
going to Jurga, the farmers went
bum,

Sliwkowski,

Tomasz

they long ago suspected of taking


or
keeping stolen goods at least,but
part in the thieves' work
whom
When
they stood before evening
they feared to touch.
on
July 9th and deliberated how to make order in the villageand
to

it from

cleanse

[stable] for

springs,and

whom

thieves, Klima

days there stood


Depinski added that there

Sliwkowski.

They

and

the devil !

refused

what

upon
a

him

beat him

and

strange horse and

devil I

It is

sold it. "To


saw

l"liwkowski
head

where

asked

When

and

another

whom?**"
knife
and

broke

had

him;

the thinner

he

stood

had

since

spring.

"What

said that he

the
had

body
bought it." SomeThen
they rushed upon

the money
hand.

they inflicted
bone

he

the

they rushed

answered:

Then

; and

stable,where

the

he

and

horses

When

Sliwkowski

was,

began with

business"

of your

business.**

"Who

the

were

none

that

one

in Sliwkowski's
beat

inspect. They

in his stable.

bryczka

of your

none

[vehicle] on
horses too.
They all

he opened
little,

the

It is

had

he

to

Sliwkowski's

in

bryczka

were

where

him

asked

bryczka. "What
show

went

that

some

started, called the elder

to

remarked

few

in his forearm.

wounds

on

his

Having taken

STRUGGLE

FOR

the horse

asked

to

The

morning

to

SYSTEM

97

day, July
dress

to

nothing. This

Sliwkowski,

suspicionabout

next

went

they found

everything and

their

SOCIAL

Jurga. But before this


to Wbdyslaw
they also suspected and
Bajer, whom
show what he had got that was
not his own.
Bajer

gone

him

opened

Sliwkowski, they

from

they had

OF

PRESERVATION

loth

his wounds.

refused

who

doctor

to

came

found

He

had
to

ened
strength-

show.

Sliwkowski

in the

and

beaten.

him

sore

through the
During the night before July nth
Jurga walked
at the
villagetill morning and uttered terrible threats. He was
elder's house, but

did

they

killed him

and

out

ran

villagetook part
in Romanowo

and

find him.

not

there

the

is such

but
has

relative in Lodz

them

itself

guiltupon
and

order

for years.
who
We
guess
he
it is probably because

was

In this affair the whole

sticks.

with

takes

Finallypeople got impatient,

such

who

brings him

write

is true, and

Now

whole.

there

as

peace

J. J. is. He
is his

as

never

Sliwkowski,

defends

Sliwkowski

father-in-law.

goods, and he

stolen

passes

on.

All

this that

those of

them

among

we

the

in

quoted

men

sign it. [14 signatures,


the letter.]

we

Gazeta

In

63.

liquor sale

governmental
The

inhabitants

whiskey
better

in

wanted

to

situated
said:

of this

and

beer

this way.
a

open

near

found

the

lawsuits

vengefulness, no

they

this

when

past

did

year

other

something aside into his box.


again, the old sins would come

If

no
no

troubles, and

liquor found

back

with

it and

it is

as
village,

to

agree

were

authorities

the

in this

had

village;there
or

succeeding much

year

not

we

sold at all.

were

were

liquor shop

governmental

in

the

of

ing
the habit of drink-

off from

that

Therefore,

peace

introduction

drinks
intoxicating

villagebroke

and

the

38.

1905,

highway, the farmers

had

no

"During the whole


we

since

Chotcza-Dolna,

Swiqteczna,

this.

They

stead
liquor,but infights,no re-

everybody put
itself among
we

do

not

us

want

this/'
Gazeta

64.
here.
some

Until
You

snotty

short time ago

could

not

fellow

it

was

was

very

much

g,

developed

through the villagewithout meeting


of machora
inhaling bad-smelling smoke
pass

[lowest quality of Russian


meeting

smoking

Swiqttczna, iSgg^

tobacco].

decided

that

But

this year

everybody

who

at
saw

munal
com-

half-

POLISH

THE

98

boy with

grown

it,and

youthful smoker
resolution

dances,

music

in which

but

^not

"

in turn

he

such

permit

to

and

his father.

upon

The

amusements.

people gathered
punished.

to

young

and

"

to

for response

which

by introducing into
initiative and
In

everything
lived

host

to

of the house
be held

sponsible
re-

Swiqtecsna, 1899^

it

new

element

an

26l

by direct personal appeal

gives a

to

darity
vitalityto group soliof voluntary individual

reaction.]

village [Wylaztow],

our

another

[Disorganization remedied

the desire

the

together

come

play would

Giueta

65.

thority.
au-

upon

also

made

They

people

ungrown

indecent

fall not

evidently

lage-elde
vil-

the

the proper

inform

should

responsibilitywould

The

inform

cigarettein his teeth should

about

PEASANT

far

as

back

as

remember

we

pleasant. All the neighbors


But
suddenly
respected each other.

peaceful,quiet and

was

in

good concord and


things began to get spoiled. Neighbors began to look askance at
each
else, there
other, here somebody quarrelled with someone
a

neighbor brought another

be the matter?
I

us.

the

us,

other

restless and

did not

He

know

how

began

he incited,he
in real anger

and

beginning of

the

live in peace

to

he

so

to incite others

abetted

people

And

court.

revengeful man

people of Wylaztow,

and

to

one

what

found

was

quarrelled with

against each

to

among

everybody, like

with

He

against these.

proved

other,

and

one

an-

spread gossip,
it ended

that

so

quarreling. And nobody knew where


trouble.
Finally slandering reached a

was

the

who

man

prudent and had been reading for a long time the Goseta
Swiqteczna. This one, instead of slandering his neighbors in

was

turn

getting indignant

or

the

came

gossip. And

spreading

was

bad

at

thus,

them, resolved
as

soon

gossip about

as

him,

he
he

to

learned
went

good way inquired why these people bore


And
him.
thus, as the proverb says, he found
in

the

thread.

His

example

was

discover

followed

that

there
a

whence

somebody

himself

and

grudge against

lowing
by folby all his neighbors.
the clew

another's
pardon and found out who
They begged one
all of them
Now
live in
incitingthem against one another.
was
all began to
listen to any
bad gossip, and
concord
and do not

despise that
attract

any

neighbor. Seeing that he would not


longer anybody to his side here, he began to spread
one

unworthy

POUSH

THE

lOo

poor

came

without

tellingher

name

The

the

factory

deposited a thousand

roubles

which

put these thousand

years.

in

working

woman

for the church


had

PEASANT

is

roubles

priest tried

something for herself

being built

aside

of

case

her

her

that

as

tribution
con-

earnings

in ten

should

leave

she

sickness, lameness

and

towns

parish. She

in this

from

persuade

to

in

of

one

loss of

or

strength,but she answered : 'Xet all this go to the glory of God!


God will remember
[take care of] me for this in the future."
Sunqtecsna, 1898* 47"

Gazeta

[Another example of

69.
A

laborer

named

the

Stanistaw

Dutkowski

cleaninghides in Adler's
had

one

him

in order

cleaned

then

turned

him, and

to

tried to

as

took

the

that

heap and counted


Dutkowski, realizingthat he
in

insane

became
.

as

and

working

was

in

week's

taken

had

time

nearest

Kraszewski

ear.

continued

counted
as

to

act

to

hides

the

there

false oath,

had

He

stolen it." Dutkowski

hides

many

was

missing.

one

They

near

returning counted

was

I have

hesitation.

he

as

He

it,but the former

lying

soon

cleaned.

upon

who

gaged
en-

were

laid it

and

stealingan

take

"Swear

without

oath

As

ear

had

there

for

others

enraged called the other workmen

said

and

and

that

not

an

he

Kraszewski,

did

Kraszewski

witnesses

him

scold him

to

explain that he

scold.

to

began

his work

to

Wojciech

to

hides

many

from

away

it seemed

and

ears

how

off

cut

religiousattitudes.]
and

in Radom.

tannery

immediately

know

to

suddenly called
the

he

of

power

ears.

were

immediately

be removed

to

pital.
hos-

Swiqteczna, 1894,

Gazeta

31.

of strengtheningthe influence
[One of the classical means
portant
imof religionby connecting it magically with the most
these
Of
practicalinterests of the community.
course,
used by
survival of primitive magic but now
ceremonies
are
a
70.

clergy quite consciously as

the

winter

The
to

be very

got

rains

our

like

horses

then

as

time

not

only

vivifyingstream

time,

we

But

we

on

of social

control.]

work

flows down

in

spring

of

April colds they


and
look better
if only

consequence

crops

to
.

means

neighborhood promised

summer

this year.

depend

this

from

come

harvest

good, but
The

worse.

in

crops

shall
know

that

but also
upon

have

not

us

on

to

buy

oats

for

good luck and good


God's

from

grace,

heaven.

which
There-

STRUGGLE
fore

try

OF

people,as if inspiredwith
to

now

divine

by

The

prayer.

adorn

houses,
within

which

and

from

priest who

the

outside

garland

one

it consecrates

there

now

and

only

none.

the

Then

carpenter.
own

almost

are

of

of this crime, and

farmers.

the

SwiqtecsfM,

Once

they stole

night.

same

thefts

other

Many

wrong-doers began

feel

to

all

to

[The

of

use

thefts;

his

parish on

discovered.

Thus
to

Swuftecsna,

in accordance

leisure time

poor

man

sukry that they ceased

so

brought back

was

Gaseta

7a.

1905, 37.

wronged

in the

count
ac-

parishioners for help

cow
were

from

cow

the

gave

general prayers
The

seen.

meadows,

formerly innumerable

discovery of the thieves.

the

altar is

were

appealed

the

of green,

woven

priest Langier

ordered

cow,

of

dwellings,the fields,

the

property

there

[In Gomulin]

walls

of fields and

the borders

the whole

lands,
gar-

villagea procession comes

Gaseta

7z"

lucky

girlsweave

and
the

whole

by the

leads

and

meadows

obtain

to

beautifullydressed

around

the church, walks

and

are

particularsolemnity.

women

and

them

there

the service ordered

After

service

villagelooks like

here

good,

there

times

in order

us

for this with

prepare

with

the

for

eagerness
these

In

loi

...

among

divine

crosses

that

so

SYSTEM

villagepeople
the

SOCIAL

tmheard-of

an

errors.

performed

day before

The

their

correct

services

harvest

the

PRESERVATION

FOR

in

the
the

steal.

19014, 46.

traditional

with

long ago found one of the most efficient remedies


against disorganization,particularlyof the youth.]

principleswas

I want

tell how

to

Sundays

holidays.

and

themselves

in houses

the

or

to

Gazeta

annoy

the

well

farmer
He

was

put

got up

took

and

another

in

one

evening

the
bucket

heavily that he reeled.

and

started

above

bucket

could
to

upon

[They broke

with

siping,
goshow

Once, for example,


which

the top of

and

his hand

deliberated

and

acts.

even

they gathered

themselves

people,

upon

morning

something fell from


so

or

at

formerly on

it into

took

ever

farmer.

winter

they amused

words

on

and

nobody

laughing

with

played

was

where

book, but

any

slandering
somebody

this trick

In autumn

...

itself

youth amused

our

...

find

not

draw

water,

his head
open

the

and
bam

near

was

The

crane.

the

bucket.

when
struck
and

denly
sudhim

drove

THE

loa

POLISH

PEASANT

the cattle from

the stable into it

gathered around

thinking there

time

logs. Then
and

road

threw

they

night could

fence

not

the road,

they took washed


On
.

Sunday

in the church, but

often

swearing,

how

neighbors

thick

fences

that

other
An-

bam.]

dozen

some

linen from

the service
with

in the

so

The

poplarthe

along

anybody going

at

in the middle
of the
[They put stones
naphtha into the well of another farmer.

pass.

along the road.

trees

pieces

to

across

They poured

Elsewhere

thieves

were

somebody's well

again they took

made

road.]

into

night.

dark

one

that

so

and

ropes

returned

none

after

home

late at

night with

noise

it

unpleasant

to

was

it upon

hung

and

cries,
And

listen.

out
It could not go on either withfightsthere were.
stealingfrom parents, for Szulc or Szmul
[German or Jewish
or
shopkeeper] did not give liquor for nothing, but for money
many

...

grain.
But
us

now

formed

"Garland

of

meetings, and

helped and

us.

who

had

nicknamed

us,

tricks,but
the

villagebelong

our

company

follow
our

with

to

examples

from

of

the

the

divine

band

service

have

they

now

in the

of the

[A band

of

if
or

we

plan
from

take

we

and

us

not

yet

keep

they wish; we shall not


Gaseta
Swiqteczna and take
Swiqtecsna,

are

formed

was

been

Warsaw,

near

4.

32

farmers'
how

months

holidaysduring

already playing on

church

the

choir.

16 musicians

villageMierzwin.]

which

to

1907,

by the endeavors

learning for several

Gaseta

74.

at

it.

priest a musical

play and

among

some

as

parish Stomczyn,

belong. They

sons

to

In

do

Some

Gaseta

73.

respected

our

together part of the


already ninety people

say
Now

example but shall read

their

to

who

found

They laughed

we

do

them

Let

us.

began

we

please

not

Garland.

our

by

of

were

books, which

useful

parish;

our

now
discouraged. And
order to slander anybody

suitable prayers.

litanyand

and

papers

Rosary-library in

Rosary,
in

longer in

no

read

we

not

were

we

together it is

come

this did

most

in their heads.

mischief
but

helped

All
.

good people

were

Zaiusak.

priest Pawe)
those

We

Living Rose,^' and

the

organize different
taught

Fifteen

it is better.

boldly write that

can

Thus

was
a

Swigtecsna,

formed

rather

among

large group

1903,

16.

the youth
of

young

STRUGGLE

FOR

in this

people
ennobles

give

him

band

of

the

villagespend
makes

man,

Mierzwin

undertook

buy

an

teach

musicians.

band

of the

[In Klementowice]

not

and

to

church

come

so

many

if

they

young

two

so

men,

ashamed

are

not

that he does
and

or

three

sing at

to

girlsI

But
.

if

other, and

sing properly. And


others

from

villageLowkowice

In the

popular club

established.

was

by priest Krajewski
The

club

then
.

others

voice

is not

that

his

thus

they

do

sing

not

singing.
Swiqtecgna, 1898,

jgi

of the old tavern,

performed

was

for

entertainment

an

with
.

starts, the

consecration

they sing

Christmas

dren
chil-

tree.

is open

club

there
sugar

like in

also

there

can

is

and

rest

similar
where

tavern,

and

in which

shop

or
jokes, in brutality

refresh

themselves, for

77.

things

be

can

conversation

found.

peasant

usually ended

traditional
The

in

is

not

quarrelsand

shows,

from

the

Swi^ecsna, i8g8,

standpoint of

applied by the clergy to individual

community

This
.

fights.

[This document

methods

the

near

rings,
always bread, cheese, butter, her-

Gazeta

the

shall

have

we

everyday for guests.


[Papers are on the table
ellers
Sundays and holidays the neighbors gather for talk.] Trav-

and

the

how

in the club-room

given

was

The

and
.

they do

if

Why,

instead
.

ly
scarce-

are

all.

one

[saying] either

they hinder

particular

any

i9.

alization
of individu-

sing, and

who

Gaseta

76.

to

peasant

Swiqtecsna, iSg6,

singing. There

women

nobody

many

him

nice

themselves

lack church

of each
at

or

we

there is

immediately laugh

teach

can

development of

the

accompanied by
positiveinterest.]

men

self
him-

and

[The priest is going

[Failure of leisure time organizationbecause

few

of

songs.]

not

the

owner

instruments

Gaxeta
75.

even

may

organization of

bought musical

the

and

Suchecki, the

Mr.

103

music, which

on

The

to

that the leader

so

sing church

to

need.

in

he

SYSTEM

pleasant companion

...

to

organ

group

him

SOCIAL

free moments

chieflydue

is

Grudzyn

estate

their

piece of bread

OF

PRESERVATION

in

members

la

priest,
of the

struggling against the disorganizationof

system.]

Catholic

confession, according

to

the

intention

of

the

Church, is

only

not

PEASANT

POLISH

THE

104

tance,
sake of remit-

sins for the

of

disclosure

directingthe believers,regulatingtheir
'everyday life according to the Christian principlesas they are
The
activityof the cwiexposed by the Catholic Church.
but

also

of

means

fessor

of

members

between

wife, education

and

husband

children), [relation

of

large family and

of the

life(questionsof
of

expenses,

the

community],

paid

wages

etc.), social life (life in the

work,

to

state

question of

"

Jews, etc),

to

feeling,relation

life (Polish language, national

national

raised

relations

confession.

during

between
of

the

husband

priest.

"

peasants' thresholds.

of

use

what

to

be

can

Let

priest must

vagina after

He

serious

more

with

cases,

conscience

pure

take

does

the husband

not

orders

the coitus.

She

that

one

even

want

her

had

to

the

quently
fre-

more

coitus

immoral, sinful,

are

he

using

or

conjugal onanism,
teach

must

further
at

her

alternative.

If he

says

spite of

all will continue

it is not

sin, he will
of

physician and

all, the
send

to

act

act

her

to

and

not

But

husband.

to

die, but

she

The

that it is

against the moral

finallywent
to

want

priest stands

sin, the

in this way,

priest should

that

stopping the sexual

long time

does

refuse

and

her

will kill her.

will

nor

can

merely from

pillsinto the vagina before

some

She
.

emaciate

listen about

to

for

here

childbirth

more

take

doubts

priest for advice.

First

the

scrupulous than

them

(I take

examples

some

relation and

an

crease
in-

new

(have relations only

standpoint of the church).


A
complains that children
I.
woman

before

fluence
in-

time).

us

neither

and

that

teach

must

quently
fre-

enormous

more
more

women,

"

frequently over

more

washing of the vagina

physician told her

the

the

In

done

and

more

the

not.

or

nature.

determined

the

sin

condoms,
pills,

contrary

problem of avoiding

questions of

washing

whether
is

The

And

the

answer

medicines

wife

family steps

the

of

field of

and
.

is

tional
na-

regulation of sexual

The
.

"

men,

to

religiousduties).
life (fulfilling
life. Sexual questions are indubitablythose most

enemies), church
Sensual

nomic
eco-

tions
condi-

servants,

duties; class-relations;relation
fulfilling

taxes, of

life (relation

life,family [and community]

sensual

concerns:

and

law

if he

and

says

Then
.

"

that

his duties.

question the decision

another.

in

woman

whether

of
her

the
hus-

FOR

STRUGGLE

band

it sinless.

considers

the

moral

viewpoint, but
their relation

perform
the

time

in

possible and

as

the

when

question with
influence

to

try

natural

have

to

SOCIAL

does, then

reject all fears,

to

woman

xnuch

to

OF

If he

this

touch

to

not

woman

PRESERVATION

him

after

result is

The
"

"

although

children.
the

The

the

belief in Providence

the

fear of childbirth.
.

Sometimes

during

relations
is

there

the

very

first

the

1^

he

quantity of sexual

sexual

abuses

System

rare

particularly in the
There
.

ism.

The

is

of peasants,
as

well

among

as

be

can

These

sexual
In

periculum

touches
wife

in

the

it

are
some

sin if

venial

has

As

taught

deviation

of animals

do

sin to

excluded.

towns

far

as

to

is

peasants,

among

bation
mastur-

me,

happens

it

my

quently.
fre-

more

normal

boys, or

tion
satisfacbestial-

to

usually a stimulus

to

period of puberty with girlsbelow

offences

are

people. Bestialism

the country

is

and

only

deviations.

daily workers, servants,

older

husband

greater tendency

intercourse

of age.

years

of

country.

analogous plays of boys


ten

it is

instinct,particularlyamong

sexual

The

...

of the sexual

peasants

woman.

there

man

is not

of sexual

kind

ligion,
re-

have

can

the

certain *kisses and

whether

(lack of continence)

very

of

questions concerning the

personal experience in the confessional


is

follow

ing
abstain, particularlydur-

rule is that between

of treatment

he

pregnant

often, whether

How

more

with

come

of fecundation
possibility

the
.

life.

The

when.

sin and

completely nude

while

to

carefully.

but

frequently people

Very

for

respect

that it is better

can,

and

months, but if for the

two

i9icontinentuB

sexual

strong

week

pelling
great role in dis-

scruples as to whether
Particularly among

pregnancy.

teach

priest must

has

man

and

security.

influence

The

plays

the

at

frequently or

very

often

and

wife

and

as

(that is,

absolute

an

in their decisions.

woman

tell

must

smallest

before

life of husband

physicians exaggerate

of the

wish

normal

him

menstruation

one

this is not

even

he

is the

the

the menses),

make

conjugal relation only

period of 10-14 days between


another, avoiding sexual relation a week
during

the

strengthen herself

to

of fecundation
possibility

tell

from

to

as

so

los

priest must

Then
.

try

the

the

her husband

way.

to

SYSTEM

population.

habitual

class

shepherds (mainly), youth


is

relativelyrather

Bestialism
.

in the poorer

happens

frequent
more

f re-

io6

THE

in

quently
toward

the

period of

the end

of

women.

life

sexual

PEASANT

puberty

happens almost

and
among

POLISH

exclusivelyamong

Pederasty is

happens almost only among


young
in
form
the
of
only
experiments. At
as

habitual

vice.

least I have

and
.

Intentional

limits itself
.

than

villages. As

in

far

this difference, these


of

to

happens

as

greater

are:

frequently with

able to observe

was

living

means.

frequently in

more

the

the

town,

offense.
.

married

among

caused

the

by
a

sexes,

in the

charms, medicines,

old, low
The

the

as

The

about

it ; it is his

hours

of solitude.

to learn

the

or
a

that

of

the

priest teaches

of

the

world.

He

sexual

both

relation, a
lack

servants
.

children
illegitimate
manors

or

with

He

to

orders

to

of

the priest. He

field,also
He

take

save

to

to

get

this state

search
an

from

recommends

also

books

is

for other

apprenticeship
the

scarcely knows

him, gives him

stables,

continually

...

boy

turbates
mas-

during the long

him, for

him

him

in the

thinks

distraction

and

activity. The

so

day.

handicraft,and helps him

carpenter, in order
into

cattle

priest wants

work

the

amusement

The

"

is

country

of a poor
farmer,
boy, son
physical development, father a

times

three

only

the

is in the forest
as

of

to

youth of

girlsserving in

and

physicallydangerous.

read,

and

of officials,
etc.

even

dreams

in

the

largestnumber

mental

much

endeavors

among

and

master

the

"

boy pastures
he

more

etc.

illegalchildren

Masturbation.

when

vain

as

by daily workers

drunkard.

with

many

such

rich peasants, in houses

sometimes

country

greater libertyof intercourse

Examples:

is

On

the

distractions.

years

girls.

greater facilityof hiding during the

is furnished

14

among

in

greater intimacy between


of other

country

are

large proportion of

The

idea

dissoluteness, a looser

finallya greater facilityfor concealing


in towns
Abortion
frequently
happens more

women,

abortion,

provoke

of

and

hand, there

other

towns

causes

morality, the question of supporting children, which

difficult in

love

servants

unelaborate

very

abortion

observed

frequent is Lesbian

and between
girls,but also only in towns
is connected
together. This manifestation
very
false devotion

and

towns

never

among

peasants;

our

among

turity
ma-

seldom

very

people of small

Relatively more

again

period of

men,

rare

very

it

it

in the

than

(i%)

then

and

(2%-3%)

with

sphere of
how

to

tions
descrip-

frequent confession

io8

THE

POLISH

PEASANT

explained that everything could


to

would
The

this

use

girl was

of work;
She

there

manor-owner.

the

town

bore

she

back

came

the

to

sent

and

she took
talked

good wife
saved

and

and

she

already

the

wanted

to

asylum.

an

favor"

lord's

of her

band,
hus-

''People

girl remained

the

to

he

happened.

scandal.

the

go

to

the

no

her, and

then

the pretext

consent

was

always thanked

priest for having


in

woman

order

religion also
and

courage

[and

Family
but

seldom

of

children.
for

any^ing.
life\

community]

(almost never)

means

to

advice
house

give

teach

order

her

according
a

the economical
to

morg

stock

good example first of

master

in this line.

hidden

sentiment
view

priestdid

not

proud

bull whom

in

education

the

his

as

for the
to

of children.
how

child

children

you

overburden

have
with

But

to

get

the

to

cares

priestswas

of the peasant

out

the

his

the

economical

by rousing paternal pride. This


such

neighbors

comparisons

envy

brought

up

work

And

(if he

by [appealing to]

and

hesitate to make
if your

effect.

One

about

everything upon

by the confessor

knew

He

excellent

an

times
Some-

pretty dress, and

leave

not

Evidently the

if she is clean

buy

not

handle

to

conditions.

wife
to

or

how

is exercised

education

the

all and

has

of the woman,

the

it) upon

example given children,

priestteaches him
in a friendly way.

to

for the

cares

greatest influence

not

bequeath

to

the shoulders

point of

and

confess

People usuaUy

negligence

confess

The

cattle.

various

are

...

bad

or

"

example, a peasant confessed that he beat


keeping the house and the children clean and

not

his wife

refuge
the girl loses

For

caring for the

do not

do

to

concerning conjugal life

matters

wife

decided

has

tracism
os-

last

if

strange

not

social

The

if the

and

cases,

her, it is

condemns

"

frequentlyby sharp

desperate step.

in such

pitilessenough

confession, but the

to

come

point and

the

to

girl to

push the poor


is

or

there

annoy

always behave

not

criticism

you

not

with

year,

girlsin analogous situations

priestsdo

do

did

given

driver, "with

and

mother

her, "for

Many

to

it

mission
per-

lose it."

to

the

After

thus

was

her

and

hospital,under

which

asked

confessional
And

the

child

the child home

little" but

of

the

to

married

[probably a dowry].

repaired and

outside

news

settle it with

be

you

and

whom

is your

for

as

having
you

own

"Why,

son,

horse

some

keep

clean

your

are

and

image

FOR

STRUGGLE

PRESERVATION

likeness, worse

and

later,when

to you

because
and

than

left him

time

image of God
stock, if

grows

have

you

order

want

and

also that

care

own

your

son

him

likes

man

she

have

anything

to

from

the

his mouth
From

week.

her,

when

love this

him

tired of

he

when

him

and

drives

liquor and

to

want

him

out

"to

clean

to

back

come

husband

is

twice

sometimes

tries

striking

sometimes

away,

to

night-

sometimes

his wife

pushes her

the

not

once,

home

returns

from

does

then

sometimes

times
some-

she

whose

kuma,

traction
dis-

women,

returns

her, and

curses

of

he

does

have*some

the

her

he

that his wife

continually with
And

It proves

modus

relations ; he

(pledge

the tavern

yield a little.

"

"

which

aflPairs which

defined

them.

sacramental

to

"

not

also

[The priest

court

husband

(or wife) who

to

avoid

to

force

must

quarrels and

the peasant

drink) and try

to

troduce
in-

iting
stop vis-

to

make

to

each

party

acts

cases

in order

for them

normal

the

that

says

vivendi

frequent

law

coitus and only


adultery loses the right to demand
The priesthas to find
give him this right back.

committed

has

goes

he

ecclesiastical

priestcan

smell

sleeps with

Then

to

to

etc.

The
has

[if

must

you

his wife.

to

with

do

please him, but then

to

make

not

farm-

the earth
you,

wants

he

and

anger. he
and

watchman,

But

falls out."
him

curses

is

one

ugly word

an

her/'

his soul,

your

grow

drop into the tavern, and

to

when

"and

tavern

serve

quarrels with

that he

like it for she likes money.

not

to

geous,
coura-

by beating him, cursing him, overburdening

peasant confesses

that the

to

responsiblefor

should

you

and

respected him

eat,

daughter should

or

fit
bene-

more

speak about

even

feel

109

work.''

with
A

world

the

to

justiceto reign upon

field,this forest, these cattle ;


life and

bring

not

plenty

want] the field,the forest, the cattle

you

SYSTEM

is strong, wise

I don't

If you

he

and

up

study?

to

SOCIAL

Will

given him

Himself.

you

bull?

he

OF

as

the

confessor

either

are

these

judge who

and

imposes

hold

formal

cases

penance

or

sins," as

the

decides

decide

must

small

too

^"ordinarypeasant
In

parties.] The

judge between

confessor

intimate

acts

to

merely

not

satisfaction.

examinations, ask about

the

carry

witty peasant

once

milial
fa-

various

are

something is bad

that

and

too

most

or

as

ferent
indif-

Usually he

behavior

of both

PEASANT

POLISH

THE

no

situation,use

parties,investigatethe circumstances, the


questions in

order

badly and

to

done

wrong

relations
The

and

of

use

ihen

Among

harness,

are

rope,

scythe,

characteristic

most

I cannot

Although
in most
not

the old

cases

They

strange.

their

people

had

work

their

of
or

At
and
does

confession

the

the

shall

the mother

earnings of the

arrangement

which

on

Material

profit is

guides beliefs,prayers,
well

and

later, envy

of

g^ow

Lord

her

hens

lay

Jesus

in

eggs.

order

to

have

daughter

the

the

economic
.

have

was,

told

prefer

to

address

me

ship,
friendwoman

that her cattle


motive

upon

young.

where

case

decide

to

quarrels, of

mass

The

other.

depends

but
.

"Women

sister.

charms,

for

any

ter's
daugh-

each

has

on

with

of

I had

money

certainly uses
our

her

and

son

reason

etc.

her

the

This

not.

people live

the

always

brought during confession

the

raised

store-room-litany

confessor

or

It is

war.

to

"

that

without

they rob

whole

the

or

old

bread

Sometimes

give it back

the

found

absence; the daughter,

her

thus

Then

son-in-law

children.

helps herself

angers.

loss.

the

discover

not

between

out

lives,had

children's

the

listen to

the

^flour,grain,

"

break

whole

priestmust

reconcile, moderate

whether

their

And
.

household.

guilty,started the

daughter-in-law'ssupplies in

discovering it, retaliates.]

with

sides

rule, still I have

were

eat

to

of

use

[The mother

own.

food

their married

as

worked

children, so they like

the

whole

the

quarrels about
particularlyoften

propose

women.

take

men

embraces

this

egotism

triflingamong

Sometimes

etc.

^parents and

"

the

as

environment.

the

are

people

young

toward

seldom, mostly about

war"

bacon, vegetables,which
old and

such

offence

clusive
right of property and exfrequent opportunity is gossip

behavior

more

''state of

the

familial

way.

frequent and

more
occur

redress

the

most

in

self
him-

to

settle the

to

acted

accuses

asking permission, sometimes

thing; the

they

and

women

The

Christian

has

order

in

act

material) and

coarseness

quarrels

to

who

quarrels is usually an

such

inborn

an

Such

has

finally

and

person

the person

over-developed feeling of

an

and

in

something without

of

use

of

cause

how

(moral and

bearably and

which

determines

another)

accuses

of the matter

essence

extent, and

what

(often he
the

which

sentence

pronounce

study the

to

cross-

might

proved

as

that

myself

everything better than

she
to

she.''

STRUGGLE

It

FOR

PRESERVATION

proved that this

time

them

on

profound

behavior

of

''hidden

of

and

mistrust

another

horizons

one

hand,

to

the

other

hand.

excessive

an

tendency,

is

and

gives birth

on

invidious

blackening is either

by triflingincidents

of

hate, frequently

or

...

ground
back-

The

vanity concerning claims


fraternityor in the community;
petty

unite

to

families

two

by wedlock

use

is not

There

devil, charms,

etc.

lack either of associations

any

given offence

has

who

peasant

prepared for this kind

be beforehand

of

with

accusations.

must

In

larger family they are particularlyfrequent. The


frequently familial diplomacy whose end is material

By

succession,
what

but

^this

"

cold

also of

be

reached

the

is

Christian,

Divine

only the world

not

Providence.

they

spiritsand

having

been

clearlyshows
An

old

done

have

they

to

seems

but

be

always
half

peasant,

But

are

sure

arc

"curse,"
of evil
the

that

the

state
was

is

spiritsbut
other

hand

simply struck

with

on

by having interfered
that

God

would

of

dying.

He

had

on

think

even

God

sible
pos-

cynic

I had
in

his

that
self,
Him-

they consider
because

terror

the

pardon

not

peasant's soul

they

with

such

impulses

generous

indifferent

an

it is not

obliged to fulfil their curse."

peasant

profit.

in the

believe

it their greatest sin, they


of what

profit
.

full of
.

motive

calculation.

peasants
binds

curse

material

"

life-theoryof the

The

always

always possibleto confess,

profit
(unconsciously), half
to

again and

profitcan

means

It is

matter.

So

etc.

the

another

to

family

"

"

brought about by considerations of social position.


of occult forces is frequently given as
a
reason

success.

is very

sip
Gos-

hate

word,

the

beliefs

relatives.

neighbors.

envy

^a

"

; refusal

quarrels of children
The

show

occultistic

neighbors and

on

women

children

of

about

news

church-bench, priorityin

of

neighbors

peasant

even

the

on

slandering,usually called "blackening," that

to

iSf spreading of

all the

mixture

precisely a

occultism

to

lack

the

Moreover,

affairs of

which

to

of criticism of the behavior

caused

to

Country gossip, which

marked

of

ascribing this behavior

interest in the

exception confess

and

of

peasant.

our

wasted

motives

secret

of interest directs his mind

without

in

often

iii

and

channs

searching for

person,

SYSTEM

SOCIAL

tried

also

working.

forces/' characterize

wider

of

had

woman

instead

OF

of

world
them

case

"for
which

conditions.

conscience

many

THE

112

POLISH

things against the seventh


have

afflicted him

stone

upon

wanted

to

would
the

his

artillery.The
be

given
he

promoted

to

the twelfth

to

him

he

threw

God

the father.

broke
His

interferingwith

of

the

questions of everyday life


also

put

to

into

were

not

world

of

said

at

suitable
are

of the

treatment

any

itself

the

of the
and

(of

the

the

of the

glory of God.

priest and

familial

based

into
shall

one

order

or

family

and

"

with

which

one

tiest
pet-

principle

recognized but

to

adjust

whole,

one

the

to

this

if

harmony

accord

in first
in

in the

servants

benefit of the

his wife

is

activities.

this great

glory of God
is

the

the

economical

upon

lies

The

opportune

of order

idea
and

be to the

also of the peasant

developing the

the

be

wife, children,parents,

The

in

priest in general

the

Providence)

be

must

everything

head

of

the peasant

all the

of

home,

that

so

to

at

only

not

task

universe, be connected

harmony,
and

of

performance of

the

there

mind

in the

Lord

I have

an

spirits.

(ascribed to Divine

universe

The

action.

left

which

fulfilled.

not

conformity with

in

should

which
.

maintain

idea

doctrine

ceeded
suc-

dent].
acci-

an

curse

did

Christianity requires necessarily interference


it is

tended
in-

frequently

course,

with

by

"Still,the

business
.

are,

the

that

He

government" (jtr.').

of connection

moment

about

were

What
.

explain that they

then

killed

was

continually said:

this I

me

God's

curses

peasants

atory
prepar-

court-clerk.

was

neglected his farm, dried

He

thoughts

He

son.

forgive

Such

last

his

upon

cannot

old

the end

toward

examination

an

he

[when

army

died.

and

the

in

serve

This
.

passed

appointed

was

The

villageto boast and to show that he had


spite of the curse.
Only three days were

in

to

and

thing
every-

his

to

well

up

of his service

that

in vain.

married, and

son

it should

him, although he

see

in

emnly
farming, sol-

and

house

wasted

never

The

in

father

served

saying that

him

be

His

and

losing help
to

should

would

and

year

go

for

his native

see

might have

civil service

to

to

sergeantcy.

nevertheless

went

obstinately

son

volunteer.

as

letter written

him

to

obstinate

was

for

in

his only

ago

army

father, angry

him

which
man

years

[Austrian]

should

something else "lay like

But

permit him, but he

not

never

all.

Some

the

to

go

cursed

of

soul."

which

sixth commandments

and

first of

PEASANT

in this

family

instance)

conception

preciselyin preserving

of the

manifestations

of

STRUGGLE
God's

"

PRESERVATION

thought in the world.

mind
"

FOR

that

perhaps

critical

"

has

dressing,spending
the

whole

so

on.

"

"

in

sows

functions

all kinds

private economy,

life

of

of economic

eating,

as

transactions,

theory of property, and

the

"

Examples:

also to

justicetoward

Polish

right of property, about

the

property

frequently the

Most

taught about
of

of

113

analyzed its social duties

before

view

SYSTEM

teaching

of money,

of

system

Such
.

never

and

sense

SOCIAL

OF

the

maids

state

parobeks and

or

ideas

economical

about

toward

even

be

to

applying honest

the manor,

to

or

has

peasant

his

chil*

own

dren.

Thus,
rails and
of

and

kind

any

and

peasant

our

is the

of

the

also

is

to

will

As

"The
In

lord

the

cases

some

for

Thus,

could

orchards

of

not

during confession
spoilthe

^"

About

five."

felled

or

did

all

erty
prop-

from

stop

not

had

Even

least in

break

large

very

the

robbery. Then

at

circumstances.

thieves.
the

him."
.

the

to

the

people," and:

harm

who

the

their

fluence
inthe

heads

branches

and

did

do

you

made

were

you

forest."

with

few
was

these

pegs
a

"How
or

msiny

thicker

this wood?"

"

rather

serious

'1

there?"

were

No

swer.
an-

^"Well,I repaired
The

theft, and

gins
priestbeasks

"Were
[and finally]
:

"Well, I did.

cursions
in-

amusing:

poles?"

for the fence."

"sticks"

fell them?""

"

likes to make

forest is

communal

or

who

peasant

it brushwood

"Was

"

long

of

the

suspect that it

big and

for

crack

to

confessional, the

enough, it won't

they should

the manorial

pig-sty and
to

the

it for

priest: "Put

confession

the

"What
the

nut

"

sticks from

some

of

created

not

[state all

."
.

upon

"

that

trees.

Sometimes

took

the

to

or

them

preserve

said

manor-owner

it stealing,

field,particularlyof

manor-owner

priest could

the

it,if it

apply the theory of

adapts itself

one

temptation for

consider

rich

manor

example,

to

Outside
.

''God

priestis

the

or

difficult

meadow

priest.

answer:

that iron

property

...

peasant

know

will take

not

common

case

any

orchard,

the

of

and

manor

does

[railroad

...

teaching the peasants

the

to

invincible

an

He

state.

people, in their language].


the confessor

iron

some

relativelyrich peasant

is in

iron

this

constitute

even

property

for

leather

took

It is necessary

the road.

nails]from

he

that

confesses

peasant

They

were

how

they
about

twice

long

as

the wagon.

as

and

they don't

proclaims
few

very

the

then

even

This

state.

exceptions

the

the

church

be

loyal to the
its citizen

from

unjust.

Here
.

and

in Russian
their

belong

parishioners from

these

being

Then

there

the

are

profitingfrom

an

in

the

the relation

the

to

are

But

the

not

the

when

cases

there

confessor
it is

cases

all the

of

cases

duties

of

is

author

requires

state

relatively

persecution

obedience

the

state

priest and,

there

to

Jews

solidarityamong

men,

and

of

example

after many

years

for

to

the
:

and

on

of

mixed

humanity
of

the

hand

the

tionalities
na-

population] ;
with

regard

to

tions
general in all the instruc-

occasion

the

on

other

to

social, commercial,

with

In

the

relation

the

upon

paupers.
on

met

principlesin

the Catholic

the
.

duties
.

not

performing oflicial functions,

position ;

emphasize

to

of

to

necessary

national

Galician

in

teaches

priestsfreelydispense

the

where

the
some

are

thing either absolutelyor

border-communities

priestgives

tends

peasants

in such

community

same

people, drunkards,
that

bribes

loyal toward

confessors.

problems

oflicial

politicalfields [in

For

fightsChristianity,

extent

some

Christianity

Poland, has
persecution in Austrian
his personal experiences as confessor.]

in

this situation

always

the relation between

national

no

fallen

it is suitable

state

any

[The

matters.

slowly and

because

the

Poland

German

so

priest who

very

unless

Those

subject

or

everything

the

indizndual.

loyalty and

that

state.

of

the

for the

straightforward way

it is forbidden),

individual's,is

lifeof
is to

this essential

to

that

wins

so

forest,

in this field.

state

rule

is the

the

fore
there-

manorial

idea

illustrate well

words

the social

upon

rule supports

priest talks

the peasants

priest and

and

in

few

These

Influence

"The

and

(even if

pedagogical influence

adherents.

for him."

The

principleof property

different

it.

only then

people's and

the

berries

and

confess

whole

the

that

communal

were

applies to

mushrooms
even

is first God's, then

strong

they

same

gathering

to

as

PEASANT

But

The

mine."

also

as

POLISH

THE

114

one

other

that

spiritand

confession

some

the
of

he

necessity of

maintaining

character

of the

tact
in-

dividual
in-

community.
N.

that

is secretary
he

abused

of
his

He

commune.

functions

and

not

rapid and successful

settlingof affairs but

give chickens,

money,

eggs,

confesses

only took
also

etc., for various

forced
allevia-

in

themselves

show

worse,

of

his life such

grow

church

in the

Therefore

and
quite irreligious,

church, become

and

moral

and

Sometimes

confession

the

wreck

material

of the Church

fears

the

PEASANT

completely worthless.

is

of

such

about

to

not

serve

The

health.
.

Jewish

children

danger menacing
of

burden

their

children

home

and

from

make

them

when

the consequences

get any

them

away,

pennies

earned

with

complaining:

"Why

gave

told the truth

Again

Jewish

went

to

often

accosted

cold.
her

near

fell
the
was

with

arrack

the

of

is

farm.

too

marked,

her

to

the

The
a

her

to

he

said that

The

child

do

they

not

''spit"

who

and
he

priest when

dismissed
Then

was

girl became

the

an

to

go

of

in

to

him

For

late.

too

when

the

her
the

and

she got very

kitchen

fault

girl "frolicked"

in

woke

her

put

was

with
I

room

and

afterwards

he

quently
they slept fre-

only horses

to

were

carry

parobeks and

upon

everybody

in the

was

for

it

stable.

baptized it myself.

ordinary prostitute. She

she

of

of this love

consequences

the

embrace

the

time

gave

near

slept in

him, "and

gave

Jews

Jewish houses,

some

liked

even

She

"Though

dizzy after the arrack

night she

poor

the young

in the

stay

serve.

in winter

nurse

typical little Jew;

to

housekeeper herself
At

she

fr"Mn

comes

One

Once

girl was

log/'
and

town.

was

income

some

son

disgust toward

told her

and

Jew, already

good

or

the

to

obliged

felt

she

night. The

asleep ''like
young

rid

Getting

moreover,

penitent

was

tenant

together." But

the

The

She

but

her

kitchen.

the

the

to

only begins weeping

listen

not

we

Jew."
housekeeper, formerly a

for

stove

did

ant
peas-

they complain only

daughter

Then

Jews.

boy, stillhe

The

tea

the

komomiks.

handsome

our

structio
de-

for their
holy for them do not care
and prefer to dress for the few

examples.

few

the

and

blind

not

Jews.
the hope of

when,

ing
lodg-

poor

of

to

and

They

!"

of

and

appear

to be

who

given

sometimes

used

parents

family

if

for the demoralized

money,

mothers

indifferent,if

of evil
ignore the possibility

everything that

on

rather

want

Jews.

to

sometimes

are

and

servants.

who

parents

give them

fathers

again

pletely
justifiescom-

charge the Jews with material expbitation (bad pay,


and
food), contemptful treatment, demoralization
of

end

the

at

man

poor

to

what

finds himself

the lot of

priests frequently admonish

give their children

to

POLISH

THE

ii6

But

time

STRUGGLE

FOR

PRESERVATION
and

Jewish wet-nurse,
without

she

unavoidable.
she

Sometimes

always
the

about
Aside

her.

to

he

He
avoid

child.

latter

lived
was

promised

with

for

her

The

away

marry

her

she

so

and

is unknown

different

from

ugliness" which
of

thing and
with

law, of

church

the

familial

the

child

Christian

evils

did

to

cruel

also

or

was

is in
such

as

The

girl
fallen

refuse

to

of

the
view
her

which

body.
any-

Polish
upon

they

treat

peasant

and

the

actions

in

forbids

''moral

the

her

such

her, particularly for

the

that

law

the

with

in

of
a

alcoholism,

good

relation

Jew is in the

gression
trans-

of

eyes

view

of

by the coitus, the danger of

Jewish religion,and

Jewish blood.)

cases

body and

usually feel, but only the

relation

character
many

Jew),

girl the erotic element


with

in

see

established

educated
and

his friend.

to

left her.

withstand

soul

not

brands

connection

Reformatory
social

rig^t,but when

particularlyaggravating circumstance

being

Confession

all

pained that she had

Giristian

(The sexual

Jew.

cine
medi-

give her

he

and

coarseness

Christians

moreover

the

of

(though

dress

to

to

her

sent

peasant

the

severe

She
the

Jew,

Jewish family with

also

and

was

Polish

to

the

functions.

sexual

richer

peculiaritythat they teach the appreciatio


relations.
of sexual
They bring into

(in spite of the brutalityand

her) which

accosted

point ; she liked

months

two

of the

horizon

dered
wan-

this

Jews have
of the body

mental

and

was

the dress

moved

about

the

and

dress

difficult for her

already it was

the

to

house

tempted by

weak

received

good by nature,

very

but

he

her

behaving badly,

everybody who

from

She

be

to

room

her

something

acts

was

left her

herself
a

times
Some-

road.

normal.

was

girlhad

The

promised

got tired of

The

to

rented

she served.

herself.

giving herself

girl allowed

bachelor, who

whom

she

this she

from

Another
a

road

even

''something [inside]

night

at

117

ing
impression of be-

sexual

she

that

persuaded

was

Frequently

pushing her."

felt that

she

the

the

dissolute

SYSTEM

everybody/'

pit near

she made

but

considered

she

with

went

in

once

confession

to

came

hystericaland
but

than

more

money,

"she

then

SOCIAL

OF

the

ing"
"mix-

confesso/s influence,
powerful reformatory factor
the

theft, immoral

behavior,

in
etc.

improvement throughout Poland, particularly


[There is marked
Certainly other social factors play
regards alcoholism.]
as
.

ii8

THE

also

certain

have

only

eradicate
beliefs

The

to

of

crisis and

confession

in its

even

This

is

also

But

religious

sults
activityif positivere-

the

confesion

is

breaking
ment
mo-

bring

not

force

the

of

mons
ser-

always the

it does

cases

extraordinary influence

for

way

it undermines

connected

with

the

feelingof the unworthiness

action

is also based
and

powers

of

confession

method

of

and

the

on

action

the

lies i)

force

of

of

the

the

on

frequently as

in which

war

priest for the physical and


drunkard

the

friends, while

of the

of the members
and

the

example

"help"

way

that

had

some

influence

her

father.

to

him

drink.
she

the

of this drunkard.
with

priest stands

the

children

of the

been

only

few

tion
coali-

whole

ers
pray-

(often heroic), the


and

church

drinking

get free

girl who
him.

the

with

that

to

upon

First
.

drunkard

itself

fights for his dose,

alliance

and

oath

Then
would

he

of

him

only angered

one,

presents

most
al-

the

opinion of

community.

mild

the oldest

situation

in

family, the magical forces,the

wife

[N. had

to

used

the

excluding hand

majority of

peasant

the

sacrifices of

punishing and
For

side of

the

on

in

or

The

disposition

different

spiritualgood

fights alone

magical

be

drunkard

erness
clev-

him.

to

his

the

don
par-

confessor's

the

upon

it must

God,

his natural

"

individual,on
The

particular case.

of

hope of

the

penitent ascribes

...

every

the

and

others, and

habit

the

judgment

types of factors

influence

depends

of the

personal force of

two

faith

the

fear

of the vice

The

upon

abilityto

which

father

of

to

strengthened by suitable

prepare

case

any

through confession.

the

is how

ordinary psychologicalaction, 2) in its supernatural,magical

"charm,"

But

^the force

"

if in individual

victory, in

habit.

problem

the

social

common

converting the obstinate.

bad

the

Where

evil, confession

teachings. They

definite

the

more

obtained.

be

influence

of
a

action

be added

to

and

enlightenment, social tion


organizaagainst liquor-shops. But these factors
as

inveterate

^must

"

PEASANT

preventive value.

an

are

and

part such

social

and

POLISH

his vice, but

said

him

man's

brandy

in

never

her

ily
fam-

sharp

daughter,

bitter word

all the

they would

taught the
give

Only

priest used

priest bound
that

years.] The

more.

never

The

10

to

to

reform

relatives

give

daughter

of

him
to

herself, for

him,

the
thing
any-

tell her

in

the

FOR

STRUGGLE

bad

sellinga

was

furnished

the

weaker,

neck.

liquor which

of

prayers

became

for

developed

influence

been

in

him

The

explode.

of

with

not

peasant

not

even

of

of

Poland

have

reserved

help

not

civil

on

having
to

is

set

war.

fire to

his

have

but

the

bishop

or

whom

my

the

who

tried to

buildings,only they did


technique of
is
woman,

arson

frequently the
etc.

not

are

set

the

loss

of

bors.
neigh-

as

and

the

sin

the

worth

feud,

the

"I

still set
of

of

way

reproached
have

fire

many

The

to

even

farm-

varieties

stud3ring.The

law-suit, the

to

But

their enemies'
.

the

man

father

can

in

of

murder).

confession
fire to

stop

selves.
for them-

arson

send

war.

bishops

buildings, said:

always succeed.

themselves

does

To

sin.

...

respectable farmers

is for

arson

It is civil

with

as

way

peasant

to

bery,
rob-

hesitate

not

peasant

remit

it

listened

of

case

murder,

his

sin of

the

have

ligious
re-

explosions he shows

arsons

define

could

the

religion violently

greater

I would

he

dencies.
ten-

frequent manifestation

neighbor's

erty
prop-

the

in

does

of

of

same

to

this percentage.

particular study.

to

peas*

self-redress,and

eyes

number

(in the

much.

his bam,

mine."

the

the

and

example,

[the pardon of]

confession

to

this does

of

ant
peas-

criminal

state

of such

is such

the

appeal

must

of

of

For
.

on

education

ordinary priest cannot

is, an

incendiary,but

to

such

breaking Lent

diminish

to

That

fire

miseration
com-

Finally the

facility. He

in

it merits

considers

least

in

the time

dishonor

peasant
at

set

his

express

latent and

something quite natural,

that

for

to

began

around

profit and

influence

the

primitive man.

self-redress

carrying

time

playing

and

remain

greatest

long; at

bring him

bishop

call and

wealth

Reciprocal incendiarism

or

and

hung

poisoned.

perpetrates

the

reflect

quite

the

The

weaker

same

priest greatly diminish

the

peasant

arson,

of

the

large percentage

growth

weakening

momentary

himself

was

was

tendency

natural

evidently these tendencies

does

At

to

priest

away.

it

village

The

the

Still the

and

that

misery, liquor,demagogues

course,

have

But

so

Jew

119

reformed.

passions, and

ant's

in the

scapulary

having

Of

the

reason

it

Gradually the priest began


him

SYSTEM

the

the throat.

and

SOCIAL

that

took

brandy, preparing

with

OF

discovered

although it burned

assault

an

they had

office

starostc^s

PRESERVATION

seduction

son
rea-

of

The

lack

of

and

peasants

marks

innumerable

do

through murder
that

not

free

of

remember

of deaths.

three

times

as

in

deaths

But
.

murders

many

are

end

of

percentage
.

ganization.
or-

There

happily often

the

general number

are

member
re-

attempted

loving one's enemies.


enemies
skull

of

of

one

of

wall

and

met

the

confession

beat

each

them

was

broken.
of

one

quite different

they detected
take

up

about

with

them

the

honest

them

of

these

factories

with
shame

in its

town

oped
disorganization,develtrast
Con-

stolen

of the

nobody would
with
to
an

theft

their
work

could
him

accept

with

and

have

did

the

not

other

evade
for

the

work,
of

managers

the

help placed all these thieves


and

honest

watched
Some

way.

The

happened.
in this way

thing attached

them

to

ally
continu-

time

They led

in

found
him

his neck.

stopped completely

ago

workmen

enough and probably has lost the desire

robberies

ened
threat-

by wronging

thieves

by

First of all,

of them

if any

live

to

found

was

professional thieves

none

punished him
the

thieves

of Tomaszow.

agreement

an

live in

make

the thief and

that

them

to

and

to

priest who

co-operativemovement.

continued

and

factories,ordered

Thefts

the

just been

Galician

that

to

came

the

but

factories in Tomaszow

town

had

punishment of death

in order

workmen

the

under

occurred

by

dealing with

hundred

proposition by saying

One

fiercelythat the

so

men

two

recent

of

way

work

people. And,
the

these

service

methods.]

factory-workers in

the

This

about

sermon

divine

the

dealing with

of

ground of the

old

with

had

stones

the authors
withheld.

for
name

method

[New
the

plagues

two

communion.

and

Written
wishes
his

on

after

with

other

church, and

Immediately

78.

these

proof of the lack of real

Once

peasant.

our

diminish

is the strongest

villages,which

our

little to

but

do

priests can

Christianity in

out

which

our

social

their

this defect.

from

murder

at

of

also

accomplished.
The

in

life characterizes

are

in the
there

human

primitive character

not

...

PEASANT

the

attempts

wounds.

for

respect

Women

as

POLISH

THE

120

about
He

to

in this town

perienced
ex-

steal.
and

neighborhood.
good

means

against thieves, not

as

cruel

as

torturing and

STRUGGLE

invented

killingswas
of
to

break

to

have

with
met

PRESERVATION

FOR

ZamoSc.

last

The

all relations

them

^in general to

"

if

neighbors, as
of

did

they

this decision.

In

exactly carried out, its good

was

has

solitude

that this

that

community

by the

the

annoyed

so

of

the

same

fine

for

any

they promise

faced

whether
individual

the

rules,

community
belief

and

changed
above

attitudes

give

this task

us

may

and

main

many

attitudes

attitude

becomes

character

response

conditions

in

which

expect the individual


we

presuppose

be

reduced
make

to

the

of

are

of the
the
or

values

subject

conditions

the group

existence

of

(see
fact

in

tain
cer-

definite

given

when

certain

attitude

in

the

in the

Thus,

certain

determines

included

to act
a

in which

involved, but

forth

or

quoted

complex

acts.

or

in the

situation

in

ing
follow-

situations

I, p. 68) is
values

system

documents

The

the

individual

the

certain

solve

wants

the

to

predominant and
actipn by bringing

of the

certain

to

traditional

the

solution

which

influence

to

not.

Vol

traditional

with

be fulfilled,
successfullyor

Methodological Note,

to

1907, 6.

which

ways

and

The

condemned

illustrations of the various

definition

The

sion
transgres-

Swiqteczna,

wants

both."

or

they

off them.

before, in spiteof changed

as

way

define and

time

improve, begging

to

community

who

"How

formula:

not

counteracting disorganization,

or

always

can

were

"

maintain

to

action,

community

same

individual

as

so

simple
the

the

by

or

they

noticed.

been

in accordance

behave

to

talk

this decision

are

be taken

the

by

not

to

not

they

At

have

who

men

preventing

if

as

Gazeta

task

them,

consequences

neighbors' excommunication

The

decided

villageswhere

some

...

it

roubles

25

pay

trict
dis-

the

greeting when

act

to

exist at all.

not

to

their

121

meetings

They

with

common

and

of

communal

at

steal.

answer

them

SYSTEM

community

who

in
to

even

SOCIAL

agreed

those

work

avoid

themselves

pledged

farmers

or

all,not

at

in

summer

with

business

any

OF

we

way,

which

the

certain

whenever

action

detail of

the

the

are

the

same

conditions

and

individual

instead

or

of

definitions

in

attitudes.

The

attitude

and

of

conditions

the

the

did

action

ganization
or-

not

serve
pre-

of the

in

provoke

to

the predominant
no

nite
defi-

in the

appear

are

titude
at-

ditions
given conpredominant role,

used

values

action

social

instead

the

both

when
finally,

action, or

be

some

only when

which

other

some

response

could

no

group

tudes
atti-

changes of
in preserving
difficulty

assumes

values

and

spite of

determine

to

the

the

or

all the

all the

There

case.

the

though

even

nor

behavior

individual

used

another

to

case

the old definition develops


which

conditions

the

from

if the

given,

are

changes, since neither

action

same

continuityof

no

values

constitute

which

values

bearing of

the chief

determine

itself and

will reassert

PEASANT

POUSH

THE

122

field of
attitude

longer the

same

as

before.
The

natural

expectation

which

definitions

is that the

have

of

social group

accepted
traditionally

been

situations by many
applied to innumerable
and
will last indefinitely
bear any
amount

and

individuals
of

naive

and

It is

change.

social groups

for

usual

not

to

prepare

against possibledisorganizationexcept by trying to

repetitionof

the

for

such

experienced in

already been

kind

of

breaks

the

and

The

struggleagainst disorganization is
in efforts

retroactive,consists

already

weakened

to

flexible,more
for

than

apt

than

to
to

make

to

reinforce

to

prevent

which

changes

the

withstand

have

of

prevalently
definitions
their

ening,
weak-

already

existing system
changes.

of

astonishment.

thus

coming disorganizationhas
instance, owing to the observation

the danger
"

rather

counteract

rather

always provokes

have

as

break

past; every

new

unknown

rules

vide
pro-

Even
been
of

curred
oc-

more

when

noticed

groups

in

much

as

If this

work,

not

*.

is
stability

social

that

out

social

as

planation
ex-

change.

organizat
of preventing dissimple and naive method
of change does
by ignoring the possibility

the

tends

social group

ganization
disor-

counteract

to

whose

traditional

system.

belong, first of all,cases

Here

individuals

from

obvious

For

with

blame

for

rather

than

to

its

upon

there

phenomena

own

the

in the

root

for

exclusion

of

than
realized

the

exclusion

that, though

of
the

munity
com-

put the

strangers
it feels

stranger
is not

easier and
But

member.

to

whom

and

community
much

the

upon

members

"naturally"seems

in

settled

social group

every

all undesirable

taken

belong

strangers

tendency of

and
partly responsible,
not

of

community.
frequentlypracticed

is most

exclusion

reference
a

exclusion

the territorial limits of the

reasons,

; it is

of actual

the

with

is in disaccordance

behavior

individuals

be

demanding

problem

by what we may call the method of isolation,


itself and those
by breaking the connection between

e.,

has

PEASANT

POLISH

THE

124

felt to
portant
less imit must

community

peasant

who

had

legallythe right to exclude undesirable individuals,this


limited in practiceby the Russian
tion
administraright was
whose
needed
before a communal
permission was
decision

of

method
we

find the

In

where

further, the

formal

to make

there

decision

is

transgressionof custom
of social solidarity,
serious break
no
crime, the
spontaneously reacts by interrupting some

all of

cases

the normal

quirements
re-

legalmade the
fore
rather difficult to apply. Therepeasant community often resortingto
of action.
and simpler means

necessary
exclusion

immediate

more

no

into effect,and

went

social relations

refusing to respond

with

to his emotional

or

the

but
munity
comor

offender, by

practicalneeds.

FOR

STRUGGLE

PRESERVATION

seldom

There

his

of

tended

this reaction; it

behind

agreement

initiative

own

simply to

avoid

seems

by

or

close

any

SYSTEM

SOCIAL

conscious

plan, any

any

is

OF

explicit

and

dividual
in-

if every

as

imitation

others,

of

with

contact

125

those

who

by social opinion. The explicit


of this tendency are, the feelingof indignation
motives
and the fear of being accused
at the offence
by social
But
opinion of sharing the attitude of the offender.
stilldetect a more
further back we
can
though no
naive,
condemned

been

have

longer consciouslyrealized

motive

the unformulated
is

kind

some

of

incomprehensible,vaguely magical

those

who

keep relations with him.


itself

asserts

it faces

whenever

of behavior.

with

the

affect

may

tive
primitivemo-

clearlyin every society


inexplicable,"uncanny" kind

new,

find in the present


mentions

collection
such

of

behavior

whose

in

is

of

terials
ma-

isolation

an

in accordance

not

custom.

When

the

break

has

community
with

nonconformity
with

This

which

less

or

incidental

individual

the

We

many

of

more

way

there

that

the offender

some

tamination,
"con-

of

apprehension

principlein

evil

^the fear

"

to

traditional

deal

not

with

and

customs

mere

but

mores,

of

solidarity
verging upon or passing into
becomes
crime, its reaction
a
pression,
positiveand planful reto
varying in intensityfrom
public blame
lynching,according to the importance of the offence as
The
viewed
facts of lynching,of which
by the group.
a

have

many

quoted
The

since

occurred

examples, deserve

some

facts

cannot

exclusivelyas
outbursts
are,

indeed,

during

1905

of
some

be
mob

and

properly understood
acts,

the very

the

as

process

irrational
of

action"

"mob
of

we

have

particular attention.

popular instincts
of

of which

if interpreted

ous
spontaneThere

revenge.

attitudes

lynching; but

oping
devel-

the foun-

POLISH

THE

126

PEASANT

of the whole

cial
performance lies in the essential soneeds
inof an organized community, not in animal
action
We
shall find typicalexamples of mob
stincts.
in the next chapter ; their background is radicallydifferent.
which
either lack organizain groups
tion
They occur
whose
or
entirely like a citycrowd
organization
is,in a sense, temporarily suspended, has ceased to work
in a community struck by a sudden
for a time
as
panicprovoking event; they are purposeless, have no general

dation

"

"

"

aim

which

to

the

action

present

lynching which we
are
performed by groups
organizationis still strong and

the

find in peasant

of

cases

in which

vital

deliberation,sometimes

of

ahead; they have

very

is subordinated.

are

prepared for

definite

general

ties
communi-

traditional

the

they

But

the

uct
prodtime

long

purpose,

larly
popu-

expressed as
"cleansing" of the community.
of the community
Finally,in the eyes of every member
who
of the individuals
none
they are morally justified;
mentary
participatedin them feels that he was
acting under moexcitement
and

be

to

in peasant

communities

It must
which

under

are

draw
an

rather

the

that

course,

conditions

Polish

peasant

quite particular and

do

permit

conclusions

whether

to

as

not

munities
comus

of

other

or

no

social

influence.
over

its

judicial and

agencies
Since

on

whose

1863,

all administration

when

and

to

l3mching

of

most

tional
ra-

primitive,
ganization.
struggle against disora

as

repressionin primary groups


forced
centuries
peasant community was

to

took

of

as

Thus, lynching

lynching develops in
general

surrender

little

appears

method

original means
The

not.
to

any

his action

if necessary.

realized,of

be

considers

each

repeated

fully conscious

but

is

but

or

ago

executive

tions
func-

activities

it had

Russia

tively
defini-

jurisdictionin

the

PRESERVATION

FOR

STRUGGLE

SOCIAL

OF

SYSTEM

Congress Kingdom, the performance


has been particularlyunsuccessful

and
inefficiency

dishonesty of

time, peasant

same

began

to

which

manifested

itself very

And

1905-1907,

to

the

officials.

At

the

the

to

recent

period

Russian

lice,
po-

fightagainst the revolutionists,neglected

than

more

the

clearlyduring

during this period the

as

in

absorbed

with

its duties

ever

communities

And, of

owing

owing

communities,

tions
func-

of these

independence acquired by the peasants in 1864,


importance
develop a feeling of their own

economic

many

Russian

127

the

took

regard

into their

matter

crime,

to

hands.

own

of the elaborate means


they had none
of repression at their disposal which
state
can
a
use,
inevitablyresorted to just as, for similar
lynching was
as

course,

individuals

reasons,

communities

in weakened

resort

to

self -redress.
But

if thus

in which

lynching appeared

exceptional,the social attitudes manifested

rather

were

the conditions

in these acts

the
essentially

were

constitute

everywhere

the

which

same

psychologicalbasis

repression of anti-social behavior; indeed,


the whole
we

psychology

study these

"retributive

social

of

find there

we

And

justice."

with

in connection

cases

and

if

their social background,

find that

we

have

of

always

an

upon

seemingly similar acts of repression


entirelydifferent significancewhen
formed
per-

outsiders

and

when

their

the

offender

object is

ber
mem-

of the group.
In

and

the

first case,

the victim
as

is

member

of the

and

When

is

community

whole, the reaction

retributive

damages.

when

preventive, with

community these attitudes may also


particularlyif the community

or

the latter

of

the offender

an

is

an
a

exist
is

outsider
the
is

attempt
member
in

some

munity
com-

tially
essen-

to

of

act
ex-

the

ure,
meas-

partly broken

up

into

fragments,

that

wants

to

each

these

is strong

mtmity

the

in

is interested

device

some

ideas

these

itself not

which

are

we

"sin'' and

parallel is

vestige

of

the

mediaeval

in

some

has

been

for the group


there

is

fact

that

rooted

rule which

reliability.The

break

has

an

etc.

of

sins

are

sources

be

may

sponsibility
re-

remnant

ity,
politicalresponsibiltaken

feeling of
with

community
there

hates
is

an

has
the

in

fence,
politicalof-

In addition

broken

Russian

communities

to

is the

by

principleshave been
desire for securityand

occurred, and

sion
repres-

magical

unreasoned

regard

been

tude
atti-

innumerable

There

common

neighbors.

has

the

religiousideas

the dissatisfaction

the

in

of

traditional

ultimatelyin

that
its

the

also

course

shame, reproach,

the

of

; there

its

before

in

"

crime

terms

particularlya

more

Of

acts

also

by the stand

committed

probably

those

common

officials with

crime, and

of

revived

cases

governmental
which

certainlyis
fear

these

several.

notion

the old

the

by which past
commtmity the

peasant

probably

are

there

in

methods

the

In

this attitude

some

found

tion
annihila-

this fundamental

but

of regret,

of the various

out."

"wiped

in

only in
studying, but

expressions

Something

of

group,

consider

to

in prevention

performed

its limits.

within

manifests

various

and

the

been

termine
de-

ence
refer-

than

speak, the

has

formulated

not

of

consciousness

which

act

which

community

more

to

gression
agcom-

with

the

in revenge,

occurred

are

whole

What

will permit it

which

having

not

as

as

offences,is,so

the anti-social

the

attitudes

the

group

intimidate

to

solidarityof

not

are

than

more

of future
of

the

as

separate

as

and

policy of the group


offending member.

the

to

acts

its wrongs

long

so

PEASANT

which

of

revenge

But

of

POLISH

THE

128

lost

very

intense

shame
to

the

this,
very

broken,
the
some

ing
feelof

idea that
and

fre-

STRUGGLE

FOR

PRESERVATION

OF

SOCIAL

SYSTEM

139

"

consciousness

quently voiced

is the

This

its social

in
justification
raises

the group

and

personal

revenge
an

as

the

enemy

him

treat

crime

the

treat

the

if he

as

The

community.

reasserted

system

more

or

of

member

above

the

performed

the

fender
of-

its

and

to

outside

of

member

is removed

to

of

level

his crime, tends

and

and

unbroken.

as

performance,

every

been

been

shown

leniencyis

any

him

never

stain

of

By treatingthe
actively manifests

disowns

if it had

as

action

fear.

group

had

the

to

of

action

an

to be removed.

similar

eyes

personal

or

against him,
solidarity
to

the

such

gives

other

to any

or

"stain"

which

attitude

member

lynching a

of

the

tional
tradi-

the

If, on

trary,
con-

malefactor, there

less distinct consciousness

in the

mains
re-

group

leniencyimplies a solidaritywith him and his


crime, and we find communities
reproaching each other
for not having reacted
solidarilyand violentlyenough
this

that

against
many

free

the

unfit

to

of

^how

exclusion

stage of the technique of social self-

the lowest

to

and

its members

the

readapt

or

by making them
in accordance
It is evident

that
of

phenomena

the

methods

individual

in the
rules
can

"

be

due

to

tion
preserva-

the main

problem

to

future

the

one

munity
com-

their situations

is left untouched.

appliedonly when

exception; they

an

Sometimes,
be

the

to

proved

sporadic and

disorganizationspreads

community.
disorganizationmay

of

the

to

merely

have

individuals

these

disorganizationare

dangerous
if

such

dangerous

define

with

tend

who

system, while

traditional

adapt

individuals

of

community
be

perhaps

punishment represent,

or

for they
against disorganization,

defense

"

of

methods

however,

committed

were

before.

years
All

which

offences

some

over

the
are

cially
soworkable
un-

large part

indeed, this spread of


or

two

"bad

charac-

influence

ters" who
in

POLISH

THE

130

mtmity

other

Since

in

of

others

the

started, continues

to

it

to

occurs

persuades

reach.

into

the

it that

This

as

disorganizationis
limited

phenomenon

grow,

sphere

to

are

of

ests
inter-

of

teracting
coun-

these

is, indeed, the method

social group

every

ess
proc-

used.

are

community, the simplest method


progressivedisorganizationis to remove
of

back

disorganization there

introduced

out

com-

drop

the

values

which

the

Usually, however,

of

cases

the

excluded

are

of

atmosphere

to check

most

values

new

new

to tradition.

methods

if these

have

to

disorganization,once

unless

some

social

sufficient

be

may

into obedience
of

the others, and

habitual

time, the

PEASANT

soon

longer

no

few

reflection

as

an

tional
excep-

"abnormal"

viduals
indi-

ber
begins to touch a continuallyincreasingnumof apparently quite average
The
members.
ple
princiof this method
is sound
in part.
Disorganization
of a group
define
consistingin the fact that members

but

situations

in disaccordance

that such

definitions

of

other

some

may
of

only

are

rules, it may

the

the result

instead

values

in the

predominate

with

situation;in

of the

of those
other

be true

tion
substitu-

which

should

words, disorganization

if not exclusively,
due
chiefly,
method
The
changed conditions.

be

to

the

fluence
in-

would

be

perfectly efficient in preventing certain specific phenomena


of disorganizationby making impossible such
situations

require those particularvalues

it would

course,

of

as

have

to
new

times

on

though,

of

other kinds

To
by different influences.
be indispendisorganizationentirely,it would
sable
cut the community entirelyoff from
ble
possiany

phenomena

prevent

preventive effect

no

produced

influences,and
attempted

being,though

and

sooner

this has, of

with
or

perfect

course,

success

later the internal

been
for

many

the

creative

time

forces

POLISH

THE

132

dividualSyor

the individual

by

even

PEASANT

only if

situation similar

ishment

individual

the

prevent

tendencies
which
to

certain

forms

social

'The

to

order

with

frighten

nite
defi-

him

away

behavior

conflictingwith these
make
him positively
want

reach
community does not, of course,
scious
by an explicitreasoning, but it is conof mere
insufficiency
repression for purposes

peasant

this conclusion
of

the

itself,sometimes

in response

positive methods

aiming

wish

both

of

to

to

in members

and

their

attempts
makes

In

same.

order

to induce

the

appeal

is made

(way,
on

which

^the desire

The

whole

for response

community
an

the

to

in this

the

is

the
essentially

to

and

accept

source

from

that

which,

divergent

system

for

tain
cer-

his inclination

social

group

the desire

implicitlyassumes

inexhaustible

fundamental

primary

peasant

line, whatever

individual

the

spite

It is characteristic

sociallysanctioned definition in spiteof


to define the given kind of situations in
an

in

tive
ac-

tendencies

own

which

the particular aim, the general method

an

system

activities.

all the

spontaneously

community

initiative,more

the traditional

undesirable

in almost

that

outside

develop

influences

external

leading them

to

to

with

conform

of

tries to find, sometimes

reorganization and

of

are

In

in

conform,

to

"

not

situations

new

represssion.

enough

rules, but it is indispensable to

the

it does

But

in his behavior

conform

of

in plUn-

it prevents

words,
acts.

but

desirable
satisfyinghis sociallyun-

from

social rules, it is not


from

resulted

which

by constructing

the individual

have

that

to

will try to avoid

he

tendencies,

anti-social

similar

repetitionof

which

fear

anti-social

itself;in other

presents

of

attitude

does, indeed, develop the

efficientlycounterbalances

punished. Repression

tudes
attirests

recognition.

these
whenever

attitudes
neces-

FOR

STRUGGLE

and

sary

under

social

his

wish

the

social

the

taking

modifying

and

Or,

redress.

community,
made
to
new

to

reach

to

if

viewpoint
drinking
have

is thus

which
with

agreement

an

this situation^

gossip into account


and offeringor accepting
smoking has spread in the

action

the

in which

is taken

tendencies

these

developed

are

special recognitionis attached

participate
; and

problem

is disturbed

concerned,

effort to get rid of the undesirable

every

rived.
de-

toward

or

organized

who

to

be

can

group

re-define

him

makes

his statements

an

individuals

individual

every

in each

and

neighbors

133

gossip, direct personal appeal is

separately to

arouses

the

solidarityof

by mischievous
made

definitions

sociallysanctioned

if the

Thus,

SYSTEM

circumstances, active tendencies

any

with

conform

SOCIAL

OF

PRESERVATION

by

met

habit.

variation

new
specific

Every
of

''social instinct."

the old

This

method

is very

well

adapted

to the average

of

how

primary-g^oup members;
be used for the
it can
efficiently

social systems.

depend
of

response

outside

and

so

the

the

to

organize

fundamental

that

strong
the

were

born

dependent

on

help

to

new

tain
main-

evident.

are

of
possibility

its

cation,
appli-

conditions

which

the

to

for

the

in the

members

satisfaction

and

the

defense

of

reared

attitudes
to

are

desires

be
for

adequately obtained

be
is

who
their

the old

of

primary-group

recognitioncannot
the community.
It

of

far

very

of

destroy or to modify.
community is still solidaryand

and

who
are

that

still vital and

reformed

the

preciselythose

on

enough

system, that
are

only object is

disorganization tends

It presupposes

coherent

its

later

see

construction

rules, its limitations

often

results, and

process

when

traditional

the
Its

But

shall

we

chology
psy-

that

fact
in

community

all individuals

primary
and

group

always

pre-

POLISH

THE

134

PEASANT

of the

primary-group psychology that, if


ance
without
the assistdemoralized, they can hardly reform
of primary-group agencies and
methods, which
factor
of social reorganization.
a
J:hus are
necessary

much

serve

so

But

there

comes

cient
to be a suffithey cease
the
disorganization has been
self
primary group to reorganize itwhen

time

condition, when

pushed

far

too

unaided.

Then,

The

latter

in

of

social

of

resource

servatism,
con-

traditional

the

sys-

church.

the

of

cooperates,

community

last

stronghold

religionand

come

the

the

as

last

the

as

tem,

the

for

all the

course,

with

time

ganization
struggling against this partialdisor-

accompanies every social organization


of the necessarilyimperfect adaptation
as
a
consequence
variations.
of the latter to individual
Christianity
the fundamental
of a primary-group
elements
contains
which

morality,and

differences

The
the

rules

the

of

peasant

Catholic

to

have

have

of

particularmilieu

evolved

out

with
moral

rules

old pagan
unified

influence

of

its

I the

of

church

life,and

sexual

the

several

systems
within
of the

from

an

Christian
Our
is not

applied.

they were

mythology.

resulted

consistent.
the

attitudes

to

combination

Christian

which

social

modify the rigor


prescriptionsin adaptation
how

in which

morality and
and

knew

to

perfectly consistent

beliefs,each

originallybetween
the

and

referring

always

in Volume

ties.
communi-

gradually attenuated; the


deeply influenced by religion,

been

the content

seen

of peasant

to

been

matters

Church

even

the

has

system

particularlyin
and

have

helped

existed

church

taught by the

peasants

system

which

centuries

for

teachings

traditional

the

corroborate

its

thus

of

religious

itself,which
old pagan

The

morality is

uralism
nat-

of

system

interaction

documents

We

between
even

show

equally successful

more

that

the

in all

STRUGGLE

FOR

fields.

Among

enforce

those

the

social

PRESERVATION

th^

OF

which

rules

lack

which

easilybroken

is

there

; but

the

135

wants

to

in

background
communities

peasant
definite

no

SYSTEM

church

the

traditional

organization of

SOCIAL

oppositionto

are

them

by the peasants.
and
for
the community
Thus, the church
were
centuries allies in the struggle against disorganization,
theoretically
they

and

is

there

though

documents
in need

most

Now,

however,
is

It did

gradually
season

itself in these
in
it has

to

its influence.

Thus,

only

demoralization

latter

in

some

it

season

the

old

at

once

tem.
sysin

and

phenomena

new

long

as

to

modify

these

its purposes.

it

in the

can

But

last

interestingto

season

emigration

that

only

usually violentlyopposed

deeply

to

affairs

even

at

often

home

in
ginning
be-

it,

they objected

religious indifference

workers, and

controlling their

rooted

even

impairing

note
was

nomena
phe-

extremity,

without

it is

and

as,

citydress), limiting

and

attempts

too

was

for

proved powerless (such

yield,it yields only


as

the

tion
disorganiza-

itself

traditions

with

where

among

declare

accept

to

whereas

found

was

When

changed.

struggle

emigration

parishes in which
the priestswere
to

which

against any
though, adaptable as it 5s, it

to

cases

tradition

fightsfor

to

all the

accordance

'

is

to

struggle had

for instance,

the

hesitate

whatever,

against which

when

is still able
not

innovations

relation

the

preserving

learned

the church

was

powerless against growing

the church

of

say, it

may

astical
the old ecclesi-

of the alliance.

community

favor

that, whatever

doubt

no

acknowledged

are

if

helped the

during their

trying to find better positions.


The
reformatory influence of the church consists in
bringing to bear on each traditional definition,whatever
it may
be, the entire weight of the religioussystem. The
absence

or

in

POLISH

THE

136
is

latter

and

without

rejectingall,unless

critical discrimination

if he

even

him

religion or

certain

of

make

to

points

in

view

society. When

in

to

nevertheless

the

latter

church

all the

to

more

the

any

all the

social

on

immigrants

of

generation

in
preserved indefinitely
the

radical

most

probably several
most
important
may

remain

unable

When

of

cases

reasons
one

find substitutes

of himself

Polish

every

to

such

seems

for

of

which

the

whenever

of

strong
in this

the

even

most

to

other

be

vidual
indiand

ing
last-

peasant's
in the

ond
sec-

country, and

cities ;

this

comes
be-

ber
mem-

they survive
disorganization. There

for

no

whole

sociallysanctioned

ia-

no

tudes
religiousatti-

of

set

traditional components

psychology. They

definition

the

definition.
sociallynon-sanctioned
The
religiousattitudes prove, in fact, the
of

church

if it has

of control

means

between

choose

tendencies

with

imposed

less involved

or

laxing
re-

religiousworship,

entire

disposes. The

is thus

has

by

is

all

of

if it has

externallyconnected

this connection

system, and
of

of

matters

on

let

not

need

thus

negative or positivesanction

whatever

spiritof

certain

of

them

between

the

sees

the

peasants

choice

it

of

does

religious significanceof itself,even

bearing

him

and

classes; and

educated

by

so

of

among

social situation, this situation, even

trinsic

the

developed

found

religion,unless

generally prevalent
attaches

seldom

forces

no

on

reject any

discriminate, the church

tries to

it but

do

cannot

influenced

been

not

consciousness

he has

are

doctrine

in the

individual

that the

elements

in the

another

one

believer

have

various

coherent, its many

so

closelyassociated with
practiceof the church

who

PEASANT

are
even
are

the

persistence,but

that

while

traditional

the peasant
values

he

is

find any adequate substitute for religion.


substitutes are
given to him in the

of national

form

and

Of

possess.
form

Church.

But

the embodiment

the peasant

course,

the

from

since

And

sees

no

to

one

with

in connection

used

been

always

classes.

of

dividual
in-

the

idealistic tendencies

whatever

religiouslife than

of

with

which, being removed

extraordinary

may

of art,

or

day occupations, satisfyhis craving

every
the

137

it does

as

intellectual

European

interests

all those

SYSTEM

science

just

happens, religionremains

this

unless

its power,

of

the

of

member

SOCIAL

OF

social ideals, of

or

much

religionloses
a

PRESERVATION

FOR

STRUGGLE

the

which

he
sible
pos-

he

has

olic
Cath-

Roman

he

wherever

finds almost

he

other

for

Catholic

goes

monies
parishes with the same
religiouscereteachings,religionnever
entirelyloses its

and

influence

these

Under
that

him.

upon

the church

in its

for

there

where

even

is not

struggle

the
were

of which

type

"

it

conditions

we

successful

more

preservation
shall

speak

the

to

make

use

proper

the

fault should

The

of the

of

seldom

been

system,

ary
revolution-

in the next

of the clergy, who


inefficiency

to

old

the

of

surprising
it has

than

influences

no

its activities.

to counteract

rather

seems

chapter

"

be ascribed

knew

how

powerful instrument

they

in turn
is a result of the
inefficiency
lack of sociological
knowledge.
Just as the failure of
disorganizationis due to
legal repressionto counteract
the desire to
the fact that it merely tries to counteract
harmful
the problem
perform certain socially
acts, whereas
is to develop the wish
to perform
cially
only certain so-

possessed, and

this

sanctioned
in

church

the

fact

emphasis

trying to
is put
much

the

so

the acts

of

"sins"

on

more

being committed

incomplete

rather

toward
than

success

of

disorganization is due

counteract

that, outside

efforts tend
from

acts,

of
than

the
to

worship, the main


on

"merits," the

preventing certain acts


toward
having certain other

acts

the

the

done

of

example
various

account

of

involved,

this

on

reconstruction
than

toward

shall

treat

of

the
it

in

the

the

of

peasant

has

later

chapters.

give
and

the

in

of

the

tion
direc-

their

flock.

has

ing
organiz-

peasant

interests

groups.
and

rather

on

old

been
follow

to

and

contributed

and

this

church

began

communities

preservation

salvation

promoting

activities

nature

work

the

clergy

in

social

of

clergy
of

work

leaders

lay

kinds

the

when

recently

it

with

both

successful

most

quite

of

of

doctrine

connected

attention

the

PEASANT

whole

technique

entire

Thus,

But

The

performed.

to

the

POLISH

THE

138

system,

ciples
printoward
basis

new

and

we

revolt

Secondly,
aim

of

only, in
decay of

is in each

incidental

sense,

the traditional

result

of

Whereas

revolt.

system

the traditional
-...^^^^jdbolish
schemes

influence

their
thus

to

the way

open

those

of
while

the

In view

the
in

which

of behavior

methods

Thus

latter.

the

and

of

some

the

destroy

given

manently
perand

group,

isfaction
sat-

permanent
be

cannot

differences

of these

the

least

is to

fied
satis-

freely

lasts.

system

suppressing

at

its part, to

which

needs

the

of revolution

general

and

is

aim

within

to

rules

and

or

are

of

spontaneously,as
of
varietyof cases

comes

system

in

faction
the satis-

satisfaction

this

to

sciously
con-

system

break

The

immediate

the

old

particularcase

increasing number

an

the

of

particularwish.

some

and
intentionally

not

destruction

the

at

PEASANT

does

its purpose

general;

POLISH

THE

140

which
former

more

prove

or

and

lution,
revo-

less efficient

fail when

often

it is clear that

revolt

between

applied to the
peasant community which

accord
individual rewillinglyand of its own
volt
represses
against its traditions and mores, can hardly be made
to
wholeheartedly with the higher social
cooperate
in

classes

suppressing

aim

which
benefit

of

indeed,

be

individual

group,
the

to

for

for

fear

disastrous

because

desire

any

its desire for


values

new

But

bring.

against

those

together;
member

that

often

its members

this

for

the

which

revolution

opposition lacks the


the

in this

who

from

side
out-

whole

securityis stronger

than

is

moral

pected
ex-

dignatio
in-

suppression of personal

principles

of the group

repression

consequences

that accompanies
revolt

of

existing social order for the


Such
the peasant
class.
a
community may,
opposed to the revolutionaryactivities of its
have

or

tendencies

the

modify

to

members

will

those

which

case

keep

it is the

draws

the

munity
com-

ary
revolution-

his energy

from

ATTITUDES

REVOLUTIONARY

feelingof righteousnessconnected
Further,

have

we

that

seen

inducing the individual


any particulartraditional

wishes

this definition

with

of emotions
he

works

only as long

brought

was

whole

in

does

as

wish

not

The

and

societyshall

more

be

this method

in

and

ess,

in

word,
not

so

his particular

of

attack

to

by trying

hasten

even

to

with

of

to

act

every

least

the

of social

And

cases

which

stop

this

individual

and

evolution

one

of

of

revolt

logical
abnormality,of pathoto

pathology,it is

to

ditional
tra-

facts

in which

growing popularization of
far as disorganizationis a

social evolution

the

it will prove

the

life,but results from

of

this

ary
revolution-

dealing with

in those

of

of

later, the substitution

in

of individual

ture
fea-

of this system.

dealing with

see

the

in social

develop

name

cooperate.

fact of individual

stage

begun

in the

is successful

expression

an

conditions

ticular
par-

satisfactorysystem for the old


which
the revolutionaryelements

misadaptation

In

against

be utilized to suppress

may

grow

shall

we

made

personal revolt, at
is not

to

needs

is, as

substitution

that

dare

or

unrest

only efficient method

new

"

revolts

it cannot

has

apt

new

repress

attitudes
a

social

whole

it is

consciousness,

in

that this method

revolution, for if the opposition to the

system

to

of

periods

of

outbreak

of

tem
sys-

revolutionarytendency whose characteristic


preciselythat it turns against the domination
traditional
Attempts to apply
system.

method

tends

powerful

satisfaction

the

system in its entirety. Thus


is

and

It is evident

up.

hinder

desires, but

against his

accept

definition is to connect

the individual

as

which

rules

to

efficient

most

beliefs,like the religioussystem

and

which

the

of

wide, coherent

his activities.

with

one

of

means

141

cannot

but

new

mental
fundavelopment
the de-

needs.

social procan

be

able
unavoidremedied

by directing it. )

is thus

Revolution

in

in the

in

be useful

Our

the process

increase

study

Polish

of

of

if it

even

ceeds
suc-

personal revolt,
of

development

defined

sense

peasant

social

as

soon

retards
to

and

methods

the

lutionary
revo-

It may

above.

but should
periods of relative social stability

rejectedas
only

of

which,

suppressingparticularcases
attitudes

it

test

method

; any

prevent the appearance

cannot

be

crucial

the

reconstruction

social

PEASANT

POLISH

THE

142

of

the

to

for

grow,

reconstruction

and

tributes
con-

of the

the chaos

of

begins

unrest

intermediary period.
revolutionary attitudes of the

will be limited

to

fields

two

class

"

lutionism
revo-

For several reasons,


religiousrevolutionism.
cannot
as
we
study here politicalrevolutionism
in the national uprisingsof the Poles against
manifested
the
partitioning states, particularly against Russia.
and

Though

within

there
with

national

was

social

period which

the

we

revolution

and

count
ac-

(partlyconnected

revolution) in \1905-6,the

supported by city workmen

taking into

are

latter

mostly

was

the peasants

class

as

has
it very little. There
been, indeed,
this whole period a growing national revolutionary

participatedin
during

movement

their active
of

were,

time.
our

in
participation
but

1914-1919;

movement

the peasants

among

the

successful

documents

referring to

reasons,

kept

to

gle
strugthis

all the

secret

What

accessible
to
actuallytranspired and was
ness
investigation,was
an
increasingnational conscious-

manifesting

itself in

cooperation.
studied
The

in the last

revolution

interestingobject

of
of

social

organization and

this side of

But

evidentlybelongs
be

the last and

obvious

for

finallyled

which

to

social

chapter
1905-6

study;

incomprehensible without

of

national

reconstruction
the

would

but

the

present

ment
move-

and

be

will

volume.

be, indeed,

it would

tural
cul-

very

absolutely

thorough analysis of

the

REVOLUTIONARY

psychology of

the

leaders, of the

economic

in

Polish

which

lead

therefore

We

Polish

industrial

would

ATTITUDES

far

the

introduce

here

The

found

only

few

documents
of

some

cerning
con-

its effects

religiousattitudes.^

or

Class

Revolutionism

in the country

class system

their

other
problems
many
the limits of this work.

illustrate

to

peasants'class
I.

and

beyond

this revolution
on

and
factory workmen
and
conditions
political

centers

us

143

as

was,

we

know,

rigidthan in cities.
rigiduntil recently,much more
This holds true
not
only of Poland, but practicallyof
In particular,
all Europe.
the
the distinction between
very

and

peasants

fixed

the

gentry, the

classes, has

centuries, owing

to

often

the

to

appears

in the nature

of

least

maintained

been

that

serfdom,

much

the

up

mind

popular

things;

oldest and

two

deep

as

to

in

for

so

rooted

sense

differences

many

present it

the
a

nitely
defi-

most

of

culture

economic

tain
inequalityto mainit. The
ruined
growth of intermediary elements
nobles, bourgeois settlingon land, wealthy or educated

help

at

as

as

"

peasants

"

and

flexible social
have

hierarchy which

much

done

with

the contact

to

the
has

diminish

this

new,

different,more

developed

in

cities,

distinction;and

yet

the latter until

recentlyappeared to the average


peasant
the most
strikingfeature of that wider social order
his community was
which
a part.
But
if the class distinction during the last 50 years

as

of

remains

has

the
essentially
certainlydecreased

'It

overt

understood

in

as

before, class antagonism

incalculable

an

measure

since

subject-matter is revolutionary
fests
manirevolutionary attitude which
with
itself in a va^e
dissatisfaction
be
existing conditions
may
which
is expressed in an
of
significantsociologicallythan one
act
rebellion
^ifit is more
general and lasting.
should

attitudes, not
more

be

same

that

revolutionaryacts.

"

our

THE

144

of

abolition

the

PEASANT

POLISH

serfdom.

At

which

time

the

we

are

tween
oppositionof interests beand
the large estate-owners
the peasant farmers
the quesitself to two
reduced
points. The first was
tion

taking

here

servitudes

of

manorial

on

of many

for

of the number

and
nobility,
had

either

the revolutions

in all

found

should

land

the
half

the

last

take

and

away

the

abolition

of

advance

of

divide

serfdom

of
was

the
been

peasants

the upper

the
tivated
cul-

know

nobody's
{cf. Vol.

which

developed

land

is

the

itself

of

ond
sec-

chiefly
be

to

isfied
sat-

the tendency
the

ment
govern-

continuallygrowing;
with

land

after

easilyinterpretedas

tendency, sometimes

from

estates

Now,

cultivate it with

manifested

century

fiscated
con-

that

"

powerfully during

very

nobilityhas

endowment

This
concealed

the

to

ment
govern-

cherished

general "land-hunger" which demanded


by any means.
Naturally,therefore,
and

and

of

peasants

who

this, we

for economic

the desire

among

t^

of the

1863.

and

non-cultivated
with

were

partitionsor

times

those

belong to

connection

In

property.

there

agricultural communities

while

hands

own

immemorial

from

vision
di-

increase

the Russian

1830

of

mum
the mini-

peasants, whereas

the

The

in

resulted

enormous

an

appropriated after

the peasants have

in

in

territories which

vast

after

I) that

living,and

more

land.

large private estates


disproportionately

yet many

their

the

into lots below

farms

of landless

between

was

of

population has

peasant

necessary

second

distribution

of

problem

discord

foment

to

nobility. The

the

of the country

growth

"

in order

government

fundamental

idea

tle
rights to pasture peasant catand
from
manorial
take dry wood
intentionallyleft unsettled by the

was

peasants and

the

the

or

land

forests, which
Russian

the

into account,

formulated

classes, was

the

dent.
prece-

but usually

the most

serious

ATTITUDES

REVOLUTIONARY

factor

of whatever

Much

deeper

antagonism
of

situation

the

for

which

the landed

from

change

subordination
with

but

under

hardly

nineteenth

reform

the

proved
imtury;
cen-

1808

1864,

of

ties
du-

from

freedom

patriarchal relation

securityto

more

independence

more

The

interest.

Poland

manor-

already (since

meant

peasant

as

was

of the

gentry

undisputed property of his farm,


cept
practicallynothing expeasant meant

landless

the

the

his lord and

toward
for

the

latter

by the agrarian reforms


they had personal freedom
and
the Congress Kingdom),

in

between

peasants employed by them

The

servants.

the

was

the landless

and

between

the peasant farmer.^

and

manor-owner

found

antagonism

class

14S

but

difficult economic

the government

"hired

more

work"

less mutual

lation
re-

personal

of the

condition

particularlyin

foreign domination,

where

with

try
coun-

Russian

tried
intentionally

to ruin

Polish

the
with
conservatism
nobility,combined
usually characterizingagriculturalclasses and with the
continuallyincreasingoflFer of cheap labor, contributed

the

to

the wages

maintain

of the

barely above

the starvation

his situation

and

that

of

an

only that

of his

farmer

Warszwvskij

paper

official descriptionsof strikes


*The

The

on

level

between

contrast

but

employer
facilitated

the

even

velopmen
de-

revolutionaryattitudes.

Russian

The

limit.

peasant

average

of
79.

not

manor-servant

'

in the

Dniewnik

country

gives such
.

has been
recently (July, 1919) settled by the PoUsh
in
accordance
with
the demands
of the peasants.
Private
government
will be limited to 300 morgs
will be bought
estates
(400 acres) the excess
and sold to landless ]^easantsand
farmers
by the government
on
poorer
easy

abo

problem

terms;
solves

all the
in

forests

large

measure

and

'The

case
quoted is not really
intentionally misrepresents it,but an

property

which

the

will become
of the

waters

the

peasants

problem
a

state

property.

This

manor-servants.

strike as
the governmental
paper
to obtain
by force governattempt
mental
consider
belonging to them
as
hy

"The

15th
a

POLISH

THE

146

of

peasants

pull down

to

building on

the

watchmen

The

and

peasants

took
had

the

of

together,about

came

pulled
have

to

also

allow

not

land

of

the

men,

as

main

farm

years

affairs in Piotrkow
Since

forest-guards to do

the

remains

of the

the

of

the

this writer
not

that the peasants

mentioned

probably
in the

do

peasants

want

due

to

peasant
could

need

not

preface

this

to

equal division

They

did

field and

the

few

state

ship
owner-

gain the

never

The

of the

chapter, the
of

1905, 14.

port
sup-

of

statement

ever,
equalityof land is,how-

influence

the

to

ate
Sen-

the peasants

year

Swiqteczna,

representativeof the standpoint of the


is

and

do

mental
govern-

unsowed.

Poland.

in

population

country

the

in court."

bolshevism

that

peasants

later the

in the

present

objection of the Polish

soil proves

building.

this farm.

work

any

to

up

but

August last
upon

will be tried
inciters,

[The

six

sent

the

ago

and

Gaseta

80.

he
the

guard

rights to this farm,

some

perform illegaldeeds

to

it and

to

Some

rejected these claims.

began

est
governmental for-

people, beat the guarding


and
farm-buildings completely down

the

office for peasant

the

to

400

building-materialhome.

claimed

Lusniki, belonging

of

constables

March

on

district about

the

country

tried
.

farm

the

head- forester

chief

two

watchmen,

village 2ywocin

the

majorat-estate. The
informed

PEASANT

land,

average

ant
peas-

As

clergy.

we

majority of the

but

under

individual

ownership.]
in

Now
Russian

who
of

members
with

land

the

community

our

Polish

the

the aim
land

possess

of

or

of

made

need

need

that

land

1864.

more,

existence

such
.

will

equality of rights, we

need

the land held

as

of those

do

government

we,
a

land

of

Polish

of

1863 without

not

the

scheme,

that
.

need

we

nght, since it consists in estates


confiscated
after the revolution
shares to which
they considered
of

us

that

all that

nationalization

little. Whereas

declare

our

since

the

to

not

worse,

even

do

we

the

like it at

not

satisfyingthe needs

only

Kingdom,

do

tend

Parliament

satisfyingus, only irritates


of

we

...

of

peasants
peasants
from

far

alization
through nationbe

improved

but

equality of land but


self-government, we
by generals,by

mem-

nobility which the government


the
giving the peasants
themselves
entitled according to the law

THE

148
The

do

calmed

village group
cutting of

the

POLISH

the

PEASANT

down

and

forest, but

many

only ceased

not

hired
"

In

organized

Nasutow,

an

strike.

The

morning, did
yard and

not

began

Swiqtecsna, idgg,

The

answered

that

that their

ordynarya

strength for

and

exacting,

work.

than

the

they

had

that

so

The

In

they could

the

if

had

parobek

answered

of

hereditary dominion

the

stopped working

to

his
was

think

of

they

expensive
more

that

small

so

rags

for

the

sending

them

to

by the manorial

treated

were

was

indispensable
his

to

for

send

pocket. The

own

give

whom

servant

miserable

and

from

They

themselves,

more

pay
pay

the Count

talk with

would

and

they

pay

been

insufficient to

was

own

even

had

and

ager
man-

give them

evening the parobeks again fed the stock and


The
next
day in other estates belonging to

the

calmly home.

went

it

to

that he
In

answer.

not

which

support

more

shoes

sickness

of

case

surgeon-assistant, but
doctor

for

hardly enough

school.

were

Their

asked

{posylkd\

parobek had

earn.

brewer

joined the parobeks.

to

wages

the

in the

stopped working.

servants

keep

to

the

latter could

children, and

small

in

together
The

then

[allowance of food]

absolutely obliged

were

and
had

they

too

came

themselves.

till 4 o'clock

had

but

51.

servants

stock

the

interrupt the work

to

not

they

work

among

inquired why

manager

them

the usual

these worked

; so

Zamoyski, the

Count

parobeks, having fed

consult

to

of

estate

to

go

brewery-workmen

begun

an

to

this work.

8a"

the

themselves

GoBtta

hinder

to

the

Zamoyski

[but always

Count

servants

...

they continue

to

the

feed

cattle].
the

In

together

not

have

but

come

would

one

the

to

come

latter do

an

what
to

it is

agreement

among

demand.

The

impossible

estate

to

what

next

day

come

to

to
or

any

hold
make

who

those

their servants
of the
and

such

that
do

of the estate

owners

to

left

and

themselves

understanding with

know

come

Only it is bad

willinglyto just demands

something diflferent the


that

crowd.

to

an

agree
not

to

estate

the

join

ones

new

themselves

like to

would

and

from

walk

and

time

not

know

every

home

first go

they

at

five estates

people from

neighborhood

entire

parobeks;

either

unwise

understanding.

and

require
demands

REVOLUTIONARY

ATTITUDES

149

Swiqieema,

Gaseta

Warssawskij Dniewnik,

83.
in

Warsaw,
ent

from

writes:

country

the

neighboringdistrict
to

workers

of

improvement
workers

manors

only

want

to

manor-owners,

whom

they could

They

at
10

movement.

[Letter

We

to

Priest

youth

in

Anusz

asses
our

and

hides

roubles,

moiig)
to

200

...

miserable

only

other
and

hard

broad

"

at the

workmen

give them

to

The

police
in suppressing

succeeded

Swiqtecsna,

Parana,

hard

and

manor

it is for

the

manor.

grievous

most

and

names

And

enduring work, for pouring

spend

our

ent
pres-

our

our

call

us

we

it is not

maybe
They

was

now

Father,

pay

1905, 15.

Brazil, who

....

to

us

sweepings of

the

on

serving
how

you

The

to

"

to

are

this,

they had

him.

on

promoting Polish emigration to that country]


take the libertyof describingto you. Reverend
life.

without

owner

Gazeta

84.

threats.

or

Beside
.

for food.

squad of Cossacks

Whoever

newcomers,

called

the

visit six

to

workmen
.

why, every

they had

refusal

manor

home.

ransom.

person

by violence

request of the

the

to

return

get along, payed

manor
or

to

owners

of

required

keep those

to

the

case

came

forced

was

in

there

of workmen

asking

were

allowed

were

wilhngly

not

Crowds

manor

workmen

the

wanting

help of

the

with

move-

i8th, coming

their condition, and

certificate that

written

the

to

copecks per
nobody knows
insistently,

asked
a

great

given food

be

the

Krasnystaw.

manor

When

then

go

Some

in every

Zamosc

March

on

of

joined them.

and
not

began

from

go

threatening a strike.

did

district of

of

an

local

the

published

paper
...

began
for

"In

governmental

1905, 13.

very

sweat

known
un-

years

of

rascals,

us

little for
over

their

korcy [48 bushels of grain], 25


rods of land including the garden (less than one
and
such
of the worst
only one
cow
a
sort, and
of

one

increase

land"

that

it

their

only

12

just drags
manure

and

out
not

its
to

days, for they keep it


give milk

to

the

hand.
farm-

who
be
must
They also require us to keep a servant
paid [by us] 30 to 35 roubles a year with board, while the manor
for his work
by the day (10 copecks per day during 3
us
pays
and 20
copecks during 3
months, 15 copecks during 6 months
reckon
Therefore
it is possible
please
yourself how
months).
Father.
How
find one's
can
to
living. Reverend
they find

POLISH

THE

150

PEASANT

pleasure in thus

abusing poor people? They rouse


you up at
have to work
till9 in the even3 o'clock in the morning and you
hour
off for dinner; and
occasion
at every
iag, one
are
you
scolded:

with

Therefore

chaff.

step they

remind

hundred

you

rascals, I

^'You

don't

reproach

those

who

like

but

giving this miserable


for what

not

in

poor

of

vanished.

Maybe

It is

begin

to

but

ourselves

one

that
look

meet

could

we

his

to

looks

reckons
be
and

thinks
this

that

there

off, and

he

praise and

write
what
2

us

the

be

can

with

pages

others

truth.

conditions
of

will

must

not

perhaps
delude

b^

must

this
.

man

with

somewhere

while

he

from

awakes

But

true.

even

the eye
where

cannot
a

[Brazil]. So
Reverend

away

Father,
to

when
he

more

once

various
trust

that
write

...

you
us

they sell

land, whether

this

would

man

cannot

we

other

measure

poor

talk in

People here

the kindness

they give

already accustomed

thought he falls asleep

in you.

Have

is

that

place

blame

we

wUch

no

but

Brazil

long journey during which

hears

large world

only believe

but

star

an

perhaps it is

that

some

it is

country

our

sleeping.

continues

this

shepherd and

for

start

to

us

better, for

are

over

better

again.

before

sheep-stalland

we

already

advise

Still when

people conditions
he

In

lose much.

deep sleep and

us

star

advice.

blindlybecause

misery.

the

has

pass

man's

for

country

our

people of good-will and

for

people who

hesitate to leave

be

least

light up

real

the poor

will not

We

Poland

establishes

that time

In

anywhere,

of

himself

were

dog.

to

must

for sincere

them

at

will have

At

shine, but

if he

ever

show

work

to

much

great question if it will


time

has

were

its value.

Kingdom

much

they

five times

like

not

is the way
if

one

commiseration

the

will

of Christ.

imitator

so

every

remind

but

enlightened and

shepherd who

one

in

but

sometime,

people becomes

find any

people

poor

this
and

whereas

mercy,

is worth

resent

way

cannot

man

the

not

human

livingby

This

you."

no

saying: ''I

you,

constantly as

us

At

They

they handed

admonish

paltry food

would

man

treated

the

of their pay.

it to

and

money

ordered."

are

the penny

still I gave

work

us

with

you

you

beggar,

about

you,

give

what

do

you,

times

paying

am

it

ways,
body,
any-

will
under

[etc ;

questions].

Perhaps this letter is

too

unpleasant

and

too

tedious

for yoUt

REVOLUTIONARY

Father, since

Reverend

under

out

pour

and

the

depression of mind
this

beloved

our

given

the

us

intend

not

own

like

under

would

heart

it

But

from

of

await

of

dear

the

like

crackled.
the

lords

said:

^There
and

dumbfounded

have

fate

same

easy.

same

myself

this

our

kind

gave

"

this

Polish
it

cherish

people!

reckons

long
I

as

of

to

my
away

child

am

beggars

with

piece

no

quietly
lowed
al-

not

are

the watchman

by order

gates, dragging him

the

his

support

[box].
would

you
our

this

was

that

me

me

ably
ProbGod

lucky that
that

so

they had

it

its parents in their old

duty toward
horn

the

days, for though

was

Glory,

finger,

tease

not

they give

It

his

with

it struck

old

my

served

have

you

pointing

could

reading all

young

I could

which

is because

parents.

writing because

threatened

afterwards
for

to

dismiss

pitifulold beggar's bones

"That

me

^'Where

yet

am

this

as

year

they should

"

manor

the

of support

them

Father, from

Reverend

acres,

and

new

One

how

out

and

days, since it does not feel any


all ignorant like snuff in a
are
terminate

love

every

under

watchman,

moment,

should

How

do

few

leave

shall
village,old dog. You
his lordship." Having
seen

densome.
bur-

it,that

do, unhappy

we

age

seen

that

so

awaiting

was

Highest called
.

to

children, what
the

the

for

to

as

in the

beggar

neck

anger

only

duty

prevent

head

myself
a

the

to

of

beggar's stick, having

here

I have

thought

and

us

it is,althotighwe

ever

with

old

and

my

And

the

thinks

one

we

can

God

my

faithfully."The

dogs here
the

for

over

conducted

dog by

our

leave

difficult and

owned

we

our

to

produced

so

sad

only half bad

wallet

death.

lord

is

is

at present.

^which

"

own

my

to enter."

of

if

This

wearing

roof

How

slide away

not

healthy, but

vagrancy,

has

and

us

have

to

ako

longing to this soil,wishing it might stay

our

year

here ?

and

man

who

when

what

[our leased] stripof land does

me

blow

would

nor

consider

feet and

shall I be next

hard

must

we

tell you

oppressing

life here

this soil.

sell them

we

our

But

bit of this soil,for if

only direct

can

think, and

is

that

it is

one's

bodily mother.

our

We

shakes

never

soil,since

because

part from

one

would

we

misery

right to life.

to

feel and

we

151

spaciously; but

so

soil, this mother

Grief
we

it is written

what

tears

humiliation

our

ATTITUDES

them
We

because
are

become

griefs which

they

forced

to

disgusted.
are

limited.
un-

POLISH

THE

IS2

PEASANT

From

[People have

85.
lot of

manorial

how

they work,

begging

in

lords

their

cow

...

seized

was

and

so

(I

have

in his

are

heard

their

the

after

that

we

peasant

everything

see

"

of them

many

often

bear

reproaches from
But

who

described

died

and

in

had

roubles

25

issue

an

where

he

long bargaining and

posylka

no

for the

church.
it ended

begging

and
.

rouble

one

perhaps make
for

church

Cossacks
them

the

After

this

fear

of

toward

who

an

There

vengeance.

he

precious time.
of

this

this

But

wanted.

kind

When
.

Cmielow,
in its

was

with

wrath
chastise

have
the
worst

himself."

nothing
devil may

chastisement

workingman

must

"Lord

have

fasted."

And

the

poor

their

and
.

ple,
peo-

revival,

and

othen

such

should

is not

to

in

revival

When

playii^

this soul

then, imitating the devil,

fast

eat, not

to

in order
you

voluntarily,otherwise

missionary forgot that the

anything

absolutely nourish

strength for work, for from

soft voice,

[those times] when

the

have

nothing

also

But

case.

In

mercy.

besides

Thus

eat, you

win

much

the

to

money

to

went

fasted, for he had

"He

to

preaching.

was

body it often
:

Our

crowds

earned

for

said:

angel's part, he

the

to

missionary

beat

free).

set

contributed

just the thing the K.

was

brought
and

have

in

encouraged by their priests,came


of their bloodily
wasting thousands

ago,

fled abroad
.

missionary Redemptionists.

here

years

were

K.

to

seems

giving

of wages,

Sandomierz

to

heard, Mr.

I have

incident, as

than

few

...

increase

them

drove

him

to

(happily, in Sandomierz, they

way

sending

driver,

demanded

against them

on

his

to

his manor-servants

when

less difference

new

...

would

of

driver's

of Kurow
paying 5 roubles.) Well, this owner
a
estates,
so
wealthy that building
magnate

church

the
who

lords

those

are

the

serve

perhaps

of Kurow,

owner

to

eagerness

other

go

strength working

fine of

pay

the

the

and

as

way

his father

to

Zarame.

health

learn

to

the
particular,
because

of

we,

how

peasants.

curious

in such

ordered

was

of

are

servants

in

Zaranie,

treated, and

for their former

detriment

of Zaranie

lot,for

in addition

their wives

the

readers
treat

they

service, and

and
to

how

But

good.

or

is their

villages,
having lost

in manorial

farmers

well what

very

archives

discussing in Zaranie] whether

been

parobeks is bad

farmers, know

the

nourishment

himself
he

to

eat

in

derives

and

order

this

that
to

have

strength

REVOLUTIONARY

now

the

carry

them

Even
and

more

Cracow

to

here

that when

here

him

treated

with

( for

wine

roubles

18

they

are

Mr.

K.

to

help the parobek toward

as

soon

[One of the

the

economic

of

estate

that

numerous

the

send

Zaranie,

to

one

be

can

is you

chief

him

they

want

heaven

to

unpublished.

1910;

who

if not

soul, who

bred

have

of

nature

they, those

how

the

peasant

prophets,*'have

You

prophets/' it

Humble
.

"true

humble."

peasant 1

of the "true

centuries.

own^r

sculptured:
be

to

Polish

the

hands

for

us

knows

M.,

are

who

in the

by Mr.

words

these
.

great

instrument

raised

crosses

Wtostow

humility, second

are

religiouslords

peasant-farmers, in spite of the lack

you

cheap

interests.]

of the

one

the

O,

and

they

drink

...

Upon
"Only

do not

proofs of the solidaritybetween

many

and

peasants

common

of

missionaries

of such

his salvation

Letter

of

poor

boasted

possible.

as

landless

and

those

they practiceimposing fines for the church

as

86.

these

to

that in the estate

wonder

No

whiskey).

brought

he

of

for

reward

as

One

taught thus.

and

collect contributions

missionaries

those

to

153

us

among

ones

eager

having been

their

ATTITUDES

brought

to

you

ignorance, htuniliation and misery? Did you not


enouglflinder the yoke of serfdom, preciselyat a time when
such

groan

they

in the world?
Who
[the clergy] possessed the greatest power
if not
spreading and confirming your slavery? Is it
they were

they

not

self-reliance,(o which

killed your

who

calls you

Zaranie

today?
"Peasant, do
"Peasant, do
read, do
to

learn,
after

life and

to

say
upon

prophets"

this ?

Will

crosses,

do

book, "Sermons
year
to

to

year?

be

otherwise.

to

death

our

and

us.

Kruszynek [school]."
benefactors.

children

you

for

to

our

say

send

not

want

we

will be

you

will

obtain

And

what

us

Dead

life.

eternal
do we,

the

does

us

with

words,

not

bored,
can

yawn

or

even

only rock

to

poral
tem-

This

peasants,
from

the

repeated from
even

our

doze

when

voice.

monotonous

not

inscriptions

read

sermons

Sundays and Holydays," and


spirit,but
They put not only our
of

"great" in

spiritbe satisfied with

himgry
need
nothing but

Do

school, only listen

to

for

sleep, for who

priest talks

do

priests,be humble

and

the "true

daughters

your

Zaranie"

read

not

not

lords

send

not

sleep.

body
the

It cannot
"

"

I ask

that
is

Mr.

one

can

joking

or

well

of the

be great who

knows

reallymeans

to

by which

the title of

as

Mr.

Chamberlain, how

view

of your

for whom

to

sin

Last

did

do

you

crosses."

year

for

ironic

them

will

answer

built

is true;

the

cross.
.

do

not

Wlostow.
look

nice,
what

spiritof those
"I have

seem

palace. But

:
a

little ones

They

your

in

yours

those

you

estate.

body and

the

have,

"I

crippled." This

little

built many

abled
hospital for the dis-

though

not

from

own

your

This

hospital is their end, this is their


so
humble, are bowing so
insignificant,

true.
so

are

this

on

of

inherited

you

ago

extending
You

is true.

reward, for they

there, is this asylum

low;

words

"

Pope.

Holiness, the

those

he

greatness

own

sculptured on

be

years

good of

for you

still it is

money,

His

of

whether

greatness, and

to

his

reached

sound

to

are

you

the

This

and

the way

estates, palaces, titles. Why,

work

who

has

rebuilt the stables

you

This

ones

he

inscription"Only

the

be humble/'

to

indicate

by humility! Three

indeed.

how

Chamberlain

ordered

wide

year

with

cross

greatness in comparison with

own

you

have

You

PEASANT

M., author

if this is the way


as

POLISH

THE

154

in their old

exhausted

age,

by work,

they win reach "greatness."


unpublished.

Frafi^ment of a letter to Zaranie;


from
peasant-farmer.
a

Religious Revolutionism

2.

Polish

The
him

mythical

beliefs

and

is not

mystic; religionis for


organizationon the basis of given
magical practicesrather than of

peasant

of social

matter

personal mystical connection

why,

as

we

been

never

the

any

eyes
to make

church.

of

with

already noticed in
popular heresies,

have

divergent from
in

those

individuals
them

break

with

the social control

it took

Volume
for

the

exercised

the

beliefs and

form

tices
prac-

assumed

never

mystical importance
of the

possible only

began
of

is

I, there have

social system

became

This

divinity.

sufficient

this social system


and

the

of the church

revolution
^^^Beligious
when

ably
Prob-

to
a

be

felt

revolt

by.the church,

not

as

cently
re-

satisfactory,
un-

against

against

THE

IS6
cratic
in

and

propaganda,
with

harmony

which

attitude
Another

to

PEASANT

the Mariawita

certain

lead

may

POLISH

evolution

toward

the

interests

tending

to

against

the

attacking

the

of

develop

peasants

on

occasion

every

the

the

absolution

for

its

their
action

of

but

readers, who

of

even

with

had

the

clergy and
[One

87.
of the

out

somewhat

parish Dobra

February

falls the
About
receive

In

cate
excommuni-

to

to

not

were

one

receive

peasants

furnished

all those

the

growing

in

church

played

in

for

nection
controlling
con-

benefit

the

of

classes.

like incidents

new

revolutionary

been

country

of

during the first ten


Both

sect, somewhat

sides

were

years

sive,
aggres-

Description

more.

exaggerated.]

Our
on

as

Zaranie,
as

and

means

the

of the Mariawitas.

the Mariawitds

radical

elements

the

the upper

of many

development

its influence

moderate

time

which*

role

of

priests. The

the

of

for SQjne

all social life in

the

years

they stopped reading it.


provoked the indignation not only

society,and among
pretext for the expression
which

far

so

Polish

attitudes

several

of

read

and

sins until

Naturally, this
radical

for

counteract
to

ground

solidarity as

class

abuses

to

went

even

and

paper

the

ant's
peas-

social class

been

the

vainly trying

bishop

as

them

among

by counter-propaganda, resorted
simply forbade the peasants to
diocese

the

exclusive

the

on

higher classes, had

after

clergy,

of

clergy.

radicallydemocratic, standing
the

popular opinion

interestingexample is the case of the paper


The
edited popular weekly,
latter,a brilliantly

Zaranie.

of

of

complete modification

is thus

movement

6th,

had

great

almost

misfortune

yearly church-festival

6,000 persons
the absolution

from

3,000

the

of

Catholics; but
befell

St.

Dorothy

neighborhood

of their sins and

to

On

us.

in

1906,

that

day

parish.

gathered

were

listen

our

in

to

the

word

to

of

REVOLUTIONARY
God.

But

then

Mankietfiik

Instead

of

God

my
And

begins

"

their

And
.

the

the

God

mud

the

the

of

the

"

holy

bishops.

sacrament.

few, believed

some

oppress

Mankietniks

chancel.

priests and

about

him

Catholics.

our

villageImielnik

now

suddienly O

he

our

upon

spoke

is

who

...

people present, except


and began to
.

Skolimowski,

of

words

farmer

157

MarioTvita], ascended

words

is, he

all the

for

throw

to

custom

his wicked

priest,Pawet

[nick-name
proclaiming

as

local

the

ATTITUDES

and

met

and
Once
went

the

village-elder,
Jan Plucinikowski, demanding of him that
back
the seal, signs of an
the eagle and
give
elder, because

to

he

he

not

was

Mariawita,

Plucinikowski

said
.

him

accuse

before
he

him,
the arrogant

Goralczyk

would

Antoni

resolved

their end.

the

kowski
Pluciniwhen

signs. Only
took

and

an

But

Wojciech

forward, bound

came

in

latter dismissed

the

signs back.

the

reach

to

came

district;if
them

demanded

Plucinikowski

of

the

Wisniewski
and

ropes

of

gladly give

Mankietniks

and

with
son

chief

the

should

they

the

they all

ax,

fled.
"

"

Then

the

once,

Angels, Skolimowski

since

immemorial

they,

reached

houses

and

the
them

they

only

one

to

crowd,

parts, whose

headed

number

th6

ists,
social-

faith.
.

to

control

of

the

the house

of

2urek,

where

They

threw

to

and

to

[He

the

the

away.]

was

images

their

to

out

of his

Kogtorvit

and

room

priestshad

Mariawit

heads

tore

abandoned

because, professir^ poverty, they owned


It went
.

But
.

^they went

"

submit

so

far that

spend

not

certain

compel

to

God

my

[filled]

carts

revolvers

and

by

overthrew

worse"

or

ourselves

November

workiflg-^ay. But

every

work, and

lived.

each].

Lodz, wished

Catholic

kept this holiday,

fields, together with

in crowds

went

for gray

gown

hide

holiflay. But

Catholics, put

to

priest

gowns

was

never

different

the

was

true

because
[either,

gowns

black

of

what

books, clothes, medals

two

the

of

orthodox

our

had

But

And

it

compelled

priests.

on

as

from

from

people away

grain.

the

to

through

went

7,000,

drove
with

began

work

Koztowskis

bigot

the

parish has

our

Lady of

day of Our

the

that

proclaimed

times

Catholics

our

so

his

August 2nd, 1906, on

on

to

us

the

Stoma,

nights
a

fall away

graduallyall this

28th, 1906, with

committee

during
at

days

home,

socialist from
from
came

and

the

the true
to

the

an

city

Roman

end.

chief

we

because

of

On
the

THE

iS8
took

district,we

church

our

walls

only the four

POLISH

PEASANT

back.

left ; the

were

Among

inhabitants

3,000

Catholics.

1,200

to their senses

Church.

and

Mankietniks

end

the

Catholics;

confirm

is

[This

after it had

made

grievances of
to

the letters
In

Zaranie

One

might believe

here

also manifold

are

milk

and
in

step you

as

discover

the

12

the

as

roubles.
than

All the
used

lated
accumu-

this opportunity
of

imitation

ferent
dif-

writes.

nobody

But

us.

still sleeping

are

Polish

at

hardly
With

Kingdom.

counter
en-

every

booths, the stock

like

are

people

The

would

you

pity

man,

souls.

1,000

grasps

he

you;

beggar.

of this

curate

parish

priest'shouse

brother

curate's

the

larger

transformed

he

look

Indeed,

cellars.

impossibilityinto

more

received

Zafanie

flowing around

were

houses

The

Father

was

as

was,

The

than

And

hundred

the

declared,

he

this old

since

erected

the

they

for

which

workmen

roubles, he promised

parsonage

containing

sold

thing where

to

had
to

received
still a

14

the curate

dwelling
he

to

under

paupers,

local church,

old parsonage

elegant house

an

readers, those

exhortations,

hundred

denouncing

longer habitable, the parishioners decided

no

little palace,

and
.

letters

Rawa

degree that

since the

one.

of

honey

to

ragged

1905

and

new

and

rooms

step

every

correspondence from

contains
.

if you

And

pressure

like

my

misery.

pale and

already old
a

at

also much

was

read

part of the

other

any

Wojewodzki.
build

against

Swu^tecsnaX unpublished.

exist, only the people


.

ignorant

the year

In

Catholic

learning.

countr}' around

needs

dwarf-like, and

looks

them

positionclear.

may

and

parish L^yonice

poor

the paper

There

one
our

sleep of the just.


The

complain

private character

public or

.a

regions, but of

the

of the Roman

and

already published.]
dear

our

gradually coming back

priestswhich

themselves.

express

are

innumerable

its anti-clerical

i,8oo Mankietniks

Gaseta

to

typical of the

activities of country

the

they persecute

all

of

us

are

must

Letter
88.

robbed

in their false Koztowit

them

sad, because

very

etc.

the bosom

was

Mankietniks

there

returning to

in

the

so

The

and

But

brothers

it

furniture^ images, altars, banners,

the

is

But

was

an

several

claim

satisfy them

of
out

REVOLUTIONARY
of his
been

pocket,,but he

own

better

build

to

ATTITUDES

IS9

paid them.

never

for this money

Would
schools

some

have

it not
rather

than

priest'shouse?
for

Now

Siedlecki

Father

contribution

and

he

of the above

Father

Siedlecki, wishing

Sunday

they refuse
making
us

he

saw

day from
let

In the

not

they
may

But

this

few

and

civilizit^the
it.

about

where

which

^that the

"

but

is the

the

duty,

was

no

same

as

way

in it, which
participating
social

by

the

system

equality within
writer
in

priest and

would

is thus

at
a

general and
his peasant

death,

agricultural

benevolent

empty

pastor
in the

rooms

established.]
to

unpublished.

*Zaranu;
be

made

the

indignation

contribute

to

participatein

to

little

sudden

The
lo

be

were

same

gentlemen-landowners do

justifiedmay

it

was

whatever

interpretedas

contributingto
was

least

between

social

certain

ditionally,
Tra-

religious
and

ceremony,

and

matter

limits.

contributing

almost

church

the

attitude

the

"

to

indignationis reallyquite new.

connection

celebration^ which
in the

the church
man

school, no

no

are

could

peasants

of this

source

there
to

Some

peasant.

and

admitted

not

in

/'

the

[There

school

natural

[However

celebration

end.

the

which

Maria.

Ave

cooperative store

writer

the

not

encounter

may

Letter

of the

which

miserably, let

drivingpast

pennies

parish of L^gonice thei;eis

parson's house

89.

refuse

succeed

never

away

is

who

the amount

may

pass

equally

cares

devotion

about

care

that

instead

town

to

with

society,no

that those

everything but

pay,

pulpit,after

the

lost to him, he said the


plate were
pulpit: "Wishit^g that those who avoid this our

drive

pray

us

parishioners to

the

on

the

and

church

the

contribution.

the

since

the

parishioners,

that

pay

of his parishioners

one

and

offered

have

."
.

Sunday,

on

wishing

Maria.

not

"Wishing

wishing that they

Ave

ago

do

lose

may

pay,

money,

pray:

weeks

to

the

spoke publiclyfrom

following words

the

whereas

of

rest

induce

to

the

Wojewodzki's obligationand

more,

ago

the contribution

pay

no

weeks

some

the sermon,
to

afford

can

parish has been

of

payment

mentioned

they

of this

curate

demands

because

one

the

year

[pledged to Wojewowzki]

account

on

than

more

The

implied

claim

voiced

sign of revolt against the traditional class


the icka of

class

difference

pari^ioners
in particular.]

between

the

i6o

THE
If

of

some

had

one

September,

he

POLISH

travelled

would

in

front

If you

of the
looked

heard

cries

church
closer

the

people.

had

You
.

jubilee.

You

nothing;

you

the

with

with

was

Yes,

dear

my

and
green.

would

hearing, you

have

brothers,

understand

had

of the orchestra

of

each

it for

give

not

you

for the

etc.

eggs,

did

you

of

condition

be satisfied that

that

twenty

of the

giving 5 ztoty,chickens,

must

And
.

the music

improvement
must

peasants

privilegeof

the

adorned

been

part in this solemnity.

nobody thought about

and

there

that

festivelydecorated

was

your

enjoying themselves

were

day

fourth

celebrating the fiftieth anniversary of


and
to attend this celebration
priestscame

took

Bishop Karas

of them

thought

priest!"

dear

our

the

on

was

priesthood. Many

even

town

strained

and

priest Kuderkiewicz
his

Our

everything had

"Long live

through Kohio

undoubtedly have

popular convention.

some

PEASANT

pleasure of gazing tnrough the window

the

benefactors
were
drinking different
observing how
your
took
liquors and wines
gifts,which
together. For your
you
from
mouth, you
were
forcibly driven out of the church
your
and

when

wanted

you

with

high

hats

are

You

allowed

there, and

business

; your

know

get in.

to

is

must

give but

to

not

peasants

to

be present.

reflection
often

in

fotmd

intellectual

development who

with

circles

and

social

which

in

and

maintained

are

who

isolated

genuine

sonal
per-

which

is

all^velsof

on

from

direct

standards

intellectual

draw

of

individuals

self-educated

their standai^s

fluous
super-

unpublished.

doctrinairism

imitative
artificial,

and

are

Zaranie;

to

[Qiaracteristicexample of that mixture

90.

only gentlemen

you

Letter

very

that

contact

evolved

are

exclusively from

reading.]
"My

this earth
and

perceiving

reigning, he
to

to

with

He
.

so

worn

though alive,they looked


disinherited
he
not

children

of

spoke these words


want

to agree

with

relation

of

Christ
world

the

came

on

^illegible],

wrong-doings and the falsehood


such
pity and grief that he was
the

saw

heavy slavery [and]

the
many

taken

was

weep.

so

When

this world."

of

not

scrutinised

he

after

forced

is

Kingdom

sons

of this mother-earth

out, emaciated, and

like skeletons.

this earth.

"My

kingdom

such

He
...

Looking
is not

devilish world.

at

starved
so

saw

such

put
that,
many

conditions,

of this world.
I did not

come

I do
to

REVOLUTIONARY
build

prisons

the old
and

and

kaiorga [for

world, where
youth

even

mansion

ATTITUDES

for

and

for

labor], but

they sell people and

coin

hard

i6i

virtue; [I came]

brotherly love.

to

build, on

."

Christ

their
the

bury

to

came

strength,

contrary,

entrusted

to

his

pupils the fulfillment of the plan for buildinghere on


the foundation
of justiceand
on
kingdom of God

earth

the

love.

ment
establish-

new

universal

...

Two
of

have

thousand
the

kingdom
and

foundation

built

you

of

of

maintain

to

misled

the

the

Polish

for

crowns

But

then

intended

the

the

freeing of

casting,you

cast

even

standing, because

own

the

but

Poland, but
tied
dent

free

and

You

fatherland

and

welfare

did

You

empire.

not

care

education, but

be

to

cate
advowere

you

do

not

cared

to

been

not

indepen*

an

into

for

care

had

today

your

fatherland

the

bring

you

whip,

protect

to

of

some

to

which

sons

stringsof the clergy,she would

the

by

voice.

the

dared

who

If Poland

Catholicism.

for

care

you

citizens,

your

under

in order

order.
today's capitalistic

of

sons

ruined

you

at

nobility. If

curses

the

not

are

peasants

kings

those

slavery

You

truth;

great

these

dare

you
.

the

of

the

By

into

you

made

thunder

peasant.
him

Christian

day
To-

world.

people from

the

threatening with

were

of

good

slavery

master.

your

the

not

of

nevertheless

heads

the

free

to

of
have

side

the

is, is

road

could

took

of

program

that

Certainly

wrongdoing,

and
capitalist,

fallingoff

you

of

the

[priests] what

you

foundation.

the

the

You

ask

kingdom

is a
of you
tHat the world

people.

was

Christ.

missed

You

were

you

the

people from

instead

reform

but

God,

one

every

of

nearly passed since

this, Christ's

on

capital.

have

years

the

Polish

strengthen

Catholicism.
...

When

fatherland

the

of

sword

by
the

becaiJ^ethere they

Moscow

Sobieski

defends

Poles, the

"

reign.

and

to

him;

be

silent.

was

this the

For

we,

And

sees

the
when

he

who

Batory

promising
there

tortures

celebrating
Holy Father
Polish

the

the

sent

people, are
peasant,

bravest

of

sons

politics.Wamenczyk

Turks;

are

the

that

back

comes

"

Polish

^the devourer
children

blessingsand

looking

and

anniversary of

ordered
at

to

all

is concerned.

Catholicism

2Sth

ishes
per-

from

accept Catholicism

to

Wilhelm, King of Prussia

headsman,

priests

he
your

because

Vienna

long ago

Not
.

ruined

were

the

from

hisfory,then

reads

one

of
prisons
imhis

good wishes
pray

and

that, does

to
not

THE

162

to

heady

he

is not

fall

of anathemas

granted forgiveness for his sins, he

his

on

is threatened

hell.

And

what

world

to

What

did

remain

to

pastoral letters?

do to you

we

gold I

ideas of Christ

therefore

anathematize

you

does

the peasant

do

to

twentieth

accumulate

believe and

not

powerful of this

do

us,

do

we

profess the

not

fables.

believe in such

not

either.

And

yourselves ridiculous, for

make

you

believe you

not

century?
treasures,

and

in the

arms

by allowing you

You
.

of

it become

Does

of the

in the service

fightwith this kind

silver and

when

various

about

pupils of Christ

of

PEASANT

keep silent,then the thunders

want

with

POLISH

We

believe in

God

brotherlylove.
Letter

[T3rpicalfor

91.

the

the real

moderate

tendencies

new

of those

essence

consciouslyor

to

unpublished

Zaranie;

revolutionist.

Attempt

to

with

being in perfect accordance

as

traditional

standards

terpret
in-

tionist
the revolu-

which

tmconsciously preserves.]

The

pastoral letter of His Excellency the Bishop Augustyn


Lozinski
forbidding the paper Zaranie caused a great stir among
us

and

pained the

of

the

whole

they

this decision.

They

country

one

which

only of

not

the

readers

of Zaranie

but

people. Although they do not step forth openly


themselves
against the priestsand
secretlyamong

murmur

of

hearts

say

that the

pastoralletter

has

against another, divided

one

set

the brothers
into two

them

disagree and quarrel and fightwith one another,


all for the benefit of our
enemies
the Hakatisis
[word formed of
camps

will

K. T., which

the 3 letters H.
the

German

whose
nationalists,

the

Poles.

The

word

implicitlyextended
lacking in

not

main

indicated

also to
country

our

the initials of the three chiefs of

are

the
and

object was

this German
Russian

wish

to

to

fightagainst

party;

here

it is

are
nationalists]
; these
deprive the Polishpeople

Poles need
nationality. But just for this reason
for cultural work, and flb retrograde
progressive and enlightenedmen
of its land

and

clericals.
for the
well how

know

books,
or

not

only

The
Polish
to

in

way

to

instruction

ought

people. Every Polish

to

not

be

structed
ob-

ought to
calculate and to read ; and not only religious
order to say prayers
thoughtlesslyon a rosary
peasant

to kill his weariness.

Such

words

I have

heard

from

the

people, who

speak aloud

POLISH

THE

64

first filter it of the dirt.

lord

The

PEASANT

appliesto every

same

whether

man,

to filterhim
publicly
priestor magistrate; it is necessary
of dirty habits, such as cupidity,
through criticism in papers
or

"

"

rapacity,drunkenness
he

occupies

purified of
makes

in the

theft, without

and

in order

world,

dirty habits.

these

publiclyis

regard
he

that

So

[A

naively try
of

good specimen

very

utilize

to

he

that

says

of

holy, or

recitingthe

taking

dear

readers

goes

to

his

of

when

this

what

cards

play

that whenever

least the

at

or

rosary,

of

realization

does?

man

is music

there

going

know,

you

he

Well,

plays till midnight.

and

church,

good and

considers

chaplet,do

pious

their

because

from

returns

he

one

or

tion
satisfac-

into his hands


he

who

people

for the

the

take Zaranie

good book,

to

and

is bad, but

Zaranie,

Jew

also add

will

will not

Zaranie

instead

Zarame

unpublished.

of

class

revolutionary movement

personal animosities
egotisticaims.]
Jaronski

which

Zaranie;

to

that

from

their

Farmer

be

and

useful.

very

Letter

9a.

position

improve

may

criticism

the

the

to

another

in

on

And
.

village,the whole

Jaronski family drives to that music and


for his children, as if they were
later brings supper

father

work.

some

That's

village-elderand
Zaranie,

paper

that

say

know
2

beg

Zaranie

of

it;

print the above

does

write

not

in this.

will

one

Editor's

Dear

morgs.
to

you

there is truth

that

Jaronski does.

this farmer
20

owns

the paper

copies

what

And

So

truth.

keep for myself

people
let them
at

me

the

and

is
the

office of

please forward

And

at

he

letter because

the

the

once

for

other

Jaronski.
Letter

93.
our

teaches

to

these

have

our
a

muscles

editor's office,then

Editor

Mr.

not

Our

Respected Brother

too

little is written,

When

been

Editor,
and

when

on

unpublished.

that

New

was

us

Year
me

also

Zaranie,

the

of

love

intended;

sound], and

asked

in

makes
in the

was

whether

you

against the priests.

of the

read

to

beloved

our

religionand

much

too

everyone
we

Editor

similar

himself

writing

Zaranie;

[brains

somewhat

of Christ.

real confessors

in

strengthens us

develops

words

[the paper], had

Respected Gentleman
forbid the reading of

and

us

fatherland,

Polish
us

the

priestswant

which
the

I inform

to

it to

readers
those

says

that

who

arc

REVOLUTIONARY

ignorant and
work

is

uneducated

needed.

centuries; and

priests have

aside

all the time

and

because

do

we

Priest

and

house

to

in order

how

to

that

his

of

thrown

into the

closed.

the

wanted

there

schools

were

know

And

they

true

enlightenment

do

the

Sunday

not

the

when

as

^these

ended.

kind

same

neighboring

They know
announced

he

had

eggs

The

criers

for

of

of

be

to

when

their

lips

scoffed

at

schools, and

as

do

nothing against
claiming: "If these
told

have

priests are

holy

resolution

the

on

spoiled) but

could

dear

our

parish-

anid eggs

money

resolution

devil

asked

the

beautiful.

they became

the

that

as

to

out

priests' favorites were


good thing, the priest would

The

ignorance.

went

the latter, we

of

enough

not

was

sign

to

from

^were

of

time

the

contribute

resolution

the

to

Pacholski

enlightenment, then they have

to

the

thus

who

At

purposes,

because

Wieprz

villages,

according

"

good and

is

working

in the

Sobieszyn

(and afterwards

Bishop

education,

And

those

what

parishioners should

to

also

parishioners to establish primary-sc

this

profitwas

dently
[evi-

mistaJcen.

were

could

we

from

their

encourage

pulpit for bad

the

use

comes

as

many

Rozwadoski

avoid

to

arrival

it

as

lever

been

have

2abianka, Priest Pacholski

in

they

we

of] Krus-

our

"

The
resolution

this

prie"ts especially Priest

labi^xiksL and

proclaim

commune

have

not

The
.

our

ignorance for

desiring to establish littleschools

law.

to

in

"

of such

[the school

abolish

they would

in

us

uplifting institution"]. But

Leaving this

new

kept

latelythey touched

even

165

they affinn that still more

even

The

zynek, thinking that


"an

ATTITUDES

The

taken

was

afraid

as

water.

in

so."

us

of

following

Sobieszyn

as

in 2abianka.
.

And
us

now

priestcalled

Zaranie*'

warning
throw

"

"I

"I

the

you

do not

he

pushed

asked

"O

"So

you,

admit
to

am

you

to

yourself

stop reading this anathematized


me

down

the

Mi^tka,

criminal,O

fraternity." (I
either

have

been

stairs

so

that

you

wretch!

I will

of the church

confession,
to

I will not

family, if

your

Zaranie.

."
.

I almost

so:

was

(He had been

member

or

pushed

still reading

are

please,Priest."

you

you

will not

myself

fightingagainst

rectory by the priest. It

the

...

sacraments

Sobieszyn.

reading, if

of the

out

committee.)
impart

am

before.)

me

you

in

and

me

priestswere

the editor how

stairs of

the

from

The

of Zaranie

readers

down

I inform

Then

fell.

And
.

i66

POLISH

THE

after

that

he

PEASANT

called

out

[in church] all the readers

letters and

sent

them

he

wrote

to

sign these

letters

the

through

promising

not

Letter

Forgive

94*

Greek-Unitarian, send
are

getting bad

the

narrow

among

circle of

struggle began

Science,

in your

the

of

rays

During
in

went

our

close

of

hard

times

dil-lamp, we

With

Fire

and

and

many,

Vadis,
read

only

that

everything
work,"

this

works
that

which

stands

universe

till,
nothing
won't

we

should

belief

says

rest

after 30

to

the

we

of

we

light of

together

accustomed

not

nothing in

also

the

know

to

Poles and

the
; of

movement

wish

we

to

When

read.

to

us

stars, when

are

and

Wolodyozvski, Quo
are

still either;

we

read

"

''Enough of this

years

with

faith

fathers

us

allow

Catholics,

struggle [when freedom

of

permitted

the

granted and the Russian


become
Catholics].

was

Uniates

and

sun

stand

We

brethren

rejoicedthat

We

Pan

works.

and

Uniate

our

of

20

some

older

our

come,

brethren

my

nights by

Deluge,

other

spirits."

spirit. O

the

faith of

whole

"

with

the

The

earth

of God.
we

peasants

things

us

our

away

and

struggle for

During

Sword,

moves,

of

that

enveloped

illuminate

and

held

many

science

knowledge

we

enlightened ourselves.
small

for

merly
Podlasie, for-

Zaranie

give

to

us

unpublished.

of

**theyhave

call

garment

torch

ranks,

and
us

among

Zaranie;

to

peasant

us

Zaranie.

complaints to

my

chain

I,

because

us,

white

the

if

brothers,

me,

to get
village-elders

read

to

of Zarame;

government

different would-beour
During the free days of 1905 we saw
and excellencies
benefactors
[aristocrats]when
they refused to

only they
we

kissed, saying that

their hands

have

did

are

again they don't know

they

are

that

true

alike,

men

before

but
they did not know
us;
and
they are again excellencies,

1905

and

them

know

not

is

It

instructed.

more

and

we

us,

today
we

are

"Hams."

people of Podlasie

The
monster,

God's

Mother
.

his

in

else could
there?

bag of biscuits of black

the

the

poor

He

took

bread,

among

Uniate
the

tears

when

shed

last penny

has

us

the

years

he

went

been

stream

with

water-pitcher; he

hunger and cold and terror, but for 30

some

image of

miraculous

Everybody

tears, if not

bloody

robbed

man

Czgstochowa.

Where

there.

of

godless

some

with

wept

him,

suffered

every

year

REVOLUTIONARY

Jasna Gora

to

guessed

who

oflFered
the

in

The

[in defiance

new

criminal

crowns,

and

could

when

indignation and

the

to

tears.

Who

Father

prelate

our

crowning-ceremony.
could

we

us;

Nobody

Holy

the

of it from

to

shown

was

When

heard

went

167

Government],

be.

we

pilgrims

1,000

stripped image

without

of the Russian

that

church,

ATTITUDES

are

look

not

who

you

it

at

could

dare

do this ?

to

And

then

Macoch

the

the author

was

lied in

that

writing

would

dare

die from

telegram brought

do

to

of it,that he

he

such

and

hunger

was

would

but

everywhere,

not

spare

his

bloodily earned

then

the

Macochs

"Woe
who

eat

is

cloister and

every

peasant

would

rather

Jasna Gora!
guilty not only there,

church, because
He

money.

Komineks

and

up

houses

gives

does

last penny

the

wild

arrange

he

orgies

and

from

and

roubles,

mammon

implore him
bum

Yes,

to

Komineks
for

say

fire

"

^he may

mass,

pulpits:
mercy

you

has

struck

us!'

They
altars

but

if

But

their fortunes

life and

it

fall down
without

the

set

was

has

had

fifteen

the
"

this

not

gone

for

on

peasants'

seven,

before
manomon

except

year,

[the deceased]

is

father, your

one

some

dead

Son, who

Three,

money!

will

least, our

at

left you

and

house

["Your

It is your

prayers

every

sin

small

priest and

let the

dead

he makes
people basepriestprays, for money
the peasants are
guilty,if the Macochs, Starczewskis,

money
we

give.

long

your

during the whole

for

if he

even

and

have

before
"

of

cover

until consumed.

there

For

so

during his whole


in the

got there

God

the

purgatory?

And

peasant
"

church

to

from

husband.

purgatory

the

must

this

day

fire of

from

free

sum,

the

priests stand

the

Sundays,
souls

hand

forgot them."

you

of

the

the

judgment

mercy,

it is your

Wife,

mother.

hard

calling.] 'Have

calling so

under

priests cry

The

friends, because

scripture, hypocrites, Pharisees,

of widows

will bear

you

are

ones

in the

learned

you,

empty."

with

in

only

from

penny

brothers, that the peasant

to

Therefore

he

Papers

man.

that

peasant

Damazy

idyls.

sweet

be

and

take

not

it is true,

bold

the

was

But

thing.

that Father

news

peasant

But

and

the

the

and
the

many,

many

others, after having gathered

peasants' souls, travel

the pretty

sex.

to

Italy,to Paris

and

mon
mam-

live

i68

THE

All
and

the

POLISH

priests ought

have

to

religiousservices ought

it indeed

pleasant for

begging

you
in

sad

so

taught

you

"If

say:

divine

them

is

service."

no

and

to

comes

rob

you

accustomed

grown

Is

her

it,

to

feel] the ugliness of what you


let them
bury [the dead] without

not

beyond the

man

official,

paying.

orphan

an

mother

or

people have

money,

Even

between

father

[they do

so;

there

her

other

without

performed

priests,when

The

moment?

like every

wages,
be

to

you,

bury

to

you

PEASANT

who

has

grave

there

money

and

is for you

another

ference
dif-

who

has

none.

And

what

have

you

done

with

this money

See

here,

every

year

in Warsaw

the

country?

the

great families

bequeathes large

good of

for the
some

one

among

for humanitarian

sums

ends,

and

you? O God I God I enlighten the Polish people! [In


And
villagethe priest forbids the reading of Zaranie,]
.

result is that the


who

those

In

read.

is

peasant
of

the

of

work

like to

drown

reads

is

often

to

two

sp6on

had

;. he

father

His

him

to

to

come

went

sister

hates

in

ago

sister,would

her

[proverb], and

to

although

me,

years

some

whoever

young

boy

read, he took

books

confession

to

people the results

were

example

great wish

lightened
en-

villagesa neighbor lives

of water
An

scorn

somewhat

the

anything and

many

In many

dogs,

particularlydetested.
me

For

priestswho

two

read

to

torture.

young

in

her

them.

read

true

want

villagesthe life of

some

neighbor like

his

with

not

totallywasted.

parish are

our

do

people

one

the

after

and
father

came

and

bade
this for-

himself

reads

Z{9r{mie.
ing
people, developed often durDrinking prevailsamong
young
But
the last few years
[and general disoiiganization].
.

long

not

people

divine
to

to

was

abstain

mission

from

liquor-shopkeeper are
in the choir

him

see

ago

swore

the

and

there

liquor. It is

vodka

and

one

singing and

he hands

service

[revival]among
the

same

playing the

across

that

true

the bar

the

orgtoist

and

those

to

the

us,

People

person.

organ

and

after the
who

want

drink.
.

In

wood

villagersbegan to drive
1906 town-people,Jews and some
the manorfrom
forest, dry wood, as they claimed; in

realitythey felled thick pines. There

have

this, but

[on

forest-keepers.

condemn

been
the

fightswith

other

hand]

the
the

REVOLUTIONARY
administration

of

has

law-suits; there
the

and

manor

the

Countess

of

estates

been

never

it is

then.

did the lords suppress

invasions

those

know.

she

But

leaves

God!

We

this

years

forests

were

offered

In

100

are

said.

when

ago,

"Eternal

Potocka

loaded

are

there

now

the

ropes

peasants'

with

library

this

book-case, because

if the

to

up

learn

that he
from

also

that he

is half

beast.

the peasants.
vrfaat

older peasant

some

are

night. ''Well, these bright

beautiful

for

not

present

man

about

the

think

asked

on

but

read, he could

"In

answered:

went

Rest," sang

[of

his

or

be

"Four

horses

like water,

in this

at

our

you

do

who

help

country

now;

as

stand

in

pushing

for
we

of

saying,

and

drew

even

now

not

refuse

did

many,

of the universe.

to

the

but
our

your

don't ask

peasant;
need

We

like air to breathe.

Don't

years

belief]. He

local

some

singing. And

material

much

as

nothing.

laugh

to

Ten

yard],
[to the church-

hitched

were

manor-tenants

other

any

idea

an

carried

said train instead

the

of

fire,in hell."

was

behind

manner

some

are

the

body

Allusion

such

have

there

hell?

other

them

will

nations
Even

shine

produce twice
can

in

perhaps be

I have

who

instruction

morg

allow

even

nobles] did

books

persons,

up

peasant died and

man

grain-seeds
need

lie shut

He

any

Here

not

We

bishops, those smaller ones, souls of priests,"


forefathers?"
the peasant-soulsof our
where
are

"And

know
of

come

souls of

out"

many

never

question herself?

The

the elder brothers

which

this soul
not

ably
[Prob-

shall remember

[priestsand

us.

worthy

once

him.

I asked

forbid!) should

than

stars

ones

brothers

there will

years

these

elder

some

while

More

he

by

(God

man,

our

was

volumes

700

peasant

help

library in Miedzyrzec for

there

spread reading among

to

is

ago

but

want

about

whose

baking bread; they take

these

of

months,

with

forest-guards do

for

the

matter

their forests?

upon

servitudes.
Some

in the

and

how

the Countess

the

now

although

away

But

examine

never

always likes

strange that the people,

not

Merciful

does

gather leaves

to

women

of

soldiers.]

does

Why

not

these

patriots. Why

our

here?
do

Russian

Potocka

by the administration

years

servitudes, practiced abuses


with

169

understanding between

any

So

hut.

peasant

for many

wronged

ATTITUDES

without
way,

better
but
to

we

have

knowledge

because

other

people backwards!
you

for

help, because

THE

170
for

so

centuries

many

friendship from

Chinese

those

You

in

books, that

we

planets,about
of dew

who

those

about

Because

milUards

of

upon

read

But, Reverend

even

about

than

is

and

the

how
to

up

notarial

the

present

It is

fought, instructingthe peasants


conform
with the law.]
.

cards

gypsies;

people from

of roubles
and

lands

forbid
and

the

tobacco, because

will

whole

your

the

of

notice
seem

written

take

more

Zaranie

which
to

play cards.

to

pay

[lowest
us

among

every

[ignorant]

of

dreds
losing hun-

priests,for

sort

to

Jews.

of Russian

dren,
chil-

poor

service.

in your

the

Don't

Priests,

tobacco]
of

villagespends hundreds
instruction, but

check

poison. Don't

Give

dark

to

houses

your

nor

spread

it

then Zaranie
will help you.
And
also in a godly
because you will work
we

yourselves alone, but for the whole country. What


sults
[the popularized reprieststeach already in Warsaw
for

science] is stilla great

sin in the country.

Letter

In

has

they had

Don't

for those

mahorka

strength and

good and

them

yourselves,instead

ones,

terrible for you,

be

not

not
spirit,
even

this

for

roubles
with

of

smoking

read,

paper."

of those

custom,

cards, buy books, you

Germans

to

"Don't
bad

And

us.

[The notaries

tell fortunes

you

illustrious

you,

sell your

at

lords.

let them

And

them.

ing,
morn-

summer

us:

of

much

how

drop

priestsand

you

the

to

to

it is

old

an

other

this

awakened

none

alleviations.

and

history of nations.

there

are

many

allowed.
officially

Amend!

nobody

knowledge,

about
a

to

Remember

ours

on

the

Zaranie, because

ones,

religiouspapers;

of grass

they say

century,

of

in space,

cyclones, about

today, in the twentieth


don't

worlds

and

ourselves

of science.

this earth

blade

will die with

You

nothing but

want

slept much

have

good peasant,

We

expect

cabins, because

our

address

we

the torch

carry

lightning and
we

But

about

balancing itself

into

peasant.

as

don't

We

none.

entered

know

may

been

same

sisters 1

and

has

hearts.

your

sensible hearts

PEASANT

never

the

is not

pride

brothers

us,

there

you.

illustrious lord

an

POLISH

comparing
that

the

the

to

the

Zaranie;

here

typicaldocuments

revolutionary

usually roused

to

by

intellectual

the

of

attitudes

propaganda

class.

This

of

unpublished.

quoted,
the

peasants

leaders

conclusion

we

longing
be-

is fur-

private
In

to

wrong

First

last

which

change

while

only
in

to

50

place

took

change

reference

I, with

the

100

the

view,

reference

to

life

individual's
of

have

not
a

of

matter

social

spread by imitation

popularized information
Now

the

principle of
individuals

Thus

when

the

tendency

the class

and

the

and

the

fact

that

the

advance

to

system and

distinctlyqualified as

more

church,

advance

the church
obstacles

the

and

and

into

forms
the

same

reasons

of their

to

be

an4

overcome;

the

nobility

in favor

against

conscious

to

struggle of

social

classes.

the

economic

of

nomenon
phe-

more

stand
and

masses.

mass

a
were

contributed

time, in view

nomic
eco-

an

evolution
And
and

of
any

of the

originally
vague

own

turn

on

and

of

became

a definite
clergytook explicitly
the immovability of the social order
changes helped the peasants to become

nature

vance.
ad-

f "5r the climbing

representatives of

many

the

by

based

was

allowance

for

not

is

organization, particularly

existingsocial

small

but

the
of

permanence

relations ; it made
of

social

and

fed

and

of
possibilities

new

traditional

class system

the

the

about

tendency

or

disposition,but

personal,temperamental

current

cities

to

This

with

which

of

advance,

to

had

status

organized

become

partial manifestations.

are

life,

economic

land-hunger, social climbing, emigration


abroad,

deep

organization

social and

his

general tendency

and

general

very

expressed by saying that,

best

his attitudes

now

peasant's attitudes toward

be

maintenance

the

ing
attitudes) dur-

economic

to

years

in the

may

formerly

ary
revolution-

the

termine.
successfullyappealed, are easy to dehave
of all (as we
already mentioned

agitation has
in Volume

attitudes, to which

these

case

our

organization,and from
feelingsof
feelings of public indignation.

social

the whole

of

PEASANT

POLISH

THE

172

of

pirations
as-

social

since

at

cultural

REVOLUTIONARY

of

situation

for

173

country, in certain

whole

the

ATTITUDES

advance

fields the opportunit

hardly improving at all,


sometimes
even
deteriorating,dissatisfaction with the
terness
existing conditions often developed into a general bitand depression. Thus
what
we
saw
a
deeply
life could be found
pessimisticattitude toward
among
the

who

manor-servants

economic

their

were

attacks
the

upon

educational

had

hopes

no

situation.

characterizingthe
advance

were

The

of

particularbitterness

of those

interested

clergyis explained by
that many

and

in intellectual

the fact that

Russian

opportunities under

exceptionallypoor,

ing
improv-

ever

domination

members

of the

clergy, instead of cooperating with the efforts of the


progressive part of Polish society to promote popular
in spiteof the Russian
education
acted
countergovernment,
these

efforts at every

second

The

find back

we

peasants

the

fundamental

and

general
of

step.

revolutionary movements

be characterized

can

and, moral

social power

[ity^^ ihis
.

attitude

righteousness

consciousness, which

of

the

of

the consciousness

as

which

x"i-thei

solidary com-P

sometimes

'assumes

naivelyexaggerated proportions,has evidentlyits source


the community originallyposin the importance which
sesses
in the eyes
and
as

dominated

whose

attitude
elements

individuals

"

institutions,etc.
is

surprisingto

the

members

common

action.

see

conflict

into

enters

of
"

what

When

still

have

members

accepts

right.

of

other
and
an

feels

who

members,

it and

by

standards

supreme

of its

of each

its

judgments

thus

preserved
with

munity
com-

this

outside

as

almost

mary
pri-

social

classes, religiousor

acts

trolled
con-

litical
po-

solidary unit,

unlimited

it

faith all

individuallyhave in the justice of their


of their common
standpoint and in the success
It is almost
impossible to persuade a peasant

THE

174

which

community
that

its

has

feature
'

resolved

once

self

alone
from

the

the
a

in

the

primary

its

an*^.
new

the

of

need

hardly

fundamental
of

the

to

as

develops
ceives
con-

group

body,

the

peasants

consciousness

eousness

"

destructive

rected, they
ficient

th^

Qf

the

"

social

of

community

attitudes;

factors

as

are,

of

we

social

the

fact

class

on

"

or

tion,
na-

to

this

the

shall

by

and

contrary,
see

no

two

advance

to

moral

if

right-

socially

means

presently,

reconstruction.

these

revolutionary

tendency

power
^are

that

the

underlying

there

is transferred

faith

naive

then,

but

primary

quaintance
ac-

tions,
condi-

its

loses

power;

social

emphasize

attitudes

movements

social

grow,

wider

lution
revo-

increasing

community

the

one's

"great community."
We

and

political and

unlimited

same

wrongs

external

and

also

for

not

with

communities

part

of

Later,

solidarity,

as

It

success.

acting

and

without

revolt.

between

itself

action

distinguishes

peasant

super-communal

group,

which

righteousness

own

contacts

of

group,

personal
with

faith

the

for

but

rately
sepa-

starts

solidarity

of

consciousness

that

often

of

feeling

matter

peasant

claims,

chance

that

comes

which

revolutionary

slightest

whence

demands,

its

radical

the

and

with

daring

cept
ex-

socio-psychological

This

vindicate

most

appareiitly
shows

the

acter
charfailure

to

the

discussing

and

up

doomed

or

individual.

to

the

pursues

its primary-group

is wrong

it

each

explains

PEASANT

preserved

action

by breaking
with

POLISH

properly
the

di-

jnost^f-

PART
SOCIAL

II

REORGANIZATION

CHAPTER

CONCEPT

THE

The

have

as

we

of

new

attitudes

with
of

the

create

the

the

prevent

but

this

In

of

its cohesion

the

tend

in

the

opening

sonal
per-

supplant

latter

the

time

only

not

as

the

to

same

so

becoming

is

of

better

permit
at

disorganized
fields

new

when

for

they

realizing

of

be

to

the

may

their

them

entirely by

have

seen,

the

unofficial

be

more

aim, but
social

individual

their

tradition.
can
I7T

system,

ing
leav-

solved

later.

tion
organizalatter

the

of

representatives
less

or

which

traditional

by particular individuals
or

defense

movements

traditional

the

is much

and

preservation

aim

original
has
In

been

and

and

the

defined

make

act

efficient

revolution,

generalize

the

forms

leader,

or

revolutionary

defense

the

official

as

the

reconstruction

of

social

new

inventor

overthrow

to

is assumed

merely

in
in

or

problem

even

group;

will

and

creating

than

forms

merely
the

For

^which

will

by

individual, the

old

the

of

process

important

more

of

rules

correspond

from

schemes

^new

manifestations

group

ply
com-

cooperation.

social

role

"

action

not

reconstruction

"

is, which
in

social

increase

to

and

active

their

regulate

behavior

schemes

themselves

express

to

old

dq

sanctioned

social

institutions

new

development

which

and

of

of

attitudes, that

changed

will

and

and

activities

to

is,

organization

appearance

problem

schemes

new

modify

to

leading

The

conduct
or

the

to

socially recognized

behavior.

to

due

social

traditional

the

seen,

REORGANIZATION

SOCIAL

OF

of

decay

for

as
more

we

THE

178

conscious

would
the

and

which

social

understand

already

best

correspond

the

accept these

group

utions.

More

defenders

of

in

his

task

mand
de-

to

make

or

insti-

usually develop the


have
attitudes in certain parts of societywhich
been
new
form;
evolving more
slowly and are not yet ready for the reand
often
he has
to struggle against obstinate
We

which

than

traditional

the

concerned

not

are

social leader

the

invents

and

this, he

social rules

as

is

which

of behavior

attitudes,and

schemes

the

which

attitudes

new

these

to

exist

reconstruction

outlet,to invent the schemes

an

\^

in

Whereas,

'to discover

PEASANT

tendencies

only

group.

POLISH

would

lead

What

interests

far

us

is,how

community

different

and

Education

Further,
as

have

we

consequence

of

peasant

It is evident

bind
would

that

this

take

indispensable to

any

together
have

no

social

breakdown

of the

the

such

members

chance

to

last and

hand, in constructinga

have

new

been

intensity.

social reconstruction
social

an

lation
old iso-

between

contacts

interests
of

first

the

of the

variety and

account;

new

disorganization

social world

of

attempt

fact into

the

meet

to

social reconstruction.
that

institution

any

of
seen

have

to

is thus

peasant

upon

tion
organiza-

in order

it is

communities;

exclusivelyupon

the other

imposed

the

community and the outside


continuallyincreasingin number,

based

forms

of

each

must

peasant class.

consciously accept

indispensablestep

came

of the

prepared
community intellectually

problems.

ciety
so-

organization;this

that

ones

by

of

needs

is the social

what

the traditional

from

this

have

new

are

it is clear

resulting? Now,
peasant

study

methods

new

of social

and

communities

the peasant

the

discovers

the

the

with

here

beyond

us

system.

forms

new

must

and

organization
relations

as

isolated
to

community
develop. But, on

social system

those

POLISH

THE

i8o

suit, just

particular
The

individuals

as

extensive

more

the

ceased

which

who

national

to

Poland

the

to

where

this

at

is

for
than

the

to

to

Our
the

press;

peasant

^how

"

of
to

in which

enforced

only

by

small

social

and

order

study

of

five

peasants;

the

3)

the

voluntary
national

the

to

minority,
will

in the

nation.

more

lem
prob-

type of

different

but

the

tional
na-

exacted

are

type,

majority

voluntarily

ute
contrib-

progress.

will

thus

i) leadership; 2)
wider

community

4) cooperative organizations; 5) the


class

ment
experi-

essential

from

operation
co-

state

it contributes
most

and

state,

historical

coercion

reconstruction

problems:

the

of

out
with-

only

not

public services

cultural

social

for

pass

culturally passive

now

the

solution

times

following
of

such

life had

national

reconstructing
of

ture
cul-

particular importance

method

is evident,

sociology

not

is

which

in

used

ant
peas-

national

against

even

same

significance

public order
which

classes

activities

those

and

century

but

state

organization
in

has

whole

the

being

of modem

and

is maintained

moment

anything

in

course,

The

class).

cooperate

fact

for

the

The

system.

of

other

of

peasant

until

peasants

by voluntary cooperation,

of

help

to

This

where

be preserved
the

important

the

members

became

unity

developed.
for

and

tem
sys-

politicalinstitutions

and

in which

and

begins consciously
by

social

the

belong

to

social

activelyparticipated (except,

not

individuals

and

each

new

frequent, varied

more

classes

other

by

recently had
those

in

together

this

coherent

and

with

its contacts

created

brought

are

group.

becomes,
are

PEASANT

role

include
tion
educaand
of

the
the

CHAPTER

II

LEADERSHIP

The

problem of leadershipin Poland was


larly
particuof two
complicated because of the combination
factors" class differences
the
(more persistentamong
ation.
country populationthan in cities)and the national situThe
unable

produce

whereas

rapid

itself would

to

for many
years
in numbers
sufficient for

to

leaders

peasant class left

the national

transformation

and

conscious

Thus, members

of

of other

to

situation
the

been

constructive

come

its

have

reorganization,
urgently required a

peasant

own

into

class

culturallyconstructive
had

classes

to

assume

tionally
na-

body.
ship,
leader-

at least in the

beginning; and, indeed, in no other


country has the nobilityand the intellectual city class
active interest in organizing the peasshown
much
as
ants
in
Poland
But this
as
during the last 50 years.
than enough educated
and
advantage of having more
nationallyconscious men
ready to fulfil the functions
of leaders as soon
the need of leadershipbecame
vious
obas
offset by serious disadvantagesresultingfrom
was
the fact that these men
were
separated from the masses
whom
they intended to lead by all those attitudes and
traditions which
the source
and the product of the
were
division of classes.
As
doubt

far

the

as

that, if

belonging to
spending most

we

the

concerned, tiiere is

nobilitywas
except

small

international

of their time

number

aristocratic

of magnates
coterie

abroad, the average

181

no

and

country

i82

squire had
with

wide

traditional

benevolent

always

least

his

to

as

classes,and

respect

due

as

looked

with

than

the peasants

and

irrational

seemingly

or

whose

On

In

could

motive

the

the other

of

power

growing
with

wealthy

response

them),

above

nor

often

justicewas
led the

initiative.

their further
trusted
mis-

was
activity

its

understand

not

and

economic

Further, his
in

advance,

of the old attitude toward


as

to
solidarity,

due

peasant
and

treated

was

communal

nobleman-leader,

squire and

did

their

ideal.

for

(who

owner

from

him

hand, the peasant

he

the national
desire

ization
organ-

organized before
significanceand appreciate the

the remnants

estate

of and

full

or

quite unreflectively,

prevented
possibilities
implied in

to be first educated

grasp

ence
obedi-

of

anti-social,

personally disinterested,for
; he had

claim

matters

when
the "lords," particularly

motives

to

less

or

manifestations, sometimes

first

seeing the constructive

development.

or

which

tendencies

new

more

tined
des-

possibleof the old system


even
indignation on many
began to develop among

was

mistrust

minor

his social rank

to

often

naturally tended,
more

of

clined
in-

much

too

was

passive object

of

real collaboration

permanent

superior culture.

preserve

the

peasant

he

deeply rooted

were

nobleman

of the upper

one-sided

he

the

that

the purposes

before

overcome

The

the

for

enough

sides there

both

on

the

care

and

he

common

his manor-servant,

even

or

well

possible.

be

to

But

treat

to

him

prejudicesto

became

of

neighbor

understand

leadership.

and

of discourse'* in

professional, religious,social fields,so

could

to

PEASANT

^'universe

his peasant

in the

at

POLISH

THE

because
to

thus

abuse

he
the

somehow
whom
did

tinually
connection
con-

the
side
out-

neither
not

need

good-will of

discouraged

ested
disinter-

Finally,the fact that between the


his peasant neighbors and servants

try
coun-

there

LEADERSHIP

were

business

many

there

were

these

those

country

The

among

as

the

had

either

nobles

and

weak

very

citymen

of
of

pace

them
mistrust

lack

the

to

understood

reciprocal
of

contact.

the

peasant

spent their youth in the

or

and

preserved
exceptionalposition

peasants

with

unmistakable

peasants

nobility; but

these

has

clergy
"

of

both

successful
the

among

the

fact

succeeded

in social

priest has

reconstruction.
the

social leader

best

of his

of

the process

of

his

of

trusted
mis-

and

fear

former

has
that
in

find

we

leaders

often

there

was

continually
organizers

and

city intellectuals
been
a

and

social

third

playing

role

It is evident

group

perhaps

that

"

^the
even
tioned
men-

groups
to

the
This

slow.
relatively

important than that of either of the


above, although it began quite late

more

rate
over-

contempt.

obstacles,

this growth

for

accounts

of

to

"lord," b^t his

with

to the

tical
prac-

peasant

the

connected

reference

shade

spite of
growing number

The

he mistrusted
was

the

inclined

and

possible progress.

of the latter

In

life

peasant

less than

respect whereas

'

elsewhere.

doctrinaires, poorly acquainted with


situations

of

were

the

of

sons

to

in an
earlyconnections, or who were
with
the peasant class.
to keep continual
contact
idealistic
great majority of city-bredleaders were

young

an

obstacle

erate
antagonisms, no invettween
positivebonds beovercome,

difficult,
owing

less who

or

their

classes

two

understanding

more

additional

an

tunities
oppor-

traditional

no

class prejudices to

Only

many

gave

leadership.
the difficulty
lay
city intellectuals,

With
While

which

relations

trouble, constituted

for

successful

183

participate
a

country

possibleconditions for becoming a


parish,particularlyin the beginning
reconstruction, when

parishionersare

passive,and

the

great

willingto

mass

follow

POLISH

THE

i84

acceptable to them instead of


independent and to organize by their own

leader who

trying

is otherwise
be

to

PEASANT

There

initiative.

is

class

inveterate

no

antagonism

venting
pre-

priest,as long as he is
is in
considered
an
as
essentiallyreligious
/personality,
the
outside
of the class system; only when
a
sense
worldly attributes of the priestbegin to predominate in
collaboration, for

the

the

of

eyes

is

certain

economic
on

his sacral

over

character,

concerning his class


mistrust resultingfrom

made

are

There

peasant

the

demands

the part of the

of

connections.
the

this mistrust

latter

often

with

but

priests;

flections
re-

will
goodbe

can

aggerated
ex-

ily
eas-

And

nobody is in a position to know


in most
himself
the peasant better than the priest,
cases
ous
a
by birth and in continupeasant or small townsman
with his parishioners. He
ready
contact
is, besides, alleader in all matters
with
connected
a
religion,
and it needs only some
effort on his part to extend this
fields. Thus
and political
it
leadershipto the economic
is exclusivelythe fault of the clergy or, more
exactly,
overcome.

of the church
few

as

priestsamong

five years

with

Congress

leaders

peasant
The

ago.

institution

institution,that

an

Catholic

wide

and

it did

not

up

relatively

about

to

Church

politicalplans

of Vienna, favored

find

we

as

twenty-

international
since

never,

the Polish

explicitlysanction

national
the

the

ment,
move-

participation
1893 ^^^

clergy in lay social activities until


the encyclical
of Leo XIII.
Rerum
But when
navarum
finallythe Polish clergy awoke to the realization of the
fact that unless they took an active part in the nationwide
of the

movement

almost
an

of social reconstruction

all social influence,they

important place

role,however,

seems

among
to

be

were

the

they would
able rapidlyto

leaders.

only temporary

Their
; the

lose
take

great

spiritof

LEADERSHIP

185

the peasants deprives


independence developing among
dependen
the clergy of their exceptional prestigewhich, in less inthe
communities, makes
leadership of the
"natural"
and obvious, while
priestappear as the most
the other hand
the church
on
system imposes limits on
far in the
their progress, does not permit them
to go as
direction

new

The

last in time

probably the
^not

"

education, become
bodies

city intellectuals
achieved

peasant

class and
There

most
or

have

to share

been

has not

cases
even

one

through

the
had

the

exceeded

members

leaders

during

to

the

of

their

the

period

sphere of their influence


the limits of

village. But the number


or
press, through political
begun

who, having

all the interests of this class.

such

many

studying, but

are

we

continue

as

superiorityover

yet remain

mass,

movement

those

but

social

intellectual and

an

average

receive professional
origin who
incorporated into other social

clergymen,

or

self
class it-

the peasant

the reconstructive

in
participate

and

constructio
re-

is that group

for the future

within

up

peasant

of

the work

achieve

yet the least important, but

as

grows
of

men

and

to

promising

most

which

leaders

of

is necessary

as

influence

wider

in

community

one

of

those

economic
circles has

who,
tutions
instibeen

creased
to have
growing, and their role seems
enormously induring the formation of the Polish state.
lately,
In order
must
to avoid
phasize
emmisunderstanding we
the fact that

the documents

meant

characterize

not

are

to

which

we

are

ing
quot-

types of leaders, but

illustrate the

are
psychology of leadership. There
rich biographicalmaterials
ers
concerning prominent leadfew societies show
as
published in Polish
strong
interest and appreciationof individual achievements
an

to

"

"

^but

we

cannot

use

them

here, for the problems which

i86

they raise
It must

be

added

the

on

the

toward
advance

but

favored

of

of

the

to

1884,

1 went

mu$t

mention

in

serve

proofs of

with

that

his

I kissed
he

much;

so

learn.

On

lord gave

one

hand

like

I got

on

the

board,

and

he

I had

well, because

and

and

it very

his office

to

lord

terribly. My

me

and

; my

in the

at

was

room

nings
eve-

home.

On

good board, clothes

required of

me

many
favor

also Yiot to deal

anybody, not to drink liquor at all,not to loaf around


free from
work
the evening, but to spend all the moments
to all those
things from
learning. I had been accustomed
childhood,
At

that time

I knew

lord and

there

the

that

difficult for

very

was
was

they had

whom
But

it

sister-in-law

for

if I married

which

career

he

was

forbidden

I
me

and

one

renounce

them

of the

ants
manor-serv-

intended

I would

promised

myself against this marriage,


Sometimes

of

long time
her

to

me

me.

1884 I moved

with

and

to

to^be

the

teased

to

I answered,

clothes

write, when

to

like

separate small

church,

I wanted

Year

New

many

read

farm-steward.

me

the

to

evening

whether

me

from

I would

that

my

Year,

protectionof the lord, but on the other hand, I had


griefs and troubles because everybody envied me the lord's

and

ganization
or-

of the

New

given

learn

to

every

with

there

read

to

to

of his coachman.

returning

bed, bed-furnishings and

taught me

bility
no-

with

came

lord had

my

said

come

Therefore

me

On

instead

On

and
to

; I received

manor

year

day he asked
become
gradually

farm-steward.
the

the

same

to

or

the

reactions

old,

years

I would

me

of

...

church

hand

ordered

the

coachman

his

The

masses.

to

whether

me

rect
di-

help indmduals
relatingto social

matters

20

favor.

and

has

attitude

Pawlowki.

manor

lord

during

grace

lord asked

write.

the

my

which

leadership.

of

January ist, 1883, being

father

much

in other

J
typical.

also

are

included

old-time

of the

of this work.

scope

classes; willing to

the progress

individual

On

the

contain

problem

lower

the

documents

entirelyunconscious

and

to

the

[Typical example

95*

my

that

this volume

bearing

PEASANT

entirelybeyond

are

chapters of

POLISH

THE

lose

So

to

me

the

favor

I tried

to

in
in
my

all.

marry.
of

the

guard

succeeded.

guilty,for I did secretlysomethii^ which


because, as people say, ''nature draws the wolf

was

THE

i88

POLISH

promising that he would


hundred

long

as

five roubles

them

pay

this money

as

PEASANT

in his

remained

case,

failure
[A very significant
due partly to the new
method

than

with

individuals
The

entire

remains

servants

where

"

what

some

between

and

it was,

with

preceding

rather
dealing with group
active co-operation is required.

"

relation

social

every

keeping.

compared

as

on

Stviqtecsna,
1899^ df^

Gageta

97*

interest

estate

innovation

isolated

the

and

owner

is

naturally misinterpreted.]
The

who

heir

young

took

introduce

Mr.
this rouble

he

booklet

Gorecki

with

add

to

and

him

who

before

years

least ten

than

owner

of those

one

20

and

more

how

give

to

much

of

est-money.
earn-

to

than

more

before

leave
self
him-

every

he

money

man

had
back

money

could

would

he

interest,and
years

where
some-

men

take this
not
stayed would
had
passed. Then everyone

after

Every

of the estate, bound

be written

the

in his

from

rouble

one

to

cided
de-

He

way.

came

or

Year,

he, the

left his service

If anyone

New

5 roubles

together with
roubles, or

70

following

the spot

on

every

it would

in which

his money

in the

wanted

this rouble

deposited. Those
at

stayed

receive, about

to

wanted

this year,

into his

else,was

father's death

forobeks, etc.,

whether
.

Goredd,

Bolestaw

Mr.

patrimonial estate.
kind of pension for all the workmen

teamsters,

to

estate.

his entrance

to

servant

the

after his

the estate

commemorate

manor,

of

have

take
more

150.

this time

would

he

receive

the 5 roubles a year


only the roubles he had deposited,whereas
the
be divided
would
contributed
by the estate owner
among
After

others.

would

the

receive
with

might leave

all his

take

and

the

of

servants

eighty,and

the

back
to

estate

than

more

be

his wife

husband

pension would

This

dues.

personal property

Well, I happened
the

of

death

and

every

and
in

anyone

year

children

no

way

terfere
in-

wished

who

his roubles.
there
were

preciselyon
called.

half of them

There

the

day

were

when

than

more

been

serving for
explained to them

had

all

over

his
longer. Mr. Gorecki
at least some
idea, showing how they might secure
ready money.
I was
that, having listened to the speech in which the idea
sure

ten

was

years,

some

much

clearlyexpounded, they would

gratitude. But,

Heavens!

all of

accept
them

this innovation

like

one

man

with

opposed

LEADERSHIP

''We

it.
be.

do

If you

those

were

scorn

in

give us

to

all

then

hand,

endeavors

the

of

the

performed by
and

town

our

in
to

of

group

somehow

the

did

not

begin and

for

it, because

every

with

the

to

that

undertake

disorganizing. In silence
the

and

of

matter

leadership destroyed

the

beer

had

ceased

exist.

to

[Entirelynew

of

methods

activities
The
nobleman

and

the led which

of

and

estate

movements

and
he
had

left the

which
was

connected

good

of class

proved

very

relations between

with

organizing

his

opposition.]
Jackowski

the national

[is

two

theoretic

useful

penetrated by

uprising in 1863

government.

profited in
a

in social

tionary
participatedfirst in the revolu-

with

studies

social

Maximilian

He

owner.

now

of

lack

was

Siviqiecsna,xSgg^ 11.

interfere

peasants,

prison] he had

Secondly, he
the

the

acquired in calm

to

would

imprisoned by the Prussian

was

economy

up

No

by introducing the element


leader

So

body
no-

tion
the associa-

leadership.Interest

organization,not individual advance.


the leader

but

wrong

promising work.
Gaeeta

99.

left

time

settled^

from

singers withdrew

the

be

to

going

were

used

singing lesson

be

to

on

go

addition

much

not

was

to

an

barrel

the

by

over

barrel

left

soon

"

began

soon

here

reorganization of that which

singing-group

the

things

"

whole

there

the

"

Grachiallyas

and

the barrel

singers understood
wanted

meeting. Without

at

Many

parish

our

taken

singing was

emptied

Jasinski

singing lessons

completely different manner.


introduced
singing,beer was

of

47.

introduced

was

song

Priest

men.

of the

direction

the

But

organist.

of

words

even

vicar

former

[Tuliszkow], Priest Jasinski church


and

not."

then

Svuiqtecsna,1900,

Gasela

By

if not,

to

and

earnest-money

nothing;

to

it used

as

in the crowd.

heard

y^

gS.

the

right; but

persuasions led

sensible

most

were

gracious as

so

5 roubles

All the

it.Respected Sir I Let it be

want

not

189

to

the

in

When

First, he

respects:
education

the

great

idea which

1865

in

political

practitioner.
he

defended

his death

Poles

against all phantastichopes to the contrary, that


into the very
could develop only if they introduced

depths of their nation a social organization that would


work.
to conscious
purposelessand passive mass

rouse

the

He

Our
of

POLISH

THE

I90

developed this idea during the following years and


in 1870 a program
of faith:
declaration
Views
or

Principles,Problems
a

words
to

the

of

the

field

whose

man

But

before
about

and

himself.
in order

Posen

himself

of the

"I

to

hereby

in

naUski

and

editors

to

with

the

the

20

of

form

the

this

leaders

as

over

had

which
to

opposition, he

of

there

stood

Pox-

domineering,
he

publicly
ing
patriarch dur-

1905,

like

in

too

he

as

presided

he

was

though

even

the

silent

Maximilian

old

non-Slavic

in

nature,

In

smoothness.

the committee,

the

leading organ

by the peasant

of

stood
the

behind

party

him.

mittees
com-

serious
of
in

opposed him

which

associations, though

Thus,

he

had

in

all the

for

to

or

the

undiplomaticway.

and

stormy

and
flexibility

all

respect,

he met
disappear. When
made
politicaluse
a
occasionally even

be

fectly
per-

Kuryer

the

in

opinion that

the

peasant organizations which


the

the

than

better

accepted with

were

lacked

he

of

fully and

beg the
in today's issue of the Kuryer."

Jackowski appeared

Maximilian

proclamations, and

man

He

ethics

newspaper

"

^was

"

Jackowski proceeded

had

of the press

(he died at the age of 90) and


he sharply pronounced
mostly too sharp

which

energetic

younger

to

of his life

years

declaration
too

quite

they lead political

Poznanski.

Dsiennik

judged pubUc happenings.


last

of

which, until his death

in

way

level

the

publish this declaration

unabashed

in which

politicalconvictions

the

with

with

Nothing characterizes

the

found

partly referred

which

form

calm

contrast

characterizes
agree

he

issue

recognition to the editors of the

my

dignifiedand

discussion
which

and

usage

events, the attitudes

party groups,

to

the

myself about

public declarations

express

for the

Kuryer

others

first time

[Polishparliamentary] fraction, as for instance:

...

far

for the

few

say

who
estate
published by a young
owner
politics]. Surprised at this peculiar pubHc

similar

partly

persons,

so

I went

me

ganization.
or-

article

an

series of

and

extensive

study the situation,an

to

to

as

fell into my
hands
Kuryer Posna^ski
containing [a paragraph
written
by Maximilian
Jackowski which
expressed his

censorship, I informed

every

When

lished
pub-

ungainly writing

practical efficiencyand

was

man

province of

devotes

or

It is the

Needs.

speak of this peculiarbooklet,let

the

approval of

PEASANT

always

the

1893
cotted
boyim-

LEADERSHIP

pressed

politicalfights did

latter that

the

upon

191

belong

not

to

their competency.

However,
as

kind

lessness

he would

of rough

central

The
which

his

Polish

admired

Posen

only in their main

not

last years

in the

like

of

his

him

essentiallyto

for

of

tempted

are

who

man

done

has

so

vivid

and

in recent

of

that

the

efforts

the

than

whole

1873

began

years
to

has

there
In

class

is

no

the
was

social

the

on

practical lesson

the

to

they should

in his

Poles

he

continue

which

to

ganizations
or-

draws

the

follow

the way

make

clusion
con-

definite

more

would

be able

embrace

to

peasant

founded

was

traveled

by Jackowski himself

through the country

him

as

the

one

politicalindependence

can

that

the

so

who

that

ing
dur-

the peasants

all-present. In his speeches and

in infinite variations

feeling and

national

the

associations, in 1875, 45; in


in 1877, 105 ; in 1880, 120
associations.

11

61 ;

lost its

organization of
system of political

worship

writings recurred
which

the

professional organisations,in the

systems

were

year,

association

all these

there

following

Every

elements

indeed

reach

to

country.

given

but that

of great coherent

In

the

before

partly on

dissimilar

opened by Marcinkowski
form

[published in 1870]
peculiar mixture of

discusses

Mill, partly

should

Poles

sociations
as-

agricultural
co-operative

also

In

had

these

From

the

with

only credit

not

years

much.

Marcinkowski

Karol

which

Stuart

details, and

interfered

program

experience he

John

him

by

selling.

[national] work, basing himself


economy

drafted

been

...

pedantry

covering the

thought that the cooperative


The
Poles
character.
capitalistic

explain the

to

and

founded

and

even

before, but

as

he

he

buying and

societies for
We

too

that

founded

were

he

foresight.

and

in their smallest

but
...

cooperative system,
societies were
assuming a
it

have

net

his ruth-

than

his influence; the

of
him

by

life

Polish

owe

the traces

outlines

which

owners

founded

associations

province of

knowledge

expert

today leads bears

son

represented

were

prominent

more

societyof large estate

peasant

whole

for much

Hun,

his much

was

unjustly judged if he

be

national

idea that

rely only

people
on

the

feeling disappears when

organization.

beginnings
organized

of

the

eightiesthe nucleus

in this way.

Every

month

of
each

the

peasant

peasant

as-

had

sociation
a

POLISH

THE

192

whole

Posen

its meeting;

once

PEASANT

together,and
the great yearly convention
district

came

was

excluded, but the cultivation

was

not

considered

hands;

to

in

Led

main

the

were

introduce

to

care

feeling

defend

to

Prussian

the

selves
themment
govern-

organization.

national

union

the

exclusivelyby Poles,

took

of

of the

aims

national

customs;

measures

Politics

fall into German

let land

to

in

place

peasants.

Polish

the

and

mores

against the

common

^these

"

Polish

preserve

Polish

of

of

politics. Not

spring took

every

of

associations

the peasant

year

fostered

ing,
farm-

peasant

rational cultivation

of the soil and

concerning
implements, gave advice in matters
The
today
questions of insurance.
I3"ooo peasants who
this union constitute the nucleus
of the Polish "peasant

apply modem

to

credit,in

belong to
republic" in Prussia.

Ludwig

Prof.

If

readiness.

abilityare

up

deal with

them,

The

and

live

But
their

on

there

capital and

people

are

scoundrels

Often

in

it

the

the

poorest

meet

one,

so-called

Christus]," nor
^This

book,

spend
books

and

unhonest

that

in

knows
his

who

their

don't

time

in

have

do

anything
walking and

people,good and

going afoot

one

or

with

bad

there

horses

finally

beds.

In

ones;

als9

are

cannot

as

ferent
dif-

industrials

their

polite,but

to

positions;

they like, and

lying long m

such

how

influence.]

forttme

craftsmen,

some

practical

different

occupy

religiousand

are

and

to

and

which

in

and

highest degree,

happens

priest who

some

who

also

games

honest

are

and

papers

playing at different

short, there

are

reading different

there

instruction

themselves,

among

sharp criticism

he

obstacles

engineers, doctors, merchants,

are

in

higher

have

others.

but

further

no

are

and

toward

peasants

character

peasants' standards

there

relations

they

city leader's moral

the

to

who

men

of

definite general prejudice, but

No

city people.

(1910), 84-^^

Polenfrage

[Good illustration of the attitudes

ICO.

in

Bernard, Die

agine.
im-

even

meet

you

willinglylifts his hat before everybody, even


But
and praises our
Lord
God.
al^" you
often
gentleman who neither
lifts his head, nor
even
very

German
domination, has
interests of Germanization

thorough study of
a

says
turns

"Praised
his eyes.

be
"

[Jesus
.

Polish organizations under


written
in the
particular significance because
by a foreign and hostile observer.

LEADERSHIP

In

country

our

save

their health.

the

benefit of us,

many

people

Some

of them

the peasants

193

they give

this

[I

are

the

to

came

who

many

At

least

10

years

tenth

all

I knew

when

instructed

transgress the sixth and

who

"

and

more

for

also those

are

"

reason

richer and

that] among

saw

of my

steady use

work

good advice, useful

us

teaching and beautiful examples. But there


scandal
their brothers.
only sow
among
ago

to

summer

good enough and

are

in

Na}$cz6w

to

come

there

people

of

conunandments

God.
.

Among

us,

instructed

and

is

honest,

not

rich

Among

honest, but
found

be

the

honest,

he

instructed

and

the

among

is

Philistine
leaders

"

on

confess
when

[I have

lived] in
are

with

such

how

to

"

hundred

and

wise

and

many,

idea, but

leader

the

between

contrast

and

the

I became

that

the excursion

on

was
a

with

acquainted

organized by Zaratiie.
and

town

with
.

for

men

near

they

us

haughtiness. Well,

it

was

one

lord, another

men,

not

differ

lords

from

idea which

listen when
What!

"loty and
write

us

And

us.

all of the

there

polite

so

ference
dif-

no

was

learned

were

the

same

and

people conscious, unites them

in mutual
one

would-be

like
little,

know

not

spiritand
How

love.

pleasant it

gentleman, when

hen

with

was

like brothers.

another

paper-colbr for 6 groszy

myself

peasants, teachers,

and

same

another
intelligent,

one

high spheres

they spoke with

With

to

with

makes

like brothers

equal, there

were

peasant,

as

others, and

many
an

All

pleasure.

"

proud and

are

I found

when

the

sugar-factory

them

and

can

Svnqtecsna; unpublished
the

realizes

here

social

in their

stupid; they did

read

in

one

be found

can

society [as during the excursion], I did


behave
such people as these ; they were
among

kind

15

Gazeta

to

villagenear
But
intelligent
men.

self-conceited

for

hundred

position].

must

first time

to

in

people one

him.

relations with

any

he

egotisticeducated
essential step toward
an
selectingand appreciating
than
the ground of their personal attitudes rather

intellectual

their social

makes

have

to

simple peasants

[The peasant

idealistic

and

is rich,

man

dishonest.

xoi.

where

worthy of great respect, but if

Letter

is that if

opinion

it a sin

consider

we

the

peasants,

her

and

he

has

knows

claws, and

suit

how

gets

to
a

THE

194

place

in

he

does

the

himl

to

wish

not

friends
and

In

believe

don't

like learned
Such
and

how

is

for

that

him

they teach

the

And

might learn.

does

he does

know

how

And

serfs

soul before

wish

fool

to

and

such

is

gets this money

He

to

him?

has learned

20th

of every
And
there

rabble"

even

but

for

and

He

is neither

only

in order

to

word

bureaucrats.

they

sent

their

son

speak

to

he

ought

refuses

more

to

say,

to know

that

not

this peasant

speaks
who

also peasants
teacher
But

He

that

says

he

does

not

him.

to

idea

does
is

nearly

40

what

he

mind

ideas

do

for the

society.

gets his wages

who

man

today

not

What

nor

show

peasant

month

gets every

another

teacher
a

is

he

nbt

knowledge is

the peasant

he

for the
be

do

believes

now

with

as

the

month.
are

also

men

who

don't

want

to

remain

[the peasants] during the winter, but try


into

ought

does

g^ves it

who

that
.

he

And

more.

same

played with him,

this, because

gentleman:

in the

imagine that, as
with gentlemen ; and therefore

the peasant.

to

others

teacher.

teacher

cattle and

are

cows

and

richer, so

that he

the other

peasant

understand

he

treated

were

know

not

ceremonious,

roubles, sometimes

matter

them

herded

he

himself

speak. Moreover,

today there

totallystrange

not

became

company

to

herded

be

obliged to

peasant.

amples
ex-

some,

are

speak with

themselves

worked

and

keep

that if the teacher


not

and

were

parents

the peasant

himself

cannot

not

and

Teacher, that after every

peasant, he

so

His

last he

the peasant

peasant

good

if there

school, how

to

and

"Please, Sir.'* Because


is

progress

no

even

peasants

bench

same

at

politelywith Mr.
he

from
And

we,

and

good teachers.
Russia, a kacap [contemptuous

the

together

went

we

Now,

have

can

them

They loathe the peasant.


has already forgotten how
teacher

higher schools

to

library
already all

How

for

among

see

We
.

teacher

by their teacher.

manner

not

the

or

he knows

people

such

Russian].

church

men.

sittingon

were

do

we

reciprocal love?
word

peasant, don't

library.

any

with

together

village there

our

without

them, if

with

the

an3rthingbecause

words

work

about

but

are

hear

to

tavern

peasants,

be

And
.

who

you,

"

indecent

the

PEASANT

factory well, then

near

come

POLISH

the

district-administration

and

to

to

with
screw

become

"this
selves
them-

officials,

THE

196
We

were

meeting

the road

on

that the

therefore

avoided

we

business

affairs.

home

priest intended

and

that

priest gladly

new

him

to

us

but at every

interested

was

In

beginningwe

the

wanted

know

to

another.

material

our

for

some

thought
and

dings
wed-

situation.

years

So

could

we

not

priest evidently tmderstood


himself
conduct, changed his tactics and began to occupy
one

children, who

The

having

in

mainly

raise the tariff for burials

to

meeting the priestand

understand

our

kd

in the field ; he

or

our

PEASANT

astonished

only when

not

us

farming and

our

much

very

spoke with

POLISH

our

with

occupation loafed around in flocks.


five years up he took them
From
them
to his garden and
gave
different occupations. He
let the older ones
pick fruit and the
our

ones

the

grows,

how

fruits

the

of

insects

harm

after

trees, and

the

all the children.

to

money

how

priest that instead of


loafingaround without occupation as formerly, they gathered in
the court
father
of the parish-house and waited for their spiritual
to

children

teaching them

formed, which

are

them, etc., enjoined them to take care


end of the daily occupation paid some
Our

and

gather it,talking to them

younger
tree

no

old

lazilythat

tmderstood

we

understand
aversion

to

to

our

their

example of our
priest only after

longer

no

now

instruction

them

have

the

at

his

52 papers

of

and

our

own.

begged
We

know

understand

changing seed grain. We

the

We

felt

we

an

scribed
priest subread
value

also the

what

so

ago.

to

us

but

years.

the

that

agriculturalmachines, and

of

some

Formerly
so

papers,

children

15 years

was

give.

cost

own

it

as

can

prejudice towards

manure,

of

it is

what
and

we

followed

ones

parish

our

now

accustomed

so

to them.

come

We

In

got

them;
of

tificial
ar-

advantage

is love

of

your

example,
priest gave us
neighbor and charity,because our
out
for poorer
people almost withperforming religiousceremonies
with gifts. Wc
and even
helping the quite poor ones
money
tural
know
what mutual
help is,so we will try to organize an agriculthe

circle and

Forgive

us

consumers'

for not

lost to us, but

now

May
further
sooner

to

work
in your

conquer

God

association.

knowing

it is not

bless you

our

and

in the first years which


arc
dark and lected.
fault if we
were
neg-

you

give

you

health

that

you

may

be understood
usefully for society and may
you
us,
parish instead of being obliged,as among
new

hearts

and

confidence

through your

labors.

LEADERSHIP

^Letter

[Documents

Z04.

of clerical

the

Swiqteczna; unpublished.

Gazeta

to

illustrate various

104-110

leadershipin connection
the

organizationon
on

197

with

sides of the

the

hand, with the Catholic

one

Polish

Church

lem
prob-

national

hierarchy

other.]

Parson

the
from
Wajda, a Polish candidate for Parliament
election district Pless-Rybnik [Upper Silesia],
publishes a proclamation

his electors

to

"I

am

of

son

of the

time

teacher

as

years

Poland.

Kulturkampf

As

with

of

law

Catholics

with

but

by the

directed

I have

attention

to

concealed

which

mores

of the
which

which

has

is

as

the

the

well, are

not

lics,
only Catho-

Since

the

fightis

protection of

devotion

my

to

to

tongue,

proved by

clergy which

could

"How
of

also the

publishednearly a

was

ality.
nation-

our

makes

father's

signature on

my

must

we

whatever

our

now

customs

the

mation
proclaago

and

under

the

year

all remember.

you

thatch

of the Kul-

against everything that is Polish,

never

the

for many
families of

its freedom,

also Poles.

that is,to the mother


nationality,
and

time

the

at

and

and

of God

careful

more

lived

At

denominations.

countrymen,

all

things:

spiritof their full equality before

in the

grace

first of

the

pay

dear

my

remain

to

prominent

most

church

our

citizens of other

"You,

other

among

particularlystubbornlyand stronglyour

holy faith,the rights of

rightsof

the

priestwho

turkampf, I shall defend

says

compelled

was

one

Catholic

he

the district of Raciborz.

from

peasant

which

in

it be

Pole,

I have

hut, all of my

Polish

otherwise!

I have

commanded

only
me

nearest

grown
ones

up

are

Poles.

fulfilled the will of God's

to

maintain

until my

In

maining
re-

Providence,

death

the Polish

nationality.*'
im

Umschau

105.

The

administrator

Bishop Likowski, incurred


recently in

pointing out
influence
themselves
*

of
to

an

Polenhger,

of the arch-diocese
the

Polish

be

Catholic and

Poznan-Gniezno,

displeasure of all the Poles

address

many

1906^ "*

to

the

clergy the detrimental

people'snewspapers,
in truth

are

by

such

which

declare

only in words.

im
Umschau
Polenlafftr, a German
mimeographed
publication in
collect all current
Polish
to
data
from
Katowice, Silesia, endeavored
national
the Polish
for the information
periodicals bearing on
movement,
of German
politicians,editors, etc

Lech
to

POLISH

THE

198

improvises a "national

even

that incident and


in

wedge between

Polish

priests. The

the

which

drive

to

complaint" in reference

self
particularlythat the Bishop puts himimmense
actionary
majority of people by his reprovokes an outburst from the masses

the

opposition to

tends

of

song

regrets

behavior,
and

PEASANT

in

newspaper

hope that the clergywill

now

before

as

people and

the

conclusion
remain

its leaders
the

expresses

Polish

to the

true

people.
Umschau

By

106.

his

Bill for

Appropriation
has

thrown

Polish
of

speech

Catholic

in

the

to

come

inner

an

him

that he

today.

of

conviction

Kapitza has

whether

is

not

Polish

without

party.

Priest
.

Had

restriction.
.

it is

the

Polish

about

of course,

matter

have

he

Pole

yet
a

or

of the

program

accepted the mandate


that

the

asked

he

is

chairman

sian
Prus-

of the

latter would

have

told him

that

nobody should wonder, that


its national independence and

which

about

dreams

nation

the

not

Party, Rev. Jazdzewski,the

Polish

he

Kapitza said

yet understand

not

Priest

Centrum

party he should

to

as

forpve Priest
he has erred so long

does

Leaning toward

of the

suspicion
[belonging to

should

Polish-speaking Prussian.
German

the

and

the

Centrist

"One
.

Centrum

the

tendencies

Polish

nation

himself

hidden

indulgent with

very

by-ways of

the

and

Slqski:

Kuryer

Kapitza much, be
on

the

on

party].

read

We

Polish

lighton the whole


and brought upon

being friendlyto Prussia

the

22.

Ministry of Education, Priest Kapitza

the

party in the Diet

igicS,Sept

of the deliberation

the occasion

on

bad

very

Poknlager,

im

self-government.
attitude of

"The

Kapitza toward

the government

enough ; he should thoroughly


deplorable is his attitude toward

most

He

sees

the

with

peace

in it

an

and

exaltation

government

revise

and

the

the
a

onistic
antag-

standpoint. And

his

national

Polish
which

nervousness

Empire

is not

ment.
move-

make

impossible.

clergymen of the younger


generation
do not share the views of Kapitza although they cannot
who
test
procondition.''
because
of
their
dependent
against them publicly
There

are

in

Upper

Silesia

Umschau

107.

Prussian

Father

Zborowski

government

is

writes

to

itn PoletUager, 1909, 49.

Gazeta

perfectly conscious

KoScielna:
how

enormous

"The

is

LEADERSHIP
the

influence

whoever

wins

Therefore

of

the

several

is

language from

clergy and

times

policy,but did

own

The

not.

degraded

to

is

fear

doubt

Should

"

to

come

The

aim

expel

to

the

it succeed

in that ?

permit themselves

not

Prussian
im

to

government."

Polenhger, 1906, 46.

shall

point of view

dangerous and make

in

clergy which

dioceses

nationality.
ly
is friend:

ing
Germaniz-

has

chapter which
will

what

horror

"There

change rapidly.

diocese

our

come
be-

happen!

clerical

define the
to

Polish

of the article

the

with

it clear

the

of

toward

must

we

the

our

the head

see

for

the end

at

inclines

we

toward

conditions

the

only

German
this

fatal

might be

archbishop who

as

the

to

help of the Catholic

Will

clergy will

for it is said

that

there

From

the church

wants

the

the Poles.

naturallydirected

Germany,

no

with

Umschau

clerical influence

is

It

victory.

(No. 290) publishes a leading article Preponderance


Clergy, in which it tries to prove that a predominance

of the

to

of

sure

Lech

108.

This

hitch

of the Hakatish

servants

be

that

sees

everywhere succeed.

the churches

Catholic

people. It

may

clearly outlined.

'

of

Polish

tried to

not

thus to Germanize

Probably

the

upon

help of the church

government

Polish

be

the

it has

of its

car

of the church

199

predominance
in time to avoid being

ourselves

surprised."
im

Utnschau

Naprzdd

log.

words:
absolute
on

to

"Prussian

The

cheeks

"If it is

Not

they

one

is

true

that
be

must

but brave

men

the

ing
follow-

possible only because

of the

clergy leads
only how
fight;they understand
aflluent. A painful blush suffuses
people which

Poles

for

want

different

to

upon

to

Poles,

of

fighting.

methods
and

Rome

fightmust

remain

the government,

unite and

organize

forces."

It is well

of the Polish

Mogilno

Lourdes.

in Prussia

dependent

determined

to

Umschau
xio.

the

that the leader of the Poles, Prelate

sees

prepared
are

191

clergy in the

for the

organizes a pilgrimage

the priests,who

the Polish

cannot

themselves

when

Wawrzyniak,
then

clergy

to make

plot and

Polish

cynicism

passivity of the Polish

rope.

its hatred

shows

Polenlager, igcS, Dec

and

known

im

Polenlager, 1908, 26.

that the real, almost

financial system

papal chamberlain

is Prelate

autocratic ruler

Wawrzyniak,

[of peasant

origin].

curate

of

THE

200

Polish

In

his

financial circles

His

word

he

ago

Polish

in discussion is the

lician financial

there

leader

of the
has

in

Polish

he

last

equally in Ga-

when

and

West
the

Silesia also

is known

America,

to

and

Posen

to

Upper

Warsaw,

directly

even

come

out
with-

few

years

received

was

even

financial system.

big,heavy exterior, a passionate,choleric


holds
apparently a "man of violence,''but one who

Wawrz}aiiak
temperament,
himself

in

prelate's.He

journey

mostly

limited

not

banks

circles and

undertook

as

is

authority

in the

Prussia, but

important decision is taken

no

final decisions

opinion. The

him.

from

PEASANT

POLISH

under

perfect control.

and

On

unimportant occasions
the
recklesslyexcited, but when
.

provocations he becomes
Since 1872 he has
matter
requires it he is of a stony calm.
which
is watched
been in the Polish cooperative movement,
more
closelythan any other in the world by powerful authorities and
fear a dangerous penalty for every
mistake.
must
During diese
"

35 years

he

he finds

Here

of him

demanded

Polish

endanger the
this

knows

co-operativeassociations

in Posen

The

board

of the Union

.who

elect from

his power

of directors

and

Wawrzyniak

seven

and

certitude.

have

who

And
must

Union

men,

banky and

could
in

of

one

was

and

West

of

The

Prussia

have

'"Union."

one

members

seven

"patron of the associations."


been
he

as

the patron.
is

whom

among

remained

ideas, since there

credit system

easily

followingway.

consists

has

experienced gentlemen.

general assemblies
words

the

particularlygreat

of

of this group

the

their nimiber

is not

be

action.

become

model, into

German

to

1892 Prelate

he will not

has

man

usages
can

unreflected

an

in the

consolidated, according

Since

the

de"

prudent Polish leaders.

Legally his position is founded


Polish

and

by

system

of

exactly what

refuse

can

energetic,violent, autocratic

flexible and

the most

financial

and

tribunal

He

he

what

and

prudence.

careful

knowledge of law, of the

exact

administration.

the Prussian

Thus

helpful his

the most

highest administrative

cisions of the
of

learned

have

must

some

for

under
and

merely the
are

Yet
.

is

judge of financial

the
no

Formally
chairman

many

matters

the

years

dominance
man

ential
influ-

very

of

Polish

in the
with

his

the

same

sociations
spiteof their independence the particularas-

obey him, for the patron


this institution

is also curator

gives credit only

to

such

of

die

asso-

LEADERSHIP
ciations

the patron

as

in the

role

general assemblies

Here

he

in the

acts

rightsof shareholders

the

the
be

declares

deserving of

be

to

of the Polish

name

of many

and

sometimes

that he

majority, so

201

Union

Bank

associations

His

lar.
is simi-

which

have

in his person

he represents

decides

alone

credit.

exactly what

should

done.
What

the deeds

then

are

Wherein

great power?

does

that the leaders

me

the

his

cut
they criticise,

this

given the patron

strength rest?

down,

It

history of the

opinion. Wawn^niak's

are

such
to

seems

...

dangers

prevent

lies in

healthy strength which

freely develop. The

have

of great associations

when

which

real organizers
in order

that

popular organizations may


associations

Polish

confirms

ultimatelyupon

great strength rests

preventing.
He

prevented the Prussian government


[from the Union] the right of financial control
associations],which
He
desired
from
between

he
a

the

the
has

has

succeeded

position.
good dis-

and

system

strugg[leand

the

absorbed

envy

Reiflfeisen system

the

and

men

capital. And

cooperative organization

today constitutes

which

of

moment

also

making the Polish

in

politicalpower

Polish

Poles

Germans]

the

[of the particular

for the authorities


difficulty,
right. Further, he has prevented

Schulze-Delitzsch

[among

in

taking bade

with

of this

him

deprive

to

this

prevented

Poles

the

it gave

penetrating among

which

from

has

nucleus

the

of

the

commonwealth.
Polenfrage, 223-^226.

Bernard, Die

[Perfectly typicalexample of

III.

successful

tion
rationaliza-

agriculturaltechnique of a group under the influence


of individual initiative ; leadershipbased exclusivelyon success.]
read in the Gazeta Swiqteczna
In Suchedniow
farmer
a
of the

...

how

from

and

fertile land

began
His
a

at

to

once

can

upon

be

dig pitsthrough his


his land

their heads

and

and
to

scattered

saying that he

of this work.

They

dust

it upon

were

crazy.

convinced

advice, he

and
was

marshes.

establishing

for his whole

family.

road

paved. with

wet

meadows,

they shook

But

later

from

the

useless,good

wise

meadows

wet

digging graves

carry

was

in the

[saying],that he

him

at

from

how

Confident

made.

finallyhe began

chalk-stones

and

good meadow,

neighbors laughed

cemetery

When

morass

the

that

they

saw

the

piece of meadow

sult
re-

POLISH

THE

202

which

from
had

been

formerly

gathered began

of

wagon

small

dust

from

were

morasses

Ten

the

years

burned

And

tmtil

morning

therefore
there

where

are

all the

with

fallow

and

and

sun

dsjl

to

they
the

to

up

sowed

nothing remained.

The

the

earn

preson

that

can

which

manure'.

with

there

for himself, that he

flowers

produced good

when

he

who

used

to go

cultivate

to

hired

turning into

was

they followed

rye

work

and

[Success

another.

has to show
It
from

the

line taken

one

leader

in the

commune,

the

Gaseta

for
for

orderly manager

over

is

he

little

sown

[But

Those
started

black

them

soil

Swiqteczna, 1899,

of

natural

401

in

success

leader

; he

10

of the

so

Gazeta

of

has

of

manager

been

reading

its advice.

God

commune.

[Here the sanction

good

is

He

hope that he will be

can

we

man,

follows

and

years

Jacek D^bek,

mayor,

shall have

we

enlightened

an

of his farm

orderly manager

113.

laughing

example.]

of

as

recently elected

villageOpatkowice,

the

treated

is not

some

difficulty

great

guarantee

as

get

results.]

that

seems

the

peasant

in

to

nishes
fur-

and

the world/'

made
Gaseta

zia.

country

our

his

fanner

child.

''from

returned

despised sands

those

this

[People said] that he had

was

left them

talking and

much

this farmer

But

it that in

some

How

in his sand.

lands

immediately tried

He

was

stabk-

strengthened sands

having secured

plant,and

them

from

them

burned

sun

hired work.

do

to

Suchedniov

upon

of these poor

owners

cultivated

green

of this

sown

finallylearned

plant [^u"in] was


seeds

was

elsewhere

reading the Gazeta

an

night

fields o"

the

Whatever

So

went

good

hills among

sand.

stillworse.

started

meadows

now

enonsotsl

an

they themselves

from

marshes

ago

the

by

manure

to

Then

and

roads.
and

white

were

at

give this careful farmer

to

with

hay tnuCed

poor

twice.

mowed

"

heap of

hay, half clover.

pits in their meadows

PEASANT

give him

an

also

good luck!

Swiqtecsna, iSgg, 48L

acknowledged

intellectual leaders

helps a peasant to have his leadershipaccepted by others.]


Last
died
Sunday, April 24th, in the village Wysoka
.

Michal

Mosiolek

[collaboratorof

''Radomczyk"].

He
.

was

the

Gazeta
a

under

peasant's

son

the

donym
pseu-

and

re-

THE

204

times

"Reader"

as

PEASANT

POLISH

"Peasant," and

or

so

steadilyuntil the end of his life. We


works

tmpublished

When

through the Gaeeto

and
other

papers

He
.

of

foundation
to

for

will not

leave, the work

But

incalculable

lose

his

the

are

future

the

general conclusion
suggest

to

seem

He

for

his will

can

the

be

also the
orders

us

it.

began

to

long sufferings,

eternity.

which

Swiqiecma^

1898^ i"

particular data

our

of

result

these.

will undertake

leadership,viewed

is that

several

to

was

God

after

socio-psychologicalstandpoint, is not a
The
apparently simple fact
of others
influencingthe behavior
with

of his

to

Mosiolek

God.

Caseta

The

us

saw
in War-

his work

people

of

decisions

write

to

that, when

stop, younger

old, closed his eyes

years

to

many

known

comfort.

tubercular, and

health, became

scarcely30

asked

was

pride and

real

hope for

our

he

willinglycontributed

he
a

us

in store

became

Radomczyk

country,

also and

was

whole

in the

have

he wrote

the present.

to

up

And

on.

the

from

uniform
of

ual's
individ-

an

in

nomenon.
phe-

accordance

ferent
entirelydif-

several

We

distinguishat least three types


of leadership which
be called respectivelyleadership
may
by fear or hope, leadershipby prestige,leadership
by efficiency.
processes.

first type is the

The

since it underlies
control.

of the desire

grant

or

all

It presupposes

positiveor

withdraw,

known

and

and
political

that the

negative
fear

or

best

values

of others

impose

the

most

has

which

are

which

take

eral,
gen-

of economic

leader

and

most

he

at

his

the
can

posal
dis-

object
will

at

off.

Except in
unimportant cases
sociologically
or

the

and
of
relativelyrare
direct physical control among
isolated individuals, all
such power
values
of distributing
whatever
be the
may
"

way
rests

in which
upon

the

particular individual

existing politicalor

is institutional,not

personal.

From

has

attained

economic
this

it
"

order; it
results

that

LEADERSHIP

this type of

leadershiphas

implies the
old one;

substitution
leader

can

their institutional

of

which
power

far

so

the

as

institutional

leadership has

the Polish

of

virtue

put in the way

of

social

construct

less

even

to

by

than

importance

constructio
re-

system with

new

efficiency
depends on the
In pur
particularcase
system.

of the old

power

leaders

whose

instruments

latter

for the

social system

new

other

he cannot

but

in

vested

use

obstacles

overcome

not

for the
but little significance

of social reconstruction

purpose

of

205

tion
preserva-

this form

usual, for

tle
studying had litof political
control
and
political
parties did
power
exercise any appreciable positiveinfluence upon
the

leaders

mechanism

The

by
which

of

terized
leadershipby prestigeis characit is the personalityof the leader

fact that

the

in the

constitutes

of those

eyes

the sanction

for the ideas which

the behavior

which

His

they

or

punishment

are

considered

or

from

but

because

morally right; and


flection
right without being analyzed in renate
practice,simply because
they ema-

as

can,

know,

we

he is

because

in the eyes
is

which

at

to

certain

a
a

least

social

value

this

impart

to

him, if

superior to

that

character

can

sacral

positionis a

source

of

class,

priestis

to

vidual
indi-

an

believingpeasant with
supposed to predominate over
of

without

Superiorityof

attached

representativeof

imperfections and
value,

be

Thus, the personalityof

profession, etc.

individual

him,

ward
re-

any

him.

Prestige

character

because

practicallyor

in

tested

for

by example.

or

not

is expected from

considered

are

and

he promulgates

put into action

him

follow

who

he suggests by word

suggestions are

they

are

we

social reconstruction.

of

movement

the period

at

dowed
en-

sacral

dividual
his in-

not

an

which

solute
aban

possess.

prestigeeven

THE

2o6

of
independently
class may
or
may
that this kind of
of

PEASANT

POLISH

actual

any
not

which

power

the

it is evident

However,

possess.

prestigeis not

rapidsocial evolution,since

in

secure

very

periods
impaired

it is apt to be

by any mistakes which other individual members


given professionor class can make and which
generalizedas characterizingthe whole
Thus,

find that with the

we

of the
ily
eas-

are

group.

development of social

the peasants the

among

superior

sciousness
con-

prestigewhich

the

individual

as his own
acquirespersonally
particularself
is more
and more
clearlydistinguishedfrom and even
opposed to the old group prestige
; the professionor class
is disparaged by contrast
with its particularmember

and

the latter exalted

by

contrast

with his class.

Moreover, when the leader relies on the prestigeof


his professionor class he is forced to keep the traditions
this
and to uphold the espritde corps by which
and this
professionor class tries to maintain its prestige,

evidentlylimits
has
prestige

his initiative.
a

much

greater influence

of the

and
particular
everythingpersonal has

because

which

ual
Finally,
purely individknown

well

attraction

popular mind
For all these reasons, we
that the expansion of the
see
struction
sphere of influence of a popular leader in social reconof those
goes along with a gradual decrease
sides of his publicpersonality
in which his profession,
class,etc., are manifested, so that the most
important
leaders

"

^likeJackowskior

characterized

But

for

the

Wawrzyniak

or
noblemen,
priests

as

each

for

tiie masses

on

as

hardlybe
dividuals,
simply as in-

can

"

but

unique personality.

this very

reason

it is

impossibleto

make

concerning the nature and sources


any generalizations
of this purelyindividual prestige;
tures
the characteristic feawhich

make

leader

popular may

be

difentirely

LEADERSHIP

in each

ferent
be

must
to

207

Of

particularcase.

judged

efficient in his line and

be well-intentioned

with

regard

and

intentions

good

of

their

for

leader

his

case,

personalityhappens
public attention.

benevolent
of

rational

the leader

individuallyabout
product
each

of

member

other

of the group

as

that

prestige as

long
of

think

the peasant
for

ground

character

as

the

primary

and

for it

permits the leaders

their

prestige, constructive

social

new

and

the

ideals and

start

as

by

seen

the

of

are

masses

members

if the

plans

their
used

public

on

This

is

social reconstruction,

whose

objective significan

by

only

in the

course

of

their

tion
organizasocial

new

their

of social reconstruction
of the leaders

had

prepared
un-

preparation

social

fullyto understand

suggestions

very

are

dependent

organization requires

institutions

preserve

In fact, since the very

learn

this individual

leadership by

appreciations.
for

vidual
indi-

put into effect,by virtue of

to

realization,the process
not

of

is not

only imperfectlyunderstood

followers.
a

whose

groups

sult
re-

attitude

constitutes

peasant communities

in social terms

is

class

development

opinion for their ideas and


propitiouscircumstance
very

for

the

the complex

leader

prestige

of

personalitybut the picture of


by publicopinion.

It is clear
favorable

of

subject

center

of the group

is, but

the

to

not

-emotional

toward

man

case

active

an

drawn

to

the

members;

the

member

he

as

half
half-intellectual,

from

prestige is

the

proofs

no

give

can

tige
pres-

upon

that

vary

of each

But

efficiency

depend

become

to

For

judgment

the

to

as

which

reasons

supposed

leadership by

prestige which he already possesses, and


of real efficiency,
sincerityand honesty
prestige unless,

be

must

leader

his followers.

to

point about
preciselythe baffling
that the judgment of the mass

it is

the

course,

to

ual
gradcould

be

fully

2o8

POLISH

THE

understood

and

followers

the

of

at

and

new

be

overcome.

But

with

certain

without

power
not

being realized

leaders,
the

their

appreciated on

before

gives to

PEASANT

the

social

of

stage

evolution,

the inertia of the

that

critical

and

which

in
by efficiency,

abilityof

the

are

accepted by
or

in

peasants,

others

own

This

able

of

with

ideas

and

gestions
sug-

public opinion, in

them

sooner

is less

which

of

the

standpoint
Thus,

we

leadership by efficiencydeveloping much

faster

in

also
the

evident
more

that

the

easily the

the activities which


that

sometimes

their retirement

they

point

where

the

leaders

growing

up

social reconstruction

of

of

have

which

carried

the

see
nomic
eco-

is

possesses,

applied

fact

explains the

decays

to

after

social reconstruction
be

masses.

is carried

relativelylittle prestige is

uninterruptedprogress.

leader

great leaders

it should

from

This

of

politics. It

efficiencyare

suggests.

work

or

prestige a

criteria

beyond

with

less

he

the

in education

than

the

to

means

the

the

rules.

cooperation

he

rationally from

from

traditional

are

reflection

after

naturallyoccurs

situations

defining

accordance

merits

adaptation

proper

the

is considered

peasant's judgment

and

define

to

of

end, instead
their

tradition

on

standpoint

the

ship
leader-

practicallyright and

evolution

fields in which

dependent
is better

their

his

to

assumes

he

as

^because

"

or

on

far

so

judged morally

practicaltest.
those

in

others

individual

an

and

because

efficient than

more

could

masses

leadership by prestige gradually gives place


role

tive
mo-

tual
progressing individualization,intellec-

development,

leading

prestige

social forms

undeveloped

which

action; the

in

their

by

merits

own

taken

up

On
on

by

minor

the contrary,

by

slower

many

but

ers
leadhas

an

CHAPTER

III

EDUCATION

The
in
in

for

movement

in

Poland

connection

had

be

be the

and

under

in

education,

particular

bad

from

to

the

schools

relatively

smaller

by

schools

were

half

of

where
aim
Under

Besides,

of

the
both

was

teaching

without

wide

to

age
encour-

who

serf

every

development

terrupted
in-

was

Russian

tion
domina-

public education

of

beginning

to

access

of

grew

teenth
nine-

the

the

of

the

population

was

years

before.

The

number

hundred

few

from
the

but

Russia,
school

used

universal

and

and
to

was

under

209

as

German

Germanize

was

the
and

ment
instru-

an

Poland

obligatory,

German

control

state

in

public

ignorant

were

was

in

equipped;

poorly

Similarly

public school
Russian

The

in order

Under

was

children

Russification.

education

active

of

only
sent

and

proportion

than

not

teachers, mostly
inefficient.

to

ant
peas-

free

gave

to

in the

that

so

The

Educational

the

by

This

conditions

the

worse,

century

ideal.

preparation.

1791

partitions.

French

public education

freedom

write.

national
of

freedom

nobles,

many

and

the

by

and

granted

read

to

in

and

for

influence

for

of

gan
be-

peasants

movement

established

1773

the

eighteenth century,

partial

the

schools

children,

learned

general

method

between

peasant

the

political life, and

public

Commission

of

"enlightenment**

the

all-powerful
of

system

of

gradually prepared

participation
to

middle

the

and

to

education

with

reorganization
rationalism

the

the

the

the

domination
forbidden

chief
Poles.

vate
prialto-

POLISH

THE

2IO

PEASANT

gether (except individuallyat home),


under
and

even

had

thus

were

to

find

After

schools.

the revolution

ideas

modified
made

member

national

it

ever

man"

and

had

nation, but

of

state

failed to give

to

the

the

were

vived,
re-

be

to

was

cial
so-

conditions

cultural

assumed

of

ment
developrole which

it became

lems.
prob-

conscious
politically
also taught how

abnormal

hampered

gan
be-

prepared for

and

possessed elsewhere

sal
univer-

social reconstruction.

of

instrument

in

vital national

Poland, popular education

hardly

Rus-

had

1863

condition

Owing

life which

of

Polish

economic

cooperation.

both

the

of the

improve his

state

"popular enlightenment"

"thinking

supplement

eighteenth century
developed. The peasant

and

only

not

of

of

societ}'

tendency

of the most

one

Polish

to

anti-Polish

schools

German

or

counterbalance

to

the

be considered
The

in Russian

methods

politicalfreedom,

to

to

and

Germany

in

teach

to

other

some

in Russia

and

Poland

had

continuallyhampered.

so

education
sia

control

state

private

The

be

of spreading education
which
could
only method
that of individual
always safely used was
teaching

or

individual

self -education.

to

encouragement

social organization for the purpose


was

possible only
each

schools

dissolved

problem

and

were

by
was

permitted;
the
to

willingto
who

create

thus

be

one

educated

enterprisedepended

Congress dom
Kingestablish primary

after

and

to

few

educational
in

1905
Thus

individuals

from
The

but
the

organization

help educate

community.
the

year.

social

local center

upon

no

founded

was

community

the

the

informal

an

constituted

public instruction

control, but

government

spread through
this

In

of

could

governmental

by enlistingin each
were

Galicia.

particular commune

under

societies

in

Formal

who

others,

which

cation
edu-

success

development

among

of

THE

212

which

know,

to

of

one

the

in Warsaw

educated, can
the

for he says

time

some

in

not

Suchedniow,

gave
Korzec.

boy?"

"

I
to

came

subscribe

looks

began

and

shall I get the money


I

began

plaitedwhips,
I saved

more?

some

It

Once

forest.

Some

the

"Boy, do

But

that

"You

money.

how

at

the

I said for

says

that he will contribute

years

15 grosz

15

gtosz,

"Here
a

whole

but

you

as

mediately
im-

rushed

do

to

want,

you

you

to

seem

SwiQteczna.

right,but

where

read

the

to

have

as

much

I took

2"4

enough

to

great
asked

nor

smoke

was

boy

my
to

the

that

at

with
him

little

need

you

"Perhaps

already

zloty,and

doty

carpenter

would

be

just

first confession

my

cigarettesuntil twenty-

took

and

out

also

subscribe

do

in

me:

book

replied:

and

earn

to

bashfully for

oath

an

to

thanked

and

he

more

I get

colony

said

give you

But

zloty and

one

crying, "I have

...

as

near

could

could
cattle

stranger, "what

that gentleman

immediately

the

and

I asked

time

Then

How

from

that

whiskey

much

Where

enough.

I would

apiece; I
St. John's Day

3 grosz

spring and

drink

will have

quarter.

at

approached

said

more

quarter.

old."

sell them

was

watchman

Gazeta
All

the Gazeta.

I need

not

the

to

there

and

which

to

get away

same

and

one

to

I answered

"

that I would

tend

much.

not

was

to

cigarettes?" "No,"

my

geeze

Gazeta.

"What

me

between

strangers

for

enough for

the

to

me:

Gazeta

and

rogue," said

for ?"

money

lord,

ho !" said

railroad

pasturing the cattle

was

interestingstories."
for the book, but

it very

hard

know

you

liked

brooms

was

something.

showed

in thi^ way

and

zloty.

asked

He

my

real

that

me

had

else

one

the

to

for it ?

make

to

he

what

see

like."

read

to

in

came

told

he

that

some

him,

at

said

pasturing

village,a

our

and

He

"Ho,

"

from

me

herdsman

from

cattle to

my

When
"I

far

''Look

not

money?"

turned

another

Korzec,

was

name

get the

father

Once

newspaper."

me

will become

son

your

that he will order

to

you
if

even

one,

newspaper!"

kum,

will he

said

man

wants

know,

you

tending cattle.
whose

that

every

that

"Do

man:

young

which

Gazeta

And
He

father, "but where


After

is

After

Sunday.

every

^not

"

read !"

"Do

neighbors

there

fellow!

snotty

father

PEASANT

people order and receive by mail

said

POLISH

the

alone

to

joy would
write

to

gave

book

me

not

[saying],

the Gazeta

for

be hard

scribe.
de-

the editor

to

for the

EDUCATION

Gcusita, and
As

soon

the

followingSunday

they

as

it in the

saw

it that

things about

villagethey began

I did

But

lack

money

and

live
the

subscribed

now

for it,as
on

Gazeta
and

spoon

them

to

for the last 6 years

farm

of

that

when

in the

in the

peasant

Sunday

other

Gasseta, that

only read

the

which

which

one

It is

every

only

eat

once

day,

Wozniakoweski

how

able to

am

Marcin

subscribe

"God

Respected Writer
with

Warsaw

next

for

year,

Great

reward

God

present

I want

I also

send

through the

am

the

cigarettes. I

to

talking with
have

Therefore
reward"

"God

the Gazeta,

to

31.

I write

for

the

Gazeta

you

through it.

told

us

up

to

the

Gazeta.

of

son

to

Priest

SxviqtecsKa,1898,

subscribe

to

to

Swiqteczna!

Gazeta

the

for all that you

you

man,

subscribing

cease

the way

me

continue

to

ing
speak-

am

be necessary

smoke.

in

up

shown

hand

own

my

smoke

to

me

go

of

if in

as

reward"

Gazita

1x5.

papers
news-

life."

Gazeta.

having

for

Korzec

the

to

some

are

However,

I will not

hearty

there

"If it should

it,but

draw

uneducated, simple

an

let money

to

the

has

who

one

everybody, but

even

of my

send

than

certainly can

that

having forbidden

for

learned

never

end

conclusion,

In

I will do

until the

the' Gazeta

reading

We

words].

say

...

more

true

for

one,

I often

understand.

can

the

school.

foreign language [using learned


about

on

written

not

are

hand

one

that

say

forester

accustomed

so

in

longer

no

holiday is there not time


reading?
And, I say that a

But

in

Gazeta,

been

g^own

People

the Gazeta

needs

8 years.

I have

comes

the Gazeta,

enlightened

knowledge from

to

various

say

and

I have

I have

15 morgs.

country

already been

for

Gazeta

to the

requiresa lot of time.


enough for both praying and

to

to

the

read

to

listen

not

Gazeta

to

it in the house.

great delight.
I have

to

alreadyhad

only lords ought

reading takes time.


with

213

farmer

poor

in

the

villageMatomierzyce.

that of poor
of land and
My father has only 3 morgs
of
because
quality;so we, the children, had to leave our home
.

poverty.

But

having taught each


was

pen

himself

40

did

father

our

of

years

into his hand.

But

us

old
now

not

let

read

to

and

did

us

and
not

he knows

go into the world without


Our
father
write some.

yet know
how

to

how

write

to

take

himself

and

has

just as

taught me,

read

advice

he learned

father

could

possible.

In

second

parts and

subscribe

not

the

found

of Kazimierz

your

I^romyk,
From

this
hard

working

now

am

...

but

factory.

Swigieczna, iBgR,

Gageta

do
could
old

the

In

zz6.

and

scoundrel
But

Gageta.

He

he

happened

that

for

call

to

had

about
wish

no

an

was

liked to

he

posely
pur-

person

He

to.

5a

empty

occasionally borrowed
borrow

to

week

it every

whom

chance

he

began

realized it" he

we

farmer

which

of

name

if he should

even

He

live,the

whenever

liked it.

He

before

And

it

was

anything good,

say

used

villagewhere

mention,

not

glasses.
he

he

Gaaeta

to

himself

models.
calligraphic

the

taught his children.

and

always endeavored

the Illustrated Method

bought

the first and

My

see.

you

it wherever

and

PEASA^fT

Swiqteczna. He

the Gageta

borrowed

in

POLISH

THE

214

became

oftener, and

it

had

and

my

read

to

it

then

throu|^.

orderly farmer*

very

of his
whiskey; he is working like every one
neighbors, he is good, obliging,he goes to church every Sunday
and

renounced

in

holiday
"

formerly did
the old

think

not

brought

man

of

payment

the

it is difficult to

word,

doii^

any

who
recognize the man
good in the world.
Today

rouble

and

asked

of
a

me

and

Gageta
.

led him

to the proper

related

how

67th

I also

began

is better late than

peasants, after
which

later you

Swiqtecsna, 1899^

especiallyyou,

perhaps
Only you

paper

do.

to

and

want

you

you,

reading this

will find that your

knowledge
I

But

you

Gaxeta

had

must

learn

love science.

it

brother
me,

hurry, because

be sufficient to

not

to

young

will imitate

you

life will

to

53.

late; but

learn, although somewhat

to

never.

encourage

the

year.
Gaseta

1x7.

take it for the

in his

way

to

me

This

gain

the

is what

found.

My
boy

parents

; then

But

so

Russian

for

work

did

I had

there

was

books

as

to

read
winter

some

not

be

to

reading and

parents such
mechanical

me

I learned

the farm

school,

taught

allow

me

satisfied

writing.
I could

to

at

home

months

in the

village-school.

to finish

learn
read

get, but

aloud
my

little

when

even

an

was

elementary

little arithmetic
at

home

reading then

with
was

and
my

only

I did not
understand
much
and
spelling,because
I had no difficukyin getting
nobody to explain to me.

EDUCATION

books, because
many

as

of

in later years

But

reading. When

went

to search

for

farm

was

After

too

about
I

I had
17

was

hope of

I became

driver.

the

future

better

could

But

become

to

try

I must

equal.

become

to

cold

gave

I did not

rain

time

The

as

managers

also make

land-steward,

printed a

was

would

name

my

every

noon-rest,

and

man,

if I

pected
ex-

imitate

some

the

to

this and

present,
write

to

piece

of

poetry

and

to

writing during

learning

to

this time

just about
up

the

me

hoped that perhaps sometime

me.

and

Sunday

every

not

refused

I remember

printed under

and

was

"

And

I tried to

applied myself

So

work.

inspectors,
everybody

not

never

him.

which

like it to
be

tale.

old

I asked

by Kolibrzyk [pseudonym].
that seemed

to

farm-clerk.

poem,

the

whom

men

it

And

but

me;

extraordinary progress

good

^wiqtecsnawhen

verses

get
entirelyfor-

energy

regarded

there

and

nest

annoyed

manor-official.

that

sometime

and

strength and

me

at

land-stewards, clerics and

Gazeta

native

difficult,
^though

could

I left my

old,

years

learning and

...

...

very

stop thinking about

to

happy, although sometimes


I

me

learning; I thought always that if not now, then later


in such
learn and not remain
I was
a
position. And

would

the

lent

who

piece of bread among


strange people. [The
In the beginning I served as a posytka.
small.]

time

some

is yet alive and

good lady who

could.

she

as

215

or

some

I wrote

verses

announced

for

holiday

tales.
.

Happily, the
collaborator

Gaseta

sincere

; I felt

times

but

of

at

the

same

Swiqieczna,
and

I understood

time

the

fear

I wrote

prevailed.

Swiqteczna.
that

did not
know
seemed

write

whether
to

me

led to

were

in order

as

in

week

I had

contend

in

me

of

receive

the

any

if the

higher ends

into

novel

But

to

learn

the

them

to

and

news

In

Two

first

GcLzeta

short, I

prize,but I only wished

pushed
some

many

like
deavored
en-

competition although

the

opportunity
world

sent

competition,

^the wish

"

Svnqteczna.

Gazeta

conditions
to

the

deceived.

be

verses,

many

conditions

lack of instruction.

large sheets full and

two

fulfil the

the
enter

to

my

hopes would

my

There

printed every
to

which

that

to

was

I read

wish

strong

contradictory feelingsbegan
and

competition

year

same

to
me

dark

work
down

and

and

to

from

learn.
the

to

It
way

gloomy gulf, and

THE

2i6

I tried with

that my

all my

work

To

the

and

an

printed and

I do

work

in the
not

only borrowed

thought first that nobody would pay any attention


literarysamples. But I did not get discouraged. I wrote
novels
I

weeks,

but verses,

and

astonished

was

Emboldened

stop writing,I have

villageto

I had

instructed

more

man,

indeed

Siedlce

become

and

or

to

myself

some

''I will

I went

time

I got

acquainted

the

to

to

who

to

learn

more

go

At

more."

manor.

littleyounger,

wished

doctor

in the

time.
a

my

more,

After

I will learn

have

to

more

even

and

of driver

although

village-schooland

I said to

enough

to

full of encouragement.

answer

an

farmer, hoping

And

read.

to

stilltime

the Gaseta.

to

printed answer,

tired of the work

last I grew

the

read

to

the

by

them

I sent

was

cause
printed], be-

not

did

an3rthingthat

see

of the Gazeta, I

copy

I knew

literaryfield

[whether an3rthingwas

own

my

because

away,

bring fruit.

rather, I did

know

have

myself

tear

of my

or

not

PEASANT

learning must

my

answer

I did not

it.

strength to

first collection

receive

not

POLISH

and

with

finished

had

of

g3rmnasium

officer,but through the whim

an

ignorant parents he had to be satisfied with what he learned


in the primary school, and
was
obliged to complete the most
the whole
instruction by reading. Then
village
necessary
of his

him

called

did

We

mind

not

did

We

not

to

whole

write,

to

secretary.

talk.

music,

hear

did

we

sit at

not

physical work

from

free

time

able

more

as

me,

idle human
go

spent the

we

and

mayor

cards, but
in

common

I soon
education.
got acquainted with the
reading and common
and
got different books
proprietors of the neighboring manor
In this
we
developed our minds.
to read, with the help of which
had always something to
instructed together. We
we
were
way

talk about,

science

some

Although

events.

which

passages

much

Next

and
Year

year

every

many

was

I had

books
than

more

Sunday

me

and

as

books

because

sad

was

hired

lent

lady, who
but

ones,

to

to

I had

before.

holiday, and

read.
no

and
And

ficult
explain difas

"

by this gentleman

manor-servant

read

torical
his-

or

understood

reading, still we

in

met

intelligencepermitted.

our

as

we

could

nobody who

had

we

novels,

from

interest, heroes

or

It is true

companion

that after
of

difl^erent papers,
I could

I told him

sec

with

my

New

gence,
equal intelli-

always fresh
companion

pleasure what

EDUCATION
heard

and

small
ask

leahied

but many

wages,

the

lord

books

read.

to

satisfied;I had

was

In difficult cases

writing that

accepted it. But

treatment

of
allow

not

workmen
me

to

could

the

be

policy of the

they
I

years

farm-clerk.

I could

and

or

place and
did

And

manor.

lady what I did not understand


with pleasure as well as they could.
After

skilful in

so

in the

217

was

found

the

about

manager

plained
ex-

[and the other


remain

disagreeable features]
this place.
I returned
to my

in

...

modest

under

wages

further.

Up

to

learn, I profitby

condition

the

I have

the present

Ending this article,I inform my


Swiqttcsna all the learningthat

reached

not

hoping

moment,

every

that I shall be

that I

learn

aim, but I

my

realize my

to

readers
I

able to

intentions.
to

owe

Gageta
several

acquiredduring these

years.
Letter

I have

zi8.

been

in many

Swiqiecsna; unpublished.

Gageta

to

parts of

different

cotmtry,

our

and I have had


performing the duties of gardener in manors,
the opportunity to observe closelythe life of the peasants everywhere.
But it happened that only recentlyI got acquainted with
the environments
of Warsaw.
Well, I never
imagined that near
Warsaw
it is

that

Please

so.

[A farmer

nothing
The

in

do

to

women

am

in the

There

are

we

papers

on

been

in these

what

countries

would

use

I ask.

''What

and

all these

what

papers

be

sir?

spin and whatever


boasting
house.
the priest's

"

to

that

saw

and

England
the

Has

true?

do

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the table and

seen

is there

one

can

to

go

once

France, about

all this be

outside

"

than

more

in the afternoon].

begins to get dark


goes to sleep." "Why,

no

writing something about


Can

half past four

longer know how


do in the day time.

us

fraternityand

Prussians.

I learned

Yet

''It

farmer:^

night one
the evening?"

various

still found.

at

supper

it is

among
have

threshing we
I

the

already,and when

be

listen.

having

was

Said
.

"

could

deep darkness

is
to

on

if I

me

about

who

one

going

they

are

the

writes

there?

it

And

buying

were

."

them?
.

I could

wanted

to

not

bear any

continue.

more

seized

was

is sent

him

how

information

and

the

Prussians, but

of this unwise

to

with

the desire to

the papers

thought:

talk,though the host

"No,

about
he

explain to

France, England

would

not

believe

2i8

POLISH

THE

either!''

this

farmer, there

are

written
word

in

in

also

such

not

they

would

way

be

be

farmer, "I could


I said

buy

again

both
and
at

worth

are

able

to

understand

man's

the

talkingwith
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can

you

of

single ray

for there

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self
himhaps
per-

are

oh!"

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the

says

the peasant

again

is

that

paper

cheap

all know

or

from

ox?"

an

and

is the

nor
enligfatetmient

old

the

even

in the

city way,

find there

will

you

of

use

left.
.

heads

angry

in vain I

girlsin this villagedress

into their

in Warsaw

finallygot

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thought:

answered

expensive,

another

one

money."

pay

Swiqieczna which

only spoils one's mouth

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that the

look

if you

every

for

has

priest

Gazeta

And

dark.

demand

I shall add
but

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there

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so

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over
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pig for this money."

sillypeople

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are

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each."

year

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understand

for you,

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too

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write

the

which

me

you

said:

lie and

not

wduld

those

only 3 roubles a year.


this
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roubles

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that

and

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my

papers

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would

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But

only waved

them, whereas

you

which

So

PEASANT

neither

healthy peasant

sense.

Swiqteczna, 18A

Gazeta

We

zzg.

learned

document

118]

people in

the

that

somebody

astonishment

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of

environments

people throughout the


having examined
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really dark

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And

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conceal

not

for

subscriptionmoney

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of country

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be-

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read

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send

we

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country

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Warsaw.

conscience,

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the

the darkness

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in

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the

to
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improve

writer

of the

year

Gazeta, for from

and
now

we

possible.
Swiqteczna

as

Gazeta

address
on

fast

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to which

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Plawel

Kawka,

Village-Elder.

Gazeta

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120.

tuly.

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.

"

farmers,
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was

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old and

buildinga school

upon

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serious

finallyspoke thus:

man.

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you

the

Stmqteczna, 1899;
in the

father

villageKozieof

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burden

THE

POLISH

this

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farming

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my

those

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then

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how

than

curious

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this paper;

to

from

news

farming.

you

farm, this paper

your

said; "don't
he

and

news

together

will have

papers." And

read
in

manage

"Listen, neighbor, more

the

subscribe

you

true," he

not

about

me

us

PEASANT

he

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spoke

truth.
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therefore

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this dear
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to

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villagebut
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farmer

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help

of

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age
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you

although you
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must

and

want

listen to

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to

only

not

people

at

by foot; it

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horse.

upon

reading.

vicinity. The

the

Newspaperman,
go

still you

is apparent

in

me

times
some-

good

going to church on Sunday, a


in his carriage overtook
and
roe

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have

read

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do

you

read

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it,then

meeting [someone], and

docs

give

to

yet." And

horse

dressed
ad-

paper

going

was

rich

the

paper,

first of all,you
then

would

you

something wise."

say

spiteof that

In

in

readers

within

week.

intended
return

I often

short

only reminded
to

hoped that perhaps sometime

inducing people

succeed

with

everything and

reply:

befell

also because

so

Now,

which

Newspaperman,"

they did

and

me

since

you

accident

nobody disturbed

"Mr.

in the

even

thus:

me

you

bachelor
me

when

advice.

things during
self-educated.

am

and

reading the Gazeta

from

knowledge

many

ludicrous

of

1882,

since

read.

was

made

because

describe

they sumamed

in my

written

have

dared

never

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account

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could

deal

great

unpublished.

Swiqteczna

of Gaseta

reader

derived

I will try to

however,
on

have

paper.

years,

me

been

I have

122.

Zarame;

to

time

and

them

compile the whole

the papers
full throat.

they had
"Look

Gazeta.

read

to

not

waste

here

for the ashes

over

Gazeta

the papers

year's. Once

read, and

found

even

giving them

was

to

I should
three
every

because

asked

Ignacy began
the world,"

them
to

he

I
to

laugh
said,

EDUCATION
"all the
In

the

villagehas

the

following year

annual

long.

Gazeta.

"Only

For

papers.

I found

married

got

and

rich

the peasant

of

cigarettesout
two

subscriptionfor Gazeta

Walek

read

rolled

221

even

me.

But

it did

has

it is

enough

told

read

to

him

to

"read

me,

from

last

not

forbidden

she

[gentlemen],"

paid for

who

wife

."

papers.

others

with

his

your

his book

in

church."
other

My

reading partner, Janek, found


rich girl,Marysia.
Once
three were
we

church

and

is there

Marysia,
you?"

drew

Janek

going

Marysia

says

boldly,"only they

That

is

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papers.

books

and
besides

read

not

does

for

spend

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intended

you

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for

that

you

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you

may

few

into his
I did

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Janek
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to

read

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roubles

hand,
lose

hope

men
gentle-

the bees

also

like

grandfather
although he

wanderer

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it

carpentering you

and

you
you

search

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plant orchards,

you

them

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only

make

hives.

never

dance

all the

Warsaw

"you like fun

with

all my
that

are

you

time

in

plants as

if

Marysia
he

went

something
when

daddy

Janek
and

promised

work

[read] the Gazeta

tell

for
would

while

anxious

so

I will

whiskey."

therefore

and

by

earn

plants,

Gazeta.

with

come

And

at

the

to

my

unwillinglybecause

says,

"

not

Let

ing
read-

them."

marry

marriage."

hundred

his father.

with

to

you

of your

and

"

such

are

Warsaw

look

you

bees

honey from

amusement,

Marysia," Janek

anxious

and

books,

at you

any

afraid

farm, how

to

with

You
.

papers,

at

or

replied. "Reading good


ugly, but ennobles him.

man

and

and

; what

you

courtship of
ready,"
long time al-

my

it," said Marysia, "but

bees

girlslook

tavern

those

to

how

us

of

"Well,

necessary."

behave

papers.

books,

....

in the

the

matter

not

teaches
to

considerable

make

thus

for

are

from

asked

peasant.

that,"

say

not

I like

"Surely

"

not

this paper

to

that is not

us

does

finallyhow
honey."

becoming

not

*'Eh, Marysia, do

did

anything out
thinking of you

been

read

also had

be

has

papers.

And

to

wife,

coming back

Marysia and

^"Father

"

papers

his

near

for himself

was

really

am

then
and

promise
day
Thurs-

on

anxious

pay

the debts

not

to

take

to

get

left after
Gazeta

the

nothing. Nevertheless
encourage

they became

better

Walek

and

acquainted

their wives.
a

short

time

I found

girl for myself who

was

consid-

ered

the best

got

wife

pupil in the school.

who

would

reading.
But

could

kind

aloud, then

so!

roe

for

means.

any

I read

Only still when

of peace.

wife

my

by

woman

my

not

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it is

persuade

not

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reproach

to

I had

at least

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began

nothing, because

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Gazeta

in

me

wife

my

...

now

the

for

money

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Shortly after the wedding


spending

PEASANT

POLISH

THE

222

to

attempts

her

say

still

prayers

louder.
I

Now

since

began

and

had

back

come

complain that he

to

little used

be

to

year.

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good

so

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imperceptibly slid
into my

first,but afterwards

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rejoice at saving
repliedmy
I

at

invited

once

him

hand.

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up

mind

my

I told her

Janek

to

from

volumes.

two

the

I have

with
at

for

of

manure

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nothing.

it

take

to

But

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!*'

this partner

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church

to

him

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out

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reading

house

my

an

good

it.

sults.
re-

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ize
fertil-

I cannot

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manure.

work

my

sadness

that

foresee

lently
vio-

would

after

rejoicingthat

was

looking

was

Janek give me

saw

Marysia

mixing

not

for

did

rouble.

Janek

was

not

And

struck
.

start

to
not

spiteof the frost the

when

standing

us

hogs.

wishing

of the cottage and


In

the

at

for salutation

[food]

Janek

him.]
out

I lack

and

would

had

not

take

the

gone

place

joy.

home,
for

neck

my

little bag,

wife

[plant] and

lubin

it in

my

soil,"he says, "which

besides

and

it."

sow

Jan's wife
she

on

great deal of such

and

once

himself

threw

Janek

of

cultivation

for

want

pointed

I
...

article about

coming

it later.

about

come

the

that

this Gazeta

of

into

not

for

therefore, my

something,

the expense.

on

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when

woman

I loaned

and

out

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we

the

Gaseta,

during

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if afraid

as

rouble

that

so

the

passed

after

very

you

the Gazeta

me

rouble

people

ask

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.

had

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me

longing for

was

give

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one

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as

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partnership." And

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to

time

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Antek,

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looked

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Janek.

to

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sermon.

he

"

him

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poor

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therefore
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man

the people and

among

when

he

with

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the

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Meanhad

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EDUCATION

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entirely.When

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the floor.

on

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volumes

223

and

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Since

comers.

husband

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time
"You

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make

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to

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[into the paper]

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to

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Swiqtecsna,

Gazeta

at

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she

ing
welter-

pages

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Janek

not

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memory
my

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THE

224

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because

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In

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of

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she

guest

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reading
I

me.

began

in

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at

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the fall of

In

bought

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to

file and

into my

to

necessary

in

the

how,

wife
work.

soil and

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to

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the

and

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you

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made

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seeds.

learn

and

forces

wife

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owes

allowed

to

me

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all the

at

the

order

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to,

manured
I also

to

not

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began

we

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for

to

graft-

dug around

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her

ta

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to

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do

gardeners and

herself

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me

will stay

you

how

that

I read

paths, we

all this she

mother

town.

Gazeta

planted vegetables.

And

head

everything ourselves

she

And

condition

on

allow

arrange

everywhere."

for

education

my

would

she

write

she

the

priest

hears

that

rejoices because they praise


the Gazeta
Swiqteczna. She
reads

5-year-old daughter is beginning


her

in her

into the

complete

fooling there,

and

town

to

1898, but

us

not

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to

as

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clearer

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people take
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again

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what

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some

ingy in the garden


the

therefore

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I received

wept

glancing continually
alteringeverything possible. But it was

cigarettes. I consented.
When

and

tears

the country

wife

for

paper

from

the

read.

Saints, and

the

piece of garden, but everything had


predecessor. I had to prepare everything

was

garden and

the

of

lauded

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soil for

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adven*

some

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to

asked.

stopped scolding

times

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way
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moved

of my

respect books.

my

running

and

home

glad

the

I asked

get the paper]


of

very

get the paper

farming.

Instead

often

with

by

her

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anger

tell when

to

wife

my

many

to

was

1897

my

and

I read

"to

house

devastated

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in

was

and

funny stories

some

Gazeta

she

her

to

again

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read

to

from

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me

in the presence

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good reprimand

to scold

and

grew

remember

to

described

tures

she

Gradually

in order

Itfbecame

ashamed

time

dare

not

thing
every-

well."

I got for this many

beginning

quietly,notices

walks

she

remember

can

wife, but if she did

my

PEASANT

POLISH

to

not

badly. Even

very

cause
decipher the primer be-

wanting her

to

be

ignorant

EDUCATION

she

as

to

herself

was

the

use

they

useful.

I read

everything.

to

let the

So,
show

by

Let

the

the

subscribe

if you

wonder

Letter

of

and

advise.

is

for

nose

the

Gazeta

being felt

let

I ;

them
is.

by conforming
if

read

if you

yourself, or

if you

after

reading

it

only for play, or


off before the neighbors,

read

head

your

well,

scolds ?

woman

ask

you,

the

lack

the

just as

reading

But
.

comer;

to

tion
atten-

eager

their

be done

may

Sunqtecsna; published,

I wish

124.

and

good

describe

that the
Gazeta

to

pays

their wives,

only to show
if after reading nothing is left in

and

There

with

benefit

the

the

to

ever
silently! When-

it

she

me

books, if

and
carefully,intelligently

much

your

it into

mildly

what

good people

throw

what

behave

how

under

and

for

even

I read

that

quiet at home

Gazeta

see

but

forbid

not

example

paper

you

the

woman

what

to

forbid

readers

read

let them

God

does

she

the Gazeta

for

be

it must

And

now.

only

not

money

but

are

until

225

but

Editor,

Mr.

reference

mediate

to

of education
have

We

in this

our

among

preserved.

not

case.

girls

young

of schools, thank

plenty
God ! but what
of it when
there are
not
enough people to teach
to
our
girls? The parents say that knowledge is not necessary
a

even

among

girland

yet it is the contrary

who

wants

of

read.

to

I do

lack

other

kinds

speak

to everyone

of

girls

our

We

knowledge.

and

edge
knowl-

the

of

one

every

of

good wives

become

is necessary

not

writing, for almost

We

girlsto

our

knowledge

"

get along well.

to

reading and

is able
want

women.

good mothers

in the

future.
Indeed

for

Miroslawice.
of

person

of

this

there

And

is

mediation

are

So

none.

lack

and
I

Please

case.

school

the

there and

know, and
mediation.

the

in

ist

whether

that is

why

that

have

we

for
her

this

beg

you,

for

March.

I turn

could
I know

will accept
to you,

for

Mr.

the

is

paper

Editor, for

not

that
a

in

think

there

whether

me

in

not

Oh,

Mr.

dear

Miroslawice

they

did

cigarettes,but

find out

of

school

school

parents

enlightenment.

...

in this

received

for your

sorry

then

others

candidate

am

we

beginning with

I do not

have

right for whiskey

of
wife

but

sooner,

and

purpose

wife.

my

all

money

this

ministrat
the ad-

accept my

only girls

married

woman

Editor,begging

226

THE

am

craftsman.

married.

POLISH

And

It is

since

in school

her

accomplish what

this

copies.
whether

to

wants

in the

enough of it for
ourselves
to

write

on

how

it is

every

our

dear
And

Gaseta
costs

be

by mail

and

year
3

roubles

62

some

went

one

had

he

lived

We

126.

copeck stamp
copecks, without
that

sending

the

letter,but still printing

it and

at

must

one

every

into the wider

world

and

about

them.

idea

good

no

husbandry

in accordance

Swiqtecsna; unpublished.

Gaseta

to

like snuff -tobacco

here

in

did

not

with

with

few

the Gaseta

the

months
and

good heart of

is at

present

our

across

part of the world


in vain.

However,

here, his brothers


our

poverty

knows

how

Gaseta

can

and
much

fellow
the

Swi^ecsna,

he

far away

from

has to work

neighbors. He

ignorance and
education

at my

igBi,

a.

acquainted

became

we

strangers he does
his

to

due

was

parishioner,Djonizy Szukalski.

ocean,

where

among

and

to work

reading it with profit. This

are

we

anywhere

go

its advice.

passed since

have

if

Even

improvements,

some

saw

Gaseta

127.

box.

attentivelyand began

wander, but read the Gazeta

He

if I had

paid!
Letter

to

have

I know

sending

now

among

Why,
a

are

will

Gaseta

put

in

now

wondering

am

expenses.

people work

many

expect

already discussed

the paper.

less than

costs

How

more.

cover

spend

counting the envelopes and

than

and

copy
I

of the

have

we

one

himself.

Writer

52 letters

should

letter,I

for

possible to

somebody

to

and

here

people shared
one

all.

us

wrong,

unknown

was

have

future

up

late

[a parcelled estate] there

...

one

every

always better

Swiqiecsna; unpublished.

Gaseta

to

alone

first several

At

my

neglected.

Gazeta

settlement

recent

it is

as

since

marriage that
resolved to place my

brought her

been

the

Formerly

in

give, I have

can

Letter

Z9S"

five months

found

not

parents

has

and

year

Miroslawice,

Although

never.

to

in

have

happiness that knowledge


wife

PEASANT

he

wants

is worth

impart; and he bought for

and

us

in

hard, although

not

forget about

us

not

evidently thinks
to

how

his hard

ferent
dif-

remedy
much

earned

this.
of

of
He

it the

money

25

POLISH

THE

228

PEASANT

Swiqtecsna,

Caseta

I desired

and

work

also have

them

villagehas

our

gratitude

from

[Dictated

to

will

educated

an

to the

the

Z30.

pay

villagebe ignorant.

Let

information

good
And

since

loved

fellow-men, nevertheless

healthy hands
thousand

and

who

forwarded

vice
adin

peasant

no

for

Gazeta

woman,

village.

our

it, with

scription,
sub-

Swiqteczna, 1898^
who

girl,Malgorzata,

peasant

but

nearly

Then

Gazeta.]

poor

half

good
said

for the

woman

anything
her

much

people.

Gazeta

ness.
good-

present thought of it,I, a simple

God,

to

our

hard

my

His

for

how

44.

among

disseminates.

to the

up

in

people

this Gazeta

which

does

advantage of

the

farmers

different

in

this year

me

gratitude to God

Swiqteczna
let the

myself: Don't

blessed
my

from

reading the Gcuseta


to

show

to

heard

have

God

good Lord

The

lag.

igos^

for

people

work

and

in her

did

not

heart

which

bestowed

upon

also

poverty

treasures

47.

dearer

than

servant

in

possess

gold

and

jewels.
When

in

her

Malgosia used
master's

daughter

recognized
one

every

printed

desire

read

and

write

treasure

she

desire, to

own

read

and

began

to

to

signs and

her

to

her

taught

was

seeing

learned

became

listen, from

to

the

she

youth

the

manor^

way

She

write.

her

quickly

practise reading; and

her

helped

little.

In

time

fluently. Understanding

possessed, Matgosia resolved

share

to

she

what

it with

her

fellow-men.
She

began then

also, and

girlsbut parobeks
them

read

to

and

She
had

end

how

adults

to

And

read

it is

and

were

and

of

the

name

that

now

found

old

that

by

that

am

need

country
continual

only

not

servants

more

besides

the

people, who
book

at

of

every

she
her

taught
to

dren
chil-

wished

least.

has

one

closed

endeavors

who

for

496

write.
Gazeta

Z31.

evenings

no

out

pray

memory

read.

eyes,

learned

persons

to

honest

her

from

the

children, and

farmers'
teach

in

the greatest patience she


there

of their lives to
down

wrote

learned

ever

the

willingto

was

the

toward

to

with

When

write.

teach, she turned


she

bring together

to

housewife.

I have
...

care.

Swiqteczna, 1898^ 12.

Before

the

three

infant

little children

school

was

EDUCATION

opened

I had

manage

them.

other

children

threats;

lot of trouble

They

they

out

the

on

from

the

down

one

of my

This

Thanks

about

last God

the

up

took

calls and

my

At

disobedient.

to

that

was

with

contrary, they

came

God

to

pity upon

of

idea
I

done.

was

to

ears

my

farmer

went

shriek

had

run

Almighty, the child

children, I had

my

good people,willingto

take

to

there

of it

cause

children.

anxious

Always
caused

The

while

the

to

not

the roads

and

obstinate

could

and

injuries.

no

At

children

attention

order

my

after

children.

suffered

ease.

spite of

and

these

no

pointblank

in

street

almost

paid

were

time, even

one

with

always running around

were

and

239

aid

establishingan

sending

am

with

There

they remain almost


fancy work and learn

the

do

to

whole

school

children

in Pilica.

to this nursery.

There

day.

and

mothers

their fellow-men,

to

infant

of my

two

of

moment

unfortunate

us

come

not

they study

speak little verses.

What

to

is most

important, they study religion,how to respect their parents and


elders and how
attended
the school for
to be polite. They have
a

half

them

and

and

year

admires

They

like

are

When

they

girlsbend

already and

angels." And

meet

their

right leg

children

meet

my

school) and

the

One

children

me.

How

How

I
The

next

pleasant it was

school
a

teachers

few

my

children, and

now

they sing

hear

Formerly

and

it is

few

chose

the

male

house

my

for the whole

happy.

their

the

roared
our

so

ing.
even-

another

plays
dis-

At

on.

This

so

nine

year

on

congratulations to

daughter1

the children

among

different

at

voices

in

us

pleasant voices, among

choir

pleasant

at

the recitation of my

from

taught them

in

the

neighbors. The

sings,and

presented

to

that have

meet

the

and

their caps.

recites,and

one

pleased and

children

my

bow

remove

do

so

one

enjoyed the children's giftI

the school

now

reads, the

they all depart, very

name-day

boys

entertain

fancy-work, stillanother

her

o'clock

of them

will

they

praise them.

(those that attend the school) and

house

neighbors. The

do the

my

at

little; the

to

reason

is

them

polite children!

and

evenings the children

During long winter


(those that attend

there

they know

one

some

pleasant

"What

says:

associatingwith

one

every

whom

are

religious songs.

parochialchurch
coarsely and

church

attending

when

the

also
And

in Pilica.

unintelligibly,
children

sing.

POLISH

THE

230

PEASANT

Just after the [feastof] the Three


and

us,

this also

children.

our

The

We

mothers

the school

and

very

such

obedient

impolite ones.
and

labor

to

grant them

know

We
exertion

What

have

of

teachers
from

it must

cost

evexy

such
them
prayer

all graces.
Letter

132.

the

children

that

tresses
ac-

public rewarded

therefore, with

and

actors

how

surprised

politeand

much

beg God

much

very

make

can

obstinate

much,

are

for

played

was

young

played their parts very successfully. The


with
frequent applause and praise.

them

we

by

Kings Jaseika

do

to

we

to

make

unpublished.

Ziemianka;

to

future

the

of

nation

our

better ?

Well, I,
best work

is to

What

so:

little Jas did

around

often

dark, and
of

this end

children

the

them

villageor

two

the

to

small

to

older

For

school

good
it

does

seem

about
the

have
the

youth

situated

children

managed
to
you?
a

win

several
if

they

to

it.

girls.

more

there

by

an

country

earliest

costs

to

cattle,but
One

winter.

another

one

near

But

years.

tend

to

and

summer

But

for the proper

cares

children

good.

and

or

the
more

instructed
is

or

big

establish

can

15 to

more

school

and

moral

necessary

roubles

20

village,

teacher.
in

How

village,a

one

man,

if he

ought to win
three, if possibleeven
These

boys from

that the greater part of the

like these should


Society-circles

must

we

he

youth.

in the

beer-shop?

children, but

Even

First

be

villages. Others, the obstinate


see

and

their

should

Which

school

youth.

boys as he can, two


of
society-circle
a
and

to

in the country

spoken about

older
to

loaf

lodging.

kindergarten and
We

in the

mothers

Our

send

kindergarten

kindergarten. A teacher

monthly and

And

know.

not

occupation, they

any

herself

from

not

ones

it is

occupied with housekeeping.

moreover

it is necessary

send

to

without

are

kindergarten-teacherdevotes

education

learn, big Jas will

not

play dog [bad] tricks.

and

The

peasant,

little children

moreover,

are

give you this advice.


establish kindergartens in villages. Because
brother

your

to

forget

not

wishes,

can

himself

as

ten, and

will also

many

organize

ought to influence
the village or
even
ones,

lead

others
from

join this,

youth of the villagebelong


also be

organized among

EDUCATION

Those

farmers

would

ments

them

who

do

moderately and

the

of

power

If

etc.

otherwise

woiic;

associations

want

you

tuck

must

shall

have

useful

to

we

be

played only

popular

All

this

wild

ought

of

history,
different

r^;ard the

to

to

drinking,

in

organized

up

songs,

national

our

people

young

people like

harmfulness

the

as

enlightenment,

and

intelligently,
you

more

such

dance

to

young

and

to

come

and

should

kujawiaks, polkas.

recreations, learning,
countries,

that

national

inst'ru-

people

music

to

there

But
songs,

discussions

habits,

good

moral

different

on

let young

Usten

to

much.

very

mazurkas,

with

alternate

play

to

they would

evenings

holy, religious and


krakozmaks,

how

decently, for it is known

music

and

if

well

during winter

dances

know

231

your

sleeves

and

men

instead

of

world
set

to

orderly

citizens.
It would

be

companies
for

the

this must

cannot

to

on

the

nobody

it is

at

be

taken

papers

good recreation,

All

girls declamation.
It is

enough.

not

short

least

sincerely set

us

who

sary
neces-

work.

to

how

now

to

those

agriculturalcourses.
Let

walk

grandfathers and

not

us

I send

should

"Why

say:

even

**Our

say:

would

boys.

young

girls to agricultural schools, and

learn, since he knows

Let

spot, but

mothers

and

of

founded,

be

to

boys and

teach

villages voluntary fire-

composed

ought

attend

brothers, let

fathers

the

well

should

go

in

theatricals

boys and

send

Dear

to

be

be done

to

who

Amateur

youth.

have

orchestras

Ubraries

and

it would

and

musical

and

clubs

Popular

very

behind

boy

my

plow.*'

the

great-grandfathers

grandfathers
learning." Yes, but your
great-grandfathers paid 5,000 sAoty [$400] for a farm, and
farmed

pay

5,000

now

for

or

grandfathers

and

great-grandfathers

and

for

your

pay

you

what

sake, but
men

to

change, the

change

our

eternal

give them
not

record

rest

their
of

manner

if

we

walked

to

say

an

want

to

doty;
for 8

your

zloty,

do

then, why

Ave

Times

farming becomes
We

in shoes

And

fathers
grand-

; your

500

you

you

It

great-grandfathers did?

doings.

old-type farming.

countries

or

one

for

house

roubles.

grandfathers and

your

is better to

shoes

identical

an

great-grandfathers built

and

mind

and

without

6,000 roubles

be

must

Maria

have

changed,

better, and
follow

exist in the

world

for their

the

we
more

and

must
lightened
en-

THE

232

POLISH

PEASANT

Letter

We

133.

children

want

know

we

good learning is

of the whole

it among

ourselves,

read

to

and

write,

past, and

decided

we

that

so

And

for

write,

and

we

received

they

may

learn

have

one

who

village-schoolthe parents

special council
find

will

in

and

write

the

children

of
4

to

learn

bargain.

we

and

have
to

learn

only how
school
in

read

for

25

or

so

as

to

twos

It

little

them

be

teacher

B.

of

council
and
with

winter

for the

teachers
receive

will

not

care

read

to

during the

will

whole

obliged

for

as

Primers,

that

care

we

shall
of

once

15

to

teach

to

while

and

the

schools

shall

writing-pads wU

planned
some

vation
preser-

We

village group

in this way

have

our

playing useful

bee-keeping, etc.

books

Then

come.

example, about

rent, every

have

week, and

parish will

singing, and

school

the

seems

the

the
This

how

well

teachers
and

the

implanted,
for

if this is

into

money

to

or

day until May.


from

itself.

entrusted

the

about

to

general school

among

winter

well; certainly we

matter

to

themselves

bought for all villagestogether, for


at

everybody.

already elected.

health, gardening,

roubles
for

give fuel

how

world,

the

to

the

pay

from

the

children

human

existing

now

already know

rouble, and

villages. Those

for

will be

information

children

our

the

and

the

to

have

we

occupy

3 hours

they will also

pay

In

associate

pay

We

choose

in

each

lesson

out, for

way

having discussed

history will be taught in the church

Sacred
that

to

will

schools

roubles

300

something ebe, namely:

place people knowing

willing

25

to

which

each

teaching, and
primary

will

shall all add.

we

parish

together (allthe

village a

every

going either

child

every

enough,

have

the

for

as

earth

necessary

most, 80

at

school.

common

For

the

villageswill

smaller

children;

30

follows

as

opening in

are

some

and

be

children

those

find

came

we

will

sciences

other

in

necessary

13,

counting, orthography, about


the

are

parish) in Lobudzice

children

only such

to

very

November

farmers

school

there

decided

We

learn.

Monday,

on

in which,

primary school

one

places, whereas

to

that

So,

only

find

can

who

more

have

Swiqtecsna; unpabtished

Gaseta

to

they
and

benefit
to

the

can

curate

be

be had

decided
from

will

this

it,for

J. Z.

EDUCATION

Letter

the

after

When,

134.

native

Svnqtecsna. Published,

Gaseta

to

learning
them.

It is evident
and

in winter

send

they

so

It is

have

to

as

their

And
how

read, write

to

and

would

and

Sword

who

and

Those

who

take

do

peasant

quaintances
aca

courage
dis-

not

peasant

or

coimt.

of papers

score

to

come

the

books

eagerly. The
I started
village.
.

"

in

like

who

those

hunger.
send

''to work
wages

said that

his

son

hard

higher schools
meet

honest

also.

bed

and

will

proclaim God's

the

land

for

no

considered

mistreated

it

saved

"I

teachers
word

to

himself

go

prefer," he

than

be

to

are

that

by suffering

will neither

and

them.

and
brilliantly

said,

tempted by
satisfied

not

write; they endeavor

generation. How

young

money

Gozdowians

During vacations

here, future

will teach

of

that

so

Prussia.

The

seminarists

Gozdowian

peasant
to

stood
under-

and

often

money

novels, and

the Germans

paying there

more
an

me

cattle

working

read

to

told

Germans."

learning how

other

Prussia, where

own

my

the

among

daughter

or

on

He
.

not

were

brought home
He

was

Deluge and

The

to work

he go

[He said] that they

with

and

in every

found

are

harvester

people almost

nor

of

school

even

the trouble

They also read

everything he read.

our

if

they

to

handling his scythe exceedingly


It proved that this peasant knew
almost
by heart IVith

well.
Fire

my

toward

relatives and

with

school, or

son

every

to

them.

carry

and

cost

therefore

Sienkiewicz

talk with

to

to

progress

wiorstas

to

to

go

strange therefore

not

of

horses

them

parishioners of Gozdowo.
novels

preserved.

not

Gozdowians

several

village. The

knows

here

important

an

place their children

away

them.
noble

children

take their

even

live still farther

to

here
the

reference

of absence, I returned

years

that

but

apply themselves
that the spiritof enterprise is developing among

Parents

teacher

few

I noticed

community,

good.

233

to

go

holidaysone

on

and

others.
and

them

pleasant

to
can

Soon

another
it will

a
one

be

to

themt

They understand
littleland
to

one

is

to

his

send

help him

here

in

sons

that

it is better

say

that

giving

farming; they know


result later

boy

to

farmer

who

has

[as apprentices]to handicraft, leaving

parcelled into small pieces,bread

pieces,and thence

for

that when
also

is

piece of land

parcelled into small

quarrels and offence

apprenticeshipdoes

not

to God.
cost

They
so

very

THE

234
and

muchy
on

has

enough

establish

to

him

will pay

paternal land

the

sits

PEASANT

off; and

shop, he will have

societies with

branch

247

seminary, 36 large schools, 92

teachers'
for

live.

to

51.

[in Galicia] tinites


It possesses

members.

24,134

other

Swiqteczna, 1899^

[Polish School] Association

The

who

the

when

means

Gojseta

135.

brother

apprenticeship is finished,the

his

when

POLISH

Polish

: a

schools, 16 houses

smaller

students, 6 people's houses, 1496 reading

loan

with

rooms

libraries.

During the past


schools

in the

attended

persons

and
the

auspices of the

the
with
were

135

of

the

The

have

books

each

of them

can

stages of cultural
the difference
modern

problem

im

be

between

all intellectual

work

toward

11.

tion
educa-

in all societies and

fotmd

the

agreeing
wealthy

which

into

to

man

to

of
the

account

subscribe

business

does

seem

may

research, and

all

on

legislative
body

taking

or

of scientific
or

wide

However

between

ignoring

of endowment

papers;

su^qpliesPolish

Polenlager, igo8; Sept

of the peasants

evolution.

village,refusing

connection

unparalleled sociologicalinterest,

of culture

state,

it

over

financial support.

and

almost

an

the

crowns

extended

is

provinces, since

attitudes

various

17^51

crowns,

under

of

total income

in continuous

it remains

Polish

with

edited

were

association

Umsckau

founded

were

1905.

Prussian

libraries there

The

31,005.42

was

chiefly,nevertheless

the

3,360

crowns;

activity of

the

Although

for

libraries

new

association.

the

in the year

less than

1407.17

for the past year

association

Galicia

for

sold

were

management

with

Association

in all the districts under

held

lectures

3,329

the libraries ; 200,000

used

readers

600,000

tion
instruc-

Polish

received

crowns
costing 11,061.46 crowns;
13,608 volumes
3,935.91
spent in supplementing the already existing libraries ; 2,046

volumes
the

children

10,000

year

ant
peas-

lar
popu-

despising

bring immediate
practical results, and a peasant woman
scolding her
for his seemingly useless reading; between
husband
a
not

POLISH

THE

236
threaten

social

and

system,

standpoint of
It is not
of

thus

reaction
induced

strange, therefore, if

has

he

been

his

already

the

member

average

made

what

is not

environment,

"paper-man"

an

from

community, knowing

peasant

become

to

traditional

opposition
security.

for

expect from

to

of the

arouses

desire

the

conservative

total dissolution

partialor

PEASANT

easily

"book- worm,''

or

less
un-

of

partly independent

social

social pressure,
there
without
opinion, ^^^^ndacxep^
is not .much in learning which
appeals to his traditional
attitudes enough to justifyin his eyes the effort necessary
for its acquisition. His average
isfied
curiosityis sat-

the traditional

by
with

he

therefore

old

apply

can

is often

he

books, which

and

He

does

not

and

known

he

how

could

in most

mean

methods

which

In

long

he

of life there

is

as

believe than

him, for
radical

he

is not

papers

for

him

in

him.

to
to

the

this

application
change of
to

face.

old

type

prepared

is satisfied with

inducement

no

whom

apply knowledge

cases

his traditional

and

unknown

interest

practicalquestions which

general,as

standards

willingto

more

tion
informa-

whose

to

require standards

see

would

men"

"wise

and

news-bearers

of personal intercourse

channels

the

tual
intellec-

new

values.
The

with

connected

the

peasant-community
of

the

the
as

the

means

the

by

The

in touch

of

growing
or

for

the

the
men

real

new

closely
of

with

the

disorganization
with

desire

for

the

side
out-

new

perience,
ex-

is welcomed

experiences

both
when

by circumstances,

individual
and

is

isolation

contact

book

latter is limited

with

the

individuals

paper

which

interests

the consequent

partial substitute
field of

and

develops in
and

intellectual

breakdown

old system.

world

as

of

development

can

and

directly
get at least in-

possibilities
beyond

EDUCATION

the

circle of his

narrow

find the

influences.

And

the

also

individual

the

able to attain

increases

the

when

have

of

in

particular

tendency to
to

als
individu-

is

tellectu
in-

the

in

seen

privacy

group

repress

individuals

and

in the

them

in Poland.

existed

as

of

appearance

spread popular education

conditions

allowed

longer

no

and

tity
iden-

terests
intellectual in-

the

decrease

group

were

under

such

It

was

communities

peasant

so

individual

every

as

to

have

social

effort in this line.

of

ficient
suf-

not

political
indispensable

develop positiveappreciation of intellectual

done

isolation

to

group

perfect community of interests

this spontaneous

But

to

we

sphere

out
with-

attitudes.

of

the

experience in

its members;
the

of

break

the

how

preceding chapter

we

aging
against discour-

even

same
new

tives
mo-

people, where

opposition of

of

interests

for

Both

assertingitself

or

the

the desire

rouses

weakens

to

often

explicitencouragement

any

which

in young

education

tendency to

life.

primary-group

particularlystrong

are

237

values

in

age
opinion encour-

This

has

been

ment
by giving to intellectual developand by emphasizing the praca moral
significance
tical
of knowledge in connection
with economic
applicability
in

two

ways

"

advance.
The

old

appreciativeattitude

toward

learning when
used for religiouspurposes
in most
cases
probably
gave
It was
the startingpoint for the first method.
a
good
thing and a distinction to read a prayer-book in church ;
more
even
perhaps to be able to read aloud the Lives of
the Saints or some
other edifyingstories at privatemeetings
Lent when
or
during Advent
dancing was
ited.
prohibThe
from
religiousto serious secular
passage
thus the latter assumed
and
a
lemnity
soreading was
easy;
and

importance which

marked

its adherents

as

serious

headed.
people, its opponents as lazy or lightthan
this : Just as a general moral
periority
su-

the

knowledge
tendency on

marked

interests
toward

to

with

connected

supposed

was

and

PEASANT

decent

and

More

POLISH

THE

238

about

assume

those

of

show

of

moral

tellect
inperiority
su-

"ignorant."

the

part of the popular literature has

attitude

who

attitude

an

is

there

religiousmatters,

the part of

ests
inter-

religious

this

encouraged
it often

righteousness which, though

took

from
provoked strong reactions
the uninitiated, nevertheless
helped greatly to raise the
standing of intellectual values in peasant communities.
The
of which
individuals
or
public praise or blame
of
the object in popular papers
are
(on accotmt
groups

ridiculous

their

forms

and

positive or
and

grounds
or

in its tone

similar

is very

negative
the

has

desire

to

those

who

see

find

popular idea that


is the

found

in

instruction

of

among

the peasants.

of the

whatever

tion
emula-

with,

contrast

the threat

the

fears

of social disorganizat

generation
younger
of itself is the panacea

the

evils, that nothing but lack

source

conviction

provoking

in
still,

moral

on

opposition to

in instruction

we

all social

Further

in conscious

though probably not


of

effect of

education)

blame

praise or

to

same

reform.

toward

attitude

of

All this tends

meritoriousness

of

for

enlightenment

deficiencies

moral

the

to

be

spread

the

interested

in

to

being

are

knowledge, quite independently of its practical utility,


and
into prestigethe origfinally
criminati
to convert
negative disof which the "paper-man" and "book-worm"
the object. Learning becomes
ary
something intermediare
between

acknowledged
treated
The

than

rule and

moral

the

the

as

former

fashion,
but

not

more

as

ally
gener-

seriously

latter.

emphasis put

upon

the

practicalapplications of

EDUCATION

knowledge
contradict

economic

to

239

in any sense
idealization,for economic
progress,

its moral

problems

does

not

of promethods
particularthe introduction of new
duction
also in some
and exchange, has been
measure
morally idealized as contributingto the development of
in

the

The

country.

task

rather

complex.

It

foster

the desire

for

with

any

this desire had


which

it tends

of

increasingthe

abroad

the

isfaction
dissat-

we

saw,

condition

his

does

not

new

that,

there

when

even

the

channels;

entirelynew

be shown

increase

with

all, to

of

practicalsuggestions. Secondly,
from
those ways
to be partly distracted
gration
^land-hungerand emiprimarilyto take

to

and

and

advance

was

"

into

"

economic

is satisfied

about

care

indispensable,first

was

existing status, since, as

the

who

peasant

in this field

of the leaders

was

no

income

that, though hired

and

work

own

only way of obtaining any


in most
capitalhe needed at a g^ven moment,
cases
welfare
could be reached
by using his
permanent
to develop his farming along
and his children's work

new

lines.

extra
more

sometimes

opportunity
raise its value

size of his farm, he could

his

had

peasant

We

shall

peasant

induced

was

spreading of
evolution.

what

specificmethods
consider
improvements of
in general; of
course,

by

to

desirable

instruction

But

spreading of
to

later

see

technique

own

the

was

one

of

the latter in turn

was

instruction

the peasant

was

it

was

that he

things from
merely imitating what
valuable

of

This

demonstration

was

in

factors

used

of

has

most

and

papers,

already

his

the
this

foster the

to

to
only necessary
actuallycould learn

books
he

the

the

seen

communities

onstrate
demtically
prac-

instead
done.
taken
under-

exceptional individuals,more
voluntarilyby some
and more
influenced
enterprisingthan the average
by

THE

240

but

tried

of

book

either
self

teaching

by

-education,
to

general

act

plays

also

as

as

educated

of

work

peasant

considered

specific

others,

educating

aristocracy
future

more

of

in

by

and

member

whose

efficient

peasant

class.

on

the

as

detail

in

course,

the

next

very
tery
mas-

attitudes,

Now,
the

real
the

treat

collaborator
of

to

dency
ten-

for

evolution.

associate

their

as

The

social

explicitly

less

them

wish

the

regulated

or

of

other

social

and

more

of
of

in

part

is,

form

combination

who

peasant

the
be

ties,
communi-

their

attention.

adviser

ready
al-

cooperate

persuading

by

our

and

sanctioned

is
leaders

of

is

important

an

tendency

the

deserves

have

to

of

or

rapidly.

who

members

them

leader

it

one;

which,

other

among

utility

very

made

own

widely

practical

the

are

his

of

boasted

he

individuals

instruction

ures
fail-

many

interest

developing

those

some

it

spreading

the

of

been

which

by

course,

while

them,

has

acquired
in

in

conviction

the

knowledge

method

The

conceal

to

of

were,

experimenter

success,

every

PEASANT

There

the

as

prestige
of

word

printed

the

POLISH

social
This

chapter.

new

work

point

this
lectual
intelhalfin
kind
pends
dewill

IV

CHAPTER

THE

COMMUNITY

WIDER

In

isolation

of

into
main
had

to

face

this

But

abolished.

there

existed

could

the

it is evident

pretend

body

as

to

control

does

the

Furthermore
other

in

social

and

which
class

And

the
states

than

for

help of,
"

other

made

it

main

countries

the

the

nation

efforts

ants'
peas-

and

tensions
ex-

to

under

need

more

241

the

to

urgent
the

of

product

breakdown

against

that

state.

rapid

of

where
any-

concrete

impossible

the

even

measure.

useful

more

ants
peas-

can

the

adapted

them

members
but

the

the

were

stitutio
in-

cultural

of
or

as

where,
every-

as

modifications

yet the
and

forms
active

peasants

the

in

were

social

without

they

make

Poland,

members

necessary

would

soon

institutions

these

all the

Poland

political

increasing

primary-group

the

domination.

the

of

group.

as

and

an

classes, inadequately

needs,

peasant

in

the

primary

no

type in which
in

participate
none

had

economic

ready

that

of

peasant

course,

secondary-group
did

and

Of

dividual
in-

countries

members

the

or

"

that

so

these

which

the

peasants

existing secondary

an

include

to

was

of

the

ip Poland,

iso

waiting

serfdom

social

of

not

was

the

of

which

change

to

members

frame-work

But

how

was,

into

groups

reconstruction

of

PRESS

of

existing political system,

the

problem

THE

accompanied

was

incorporation

^by an

"

OF

breakdown

the

communities

peasant

preceded

even

countries

European

most

RdLE

THE

AND

eign
forof

of

of

ditional
tra-

making
^not

"

the

the

only
nating
domi-

for

Poland

primary-group

organ-

important

ization

should

to make

as

The
thus

which

Polish

interestingas

as

it

the

faced

leaders

peasant

was

had

They

difficult.

was

community

activities.

in national

it cooperate

task

control

it and

do

not

the

when

individual

the

control

both

could

community
so

supplemented by secondary-gfroupsystem

be

would

which

PEASANT

POLISH

THE

242

to

produce
re-

mental
entirelydifferent conditions the fundasocial process
have
been
built,
states
By which
from
a
a
new
plurality of
secondary group

under

to

create

primary

served
not

be

realize this aim

to

in this

used
union

of

peasant

governments

politicalcohesion
had

and

only

contact

Religion and

the

been, indeed, powerful

primary

authorities

in national

looked

partly also
the

church

the

help

of

press,

munity,
word

in

took

could

the

because

of

which

the
could

which

of

ties.
authori-

Polish

the

peasant

Catholic

central

clergy commit
and

Prussian

of

the

ments
govern-

Polish

the

only

itself

because

undemocratic

Thus

the

have

cause
used, partly be-

the

activities of
the

munes
com-

clergy,

character

of

instrtunent

with

secondary-group system could


the primary-g^oup organization

above
and

be

all

mune
com-

other

unifying

not

the Russian

upon

system

of

struggles, partly

hierarchy.

constructed

group

which

titioning
par-

destroy

to

Russian

the

litical
po-

the

organization might

means

let the

to

social

and

suspicion with

with

unwillingness

the

free

society; the peasant

church

they

but

groups;

of

the

anxious

most

ways
al-

could

of

from
completely isolated politically

was

Church

kind

any

possible,for

Polish

of

was

communes
were

has

^military
power"

"

Nor

case.

which

instrument

main

The

groups.

be

only
assume

form
was

communication

which

that

this
of

through

was

secondarywider
the

the place of direct personal contact,

com-

printed
and

ab-

POLISH

THE

^44

PEASANT

Sm^eezna,

Gojeeta

[Shows

'37"
wish

inform

to

of

some

the

the

wider

motives

leading

group.]
Although I have often written in

individual

an

to

his

place and

his

about

community

iSgft as.

narrower

and

know

you

mind

talk

to

it

again about

lovely are

sleep by the
of the

the

other

or

sun

Some

like better

native

forward

go

well

with

of

evil but

able

must

we

throw

to

objection to the
which
and
.

down

cold

unite your

if
could

not

of

lack

come

of

We
.

on

hypocrisy and

of

fellow-man

our

in tiie world, brothers


be

as

happy

as

as

; we

[Here

clearly connected

hand

with

there

say

about

but

Swiqtecsna,
the

great

will

this

be

"

cursed

flees the

191 1, 16

reformatory purposes.]

ment
mo-

you

it would

primary

you

become

had

But

other, everyone

would

to

they

even

for

which

how

was

what

vampire,

love each

child, the vain world

information

"

before

man,

should

little about

ill-fortune.

jealousy. Oh,

Gaeeta

Z38.

hard

other

before

health

gretted
bitterlyre-

lose

not

understanding because
the

ments
entertain-

because

ago,

must

our

jealousy that rules the heart of


love

long

one

incessantlywent

so

overcome

an

and

did it

will.

to
to

only

deliberatingin vain

long been
others

Many

want

concord

great deal

danced

who

one

last

at

soul, diminish

so

young

lands.

we

have

have

g^ave

understanding and

the

stain the

and

youth

are

...

you

now,

because

we

dear

O
...

you,

plant.

until

my

it.
And

work

a
one
prematurely; many
people, watch yourselves!
neighbors, I ^ust complain

the

to

heart

Many

repute.

"

spoil the

shines

our

upon

people, that they like evening

young

ness
bright-

fightalready quite
is still a good deal

there

but

this poisonous

out

in the

nowUbre

me

and

can

that

true

grieve

not

lulled into

strange country

pride myself

to

eagerly as best they

ignorance. It is

for

how

Oh,

village.

Well, brothers,today I have


who

live in

to

[foreign]ground, but

in this my

as

thatches

evening, bathed

dreamed,

low

in

childhood

my

village.

remote

cottages, these

stillness of the

sweet
moon

German

on

whitened

these

passed

trouble; here

suffering nor

innocent, quiet little boy in this

an

here

village,

it, I have

with

acquainted

are

it because

neither

knowing

years,

already and

this

about

Gazeta

our

holy

better
would

paradise !

[in verse].

community

is

THE

WIDER

COMMUNITY

AND

ROLE

OF

PRESS

245

Old

people say that in the time of their youth the inhabitants


of Janow did not care
much
for progress,
did not mind
if their
remained

town

did not

and

far behind

others.

[Young

married

men

improve their husbandry. Roads

in poor

were

18

at

con*

dition.]
Now

much

children

is

be

to

changed here.

but

artisans.

in the sweat

of

without

the

farmers'

into

bams.

the

the brows.

farming, but

leave them

must

and

Formerly
but

alone,

And

Potok

village,for
.

daughters
home

have

We

her
a

ourselves

with

the

to

town

seamstress.

waste

do not

church

to

take

to

says

in

to

"When

work

hat and
a

such

still more,

turn

need

village. We

the

than

for

us

to

of

our

Ztoty

truth, it is
to

to

go

the

it is

an

an

pelerine says

in

making

by

girlfor

the wife

of

dress

to

"This

I shall search

girls,

dresses

the side of

in

of this themselves, for

the country
:

every

pity that the

dress, a daughter

over-dressed

And

almost

In

sees,

worst

she will want

for it."

sluggard.

one

old woolen

she becomes

time

much

too

Janowians send their

sewing.

it happens that

Often

wants

villageZtoty Potok,

say

Only

pelerine. But they get the

lady in

factories

no

to

Many

cutting and

learn

sew,

hat and

we

way,

it transferred

have

But

us.

going

I shall have

have

we

office in

our

to

mother

will

other

no

in

out

succeeded, though the inhabitants

to

to

for themselves.

head

have

in the

was

sewing-machine.

having learned

handworker

some

they have the (q"portunityof buying whatever

good

there is

nobody

with

to

rye
returns

the spot

like to have

come

in town

they need.

office

angry
to

dig potatoes;
and
bring it

tire themselves

We

on

women,

anything.

not

have

them

farmer

must

here

for

exert

very

for

easier

to

we

were

done?

commune

our

began therefore
town.

be

earn

burgesses did

we

women

masonry.

alone, poor

the

hand*

larger cities.

they plant and

fall the

that

can

it is difficult to

Alone

in the

bad

what

work

and

the

be

to

sons

with

in

help they harvest

Only

It is too

money.

work

to

go

their

several

town

themselves

occupy

their farms

on

in

have

Janowians

many

remain

wives

We

people

most

Every spring
Their

educate

to

try

enlightened people; they train their

priests,teachers,
workers;

Fathers

for

is of
a

wife.

master,

The
her

still better, and

boy seeing such


no

use

to

me.

red-cheeked,healthy

246

THE

peasant girlwho
will be

and

POLISH

will know

PEASANT

how

cabbage and

cook

to

good for work/*


Swi^eama,

Gageta

[Attempt

139.

of the
We

have

covered

wiser

then

the

produce

to

press.]
our
villageabout
which

sand

farmers

villagewould

wind

the

would

like

be in

150

But

place is

the

ground

fields.

the

over

and

of grove

sort

in

meetings resulted
cried

"And

one.

"Some

of the land

to

me

from

grieved

to

that

land
Gageta

have

aunt"

trees

would

we

derive

do

will

to

to

from

me

grandfather/' "And

my

sand.

the

with

the

village. The

but very

nice ;

which

forest

young

forest is young
have

can

we

they began

nearly spoiled it; one

much

third went
all

and

to

them

entirelyand
for I must

to

reflect
to

do.

whole

to

only

1 1

went
came

at

once,

work, but

to

and

needed

people.
they

dry wood,

of young

Then

trees.

And

down

I said:

"I

I shall write

what

When

I said this

forest, stood

the

said

bad

"

ous
[vari-

in this forest

cut

of

it

curred
oc-

forest

the

themselves.

among

mind

is with

solution.

some

to

years

it for

wished

cartload

axes

doing."

are

the trouble

find

to

their

in my

Th^

Then

from

pole, another

order

also

compose

little.

material

they

49

pasture

common

grown

But

the wood

me

this that you

take

divide

called

They
about

down

t(^ether in

came

what

cut

the

on

190a,

neighbors wanted

my

^ithas

"

whatever
cut

the

in

community.]

to do

the

However,

SwiQiiegna,

wider

the

grows

agricukural implements].
When

of

I shall tell what

great shame

are

results.

bring some
finally

of power
[Illustration

With

people

Perhaps this humiliation

Gageta

X40.

wiser

priests constantly remind

Our

Ae

times, but

[cried others]. The

yet.

Our

right to 5 morgs/'
morgs/' cried another.

10

something about

wooded

several

us

"I have

right

be divided.

must

...

blindness.

such

should

is not

consulted

descended

my
see

we

has

nothing.

and

property

common

elder^ Jozef Pawlowski,

do

useless

plant the place with birch

to

scatters

fluence
in-

through the

of

morgs

47-

igoov

profit.

some

us

definite reform

in

with

few

potatoes,

"The

Lord

have
to

vto

time,

the Gazeta

they began
and

God

to

wondered
will

punish

WIDER

THE

COMMUNITY

for it is

you,

sin to

pretty young
what

do

you

somehow

such
the

to

and

the

Gazeta."

said

Some

time

has

to

Though

noise

human

I wrote

Gaseta!

this

some

some

1900^ 51.

by

my

tendencies

the truth, I provoked

people,of those preciselywho, hearing


about
them.
recognized that the talk was
They

words,

of many

wrath

their

showed

all of you

wickedness.

the anger
my

I made

already passed since

pride and

full of

after

one

SwiqUcsna,

readers, participants in

I revealed

letter in which

this, but

to

home

went

at

saved.

was

brother

Dear

such

I shall write

that

nothmg

Gaseta

141.

247

giftof God,

I tell you

They

cut.

PRESS

will be astonished

world

They

to

OF

beautiful

injury,for

an

forest

ROLE

the whole

started

nobody

another

destroy such
And

trees.

having done

your

AND

and

against me

called

various

me

names:

gossiper,clumsy versifier [this letter is actually


written in a rather clumsy verse],newspaper-meddler. And
they
also changed the name
of this Gaseta from Swufiecsna [holiday]
ham,

peasant,

to
a

'*Cktopsk(f*[peasant],because it accepts whatever


sillythings
[He lives in a
peasant, a ham, a clumsy versifier describes.
its burgesses consider

and

town

themselves

superior to peasants.]
Swi^ecsna,

Gaseta

There

X42.

yet

never

were

so

in the

Sunday, September 5th.


villagethat our villagewas

under

the

as

on

and

"Growth
title,
knew

young,

had

praised

those

who

to

sell the
heart

it to

whiskey

no

more,

described

and

about

l^e
so

that

did

not

he

who

man

with

who

man

to

the

order
more

did

Gaseta.
that
and

not

full

pocket, and

give him
That

with

resolved

people who wanted


beg him [to sell].

well, but
vodka

keeper
shopsell this

to

anyone
to be described

curse,

vodka, but against the

seller did

wrote.

One

most.

said : ''If I am
buy this poison the man
So everybody left with
Gaseta, I will sell no more."

bottle and

people

sell it; when

to

it

might

body
some-

well; others

very

the

on

that

word

Honest

did

moved

were

much

and

he

revenge

poison

everybody, old

Almost

passed the

said

spread
Swiqteczna

news

in Gaseta

Chocianowice.

and

33.

in Chocianowice

lightningthe

Drinking."

wrote

promised

took
accursed

who

Like

Sunday

Gaseta

to

man

and

cursed
But

the

this

on

writen

of

readers

many

1905,

not

came

in the

empty

an

against the
who

one

was

done

come

to

wrote

only
him

once

in

THE

248
Then
that

POLISH

PEASANT

to guess

who

was

they decided

not

people resolved

letter

Gazeta, and

to

the

who

man

wrote

when

forgive him

to

they guessed it. Well, after long trouble they guessed the riddk:
'It

be

must

Gazeta

for

nobody

that

long time, he does

in

else

carried

village [like him]."

them, like Judas.

to

earning his living,and


And

I confess

now

letter].

You

vodka, and
it led
to

the

love my

and

that

honest

and

of

don't

Szuiqteczna,because

I know

only
to

how

I had

live, how

to

ther,
Fur-

drinking.

out

root

But

[the
drink

idea

the

never

of

yourselves. It was
clearly written
than a half [of the villagers]are
good

more

fault if you

farmers?

don't

I step out

is drink.

enemy

my

yes.

cigarettesand

you.

he

that

wrote

how

not

[shop-keeper] sold

guessed right who

Now

is

there

slander

Is it my

honest.

and

they have

Only

it to Gazeta

brethren, and

; you

Gazeta

vodka,

the

read

has

himself
justifies

He

smoke

owe

that I slander

say

good and

enlightenment

slanderingyou
in the

I don't

that

say

Polish

you

that you

he

that

his allies say

it is true, but

to

me

drink

not

their threat; perhaps because

out

his resolution
is

[the writer] because

one

to

belong

drinking you

tliese

to

openly against my

Through

want

enemy

become

mies
ene-

fatherland.

So, if you have at least a spark of k"ve


mother, the Polish land, you will stand together with

our

for your
these honest

and

men

cry:

drinking and

with

''Away

revelry in

village!"

our

Letter

[This shows

143.

the

control

to

Gazeta

Swiqtecsna; unpunished.
individual

indispensable for

how

is,but also how

backing of the community

self-

the wider

community can be substituted for the primary group.]


beautiful and useful article
In 1887 I read in the Gazeta
a
I read attentively
under the title: "To
smoke
not to smoke."
or
and

that

agreed

for I smoked
me

reflect

^ of

to

were

those

"too much
who

do

I wondered

how

persuade

neighbors answered
used
not

as

pound of machorka

But

what

them

And

true.

was

seriously.

cried my
reason.
I tried to
read

it

to

smoke

eradicate

neighbors

my

good
that

to

what

and

wise

they could
it,and
are

was
a

week

to

smoke,"

habit?

smoking;
about

it.

My

stop smoking, for they

the loss does


no

"Don't

renounce

wrote

"

this truth made

the accursed

people
not

"

do.

to

smoker

habitual

not

wealthier."

matter,
Some

because
also

told

such

tale

and

all his

used

suffered

I succeeded

nothing

to

b^gan

an

enemy

of

at

pipe

my

for

I have

as

been

I could

such

renounce

three

in winter

four

or

of my

none

not

another

or

But
.

months

two

talk,I, seeing them

''You

Gageta

smoking,

of

they

come

smoking,

I took

opinions of doctors
them

heart, explained

ing.
April 5 definitelyceased smokneighbors, I carried my pipe to the

burning, destroyingmy

were

to

on

of my

the eyes

said

fire and

smoke

not

in the

neighbors, and

my

Under

"

have

to

buy

too.

harmfulness

the
to

am

week

least to

one

difficult to

was

I did

spring, having read

Last

it

spring until autumn.


follow my
example, and

twice

and

only because

company;

on

tobacco

at

or

from

once,

house

of

stores

Gaeeta

pipes

our

since that time

into

went

times

several

threw

we

our

but

smoked,

among

that article in the

months,

But

cigarettesand

neighbors would

about

put aside

on

resolution,but after

our

smoke.

to

fire

for two

kept

smoking.

But

treat.

took

smoke

to

We

with

again

into the

temptation. I
me

months

not

buy and

to

withstand

my

and

249

enlightened one

most

"One, two, three/'

to smoke.

we

treated

try

read

We

threw

We

ground.

promised

to

smoke

to

spending

persuadingthe

the command:

at

the

in

neighbors, F. Pr.

and

been

PRESS

hunger.

But
my

ceased

OF

smoking, until he
With
this money
he bought a pig
9 roubles.
The pig died and the man
grain in feeding him.

economized

had

had

he

ROLE

AND

sm(dced

who

man

pennies which

the

COMMUNITY

WTOER

THE

health.

Now

overcoming you, fiend. Get burned, disappear,be lost!"


Two
neighbors promise to stop smoking, but somehow
they

still hesitate.
.

readers

We

with

compared

of the

Gazeta, though

those

who

do

number

our

is still small

read, although

not

scattered

throughout the whole world and not acquainted personallywith


another, can boldly consider ourselves real brothers, for we
one
have
one

Gageta

feminine
with

thus

and
spiritually

Swiqteczna,

gender

in

the nineteenth

Gazeta
we

are

began

Let

then

us

taken

are

we

listen to

care

her

of

by the

[Gaeeta is

Polish] advice, explanations and exhortations

childlike faith and


that

the

educated

been

to

confidence.
year

teach

approaching

is
us,

our

Let

us

take

tion
into considera-

already approaching its end since


showing

us

majority and

good and
can

think

evil; and
for

our-

THE

250

selves

about

not

or

lot and

our

I would

even

or

promise

in

encouragement;

smoke.

readers

Such

which

And

Polish

I bid you

sad,

to

land

glory be spread

you.

...

to

cheerful.

more

but the time

to

world
like

then

forgive
me

native

then

forgive

beg

me.

Finally

so,

I consider

all and

we

with

was

which

is to

which

some

bom.

who

bred

and

and

me

and

me

you

enemies.

my

as

brothers, becalise

one

my

you;

who

also you

don't

and

bid

Farewell,

remember
also

am

it,

guilty;

enemies, and

farewell, my

you

No,

don't think

God

created

us

poor,

be

which

yet you

and
found

grew

in my

leave; forgive me

of

the

have
up

on

and

Farewell

dearest

my

Farewell,

you.

land.

pardon

also,
you

treasure,
every

Farewell,

me,

fied
vivi-

which

district]
; though

been

native
and

I g^ew

odors.

and

perfumes

[ancient name
bom

forests, among

your

unshapely and
I

my

was

guarded

Perhaps

men.

I bid

you

Kurpie

poor

as

I bid
...

his children.

are

Farewell,
me

all

you

everything

stupid

don't believe that I consider

Let
leave

wanderer.

companions,

my

forgive you
like

leave

pardon; perhaps I wronged

your

were

with

land.

I must

knowledge.

me

gave

Farewell,
I

you

me.

wrong;

because

and

reason

to

me

; because
a

mand
de-

community.]

for

my

villagewhere

native

my

family, and

whole

did

some

ground
back-

country,

come

fatherland,

the whole

over

has

good-bye, dear parents. Farewell, mother


the prayer.
Farewell, father, who
taught me
me

emotional

this beloved

you

led

1899^ jS.

Swiqteczna,

to the wider

with

part

strange country

farewell, too,

you

addressed

farewell, my

your

I go

gives
.

response

I feel sad, oh

it.

another

patriotism develops, is interestingas

for emotional

this beloved

be

association

the
[This document, besides illustrating
upon

It would
one

gave

an

everybody is

company

in

...

distant

to

not

and

example

an

as

do likewise.

to

more

not

smoking^ for I do

not

my

Gaseta

144.

smoke

"To

another:

ask

publish this

fellow-readers

neighbors

word,

all about

at

praise; but

to incite my

well if

brother

one

write

not

any

order

PEASANT

smoke?"

to

demand

POLISH

ypu

you

look
cause
be-

plant
birds

perhaps I did you

wrong.

Farewell,
because

I do

my
not

dearest

know,

Polish

country, my

perhaps I shall

never

beloved
more

fatherland,
come

bade

POLISH

THE

252

meeting

with
communal

books.

Up

which

our

commtme

vodka

will be used

with

shame

money

for the
this

poses
purnot

was

^the management

"

habit

there

year

of

electingthe mayor

will also be

for

elections

or

we

"

in the house

villageSzynmanowice

In the

beer.

and

the

shall elect differently ^without


we
hope that now
beer.
We
begin gradually to break off drinking vodka

but

vodka

This

verifies

poor.

also the bad

was

beer.

and

very

was

Formerly there

confess

gether
to-

that the

now

sure

fund

I must

"

be

can

J., who

month

designed it. Formerly

have

we

last year

to

of

mayor,

We

put into the communal

we

for

for

Count
plenipotentiary

for

plenipotentiary every

another

accotmt

which

so.

elected

we

...

PEASANT

of

Antcmi

was
Budyta, the first wedding in our community without vodka
deperformed. In the same
village,at a villagemeeting, they cided

far

as

this

from

ings

cigarettesnear the buildingsand


seldom
can
possible. Therefore
one

to smoke

not

as

villagein

Alasl

Things

villageof

our

men,

that

vodka

to

drunk.

their

very

cheap

is

If

traders.

to

with

it

for

finallymention

taking root

us

among

to

sadness

accustomed

so

at

threaten

to

say

aloud

other

bad

sell it

night, and

this

that
that

they

ness.
people's busi-

is

which

custom

graduallyabandoning

are

few

they must
get
steal
they
grain

vo"Oca

Here

the

fair

every

town

another

only for

Gaseta,

mixing with

with

; we

neighbor dares

ashamed

knife

the

in

way

farmers, got
for

some

not

are

to

same

name,

at

money

fathers, carry

him

I must

costumes

have

to

unworthy, they

will pay

holiday and

every

order

In

from

on

well-to-do

anyone

"

it in the

mention

of rather

sons

give its

commune.

not

going in the

not

are

editor, but please do


young

by arbitration.

themselves

among

meet

suits
law-

settle all misunderstandr

the farmers

court;

avoid

to

our

ancient

fashion.

and dressing in the German

Gastta

Swiqtecgna^

1905,

31.

to the GoMeta
Duty urges me to write how much I owe
what
advantage it brings to every one who reads it. It is
with
is not always ready to take up the pen
that a man

147.
and
true

all his domestic

Moreover,
the

worries

fellow

scythe. He

and

is not

does

not

his

used
dare

care

to
to

about
the pen,

blurt

the
but

among

dailybread.
to

the

"

"

plow and

people a trifliqg

THE

WroER

vrord,

even

COMMUNITY

as,

holiday in a
Swiqtecsna, you
a

consolation

for

AND

do

despisemy

not

that I

me

write

even

I did not

As

for

And

it?"

that I have

answer

from

readingthe Gazeta, for it has

and

write

orderlyand

said, ''that

surpasses

farmer
20

he

read

order

words

nor

struction
con-

going

were

because

and
one

every

person's knowing how


teach

taught

think

to

Such

education.

to read

if he does

and

to

one

every

What
not

in his

even

respects the

person

his servants

in his

harmony

is the

read?

use

He

...

anything,because

anything himself."

I arrived

[in Patecznica] on

Leaving

mass.

great

know,"

must

meadow,

needs

or

free

will you

how

me

"You

Swiqteczna, 1899^ 4^^

Gazeta

148.

''What

willing to encourage

either his children


know

does not

will find

you

love.

is

me

ward
awk-

farm, if he reads the Gazeta,

morg

fraternal

jbas more

it, because

cannot

for

am

already gotten

well.

in his field and

like his health

Gazeta

10

farm

to

one,

morg

house, in his bam,


heart

how

on

to

say

deal

he

Gazeta

very sorry
to you^ Mr.
Writer,

that my

reading and writing. Many

get from

neither

was

people.

many

in the Gazeta my
repeated in print; But when I saw
to
writing corrected, I then decided
spend every

moment

of

it.

great

reading the

is known

dream

even

been

often

first letter there

my

in it.
be

253

it is

thought with

I have

that

years

handiwork, and

share my

can

that I started to read it so late.

to

PRESS

speak, it is not proper to go to church on


But you, Mr. Writer
of the Gazeta
filthycoat.

only two
steadily,and now
I wrote

OF

to

so

It is

when

ROLE

at

the

same

time

holiday and just in time


as

the

others, I stopped

is always anxious
to observe
church, because a man
and desires to guess from what he
the people of a different locality
kind of people they are
and what
with his eyes what
one
sees
before

the

should

think

little,
as

about
was

them.

The

inhabitants

of Palecznica

for the first time ; I

there not

even

have

I know
a

few

people
village. But on Sunday there were
many
other villages. In general I liked these people very much.

relatives in that
from

their
as
They dress in country fashion mostly, in the same
way
fathers and grandfathers dressed, without
necessary
any changes or unadditions.
I

the

noticed

Gazeta

pleasant to look at their dress.


I knew, Szymczyk, a reader
whom

It is

farmer

Swtqteczna.

approached him.

We

of

greeted each

POLISH

THE

2S4

and

other

began

myself that
they

talk.

to

others joined

Then

mistaken

not

was

pleasant,polite and

are

PEASANT

in

and

me,

invited
host

thus

talked

few

about
mind

time

in that

passed, and

things which
is not

from

away

lazy

too

of

village where

the

who

I had

for

has

we

only

pleasant

very

lived, I had

talk

to

suspected that only

even

never

began

felt bored,

one

think"

to

The

too"

us

we

us

every

noticed

Finally Laccyk

"

Then

none

interest

I had

house.

had.

he

"

intend

not

relatives

accompanied

Szymczyk

whatever

hours

and

sound

miles

with

us

Mikotaj Laccyk.

was

his house.

to

me

treated

and

them

among

them, for

did

and

friends

my

I convinced

thought of

people.

sensible

stay long in Patecznica, but

to

what

and

us

few

well-

such

wishing fellow-farmers.
"Do
a

dozen

years

for

me

ago

having
And

trees?

this

us

me

now

to

from

year

well," said

the

the

would

him
my

drove

those

"At

first your

in

wished

and

him

to

to

advice, and

soon

as

and

progress

do

then

told

you

me

it

that

orchard,

the

derived."

profits I have
to

him

success

general, I immediately began

what

I thanked

And

As

will

**WeIl,
.

manage

excellently the

manage

here

see

it.
me

encourage

husbandry

would

you

less
use-

produced

trees

fruit."

the

that

to

me

useless

profitthere

the

year

fruit

any

my

garden and
much

for

roubles

sincerelythankful

read.

advice

Last

expect

to

you

was

to

wooding

not

that

at

reproached

you

planting

not

yet how

he answered

entire

And

that he

saw

look

60

not

how

me

my

it.

read

for

orchard.

would

Gazeia

and

and

"that

me]

Swiqteczna

teach

grove

also

know

not

received

I, "I did

Gazeta

that

go

the

things." And

such

to

blamed

said to

today, and

as

garden

...

less fruit, but

to

beautiful

I do

grounds.
be

visited me,

you

you

Let

grounds.

neighbor," [the farmer

remember,

you

me

because

in turn

for

I had

aged
encour-

having listened

in his honest

work.

God

bless him!
had

[Szymczyk
but

he had

Laccyk's.]

visited

many

introduced

begun later and his


There
.

more

are

village,district and
farming is

also

success

was

farmers

not

since the Gazeta

as

similar

parish of Palecznica, and

noticeable
huts.

many

improvements

and

on

his

farm,

conspicuous
to

their

these

in the

progress

good books

as

in

have

AND

COMMUNITY

WIDER

THE

ROLE

OF

wider

is considered

community

sacrificed her

woman

fellow-creatures
She
is

that

heaven.

kindnesses

and

she

glory I"

But

known

would

people after

to

God:

her

alas, there

so

are

whom

shall

we

went

Christian

virtues and

death.

Let

and

move

keep in

in eternal

her

them

be

acts

cold hearts, of which,

warm

Therefore

the

ask

we

factress
of the beneforever.

gratefulmemory

our

be

to

example for

an

publish this short remembrance

to

; she

this

in this world.

many

Swiqtecena

Gaseta

in this world

"Father, receive

like her

Perhaps they will

others.

reward

write

many

call to

we

bring

to

of her
experienced many
of her worthy deeds.
Now
when

who

We

we

poor peasant
relief to her

need.]

find any

not

witnessed

dead,

is

looking for recognition for her deeds, and

did

for it to

in

were

not

why she

life in order

52.

recognitionof the

the

after death.

even

whole

who

was

"

valuable

[Typical,showing how

^55

Svoiqtecsna,1900^

Gazeta

149.

PRESS

[Three signatures.]
Swiqteczna,

Gauta

There

150.

and

to

it

repeat

rightly,they

as

soon

lie in order

even

or

guess

fellow

not

know

He

has

as

is

heard

in

We

"I live

I have

However,

our

not

local

heard

of his

out

the

paper

as

readers
.

the

curious

from

and

doubtful

neighborhood
and

every

day

Jozef Raranski.

with

about

anyone

quake
earth-

an

but

that

Rz^dkowice

farmers

from

about

an

earthquake

in

neighborhood."
It is the

151.
attract

attention

duty of
to

the

Swiqtecgna, i9gS,

in

usually

their defects

to

see

any

bad

get rid of them.

12.

citizen of this country

honest

every

of

actions

locality,for in

community
try

fingerthe rest,"

news

Gaseta

to

Many

print.

from

wiorstas

enough 1

not

tell

to

something that he does


with one
from
^r
somebody.

repeated it

of

one

relations with

I have

this

now

in

read

we

ago

it to

sent

Rzgdkowice.

thing. And
:

has

say, and

heard

not

able

be

to

flight

paper

he has ''sucked
little,

weeks

Two

in

describe

to

only

tell is

to

even

all,that he has heard

at

people

writes

ready

in

news

every

possible. If they have

as

something interesting. Why,


a

like to catch

people who

are

1903, 45.

this

either

way

will

recognize

But

whoever

them

writes

man

one

people who
and

some

about

the

or

do
at

not

least

defects

THE

2S6
and

of

errors

sincere

truth

some

POLISH

should

person

been

parish Siemon
with
this

which

J. S.

about

printedin

was

parish and

my

duty

He
"

least how

two

brick schools

new

Some

ones.

"

lived for several

do

do not

not

the

care

signed
in

years

erroneous

had

to

how

news

parish.

our

know

not

find two

to

has
at

hundred

write.

Last

year

parish instead of the old

our

and

20

pay

even

of

their

and

30

more

Would

schools.

the

instruction

the

of

does

he could

know

building of

for

the

parish, which

who

man

built in

were

farmers

for

each

the

whole

our

think

not

"

"

roubles

who

I do

^peoplewho

"

and

1137

the darkness

find in

not

read, and

to

^mostlyold

"

only

about

letter

No.

correct

to

souls, a single grown-up

7,000

over

be

there

fellow-parishioners.

my

certainlycould

by

Gaseta

I have

Because
it my

this

J. S. complains in his letter about


"

that

care

write

to

I consider

parish

about

moved

initials

the

take

in his words.
.

I have

PEASANT

people

children

to

agree

this?
that

Further, J. S. says,
send

their children

while

they drive

wrote

this

the

to

geese

not

went

service

divine

to

in

holidays parents

proxies for themsehres,

as

Probably the

pasture.

church

the

to

and

Sundays

on

parish

our

who

one

but

where

to

glasses [instead of bells] ring. Our church, built twenty years


adornment
to the whole
neighborhood and holds about
ago, is an
and

souls

3,000

says

but

mentions
subscribed
us.

As

who

have

For

is he

going

to

by

to

far

as

I know,

the

not

worthy

visit his parents


to

show

"

with

the

in addition

Siemonians

call him

and

to

reads

his

lend

of

wiorstas

off and

these

only

muddy

help of rubbers

for

away

boots ?
or

to

people

play lords.

example,
carries

hundred

he

also

those

societyor

fool who,

in

the papers

to

call fools

outcasts

dozen

them

upon

subscribes

he

many,

as

be called

to

the

well that
J. S. probably knows
only for the four copies which

dealings with various

here
"

times

contain

of Siemon

respected priests who

our

villageputs them

respect

not

for three

in his hand

coat.

But

they subscribe

Siemon

the

in his letter that the inhabitants

Swiqteczna.

Gazeia

hardly

can

service.

fool, supposedly only because

mere

the

holiday it

every

participatein the divine

people who
J. S.

on

when

bers
his rub-

steps from

Nobody
curtailed

will win
German

THE

WIDER

Perhaps
of

the

COMMUNITY

charges

made

Swiqteczna, since
the

not

am

only

PRESS

257

be sufficient for the Writer

the

am

who

one

OF

ROLE

signaturealone would

my

Gajseta

because

AND

is

local

But

teacher.

unmerited

the

indignant at

against the parish of Siemon, as proof of the truth


of my
letter others will certifyit. [The elder of the villageand
6 inhabitants
signed as witnesses.]
Swiqtecsna, 1898^ 12.

Gazeta

[Religious solidarityseems

X52.

the

moral

soldiarityof the wider

I have
from

unfortunate

very

by blindness.
by something,
hurt the

eye

blind

in

learned

it.

and

has

week

misfortune

is 29

in

his bread

is married

He

the

of

his

sound

For

was

end

of the

The

one.

misfortune

Gazeta, for
Do

but

absolutelynecessary,
no

are

wire
man

poor

God

to

prayer

eye

[which the

not

refuse

they

wealthy

men

he

that

doctors

his earnest

should

request.

1905,

16.

church

new

it with
them

among

you,

is the less

say

Swiqtecsna,

erect

cannot

he asks

tears

working people [of Kielce]

these

cutting

is comforted

he

With

stillpity him.

his other

funds, for there

He

may

the

with

only

In

him.

to

Gazeta

is

infirmityhe

earned

Suddenly the

taut.

hit his eye,

hopeless of the two].

X53.

his

old.

years

The

completely

grew

to

has

happened

stretched

was

readers
see

accustomed
he

his eye.

struck

gradually he

and

he

present

and

stick

trade, and

entirelyblind.

let him

pled
crip-

littleboy his father, angered

became

he

by the hope that God


the

with

long time

At

and

up

became

was

Mlotkowski,

child.

which

sprung

he

shoemaker's

work-shop.

wire

him

When

the

beat

boy for

the

Last

When

of

Swiqtecsna

of the Gazeta

the shoemaker,

man^

earliest form

the

community.]

the readers

to

great request

be

to

their
who

own

would

for the
by large offerings. But the committee
of the church, without
construction
heeding the fact that it
had only a small fund collected from the local population,started

help the work

to

build.

purchased

Having

foundation

down

the

God's

help, it

counts

more

distant

as

well

for
upon
as

the

suitable
future

the support
the

expects that the solidarityand

nearer

lot it has

church.
of the

parts

of

reciprocitywhich

already put
For, relying on

inhabitants
the

of the

country.

manifests

It

them-

THE

2S8
selves

usuallywhen

POLISH

PEASANT

is to be done

something

and

particularlyfor

the

help

at

least with

small

for

public sood,

the

spiritualgood, will incite

to

one

every

offering.

Christian love and


By such brotherly help based upon
will
goodour
fellow-countrymen will tighten their fraternal
generous
ties with

will draw

poorer,

the

from

will

good

common

and

community of Christ who, being


the help of others comfort
and spiritual

themselves.

for

food

of the

members

those

erected

through the mediation


the Cross

this way,

in

testimony

And

public.

the

will

bring

and

of this love

of
and

maturity
of

church

heaven

from

down

the

for

the

to

beautiful

the

blessingfor the benefactors

manifested

sympathy

creditable

bear

superiority of
Saviour

Moreover,

the

saving .power

will

implant

of

steady

gratitudeand recognitionin the hearts of the Christian-Catholics


of the city of Kielce.
Sun^ecsna,

Gageia
our
Seeing
country
to spread knowledge

Z54.

all

means

situation, I also desire


as

knowledge

much

useful

work,
of

welfare
can

any

of

skill
"

I therefore

publish

to

of

the

one

of

to

add

as

pear-trees

who

Gaeeta

lives

Bilgoraj needs, either for himself


shoots for spring planting, let him

forces

apply

and

that

have

the

the

Gaseta
sale

for

species. If

several

for

that

mind

of the

of

not

to

Writer

in

or

our

to

can

neighborhood

his
to

by

contribute

weak

my

as

to

the honorable

of

improve

to

much

afar, and
as

tiy

them, for I have

announcement

an

apple-trees and

reader

as

much

ask

and

"

1905,

who

people

us

among

only from

society as

our

Swiqteczna

not

"

or

if

even

afford.

shoots

beneficent

in

of

neighbors, sudi
later

no

me

than

May 1st and I will give them to him without charge. I will
that.
gladly show him how to plant, if he does not know
Swiqttcsna,

Gaseta

155-

At

the

befell many
the
of

regions in our
of Kubry

commune

disasters

of the

news

deed

were

the

Skarzydski of Romany.
commune]

people of

with
the

the

commune

brethren.

The

They
and

the

first

gentlemen D^bkowski

advice

found

were

heart

to

that

came

encourage

to

me

should
them

in

that

Racibory and
of

the

together aU

the

[the
to

in

obligation

ones

of

call

13.

hail vdiich

and

helping thier unfortunate

generous

took

who
.

flood

good people

country

of

1904,

mayor

make

contribu-

THE

86o

fectlyjust.
else to
else

But

our

earn

deign

better

after

reach

to

speak here about


have

who
You

wish

may

glad

when

upon

in

have

an

All

well.

that there

Let

profiteagerly from

us

future, don't look

the

that there

is

alas,there

are

perceivethe

and
way
stillmany

farm-stock,
be

right,so

So

it ;

of it.

of

out

way

have

we

the

height. But,

who, although they also

peasants

our

sit in the mud

of the

name

children

your

Send

height.

because

youth

to

mud,

in the

children

your

the

in

straw

farmers, but let

us

people will yet


now
are

whole

schools.
your
you

anything in the

for

accept

strive
often

dreamed

But

along it toward

in the

this

upon

nothing but

then

^you

"

everybody will be
sits
somebody who

laziness

which

has

to

to school.

ashamed

If you,
sons

of

for

us

be

the

honor

of

go
.

"

You,

girls,

who

have

that

proud
I do

we

doubt

not

being farmers,

as

the

people is in the popular agricultural

they

not

know

leave

how

to

get

out

schools
agricultural

of

erty,
pov-

will

lead

out

Letter

158.

I wish

[Country Woman]

to

share
my

"

your children priestsand engineers, who


of their peasant origin. I tell you
that

fathers, do
when

Let

heads.

husbands

be enlightened farmers.

strive

have

future

their

world

I belong

let them

You, boys, don't take empty-headed girlsfor wives.

you

den,
gar-

they don't want to rise to go with the others.


I
myself to you, older fathers and mothers.

I address

mount

no

moved

myself, don't keep

that

nice

and

demand, I adjure you

are

body
any-

food

savory

wish

don't

Only

nevertheless

way,

got hold of them

don't

for

happily already
of the country-dwellers have
seen
clearly
is

important number

and

us.

peasants require different

we

nice house, nice

on

ourselves

not

ready for

long, too long perhaps in the mud,

sat

heads

our

get

you

one

some

ready-made happiness.

us

gentleman.

body
some-

and sit with you


but
in the mud*
down
height to come
arise yourself and sit with him upon
the height. Since

rather
we

to

of

do

we

is made

people.

as

want

we

demand

we

which

when

of the

fo have

us,

unjust;

clothes,a nice carriage,good and

be

to

give

is

sake, and

our

that

already,but

wish

nice

for

demand

sacrifices for the sake


we

lot for

even

our

PEASANT

demand

other

sacrifice himself

to

what

POLISH

with

views

to

Caseta

Swiqieesna; unpublished.

all the readers


about

of the

the so-called

Ziemianks

woman's

move-

THE

WIDER

How

ment.

this

place,arrange

the women's
Such

projects as
here

premature

are

first an
the

excursion

entire

You

to

know

neighboringone.

social affairs that

meetings is stillnew
well the fact that

be advisable

to

We

safely that

can

say

arrange

being discussed

are

to us.

only right,the rightof


woman

regarded

was

regarded
I think
few

at the

b^un

have

women

let

them.
and

doubly

even

to them.

access

sex.

"

159.

Dear

brothers

our

called to

oug^t
It is

we

hig^

let us,

the heart

to

sisters,call

us

husbands
Who

away

from

from
is most

not

realize

such

education.

Ziemumka;

often

in
and

women,

we

in social

and

awake

It is
...

and

how

papers

learning. These

to

in

reading them
only brothers

are

have

we

the

right,

inactivity?Never!

spiritually.Therefore,

shame

even,

it is

unpublished.

popular

learning and

to

much

Oh,

Letter

to

work

how

citizen achel

to

no

is their

others

of every

another

one

re-birth of the land.

keep

do

social work

women

ests
inter-

by the weaker

to

just. But nevertheless


some
jealousy. Why

very

at

tightlybolted

are

committed

proper

read

We

in darkness

for

time

even

us

of their home

annoying

on

pain, even
work, to learning? And
remain

so

of

matter

spark of enlightenment has


errors

many

depends

some

to

only
among

nothing outside

realize how

called

are

is

out
definite outline of work, with-

the dear
so

Sisters.

ai^"eals
are, indeed,
3Kre feel

women

thoughtlessness;they

that makes

problem

peasanf

and

man

her

right,this life of slavery?

of their souls' windows

not

welfare

future

than

that it is

many

in life ;

so, and

do

stupidity and
their

are

Hence

They

that the

home

shutters

The

think

entirelywithout

better purpose

Is it her

not

us

exceptions. There
live

all know

We

something lower

as

present time.

^d

not.

present who

the

the home.

the

at

"

peasant

our

cooperative dairy

only since 1905. For a long series of years the


the only harbor
of the peasant woman,
if it were
as

was

we

it would

in Piotrowice.

one

think

to

nurseries,as the

yet, and

of

the

doings of
circle meeting in
in another ; again

women

establishment

the

as

field of

circle

women's

for peasant

lectures

circles establish

"

instance, they told

For

261

PRESS

anything of

hear

to

OF

ROLE

AND

pleasant it is

movement.

one

"

COMMUNITY

for

to

we

for
that

women

us

alas I that

work

divert

our

it.
to

blame

that

in

villagesand

towns

we

have

POLISH

THE

26a

almost

kindergartensand

no

principallyguilty that
shops have
read

Only

and

are

for papers

spend money
children

If

do.

the

for

son

our

withhold

we

that

Our

to

could

work

draw

all the
the

in

to

go

they

send

else

farm-school,

pretend

we

would

we

in

if

and

yield to

we

respect

how

to

the

often

the

earth,

do

it.

do

We

as

fatherland,

remedy
to

not

acknowledge
advise, or

we

of

neglect,

ought

must

we

in

could

women,

faith

fathers
grand-

and

our

the

children

poverty,

of peace

sake

the

from

away

the truth

and

us

for

claims

our

is in

fathers

in

the' Polish

knew

we

For

penury.

we,

our
are

far

We,

conformity with

husbands

our

this soil, which

Poland.

ation.
humili-

misfortunes,

our

wealth

themselves, and

bread, for wages

for

could

people of strange birth and

their blood,

with

our

trifling

any

and

avoid

fertile,much

for

of

children

beloved

our

boast, but
that

don't

at home

could

we

land, but

the

benefits

look

we

it if

when

for

totallytheir painful

soil is

our

bathed

from

consumers*

somebody

to

gartens
kinder-

"

extent

easilyremove

much

Lech,

large

larger part of

and

for

sons
we

tively
posi-

say

people is unhappy, dark, powerless, in misery and


But

many

"

wants

husbands

our

the

home

at

is work

there

money.

often

is

Polish

and

care

and

which

work

daughter

because

no

husbands

Who

I will

don't

women

keep them

some

our

them

have

we

or

school?

books, and

we

of

sake

the

that

by
indifferently

our

and

and

school

to

reason,

with

angry

fault

Our

women.

associations

is at

avoid

schools, they pass

We

shops.

the

we,

Who

children?

for

consumers'

our

children

our

schools

no

little success?

little and

PEASANT

ply
sim-

^althoughnot

"

all

of them.
So

with
fault.
social

Often
and

manner

on

say,

we

this

does

it makes

of

negligence,of

an

aversion

Indeed, dear

for

wrong

unconsciousness

the contrary,

of

serious

to

private and

not

it greater
a

don't

nice

to

dresses
this

things

and

is very

diminish
still because

blameworthy

than

for

bad.

In

this

it is the

progress

greatest misfortune

it.

knowing
fault

our

this

hats

sluggisBliess
and,
to

badly

go

acknowledge

society without

enlightenment and

sisters,our

in social matters,

fault if

our

women

questions, and

national
do

many

more

care

we

in

large extent

unhappily

But

us.

great influence

it is to

therefore

and

But

have

we

in

at

all;

quence
conse-

I dare

general.

is the dislike of

COMMUNITY

WIDER

THE

I don't

enligfateninent.
Mrho

speak about

OF

all,because

PRESS

there

wotfien

are

enlightenment; but the majority even


ourselves, the pupils of the schools of Kruszyna, Miro-

stawy etc.,
in
others

such

are

the

forget

we

of

greatness
the

that after

into

our

hearts

our

awakening
let

and

of

women

encouraging

Let

us

from

passage

The

ourselves

Gaseta]

the wider

and

wiser

intelligent

more

us

Here

five years

to

our

commune

more

the

like

who, however,
who

here to this

do

Neither

We

would

citizens

dark

herd

talk with

of
of

us

be

not

country,

our

cattle.

about.

The

They

the

same

call

as

whereas

to

came

the

wider

community,

based
essentially
primary community

the desire

for response.

on
"

as

same

^the desire

The

It

rouses

been

not

be

for

here

at

were.

talked.

For

meeting, it has made


have

we

were

had

only

nothing

to

ready thing.''

we

the

called

been

have

formerly

parties would

there

fathers

our

who

the

to

us

like

rousing the people

if it had

Gauia

The

have

peasants^ would

us

belonged

Gaseta

Party.

been

speakers like those

did

although the Gaseta


us

of

none

there be

would

that U has

are^in

the party, and

Democratic

already. But

years

of the

parties. We

National

read

Swiqieczna

meeting.

this

the

I have

15

other

belonged

There
have

who

belong to

to

"I have

Party.

some

are

also readers

are

want

to

of them

one

; there

me

not

meeting by

[nationally]for
Gazeta

nation.]

Democratic

There

belong

that is true.

of

National

longer,others shorter.
others

to the

community

the words

are

for

the

1914, 10.

day after the meeting three participants,


elderly
each separately [about the educatory influence of the

next

told

us,

much

cratic
[This peasant meeting, organized by the National DemoParty and attended by over
1500 peasants, illustrates the

i6o.

are

the

at

contribute

ZoTMo,

men,

this

take

awe-struck

can

selves
our-

people's condition, particularlythose

our

consider

be

us

find

we

and

duties.

own

responsibility.We

our

who

us

of

totallyabout

improvement

among

leaving school, when

instead

country

painful truth

us

263

aspire for good and

among

to

ROLE

AND

main

Swiqtecsna,
from

see

social
for

our

19QS, 52.

ments,
docu-

attitudes

as

recognitionand

difference

lies in the

PEASANT

POLISH

THE

264

higher degree of intellectualization which


acquire in the wider

must

primary

obtains

attitudes

Whereas

community.

the individual

group

these

in the
of

satisfaction

his

ties,
personaliby a direct reaction of concrete
be satisfied with
in the secondary gfroup he must
an
indirect reaction of an
impersonal public. Of course,
social instinct

the
intermediarystages from
primary-group to the secondary-group psychology. On
ations
situthe one
hand, in primary-group life there are many
which
him for the secondary-group stage ;
prepare
the other hand, in secondary-g^rouplife,however
on
great may be the prevalenceof abstract and indirect over
and direct relations,the latter never
concrete
entirely
of the
disappear,and lend to all social activities some
interest which
vividness and htmian
they possess in pri"
he

does

not

communities.

mary

Even
wait

in

for

do not

which

to

to

get

mor^

startlingthe

all these
obtained
the

not

claim

he

in

and

of the

come

never

peasant

if he

the

times
some-

of his

recognition or

entitled,if he
sees

the

pects
ex-

possibility

In
unexpected effect
by some
until recognitionor response
is actually
cases,
the individual
must
supplement by imagination
deficiencies of actual reality. Now,
the psychological

experienced

or

once

to

group

through which

social instinct i^ obtained

name

often

the satisfaction

feels himself

by waiting or

mechanism

consists

at

has

may

The

his claims.

indorse

does

and

response

which

intentionally
postpones

even

desires

individual

primary-group the
recognitionor response,

if others

of

without

pass

large
response

the

community also
in supplementing actually
recognitionby imagined response

and

recognition.

readers, and

of

in the wider

measure

his contribution

satisfaction

The

in

this has

individual

printimagines
on

him

an

who

sees

his

the attitudes

eflFectsimilar

to

WIDER

THE

COMMUNTTY

which

that

actual

Of

have.

comes

of

the wider
how

show

imagined

with

be confirmed

how

would

attitudes

particular
of

many

the peasant needs

much

265

perience
actuallyto exrecognition when

and

and

community,

PRESS

expects

response

contact

OF

these

experience of

into direct

he

ROLE

the individual

course

the

AND

members

documents

our

that this

expectation

rect
change indithe people about
into direct connections, to meet
who
know
about
him
he knows
whom
or
through the
But the abilityto be influenced by mere
bilities
possipress.
of social contact
as
implied in the printed word
shall

with

grows

the

and

he

eager

is to

intellectual development

of the peasant.

group

in a primarygrowth is particularlyrapid when


tereste
villageor parish the majority begins to be inin printed matter, because
then the individual

who

has

This

with

connection

any

his

recognition from

the

milieu

immediate

direct

obtains

press

the

on

ground

of his supposed

recognitionby the wider community.


More
difficult to explain is the influence which
the
manifested
opinion of the wider community indirectly
through the press has not upon individuals, but upon
whole

primary-groups.

powerful social reaction


a

We

have

which

villageor parish provokes

that in this

case

seen

the mention

in

in all its members.

find transferred

we

examples of the

to

print of
It

seems

wider

social

attitude which
plane the same
formerly expressed itself
in the dependence of the family upon
the primary community.
When

limited
or

his

to

blame

social horizon

his okolica

the individual

of his

family by

personal

own

from

the

his

matter

the

from

the

which
narrower

the

reacted

community

; this attitude

family solidaritybut

environment

of

peasant
to the
as

was

praise

if it

were

only resulted
enforced
cial
by the so-

was

not

refused

to

dissociate

group

to

which

he

the

vidual
indi-

belonged.

Now

when

the

wider

the

is affected
of

the

by

the latter,not

part of the whole.

of

member

individual

an

nomenon
phe-

same

the

the

narrower

tion
negative apprecia-

positiveor

as

the

community,

repeats itself;each
group

object of

the parish is the

villageor

opinion of

social

PEASANT*

POLISH

THE

266

but

gral
inte-

an

as

espritde corps of classes


and
of professionalorganizations,in national and
race
attitude is found
stillhigher social
a
on
pride,the same
level; it is

of

one

In the

the

"we"-psychology.

the

is strengthened

which

other

of

reaction

the

On

the

from

attitude
from

quite out

other

his

those

the

consciousness

of

of

praise

the

to

to

the ^center

all its members

proportion

tion
reac-

similar

or

becoming

hand, however,

of

personal

the blame

and

acquires for

nificanc
sig-

its real

wider

import.
community

self
opportunity to dissociate himical
asstmiing a critprimary group by publicly
toward
it or
adopting attitudes different

the individual

gives to

member's

is subjected by

attention

often

by

Each

members,

group

of outside

general manifestations

most

the

prevail in his immediate

which

milieu.

amples
Ex-

of

als
unjustifiedaccusations brought by individuagainst their primary-groups show how eagerly this
in communities
opportunityis grasped by the rebellious elements
where
social disorganization has
been
gressing.
pro-

Nevertheless,

in local
press as weapon
constructive
for
purposes,

wider
to

impose their

propaganda of
successful only
ideas

and

community

its leaders

standards
new

if the

environment.

social sanction

the
But

act

the

among

individuals
of

to

as

arbiters

primary-groups.

upon

ideas

feel independent

immediate

this

tendency to use
struggles can be utilized
it makes
it possible for

even

who

social
the

for his attitudes ; he

peasants

for
the
and
And
be

can

first accept these

opinion

peasant
may

the

of

needs

commit

their
some

an

iso-

268

of

POLISH

THE

intimacy to

Their

the informal

external

structure

PEASANT

organizationof
similar

was

parties,but their sphere of interest


it included

primary

communities

in which

types of secondary groups

the

differed

and

which

are

always

groups.

political
for

wider,

much

In this respect

be interested.

to

of

that

to

was

everything
practically

supposed

was

these

peasant

they

from

sembled
re-

other

more

or

less

specialized.
The

method

by

was

spread among

was

calculated

which

'tance, and

to

vice

that all those

feelingof

develop

It

community

idealistic elements

the

their

versa.

solidarity

moral

of the wider

the members

by appealing to

nature

the

of

their

feelingof personal imporassumed

was

as

self-evident

who

belonged to the nucleus of the wider


community should be activelyinterested in its welfare
and progress,
should be the first in spreading education,
in contributingto common
and
aims, in promoting new
efficient forms

in establishing
activity,
social institutions,in fosteringharmonious
social
new
cooperation in short,in helping to raise the whole peasant
class to a higher cultural level.
And
the other
on
of
hand, all those who activelyparticipatedin the work
social reconstruction
considered
were
belonging to the
select minority as real collaborators
of the leaders ; they
treated as the "advance
were
guard of progress," as a
kind of aristocracy whose
based
not
on
prestige was
more

of economic

"

their social function

in the past but

on

their importance

for the future.


At

the

attempts
the

old

whose

same

were

time, though perhaps


made

religiousidea
members

owed

impart

to

of
to

a
one

wide

new

less

successfully,
moral
vitalityto

Christian

another

community

disinterested

independent of any direct social contact


It is hardly surprisingthat this idea did

between
not

have

help
them.
much

WIDER

THE

COMMUNITY

AND

practical significancefor
economic
than

conditions

the

able

to

the

much

PRESS

the

claims

His

object
he

when

even

269

past.

oftener

subject of assistance,and
help, his primary-group had

altruism.

OF

in the

peasant

him

made

ROLE

was

all his

on

phasis
clergy by the exclusive emit put on
the
reduced
purely religiousmatters
duties of the Christian community to praying for one
another
and making collections for new
churches.
Of
the few documents
as
referringto these activities
course,
this type of mutual
show, even
help implies altruistic

Moreover,

emotions

which

be

can

the

developed

fields,but this development in

extended

and
far

so

it

as

of lay leaders.
mostly the work
of stirringaltruistic tendencies

was

efficient way
to be the appeal to

other

to

curred
actuallyoc-

The

most

has

proved
ings
publicmeetsuggestions.

sympatheticemotions at
when
the susceptibility
emotional
to
is higher than usual,particularly
in primary-group members,
and the whole
leaves a deeper impression.
matter
Calamities

hunger,
and

which

befell

'flood"

particular communities

evidently
important than

more

found
the

the
actual

help

the attitude

which

which

be later utilized for other

could
An

this method

do

of his
the

is that,

but

primary
whereas

and

response

of

whole

was

poses.
purquence
conse-

primary-

individual

ant
peas-

little in the line of altruistic

villageor
form

offered

partly as

fire,

response,

constructive

appealing to
assistance,
partlybecause the

for

could

developed by such

interestingpoint

of
groups

was

easiest

"

of

parish,this type of
obligationof mutual

communities
the

rather

than

side
help outsumed
solidarityas-

assistance
between

tween
beviduals,
indi-

organization for cultural progress


have seen, essentially
individualistic.
This
as
we
was,
inter-communal
solidarityin which the primary-group
acts as a unit has not received perhaps all the attention

it

it

is

only

wider

The

being

of

each
its

through
the

of

on

will

always

and
these

individual

thus
but
it"

groups

also

unity
as

welfare.

be

only

not

agg^lomeration

cannot

breaking

foundations.

new

an

^is

members
"

common

definitely

not

reconstructed

individuals

primary-groups,

unless

is

For

sufficiently.

developed

being

community

organization
of

not

PEASANT

primary-group

peasant

up;

is

and

deserves

the

in

POLISH

THE

270

be

whole
"

actively

complete
^not

alone

interested

an

CHAPTER

INSTITUTIONS

COOPERATIVE

if

attitudes

all the

did
is

factor

as

former

force
the

attitudes

new

the

been

social

any

social

some

classifying

attempts
the

hamper
In

peasant

and

and

counteract

studying

communities,
the

of

process

shall

reconstruction

it has

is far

from

been

at

it is

successful.

Of

ready

sanction

the

etc.

ful
unsuccess-

state

thus

and

"

received

ever

society

tems,
sysout
with-

grow

continually

; reconstruction
271

reconstruction
in

keep

been

has

thus

And

leave

another.

one

we

never

not

rational

concrete

planful, actually aiming

organization.
far

the

thus

has

did

except

we

perfectly
any

tutions,
insti-

old

there

hardly

leading principle

common

the

anti-social, immoral,

if

for

channels;

persist and

which

it has

institutions

new

institutional

abnormal,

of

of

course,

without

construct

institutions

since

of

condition,

to

institutions

revolutionists

by

which

organization

consideration,

adequate

any

as

second

the

to

And,

would

first condition

destroy entirely

attitudes

attitudes
them

creation

socially

none

socially dangerous

to

old

reaction.

prepare

As

into

latter, by tending

ignore

yet

the

by hindering

and

perfect

if the

and

The

conservatists

by

that

so

another.

one

be

find

could

members

expression,

with

both

neglected

the

its

would

group

disorganization,

of

interfere

not

of

social

institutional

sanctioned
act

of

organization

The

the

best

mind

has

these

possible
to

the

teria,
cri-

conscious

here

important
course

Polish

of

learn
new

only begun,

social
how

system
many

THE

272

peasant communities
movement,

do

know

Polish

new

stituti
in-

community;

any

later

affected

the

ganization
or-

whole

the

ods
methjudge the principles and
which
only by their applicationin particular cases
be considered
not
cantypicalin certain respects; we
appreciatethem unconditionallyas applicable to all
We

process.

may

As

to

thus

can

and

groups

is

the

found

yet

and

war

have

state

by

not

regulationin
yet how

not

of

have

attitudes

expression and

finallywe

untouched

almost

are

new

many

PEASANT

POLISH

for

all purposes.

the
old social institutions,

the

movement

new

ter
latwith the commvme.
The
particularlyconcerned
is in principlea politically
organized community;
its function

but

Russian

under

exclusivelythat

of

domination

almost

was

the central
intermediary between
and the country population,collectingtaxes,
government
sending recruits,and in general executing the orders of
the administration.
Legally, however, the commune
could
of

have

been

instrument

much

which

autonomy

for

the

the

have

should

Russian

made

it

very

d^jee
useful

munity.
organization of the comin
passivity of the peasant

much

as

executive

to

deprive

the influence
utility. Under
particularlysince 1905, the commime

ness
arbitrari-

the

as

of its

to

internal

contributed

politicalmatters

this; it had

than

more

traditional

The

of

an

of

this

ment
instru-

Polish

ers,
lead-

velop
began to deinto a really vital institution,though its efforts
administration
from
justified
legallyunprevent the Russian

interference

with

affairs

communal

were

mostly

unsuccessful.
Another
tried

to

spite of
term

seems

old

reform
the

institution
was

the

which

villageas

the

economic

fact that property in the


to

have

always

been

new

among

strict
the

movement

body.
sense

Polish

In

of the
peas-

INSTITUTIONS

COOPERATIVE

ants

family,not

which
owned

by

it would

take

all the families

for various

matter,

long to explain the


inhabitinga villageis in

land
some

First, all the houses, each

adjoining farm-buildings (stable,bam,

with

sons
rea-

too

unit.

economic

an

measure

community

273

granary,

usually a small orchard,


American
concentrated
in a village like a small
are
The
town.
arable land
belonging to all these farms
the village,and
forms
stretch of territoryaround
one
instead of constituting
the field of each farmer
one
rate
sepasmall
lots over
all this
piece is scattered in many
ers.
intermingled with similar lots of other farmterritory,
the comare
mon
Thirdly,pastures, forests and waters
sty, poultry-house,etc.) and

property of all the farmers.


this system

Now,
the

social

new

changed;

^built

"

villagegroup,

it does

result from

both

was

the concentration

into

one

piece by

hinder

not

of social

important

the

of which
of

this

common

nies"
"colo-

so-called

has
solidarity
for

new

able
innumer-

neighborhood
decayed. But

social and

economic

when
even

reasons

belonging to each farm


in
The
exchange.
difficulty
that the law required the

of

village,and

interestingmethods

quoted

types of social

of the lots

means

consent

are

"

it prevents

close

of this reform
the way
was
of the whole
unanimous
consent
obtain

be

villages cannot

farms

developing and

quarrels which

more

The

conditions.

old

to

ity
recentlyacquired from the nobilThough this isolation is tmfavorable
gregarious type of cohesion of the

organization from
the old form

adaptation

land

on

traditional

the

in

peasant

new

many

in

economic

and

dwellings

isolated.

are

to

but

attitudes
of

concentration

modified

be

must

in

our

documents.

pastures, forests

and

solution of the difficulties arisingfrom

were

in order

used,

Finally,in
waters,

the

to

some

ters
mat-

only

the individualiza-

POLISH

THE

274

tion of economic

attitudes

personal claims
it because

use

he

the

the

to

was

cooperative system
rights to a personal share
stock

common

he

because

will be

have

traditional

important
the
The
the

solidaritybetween

group

of the old social

shadow

the

of the

solidaritywhereas,

new

is

woman

the
to

us

The
has

Polish

judge
main

been

the creation

of

of

the

as

action

ready

"

it

in

riage
mar-

^is but

"

be the

to

have

we

In

bearer
in

seen

whom

the

the

unity

this movement

is too

in

recent

to

mit
per-

the

social reconstruction
of the old

reform

institutions.

new

was

Among

the

at

action

the

Germany,

means;

models

for

men

and
of

Belgium,

the
time

same

desire

the

relatively
easy

was

economic
and

the

family gjoup.

expected

however,

upon

common

small

most

world.

of

children

women

general and

most

Here

very

not

institutionalize

to

the

of its results.

stress,

put

the

peasant

ciples
prin-

revived, and

be

the man
preceding volume, it was
upon
of the large family mostly relied.
But
among

others.

western

members

unity of

class

the

agement
man-

^the

"

and

the peasant

the

ever,
family. Howis hardly any better in

the

wife

husband,

"

of

to

reorganize

"large family'*evidently cannot


moral

and

has

tarily
volun-

but

collective

himself

of

spheres

the

to

part

that

to

situation

cultivated

highest

remain

institution

in this respect the

could

but

definite methodical

attempts

rect
di-

individual

property

expects

without

the

been

the

cient
an-

no

group,

the

to
profitable

more

efficient and

Less

where

this share

have

to

the

of

in

had

property

member

modem

agrees

individual

common

the

from

change

to

was

which

in

communism,

PEASANT

to

for

the

upon
titudes
at-

new

the easiest

economic

show

who

but

vance.
ad-

tages
the advan-

separately had
methods

institutions

England

"

of

mon
com-

either

were

or

could

be

POLISH

THE

276
in which

measure

model

it approaches the tjrpeof economic

that

so

the latter

which

upon

PEASANT

the

operation,
co-

gradually becoming the


of social organization
form
is

new

is moulded.

[This document

z6z.

development of
and

of

creating new

and

They
A

meeting held

to

held.

because

he

so

name

?"

friend

My

there

whether

he

left.

."

friend

my
them.

Then

shrieks

and

and

spent

met

he

few
a

had

great

floors, and

sensibly and
of

the

that

that

of

they
Then

did

not

know

until the

they

discussed

sign

your

what

sign

to

us

"

asked

wait

He

had

and

the

the

clerk asked

some

for

money

repay
was

office.

our

I do

what

them

"There

it.

The

young

care."

not

to

the

matter

sign

their

repairing the

necessary

young

in

reply

grey-haired peasant

Then

noble

with

Therein

the clerk said that

him.

name

my

ccmversation

same

one

him

gentlemen decide,"

district office.

the

asked

only signed

asked

must

was

He

you

one.

you

name

He

politelywhat

clerk.

sign my

already signed. Then


deal

pened
hap-

meeting

did

thing about

decide.

them

approached

quarrels.

did

^"What

"

others

two

^"Then

another

met

all."

did I

Why

informed

was
a

why

people in the communal

arguing; let

are

appointed

"

friends

to

well

were
was.
names

he
and

farmer
to

The

left."
He

many
not

unable

was

returning home

only the clerk told

and

on.

were

clerk

said that he

"

this.

this.

community.

''But

name.

of

the

was

our

and

again. "I don't know

asked

and

He

went

enough, though

people

who

in

are

about

of my

there

themselves.
us

the

but

One
.

convince

farmer

"No,

"

signed mine

names.

are

The

to, hurry home

decided?"

trouble

mayor

nobles

signed his

be

to

was

the

"Well, for that decision."

"

old

reforming

worry

village precisely where

peasant

had

he

could

ago

them

; let

commune

not

decided.

was

of

need

good administration

[peasant] noble

many

what

that

that

met

are

end,

the

the

show

ones

lazy concerning anything that

quarterly meeting.

to

go

He

there

for

care

long

not

for the

Sunday

him

not

^take notice

"

following

paid, consequently they should

are

clerk

of

ignorant and

clerk in the

five

institutions.]

people are
is good.
They do
mayor

the

consciousness

Our

and

the

cried:

had

the
said

speech
**Mr.

CXX)PERATIVE
is he

Clerk, what
clerk

The
the

mayor

Such
others
to

nor

did not

them

the

communal

of the

the

their

sign

before

names

hand,

such

abuse

an

be called to

to

to

nor

imprison anyone,

to

nor

For

ought

commune

of

the arrogance

slightestright to impose decisions,

meetings,

Somebody

and

was,

which

received

the

And

it

of

order

nor

power,

and

even

Sxviqteczna,1904,

meeting
was

held

this money

the

constables
such

to

with

advice

the

in

drowned
been

spent
.

of the

saloon

only such

crosses

new

ones

and

need
Not

along the
should

the

stables
con-

secretary

and

the ten

few

fanners

the

This

as

for all,for

the

elders
were

majority agreed

roads

and
are

Baths

are

is the treasure

ruined

and

need

of

man.

repairingor

also very

are

"

have

necessary

health

Roads
"

might

money

be

to

commune

example public baths

Jews have.

raised.

be

bad

here

repairing.
long ago

there

savings bank.

With

prison]. And

the

were

this

our

about

more

than

'"goat" ate

It is not

300

the

roubles.

difficult to

thousand

secretary built

everybody will agree, this whole


worth

and

in the town?

of health

for the conservation


The

Only

and
The

town.

divide

to

us

secretary.

something useful

on

elders

that there

us

advised

pity for these savings of the

some

if

even

each.

in

example,

Swi^ty.Krzyz,

of

each

division of the money

is it not

But

rubles

40

rubles

10

For

communes.

the district

cow

secretary milks."

the

the

10.

commune

is

secretary informed

to

commune

in the office and

receive

what

'The

and

himself, the mayor,

would

opposed

mountains

the

the recruits

took

*and the mayor


and

roubles

200

between

who

from

our

recently. The

of

balance

of

some

far

not

was

old farmer

an

followinganswer
holds by the horns

reallyis in

commune,

asked

once

the

mayor

thus

one

go?

And

criminallyresponsible.

z6a.

arrested.

man

Gaseta

him."

Arrest

vote.

no

people and

punishment.

other

has

ordered

some

the

not
to

He

.277

word.

ignorance of

order

clerk

held

say

clerk has

inflict any

the

support

conduct
to

talkingabout

seeing such
is the

INSTITUTIONS

guess.

whole

goat with
And
The

where
most

roubles

in

our

''goat"[slang for

thousand, though,
legs and
did

the

horns
700

beautiful

as

is not
roubles

farms

in

THE

278
our

community

and

of

the

Thus
dark

it

happens

commune-members

the

plenipotentiariessome

who

commune
a

[put

rag

the discussion.
For

We

blame]

be

them, for, alas,

also

protocol and there

and

such

protoccris

and

are

up

it is

how

formerly

quarrels as

Swi^ecsna,

Gageia
*

all in
ings.
meet-

th^

so

munal
com-

our

the

what

at

at

at

that

well

no

mix

not

made

are

Polish

in

are

do

decided

we

everybody knows

Now

enligfatemnent, txit

upon

and

writen

wiser

some

this account.

on

i63"

also

real

comers

spring

last

example,

in the

occurred

in

dark,

also

are

have

are

have

good decisions

But

the present.

to

seem

some

meetings should

written

for

us,

meetings they hide

to

secietaij

commune

pin

of the

the

of

painted [not alive^passive]

are

I must

among

their

among

in the

men

precisely those

are

tavern-owner.

and

others

PEASANT

POLISH

4"

igos,

of reforming the old


[Typical instance of the difficulty

institutions.]
Please, my
in what

dear

manner

scattered

fellow-readers

got rid of that

you

lots,because

here

vexatious

small

on

of

way

and

how

farming

find any

cannot

we

Gazeta, write

of the

inducing

neighbors to unify their land. Following the advice of


have
Gaaeta
been
Swiqteczna, which
we
reading for over

the

our

we

years,
of

all attempts

There

was

new

survey

and

of them

work, what

all must

labor

unite

to

One

of them

how

to

it costs

to

their

in

But

spite

accomplish anything.

to

governmental

How

survey.

encouraged them!

of

that."

me

Now

lots.

He

there

it is

not

agree

But

that

with

And

pieces. Oh,

what

impossible to describe!
these

account

on

of all five,but
repeats

will be

the survey.

to

scattered

on

Only

please tell

Nothing helps
villages. He

do

[to learn] why

read.

or

who

suffer

is the leader

write

account

other

^a

"

the surveyors

is interested

someone

man?

unable

of land

five of them

are

because

on

been

unification.

to

help either.

There

want

neighbors

have

we

the commissioner
did not

the

encourage

20

of

people do

their

he does

at communal

what

me
no

only repeats all

can

be

persuasion,
the

time

the

done
no

not

know

''Just

never

to

sent
con-

such

instances

same:

not

ignorance.

meetings :

colonies, for I will

no

him,

even

five

Perhaps

of

''There

INSTITUTIONS

COOPERATIVE

ivill

56

be

colonies

no

people

I won't

because

who

We

164.
of

have

This

pasture

this
fit

time

the

at

had

for

even

that

for

the

young

trees

for fences.

the

forest, for they

to

the

that

learned

no

only for their


a
cartload.]

in

even

the

be

and

but to sell to

Jews

When

in order
years

were

have

to

forest

the

ago,

lands

our

each

cattle

there.

of the
cuts

in

or

then
But

to

now

drinking

trees

complained

them, for they


wood

cut

of

score

not

copecks

Swiqtecsna,1900^

[a

5.

troduced
in-

division

new

single spot]

when

people

dozen

divided, in order
the time

to

to use

comes

protect the grove

and

not

bad

not

tion
rq^ard this resolu-

neighbors

do

to

pasture any

they drive cattle into it,one

community;

breaks

use,

and

at a

intentionallynot

was

keep it better for the commune's


it. All decided

on

in

damage.

some

[they

concentrated
farm

trees

another

or

unjust. When

them

needs

did

condemn

not

thick.

too

spoiled. One
makers,

cut

noticeable

grew

day-time,and

true

when

of

score

was

the trees

unwise

was

times

Gajseta

165.

It is

happened?

punishment threatened
own

today fine lumber,

destruction

to

did

court

This

co-owners.

were

began

If

forest.

yotmg

be

few

caught the mischief

But

court.

cut

right; no

order

night, later

watched,

Others

peasants.

grew

in spots where

cut

slowly this

first at

They

all

was

the

to

whole

peaceably. Then
fit for poles, the people agreed to

were

time, but it

vrent

with

what

But

forest

the

years

each

But

land

of

covered

buildingpurposes.

of trees

score

distribution

the

acres]

the

of

property

wisely protectedthere would

dozen

the

became

already then

was

been

of

1904, 24.

[7vl6ka=30 niorgs=37"4

wlSka

which

pasture

common

village

few

stubborn.

are

Swiqtecma,

Gasita

thus

And

it."

permit

nothing against those few

do

can

here

279

for

fire,like

thief, because

or

he

another

has

spent

fair in

with which
he could
Jezow the money
buy firewood and he will not dig turf, of which every one among
has a piece sufficient for his wants.
us
Others
and

at

because

at the

whose

meeting

every

it

pixitect his

fields

seems
own

to

are

urge

them

situated
the

further

community

away
to

that it will be easier

particularpiece.

You

think

envy

divide
for

the former
the

forest

everybody

badly, my

to

dear

POLISH

THE

28o

neighbors!

If

shall be

we

his

watch

one

whole.

After

dividing it
into

our

after the division

tree.

What

made

we

the

May
and

repeat

hardly make
;

of the

that
forest

same

these

more

no

words:

of the

Letter

Everywhere

x66.

strength for the


in

organized

as

all know

and

works

unite
we

us;

among

lose

our

of

lack

when

than

them.

live

poorly,

any

heads

even
amuse

and

do

not

we

stupid people do
obliged

to

stupid things.

with

common

amusements

are

now

himself

better

in

more

is united.
strength of many
town
everybody lives
yet in our
think

about

work

know

is

help of

organization against fire; no

to

do.

not

nothing good

miserably, and
what

does

others, and

there

of the lack of
not

heart

the

Therefore

with

misfortune, in consequence
we

to

doing something [serious],it is much

probably ; and

this

Why,

matter

to work

in order

can

man

for himself, does

to

want

for

it alone

difficult to do
We

to

unite

good.

common

common,

And

group.

people

ago

conq"elled

in fact

are

do

years

Swiqiecsna; unpublished.

Gaseta

to

this

''Let the

the wiser ones


they wish.'' Because
the stupid ones
and not let them
withhold

truth,

division.

take

as

bum

to

the

were

of

roof

30

or

still

are

I say

and
"

intelligentfarmers

more

trees

compelled
20

some

fell every

and

easilythat

more

remember

be

cart

within

laths under

should

we

then, preciselybecause

it down

cut

all go with axes


then?
have
The

we

with

down,

cut

the

from

anyone

coming

be

every

protect

can

prevent

from

nor

would

hedge

you

division

not

man

would

we

tion,
destruc-

day and night, and

us,

could

will believe

You

neighbors, when

my

in

it from

preserve

one

part

our

would

stakes

of them.

most

to

best

bad

to

now

part

profit should
the

and

straw

we

own

month

young,

forest

but

piece;

cutting. Fearing

too

the

obliged to sit,all of
own

driving cattle
and

divide

we

PEASAIfT

in

of

case

neighbors

our

[Examples:

organization for

mon
com-

of education, only a minority


enlightenment and in matters
amusements
of individuals working separately; lack of common
;
no

public baths.]
Caxeta

167.
with
which

[This document

shows

the

Swuflecsna,i9g^ A

beginning of initiative

prevalence stillof the attitude typicalof all countries


the

state

interferes

too

much

with

social

life
"

^the

but

is
ex-

COOPERATIVE

pectation that all evil

legaldecrees.]

Committee

of

Ministers

be

be

one

the

of

according
communal

4)

That

longer periods,

it be

30,

the

to

the

the
that

the

the

7) That

and

management

of

in

schools

of

the

the

members

villageselementary

February 19 and
teaching in the native
of

for

punishments

in

teaching

in communal

be
of

secretaries

free

at

whom

provincial and

of

means

other

the

economical
resulted

relations

1864] be settled by

the

of

elected

ties;
by the authori-

lots of
to

men

the

to

them

of

farmers, if

it ;

disagreements concerning [various

between
endowment

courts

tary,
secre-

placed under

be

right granted

the

village-groupagree
all

responsible for the

of officials appointed

of

decisions

commtmal

composed

exchange the scattered

decision

from

roads

of road-councils

least of the

at

their

use

appoints;

he

villagemeetings have

8) That

the

understand

can

courts

district be

the

to

communal

elect the

to

of

members

that the members

way

chief

care

the

That

law.

the

meetings and

by communal

9) That

not

needs

perform their activities and

commune

of those

two-thirds

of two-thirds

meetings and

language be used

That

unifying by

amount

them

half years

the

Decisions

That

with

in Polish

that this

abuses

repay

for

establish

to

in these

communal

rights in accordance

and

and

the

formed
re-

specialpermission be abolished;

be left free to

6)

to

savings banks

reintroduced.

5) That

be written

and

them

be

right to dispose of the profits

Imperial

1864, and that

without

commime

farms

two

the

permitted

August

language be

their

the wish

to

from

should

assembly;

according

home

of

and

loan

schools

in

for

ants
peas-

wishes:

and

savingsbanks

borrow

have

the peasants

the

and

but within

now

communal

communes

which

tion
peti-

petitionthe

needs

loans

granted

may

value

the

as

year

3) That

and

this

...

following

loan

farmers

that

one-fourth

within

of

peasants

the communal

That
so

of

In

into

good brought

all

repaid in installments;

2)
of

the

express

the

281

Petersburg received

in

peasants.

200

over

Miechow

i) That
to

and

removed

of

by

signed by
of

be

can

means

existence
The

INSTITUTIONS

instead

manorK)wners

of
of

the

and

peasants

peasants
with

land

[special]commissioners;

THE

282

lo) That
be

POLISH

of the funds

out

granted loans

PEASANT

for mutual

for the construction

fire-insurance

of houses

of

peasants

non-combost*

ible material;

ii) That
watches

and

of

to

decisions

the

of

schools

build

Mimster

the

the

from

of

get back

the

private liquor trade,

The

of

land

tavern

in

order

in

the

1905,

21.

of

realization

competition for small

entered

was

farmers

peasant

took

by

announced

farmers.

42

part, in the

[In

second

I9t" in

undertaken
in connection
with
23.] The work
competitions meets
continually growing response
among
farmers.

increasing confidence

With

their attempts
but

improvements made

at

the

even

heavy

farmers.
his

describe
do

his

in

Every

farm

who

one

and

work

the

enters

results

what

he

tell what

has

their

daily activities
reflect about

to

further

done

also

good ideas,
"

From

"

to

in

while

done

of

frame

is apt

to

could

what

and

doing.

thing and

one

sorbed
ab-

are

ing,
insight into their farm-

already been

verification

Merely

who

The

verify the descriptionon

to

aims

arrival of
the

spot is

suggest

dissuade

many

from

other.
an-

"

descriptionsthere

the

scarcely able
to

Such

better

is worth

encourage

consistencyin
order

has

what

duty is

useful.

very

acquire

what

and

delegates whose

to

must

he

reached.

answering these different questions compels people


and see little beyond the narrow
in their work

ful
use-

very

competition

in detail, and

exactly and

small

lives,their hopes and

competitions are

such

not
only
they describe
in extremely difficult situations

their

These
.

for

of

cares

Tuture.

for the

intentions

be

able

third

the

to

left

be

to

Swiqtecsna,

factor

as

competition 18 farmers

first

govemmenta]

reconstruction].

Agricultural Section

by the
the

community

in methods

fourth

and

this land.

upon

[The wider

and

needs

Lands

strictlyenforced;

Gaseta

x68"

State

of

sale of himber

village groups

abolition

the

after

be

peasants

That

13)
to

the

Agriculture concerning

forests

night-

establish

to

[keep] order;

That

12)

meetings be permitted

communal

to

inform

the

attempts

xvad

and

themsdves

of

is evident

great endurance

people who,

write, grasp
about

the

though

newspaper

world

sometimes

or

and

and

to

book

in

improve

284

THE

conditions.

For

example, he borrows

rouble

one

pays

PEASANT

POLISH

roubles

lOO

5 roubles

interest and

for

for

Jew

another

to

mootfa,

one

the

mediation."
Our

buy

to

in his

farming

small

(or

roubles

farmers

loan.
farmers.

could

could

back

at

which

to

interest and

small

third

which
be used

to

for

lend

could

agriculture. The
real

no

into their eyes


for

and

of

in

And

The

of

is,

it

began
ago

far

and

found

competitors, 37 write about


.

have

farming.
as

contributed
Their

can

one

those

see

relativelylittk

influence
from

the

peasant

has

the

their

upon

descriptions

complete confidence

steadilypushes small farmers


took

Besides, those who


to

have

improve
become

their

deeper,

agricultural

farming sometimes

advanced

of the latter will

to

is

part in this year's

farmers.

growing intensityof agriculturalwork

influence

been

small, perhaps because, although daily and


is superficial,
whereas
the action of suitable newspapers

improvements.

the

^in so

"

thorough, and

the

salvation, that

^seems

"

in which

of

but

published chiefly for

newspapers

larger estates

of peasant

in huts

continuous,

years

the

in

great gratitude.

elevation

farming

more

have

things

improvements, have

owners

the

for

of the 42

out

with

neighbors
of

farmer

thus

newspapers

to

information

small

our

him.

for

search

to

farmers

the

some

peting
com-

The
increasing their income.
greatest help and
of his agriculturalprogression, encouragement
matters

necessary

by

all the

ing
Only misery look-

whatsoever.

them

paid

of

means

advice

forces

large

years)

from

practice of doing

agriculturalknowledge

to

10

lages
vil"

be

they take their farms

majority when

acquired only the habit and

in

purposes

money

is manifest

which

the

over

refuse

not

descriptionsis the insufficient education


in

all

long period (at least

distinct defect

savings banks

loaning

would

of

needs

lies useless

now

for

satisfy

not

in great numbers

which

during

do

pressing

most

big city banks

even

in installments

The

interest

interest

year

cmly by loan and

all the money

be put

associations
at

These

be satisfied

country, into which

or

improvements

banks

commtmal

The

sisters

and

some

^2 roubles

pay

associations)scattered

rather

loans

off his brothers

pay

sometimes

must

nee^s of small

the

to

wants

to introduce
piece of land, or finally,

hundred

who

peasant

gradually

grow.

10

But

now

or

ao

in view

large estates

on

petition
com-

COOPERATIVE

Besides

by the

285

farmers, the lack of general education

enterprisingindividuals.

more

Not

169,

at

only in

Swiqteczna,

occurred

have

to

communal

an

old

he

was

the

in

could

who

woman

talking about

not

know

how

Today there

is

and

off their

selfishness,they understand

efforts

great deal

sibly and

of

in

the

"As

As

commune

the

is,so

the

[At

of

Kielce

it

smoking,

so

measures

the

The

[one

will inform
any

and

how

them

farmer's

members

will be
the

prevent

formed

he

In

addition

of mutual

obligedto

an

proverb
reciprocally:

the

39.

province

regulationsagainst
to

restrictive

these

insurance

choose

1904,

was

in their

ized.]
organ-

villagesde-

much
bums

had

before

of the

commune.

under

the

neighboring decurions.

any

honor

10] After the harvest every farmer


grain and hay he has gathered. In

bam

two
village-elder,

it is

in

commune

certain

fires.

for every

man

without

Swiqteegna,

enforce

following system

hay which

other

to

as

it is said, boast

so

property"; and

certain

to

are
village-elders

curious

case

decided

was

elect

is the mayor.

meeting of

"

administration.

is the

sen^

The

commune.

of and

boast

to

proper

shaken

They

agreement.

Gaseta

170.

they

peaceful

common

ever3rthingis done

something

is, so

owner

quently
Conse-

shouting, and

by

Dtugoborze,

office

if it has

community

needle.

meetings they discuss

At

to manage

of

communal

and

man

People have

that

unanimous

an

commune

Well, they have

says:

the

the

their

charge.
for

to

done.

enlightenedpeople

members
that

be

can

easily come

and

honest

about

she

old

an

understanding because

an

lightin their heads.

more

Dhigoborze.

anything useful.

decide

to

to

in idle talk and

they usually ended


did not

of

like those

come

awl

an

called

change

unenlightened, they had

were

meetings discussions

felt

10.

1904,

everything

community

people there

Formerly, when

in

respect but

one

is also

"

Caseta

seems

is noticeable

agriculturaleducation, the lack of which

small

among

INSTITUTIONS

the

the fire will be


To

estimate

leadership of the

neighbors of the
After

the

of

amount

same

one

collected
the loss

mayor

ruined

loss has

grain, straw,

been

from
a

the

council

consistingof
by fire and
estimated

two

they

POLISH

THE

286
will calculate
and

much

how

elders, with
and

hay

contributed

be

must

how

hearth-tax

the

over

Swiqteczna,

Gageta

From

171.

God,

beginning
is

roads, which

roubles

of

cartloads

and

I did

But

the

become

The

church.

road
the

nor

youth

active

the

spring

holes.

build

to

Kowalski

the

road

Perhaps

his whole

some

one

in

it

holes

and

in

may

it is difficult

changes such

an

written

name

mentioned

above

example of
The

most

lies for
rains

even

and

over

some

the

streets

simply

obstacle
in

to

that

for

the

the

first in

to

fill old

and

Wojdecb
rounded,

worked

it

at

road

Therefore

At

Wojnecki built

is

worthy

the

towns

our

in

and

lacking

the road.
nice

But

reasun.
insignificant

insignificant.In

not

cross

some
one

to

have

lages
vilwho

his

example of those

bridge.

And

thus

the

incites the others.

difficult situation

was

48 furlongs along both

wheels

was

boring [the readers]

am

an

is not
are

into

golden letters.

Michal

family.
think

uselesslyby quoting these names


I beg your
pardon, the reason
mud

the

repaired

and

middle, and

the

of
.

stone

cut

help

to

farmer

deepened the gutters.


He
particularly well.

and

straightened,heightened
strenuously with

bridge of

strong

road, beginning

the

Jozef Pliwy
village-elder

cleaned

repaired

Magiera

paved

improvement

in every

beautifully. The

and

beginning

are

is the

comforting

more

came

ioners.
parish-

my

I could

yards] of

at

angry

village. For example, in Witow


in a model
Galas, organized his farm
way

roads
F.

is

what

But

400

Spring

away.

wherever

stones

sqeen^=.2

road

effect.

without

get

tried

bring each

to

agree

mile

disheartened

[i

sqzen

not

the

willingly offered

M.

would

bought

remained

me.

be

to

I tried to

htmdred

several

Mr.

to

of beaten

stretch

small

farmers

the

stones

not

Only

least

at

winter

Last

us.

391

of

improvement

the

for

Piotrkow.

of

endeavors

my

from

make

this but

for

for

care

necessary

very

to

direction

the

in

people

induce

to

so

to

1904,

"Thanks

following words:

the

received

we

are

we

it

parish Witow

of the

priestcurate

Reverend

the

Piotrkow

near

the

village,and

each

by

sheaves

many

help of the decurions, will immediately coOecl


to the injured man.

the

it

hand

basis of

the

on

PEASANT

hollowed

that

of

Rogalski.

sides of

it still deeper until

low

His

road.

they had

field
The

lowered

CXX)PERATIVE
it

finallysome

unable

were

the

entire

not

only

4 feet below

or

to

pass

this farmer

at

village-grouphas agreed
repairthis part of

to

to

came

the

Rogalskis

the

high sides and

To

be sure,

milk.

the

and

to

not

hinder

invited

have

water

in the

Once

into the middle

of
the

Unable

to

said

man

will

the

that

late fall it

it

forest

and

of

peasants

have

gone.

in crowds

hard

of

I have

belong

to

unify all
of

the unification

But

farms
how

especiallyattached

are

They do
since this
them
to

the

any

bom.

not

that

their

own

free

heart

who

People

soul

and

new

have

they

Swiqtecsna, 1899^

are

of

ways

so

to which

only because
if

to

enlightened.
un-

unenlightened,

their

to

11.

opposed

are

people,even

such

often

to

"

usually stubborh

believe in any

And

will live after

"

farms.
are

or

persuading the community


.

to

people voluntarily work

our

in

succeeded

villagelonged

Gtueta

Z73"

pass

land, all together and

own

who

public good.

for the

to

searching for

passer-by.

the entire
those

had

astonished

was

if in

1905, 24.

particularlyin the sands.

their

seen

never

...

I
...

as

that

Domaniewice*

on

it for

leave

to

self
him-

nicely,

sides

Swiqtecsna,

happened

I asked

was

good understanding because

in

fresh

some

both

on

it

they bore

have

to

gutters

fields and

planting a forest

were

but

through the middle."

run

in the

what

guess

of the road.

farmer, Dominik,

the

through the villageof Domaniewice.


small groups
of people engaged
see
gathering something

persuaded

village-groupplowed down

Gazeta

172,

the

Zielinski,

spot and

their house

to

me

swore

bor
neigh-

their

one,

eager

to the

The

the earth

threw

most

Rogalskis regretted their lawn

even

to

not

The

I went

us.

passers-by
village. Only now
force

riages
car-

winter

the

and

courage

road.

son
Finally the grown-up
helped to plow and cleaned

as

so

the

for encouragement.

me

calmly

the whole

take

to

and

snow

at

In

in this strait.

another

one

but

287

the level of the fields,and

filled with

was

pass

INSTITUTIONS

paternal soil.

farming but think that

it will nourish
paternal soil has nourished their ancestors
do
also. Thus
not
want
to listen to any
they
change,

unification
But

people have

let

us

And

of land.
.

remember

enlightenedus.

dark

that

Why

we

do

were

not

we

man

is

also

dark

try

always stub-

to

and
be

good

good

in

288

THE

order

enlighten our

to

whose

value

[It
been

reading the
as

oppose

to

the

together with
of]

What

to

stubborn
that

say

him.

He

had

would

to

show

to

unify

him,
was

him

But

from

for

us

even

have

but

sion
posses-

those

stubborn
!

He

farming!

was

Enough

negligent that

so

Small

by goodwill.

of them.

was

became

read

enlightenment

one

he

people
I have

and

years

by violence

farmed

children

went

we

he

for

would

; you

hid

his hut

to

himself

in

to

do

with

such

wish

to

hear

about

What

us.

did not

commissioner

Almost

and

have

preferred to pay a fine than


everybody had already agreed

He

when

found

has

already. And

villagemeetings

to

people.

to

ago

he

man

163).]

years

for real

now

how

sack.

source

one

enjoyed [the

two

not

And

come

in

away

riddle

for

anywhere.

go

farms.

the
ran

years

never

himself

he

I have

in detail about

all.

to

be

(See document

of land

more

dozen

bring

to

should

there

neighbors

of

left his hut

never

village where

years

they thirst

here

the

to

Swiqteczna for only 8

piece

How

I shall write
most

in

neighbors, yet

my

them

hard-working, pious people

become

the

unification

stubborn

my

ones

20

lead

to

?
.

Gazeta

unified

overcame

know

not

Gazeta

to

PEASANT

neighbors and

impossible that

subscribed
it

they do

seems

dark

so

POLISH

the

persuade

to

This

bam.
And

man

the survey

the
the

of

villageuntil all agreed.


Then

found

we

everybody laughed

How

elder.

scorned

constables

business], he
When

called

been
he

had

listen

which

to

even

every

after

man

began
Then

[and

to

one

ran

villagemeeting

law

to

to

imposes
in his
He

year.

call

to

us

think
3

and
years

from

times

for

to

no

only
had

village. He
longer

got it.

without

ing
hav-

But

us.

when

the
fulfilling

not

ran

to

the

from

away

but

mayor

become

ent
differ-

self
him-

but

us

to

meetings.

read

the

He

his

Swiqteczna

Gazeta

began

inquire about
of

he

he began
village-elders,

upon

district chief, not

the

neighbor
a

away

the

and

[for official

cart

night before

village-

the mayor

for

came

day and

by the elder, he

in his house.

during the

some

[this man]

How

us

I started

assembled

at

[at his house] for

the

only

not

wait

to

elected

put into prison several

been

duties

If

us!

had

met

we

We

means.

to

listen

various

eldership he got

to

people

carefully himself

problems]
so

the

And
.

changed

diat

he

COOPERATIVE
wished

even

elected
He

become

to

some

himself, and

Gaseta

the

But

he

from

partisan of

stubborn

of

survey

On

174*

useful

chowa].

Qiristmas

thanks

of God:

man,

in

the

the

The

twice

of music

conversation

of

and

the

in suitable

by the audience which


in
czynski, foreman

filled the

the

belonged

songs.

The

them

to

income
roubles

200

from

pretty

very

[Cz^sto-

and

and

costumes

the

young

and

sang

the

were

appeal

sale of

to

tickets

spend their free

curtain

from
The
made

that

work-shops and

well

very

for

and

of the

moments

the

Simeon

that

play

was

court-

stage
even

can

from

at

are

in

not

organists,similar
initiators of small
educational

cause
present especiallybe-

taverns

from

the

Old

of the Saints.
be divided

very
us

well

and

the New

No

great trouble

is

the spectators

by

off from

bed-sheets, and

fields,let

them

people have no place to


Sundays and holidays. The plots

on

Lives

the

learned.

change

our

ments,
Testa-

simple country music

consistingof violins,basses,and accordeons


songs

liked

Konstanty Sul-

give worthy and

desirable

plays could be taken

necessary.

herds
shep-

elders, communal

mayors,

would

is very

This

after the abolition

or

the

shepherds said very nicely


prettilythe Kotfdy and other

help of teachers

the

villageswhich

entertainments.

for such

wrote

much

very

theater.

plays in their villages.They could become


in the

and

of

songs

ted
educa-

an

people of good-will in general,encouraging

introduce, with

theaters

divisions.

10

composed

the

actors,

the

History of

Borowiecki,

song,

entire

The

St.

of

church

net.

this occasion

assistants

1904, 32,

town

the

factory, represented

church-prophet, and

all that

to

our

piece entitled

angels

On

had

in

and

about

come
be-

villageand

the

we

of

theater

singers' association

connoisseur

it.

the

day after

the

Miracle-Play, in 5 acts
organist of that parish,Stanis)aw

The

had

man

especiallyto the activityof the priestchaplain

performed

Zygmtmt

and

entertainment

Helbich,

Birth

the

into

By the efforts of the priestsof the parish of St. Zyg-

and

Adam

before.

as

Swi^ecsna,

GauUk

munt

same

of the farms.

tmification

and

commune

meetings, looked

commune

after 3 years

ardent

most

longer the

no

was

289

unhappily the

but

mayor,

village and

to

came

else.

one

INSTITUTIONS

or

flutes,can
O

brothers

my

life for

pany
accom-

better

one

in
I

POLISH

THE

290
Let

get rid of anger,

us

otherwise
wish

consciences,

our

hereafter

for the New


hearts

our

Year

and

awaits

To

The

30

or

40

advise

to

well

in

as

small

only advised;
or

it showed

smd

its ardent

the

difficult to

obtain

today and

people did
there

legally. We

to

at

associations

; and

wa)rs,

Some

of

relation between

known
are

even

the

new

only

fewer
ones,

happened

when
to
nor

skill

sign of

know

about

the younger

not

do

something

could

readers,

ganizers.
or-

life for
others

ait

beginnings

we

people and
was

praised,it was

to

and

people

today

there

died and

exactlyvAat

know

tween
proclaimed loudly this tie be-

associations

in work

and

solidarity.
.

praise or

ever,
how-

have

and

our

spread the report abroad.

groups

desire any

the

was,

Gazeta

people

it. Some

not

of

tried to

in

of

generation,seldom
have

We

the

origin and

number

small

people united themselves

encourage

the

their

commencement

have

we

to

who

before.

the
and

their

of

and

enormously.

grown

The

issued

got along

long time; perhaps they have ceased to exist. But


from
and
modest
and small
getting along brilliantly
have

because

statutes

associations

given

not

than it

important,

more

exemplary

no

corporations and
depending on the ardor
have

is

more

was

of

heard

what

The

them

it

association

seldom

were

encoor-

efforts of

the

to

tions
corpora-

the

to

pany
com-

of

when

an

it not

form

to

and

the time

organize

quite as much
ready models and

by the government.

And

number

Gazeta

our

least in

the countij

in

started thanks

read

no

in various

permission

when

not

were

was

it, how
a

the last

at

us,

associations.

know

were

this

And

educate

to

during

among

do

to

way

which

first

people in general

explanations of

readers.

one

any

organize

to

the

associations

agement

is

towns

association

an

and

villagersand

aD

Szvi^tecjs9"a,1899^3-

the

was

earlier than

us

souls.

our

Swiqteczna

and

years,

Warsaw,
as

Gaseta

Let

us

improve,

Gaseta

175.

bloody fi^ts,for

jealousyand

revenge,
here and

extermination

for ourselves

PEASANT

simple duty. If
only those who carried

our

some
our

did

not

dcsirCi

publicityon

give good advice

rejoiced

they attcmptc"

when
We

We

Gazeta,

to

ground. To

this
those

one

advice

our
people,

deserved

to

6^

into action for

general good of their conmiunities.


Let

these

remarks

answer

the

questions which

have

readied

POLISH

THE

292

PEASANT

Swiqtecsna,

Goseta

The

176.

useful

to its readers

loan

and

is

in

read

we

within

from

why

More

his share

confirmation

upon

5 roubles

4 years,

Upon

Mr.

judge,

initiative of

the

D.,

A.

commercial

and

association.

organizing this association

F.
2

In

and

there

wanted

to

mistrust
that

we

willinglyjoin
fine

species

and

in

we

play lords.

1900^

J. and

the

the

grain, cheap

imported from

abroad.

formerly for

as

in miserable

ware

little

shops.

that

with

saying

from

now

also

in

some

we

bull which

do

not

dirty and

pay
over-

disgusting
need

we

Swiqtecsna,

1905,

3L.

and

Forty farmers, peasants from the village Deszno


its neighborhood
organized an agriculturalassociation
Z78.

The

shares.
.

who

soil and

of

belong

things and
At

of the

aims

farming

its very

and

in

if every

of the

general,facilitation of

or

farmer

help of the

cultivation

the

of the

purchase of

essary
nec-

profitablesale of agriculturalproducts.

more

carloads

mutual

are

beginning the association

quantitiesfor all
than

association

it,improvement

to

deposited by the farmers


calves

with

farmers

in

association.

our

Gaseia

and

envy

have

we

we

us

us,

with

us

munal
com-

when

at

at

Everything which

have

we

at

see

that

see

often

and

housekeeping

farming and

laughed

good breed

They

poor

looked

i"

good agriculturalimplements,

cattle of

stables young

our

and

and

tural
agricul-

an

beginning

they look

Now

of

ago

years

who

some

association, for they

our

of

also

were

be

to

10

Swiqtecena,

farmers

some

Treasury.

50 roubles,

...

were

signed

persons

half-year.

every

established

we

and

of the constitution

Count

at

loans

of the

petitionto the Minister


as

decided

for

30

tion
associa-

an

finallywe

than

"what

ing
organiz-

are

such

association

an

gives

Gazeta

people

Gazeta

177.

the

how

once

other, until

or

contributes

deposited immediately
the balance

than

Swiqteczna

Gazeta

and

are

establish

to

the

and

Every member

learned

villageFal^ice.

the

in

the constitution
.

We

more

place

some

example of others

savings

the

wasted.

not

Then

arose

the

which

savings associations

them.

advice

48L

1903,

of

10

improved plows,

coal.

for many

bought

All
at

once

this

with

dozen

being bought

evidently costs

buys for himself

the

money

pure-bred
in
much

separately. With

larger
Fess
the

COOPERATIVE

help of the association


6 peasant

on

well

so

twice

in

as

modern

farms.

much

as

Some

Srebma
.

that the farmers

Swiqtecsna,

quantitiesof

great
is

bought for the


the

from

cloth

would

militarymanagers

arrangements

with

cloth

quantitiesfrom

in small

workers

produce

to

want

If any

good profits,they should


and

elect associates

There

z8o.

cab-drivers
will
and

of the

care

about

its members

to

funerals.

confirmed

already been

In the

in detail what

it

I have

in

and

the

manner

deliveries.
preserved.

not

Now
.

the

help which
of sickness

case

roubles

to have

similar

cabs.

the

and

of the

At

general.

Swiqteczna,

I described

competition article

[women's] Circle

our

demand

ciation
asso-

by the government.
Gaseta

i8z"

buy the

to

constitution

The

monthly subscription25 copecks.


has

able to make

for mutual

costs

poration
cor-

dered
or-

in

have

reference

assistance

and

membership

The

in

4,000

association

that cloth

possibleand

as

in

would

sales and

Printed, but

in Warsaw

organizingan

are

give loans
for

are

in great

are

34.

village of

of

been

but

peasant

1903,

organized

not

have

always associate

Swiqieczna.

Gaeeta

had

of them

much

take

to

Now

manufacture

great deal

not

each

goods

as

the

the

individually,nor

peasant

every

it elsewhere.

flax.

If the peasants

army.

of

peasants

corporation for

receive

import better grain for sowing.

to

weavers,

organized

country

also succeeded

has

GoBeta

179.

duced
intro-

was

formerly paid in Deszno.

was

beginning

are

association

sale of calves

for them

293

agriculturalsystem

The

the
facilitating

members

the

INSTITUTIONS

present I

the
want

1905,

11.

activities of
to

figureout

I shall begin with


reallyhas yielded to me.
belonged to the Circle for 5 years.
During

penses.
ex-

the

amounted
to 2 roubles, 70
period of these 5 years the payments
copecks. I bought 13 pounds of wool and 2 pounds of yam;
1

paid

than

copecks for the

20

here.

gain," some
3

"Twenty
of

roubles, 40

years

at

50

for the yarn,

copecks saved

the members

copecks

copecks cheaper than


Now, I have received

and

wool

to

for

on

will say.
me.

Four

non-members

the Ziemianka

copecks (it costs

each
And

40

pound

copecks less
is

not

great

yet, it amounted

packages of
amounts

to

seeds
80

to
at

20

copecks.

for
[The Country Woman]
rouble). Altogether this is 5

POLISH

THE

294

roubles,

copecks. Behold, all

20

little more

left

but to

gain

I have

also

have

read

from

did
them

"the

the

to

often

have

not

the

President

has

fruit," and

arranged
to

teach

suffer

often
to act

is

As

for

mothers
of

yet,

I would

write

Further,
yet

we

this task
noticed

calves,

in

conformed

and

be too

never

is

later there

advice

myself that

convinced

and

for

much

my

r^

young

am

to

formation
of this in-

us.

As

husbandry.

in my

me

raisingcalves,althouj^

about

and

since

But
.

for
child-rearing;

helpful to

attention

it with

after

because

and

soon

how

know

experienced mothers

more

moral

littleinformation

the

too

Ziemianka.

of
largely in the hands
the Ognkvo
[The Link] a

to

suffer

women

work

is

I read

Wookd

not

absolutelytranquil

am

older

the

Circle

very

they did

will

our

have

me,

physical and

there

because

to

for
profitable,

in all circumstances.

often

in the

beg

about

us

and

us

swathing-bands needlessly in fear

with

right answer

the

glad, for Madam


nishing
is constantly fur-

so

children, I have

up

for

As

lishment
patiently for the estab-

doctor.

babies

torture

so

the

bringing

prolapsus.

ceived

ailments

periods. Most

siege with

time called

the

talks is very

and

to act

[confinement] they b^n

real

how

various

certain

at

illness

from

sale and

for

us.

women

young

gain

mam

recollect tix

out

I at

am

library for

And

...

now

the
I

set

waited

Further, listeningto lectures

they

books

saw

And

profits

years I

these

when

God,

My

buy them

to

Circle.

books

new

goal, for during

Circle.

means

the

this

passed and

forbidden
of

and a

me

financial

of

it is this that I consider

books, and

belonging
I

to

experience in husbandry.

and

partly attained

140

past, how

the Circle for the sake

enter

little knowledge

returned

expenses

over.

I did not

But

PEASANT

So

women.

short

chapter

found

calves

when I

...

advice.

some

grew

on

up

well.

raisin?
^
.

As

"

"

for

raising chickens, encouraged by the talk at the meeting about


myself that those chickens whici
keeping accounts, I convinced
to
I had
been
raising so far did not profit me, so I resolved
change the breed.
But

not

understand

all housewives

Circle, for they often


talk about

every

two

say

weeks

"What
?

Oh,

do

as

those

I would

yet the

of the
utility

women

in the Grck

rather

church
stay in

COOPERATIVE

and

say

bit of prayer

they will
slander

this time
for

the

during that

stay in church

not

the

INSTITUTIONS

but stand
in my

passers-by. So,
conversation

to

Vespers

indecent.
.

about

I cannot

nUanka.
Rev.

duties

one's

should

it

in

sell necessary

or

learn

about

But

give

waiting

things through

well it would
I consider

when

how

like the
it

to

it is
wait

be if the Ziemianka

came

maybe

other

share

cheap; hence,
weeks

that

may

ideas and

two

cannot

we

provisions

prepare
our

express

the Zie^

men

From
.

important,

I often

of ours,

venerable

etc.

and

can

is most

woman.

every

think, "How

week."

cooking

In it,lastly,
we

winter.

experiences. What

it and

to

is sinful and
people, which
only attend the meetings but

not

can

we

improve

to

to

better

than, while

in silence that adherent

over

pass

how

of it and

outside

Circle.]

From

for the
our

in flocks

Skarga, Krasinski, Konopnicka,

learn

in the meanwhile

opinion,it is far

practicethe advice given and buy


the aid of the

And

begin, slander

to

[One

time."

295

women,

to

cessible
ac-

get

every
on

count
ac-

higher subscription,would not be able to have it sent


But!
in two
weeks.
to seeing it once
them, then I soon
agree
of

to

when

it comes

advantages
shall have

I have

more

About

zSa.

of many

if God

of them

the middle

attempts

were

good acquaintance. Such


I hope I
the Circle and the Ziemianka,

from

associations

peasant

glad as if

as

am

found

allows

us

to work

Letter

to

Ziemianka;

unpublished.

eightiesthe development of the


slowing up in spite
Poland] was

new

ones.

In

by being considered

hampered

together longer.

of the

[in German

to

I met

the
particular,

merely

tions
associa-

subordinate

The Prussian
organization of large estate-owners.
policy of colonization has brought a very rapid change in this
respect. The appreciation of agriculturalassociations was
very
of the

annex

rapidlymodified, for
discredited,since it

the

was

was
organizationof large estate-owners
not able to prevent
numerous
prominent

for
sellingtheir land to the commission
in Polish districts.]Whereas
colonization
during
[of Germans
the same
the peasant associations became
popular because
years
from

manor-owners

Jackowski
have

to

passes
^

see

them

gave
to

the

slogan:

it that in their

into German

hands."

C/. biography of Maximilian

"The

districts not

peasant
a

single acre

Jackowski,

associations

document

gg.

of land

THE

apfi
This

POLISH

rise of

moral

the

PEASANT
wkk

associations, coinciding

peasant

the

the peasam
made
"degradation''of the large estate-ovmers,
organization self-reliant and self-conscious, internally dent
indepenof the association
that

the peasant

''lords.'' At

of

associations

wherever
propaganda/' i,e.,
to

be

in

or

here
effort

only

to

and

when

surface

districts

vice-patronscompete
the

yearly

in

how

center

pears
ap-

"

(the organization

is divided

in order

be able

to

the districts which

to

report
as

differences

yet loosely

are

be knit

net

of

is in the

can

The

their districts,and

great, in these very

are

26

into

"vice-patron."

from

tightlythe
control

and

corporation

Posen

stands

another

show

to

of

Prussia)

which

development

incitement

an

organized
The

West

greatest possible successes

the differences
their lies

with

come

construction.

province

of

each

over

credit
.

of the

has

organizing work

for

laid the

the

gradually initiated in

peasant

of

complete

to

entire

is thus

something

leaves

important part of the population


associations
make
an
always

an

fotmdation

the foundation

was

26

least

at

in order
The

drives

slogan

natiooal

the

commission

Prussian

the

there, the peasant

start

the

arose

cohesion

the Polish

season-work

time

be the ''bearers of

must

desired, either because


because

that

city of Posen; it is the

seat

edits
Patronage managed by a permanent
secretary who
Gospodarski [Agricultural Adviser], the
weekly Poradnik

the

the

associations,and

of the peasant

official organ

of administration, financial matters

superior is

His

Jackowski,

predecessor, Maximilian
thus

to

assure

associations.
.

Associations,"

of his

holds

association

every

activities
.

month

discussed

and

the

over

vince
pro-

confereiices

in

the

peasant

) each

peasant

among

once

"events"

belongs

to

district

meetings, about

year

of

the

which

information, constitute the

that

way

meeting

which

at

decisions

are

three

taken

tural
agricul-

concerning

purchases, organizationof

(common

.) ; 2)

the

in such

functions

subjects are

etc.

personal connection

prominent

more

travels

often

an

mechanism

common

correspondence.

participatesin district meetings and

and

This

Peasant

the

who, following the example

estate-owner

order

of

"Patron

the

business

and

affairs

all the

runs

proper

occurs

district

tions,
exhibi-

meeting

agriculturalpopulation.
the

newspapers

test

of the

which

Such

alwajrs publish

organizations.For

COOPERATIVE

clever vice-patron
induces

the

secures

the

of

district

the

problems which

meeting

unmitigated
yearly

censure

have

the

Polish

and

to which

almost

of

sends

its

representativesof

also

"General

is the

meeting

association

each

takes

other

800

to

1,000

Their

of peasants.

and

persons,

bore

majority, but in the fact that a mass


on
day and feel solidarily.
one
.

The

forms

produced by

attitudes

social

the

If

we

system

the

compare

it tends

which

its first and

the conscious

perhaps

purpose

of

attendance

an

of

views
re-

lie in the lectures

not

in the

even

Polenfrage,

decisions
gether
to-

come

pp.

164 ff.

from

far

of course,

complexity

social

of

movement

but

they

of

or

fairly

are

of the

features

important
the

of

large

are,

forms;

these

most

organization

had

reconstructive

the

underlying

illustrative of

variety and

wide

the

of

of peasants

Die

above

examples quoted

exhausting

as

significancedoes

Bemhard,

organizations,

the character
.

L.

spring

general meetings

have

of

delegate.

one

associations

assembly only half listens,nor

the

place every

Polish

Meeting

presidentand

in the past years

associations

the peasant

of the

successful
un-

which

An

situation.

particular of associations of workmen,


The
and
estate
owners
corporations.

to

always visits

and is mentioned
sign of weakness
by public opinion, by the press and in
is

Associations," which

Peasant

appear

from

ranges
ar-

appear,

particular interest

in

of

to

statements.

Finally,the third type

Here

district

the

gives the patron, who


vivid picture of the economic

for these meetings,

members

350
of

men

297

population and

meeting,

with

to

300

prominent

discussions
for the

INSTITUTIONS

new

peasants.

latter

partly
most

fulness

with
to

the

primary-group

supersede,

distinctive

we

notice

characteristic

of the formation

and

fimc-

institutions.
tioning of the newly created or reformed
The
old primary-g^oup was
a
planlesslyagglomerated
bers
product of many
past generations and each of its memfaced

it

as

realitywhich

simply

was

there

for

no

whatever

purpose

without

observer

it

attitudes that

kind

apt

were

of
was

subordinatingthem

to

to

sistency,
con-

some

outside

an

and

to

give

family

life manifest

selection only those

the group;

consciouslycreated for the


a
need, i. e., a tendency
values.
by certain specific
the contrary, all the

of

ior
behav-

conditions

g^ven

the leading desires

to

but

in

themselves.

forms

the

under

fair satisfaction

of

situations

the

recognition,securityand

members

On

of the fundamental

and

determine

stabilized which

response,
the

for

grown

moment

any

of social

became

for

at

it has

community

regard

any

tional
primary-group does not appear as an irrabut as a fairly well-ordered
social organization,
of the relative stabilityof
the
is because

in which

conditions

By

ditions
ad-

the
chaos

which

Its

innumerable

If nevertheless

general aim.

and

common

without

idea of

any

existence.

own

slowly by

grown

modifications

and

its

except

beliefs had

and

mores

PEASANT

POLISH

THE

298

experience

new

social institution

no

of satdefinite purpose
isfying
which
fied
can
only be satis-

new

reformed

or

stitutio
social in-

for
and
maintained
consciously created
definite purposes,
meant
to satisfycertain needs
are
by
ganized
producing the specificvalues required. They are ortion
teleologically.And the method of their formaare

is

always the

attitudes, originallymore
themselves

than

in

and

formulated

positivedemands

values, and
of

an

way

by

the
old
of

begin when,

the

plan

of

for the
leaders
a

institution

new
"

leaders, it is necessary

and
with

as

the

expressing
the

need

institution

is presented

convince

"

as

the

of
or

the

The

need.

to materialize
to

popular

new

future, become

satisfyinga given
in order

of

less vague

or

dissatisfaction

in

rather

kinds

Certain

same.

the

present
defined
certain
of

form
re-

only

cessible
ac-

ties
difficul-

plans of

peasants,

the

first

POLISH

THE

300

PEASANT

of systematic

ducing important changes by a slow process


social action but vaguely expects them
a

coup

de

theatre

the outside,

past the abolition of serfdom

the

even
finally,

And

come.

needs

suggested

and

the

that

do"s

the

established

be

unforeseen

changes

institution

the

new

We

realize therefore

and

reform

is, in
how

rational

of

to have

that the

this

that

the

of

the

possibDiof

establishment

opinion, apt
indispensablefor

institutions

tion
institu-

eflfectsof

vague

his

are

it

calculate

to

future

the

which

needs

satisfy them,

can

him

for

afraid

justas

him

to

because, unable

is often

he

as

important

and

limits of

and

nature

cause,

ties of

real

are

come

is convinced

proposed institution

probable

new

him

to

seemed

if he

necessarilyfollow

not

should

from

managed

to

produce.

to

the

creaticm

those

factors

ters
investigatedin the preceding three chapmakes
the peasant
the prestigeof leaders, which
without
fully understanding
accept suggestions even
which

have

we

"

their

bearing, popular education

accessible

and

to intellectual

working by the
by the influence

Although

all the

which

makes

him

the

wider

munity,
com-

social

ion
opin-

persuasion, and

of indirect

pressure
of

example.
institutions

new

more

are

formed

thus

of satisfying
the definite purpose
certain specific
limited to
needs, their social function is by no means

with

their

explicitand

conscious

As

purpose.

said

have

we

or
of these
institutions" commune
already, every one
agriculturalcircle,loan and savings bank, or theatertain
of ceris not merely a mechanism
for the management

values
of

which

activities
the

but

as

also

is
a

an

association

supposed

is

common

founded,

people, each

participate in the

living,concrete

predominant, official

the institution

to

of

the

individual.

common

Whatever

interest
association

ber
mem-

upon
as

is

which
concrete

COOPERATIVE

of human

group

limited to their

not

are

of course,

which

holds

ter,
pursuit, though the lat-

common

both

the main

is formed

and

the most

it

together. Owing

economic
political,

abstract

for the satisfaction

of

the

and

g^oup

secondary

associations, the

agriculturalcircle

the

recruited

are

in

are

themselves

As

institutions

they

take

for the

commtmity
still

and

can

peasant

munity,
com-

and

members,

primary-groups.

other

the components

become

concrete

specificsocial

of

with

contact

is also

savings bank,

in the

production

in business

and

crete
con-

primary-

As

system.

measure

are

the

the peasant

root

from

some

with

of
anism
mech-

institution

new

the loan

commune,

rational

needs
specific

national

bond

permanent

other

or

for which

reason

this combination

to

unity of a social group, the


best intermediary link between

the

many

its members

between

constitutes

association

the

301

involves
personalities
unofficially

interests ; the social contacts

other

an

INSTITUTIONS

ues,
val-

similar

stitutio
in-

of nation-wide

organizations.
Another
is that

important

participationin them
least in principle,
upon

individual.

Of

the peasants
the

"

with

grows

yieldsto
On

pressure

is

to make

of

the

these
the

required from

and

voluntary
free

choice

of

join the

the

the

the

stitutio
in-

new

social opinion whose


of

pends,
de-

exercised

pressure

power

wider

munity.
com-

ments
positiveinduce-

institutions oflFer,
is meant

for individual

member

institutions

new

them

increasing influence
this pressure,
just as

motives
become

in order

the

the

But
which

there

course

the

is

the
at

upon

of

feature

only

will ; the individual

to

nish
fur-

does

not

of the

organization unless he actually


motives
and explicitly
chooses to participate.
other hand, there are
some
qualifications
the

individual

but again
organization,

in most

who
cases

wishes
the

to

join

individual

an

can

THE

302

qualifications.On

voluntarilyacquire these
participationin a
other

upon

factors

in
groups

either

"

group

respect the primary-group is akin


and
to

this in

must

still

our

attract
commune
"

individual

with

state

certain

ily
fam-

We

In

this

in its traditional

shall

limited

return

auton""ny.

is not

commune

choice; everybody within

administrative

is in

certain

we
chapter. Meanwhile, however,
attention
to one
interestingfact. The peasant
is both a primary-group and a politicalinstitutio

Formally, belonging to
of

other

next

miniature

^a

from

the state

to

cluded
is in-

; he

territory.

form.

predominant

trary,
con-

dependent

choice

into

certain

the

is

excluded

is born

lives in

he

^and

"

he

because

because

or

primary-group

the individual's

than

gpiven

PEASANT

POLISH

ter
mat-

fixed

ritory
ter-

and

jected
subjudicialmatters
to the communal
authorities,and the right and
decisions
long
beduty to participateactivelyin communal
all those

automaticallyto
residence

and

ritory. The form of


during the period of
institution

40

or

bureau

change

of content

introduction
into

of

the

the

an

had

not

purposes

though

the

institution

in

of their

done

before

which

it had

matters

what

taxation

permanent
in

this

ter-

unchanged
yet the

war

in

was

it had

been

and
for

instrument

police
the

This

fare
wel-

radical

exclusivelyby the
voluntary cooperation

about

principle of

commune

the

community.

brought

agreed

group

they
serve

Thus

into

of
was

from

the institution,
by the fact that

communal
which

remained

commune

from

"

changed

progress

land

it just before

before

years

social reconstruction; and

found

we

it had
and

the

of

completely different

cases

many
30

as

have

minimum

certain

who

own

the members
accord

and
not

made
served

remained

concerning

to do

the

of the

things
tion
institu-

in the

past

political,coercive

the

maintenance

COOPERATIVE

the

of

INSTITUTIONS

(judicialand

existing order

became

also

in matters

(education, economic
solidarity,national

reconstruction
of

development

progress,

it
administrative),

social,cooperative institution

social

concerning

303

moral

ideals).
This
in

the

voluntary character
institutions

new

makes

by these institutions

realized

individual

of

the

is

movement

the

system

new

only

not

which

voltune

but

of its full

increase

an

the group

on

aims

more

often

scattered

in this

pursuit,and
continuitywhich the
never

possessed.
of the

by

new

growth

which

all

There

no

individualistic
of

neither

cialization
so-

ization
disorgan-

first part of

this

old

passive dependence

at

and

of

participate
and

primary

that

institutions

viduals,
indi-

more

permanence

doubt

communistic

ous,
continu-

more

in common,

time

the

disappear,active

to

public spiritand
the

of

system

actions

is

hesion;
co-

old

the latter has


common

new

social

of

the country,

over

the

of
of

status

tends

pursued

are

primary*

advance

an

solidarityis becoming deeper, wider


for

the

result

in the

studied

as

individual

of the

represents

against the
vitality.Though the
even

with

decrease

against the

as

have

we

system

individualist
essentially

as

appear

not

social

entire

if compared
particularly
organization. And
yet the

group

participation

the

groups

ment
develop-

is accompanied

solidarity
intelligent
character

of

the

the coercion
cised
exerprimary-group institutions nor
institutions is able to produce.
The
by political
is easy.
explanation of this phenomenon
Every cooperative
institution emphatically pursues
social aim.
a
Of course
the main
slogan of the cooperativemovement
of social and
is the harmony
individual
interests,and
the appeal to individual needs is one
of the leading motives
in the propaganda in favor of the new
institutions.

old

304

THE

But

POLISH

naturallywhen

PEASANT

the individual

is

once

member

ot

cooperative organization the common


social aim" the
development, expansion, perfect functioning of the instituti
a

completely

"

hardly

are

interests
of the
he
at

which

common

its

the

egotistic

assured, and

is

expect

can

to

increase

of the institution.

growth,

and

the

On

share

member

advantages

contrary, there

institution, its security

the

atmosphere

thus

as

his

the

is imbued

group

becomes

he finds

which

with

common

interested

pirations.
as-

fare
social wel-

in

simply by activelypursuing together


which, as he is continuallymade to understand,

progress

others

those

There

advantages

He

with

with

aim.

helps to satisfy;his

cooperative

and

personal

connected

problems concerning

many
and

in

his

the institution

ever,

the expense

are

problems

any

seldom, if

absorbs

ends

contribute

social

to

welfare

and

progress.

The

is
psychologicalprincipleof the new
organization
dividual
simply the assumption that a social system which the involuntarilyhelps to realize must
ually
acquiregradin his eyes

than
whose
seem

much

system

maintenance

which

his
The

necessary.

is

'imposedupon

cooperative method

the

fosteringsocial

legal system
and

which

only, at
social

These
have

the

characters

limited
the

above
and

it

welfare

him

and

individual
a

progress,
absolute

is forced

to

in this

method;

terest
inpositive

whereas

trol
socialcon-

duces
accept pro-

negative interest in

and

dering
not hin-

progress.

of the
lead

and

to

does not

forms

develops

with

starts

the best,
welfare

discussed

present

which

bility
desira-

the coercive

to

an

in

and

positive contribution

interestingcontrast
by startingwith individualism
respect

importance

greater

new

us

imperfect
applicationsof

organizationwhich

to the conclusion

may
the

have

been

we

ever
that,howup

to tha

cooperative ideal,this

COOPERATIVE

ideal

is

eminently

of

and

improvement

chapter,
is

aims

we

that

attitude

as

positive

certain

of

cooperative

of

their

their

far

aims

activities

banning

On

the

for

latter

can

other

institutions

possible,

supplement

be

hand,
makes

so

of

obtained
the

that,

instead

one

another.

that

common

vidual
indi-

every

involves

ply
ap-

present
fact

very

expression
the

as

the

we

the

of

by

ciple
prin-

expansion
If

association

that

values

activity.

common

individual

institutional

for

allows

of

unlimited.

cooperation

free

on

the

at

leading

the

possibilities

practically

outlined

see

based

whose

are

criteria

the

it

order

305

becoming

of

capable

social

INSTITUTIONS

for

need

by

planful

rational

acter
char-

mutual
of

ment
adjusting,
interfer-

CHAPTER

THE

ROLE

The
to

Poles

develop

whose

form

of

totality of

monarchy

the

nation,

become

due

was

^the Polish

"

embraced
from
their

poorer
for

during

the

Europe
character

the

in

full
nation

later
even

while

Middle

predominated)
assuming

the

Ages
was

the
306

ffov^

ilar
sim-

German

the

tion
na-

important
the

was

cial
so-

amalgamation
at that period
tion
differentia-

their

as

"[^^

which

from

population
town

ing
rulers act-

simply

political life,

country

from
a

more

rights;
came

system of

somewhat

latter

to

concrete

amalgamation

proceeding

centuries

having

of

the

to

voluntary

The

reasons,

from

owing

not

the

from

century

this

the

later

twelfth

which

the

of

wealth,
Common-

which

class

participation

economic

Poland,

the

consciousness

consciousness

with

elements

deeper,

abstract

that

nobility.

of

the

perhaps

all citizens
rest

of

spite

in

national

the

of

group

termed

was

national

gradual

of

ethnical

Polish

of

reunited,

But

formation

structure

of

in

four

created.

the

fact

the

which

The

people

modern

expression

merely

not

to

by

first

LIFE

signified essentially

political units^-a

that

the

century,

part

by

NATIONAL

Poland

as

early origin

but

IN

concrete

an

This

force

was

for

Kingdom,

had

separate
to

e.,

eighteenth

principalities,was
by

t.

solidarity.

in

due

was

be

but

was

Puhlica,

the

state.

to

"nation,"

Res

to

of

claim

social

fifteenth

of

PEASANT

political unity

the

the

THE

may

into

conscious,

the

OF

VI

the

excluded

were

population (where

immigrants
prevented

political

from

ern
West-

by its ior"p
role

which it

POLISH

THE

308
the

clan subdivided

growing

distinguished by
formed

of the
late

as

of

(usually adjectives
the omiestates). Though

in

few

cases

real

times
some-

tity
idenin the

bond,

century the principleof the noble

sixteenth

groups

originin the clan lasted


the
eighteenth century and

common

remained

arms

narrower

names

of

names

the

as

itself into

family

the

from

sciousness

PEASANT

family

was

already more
fullyrepresented by these divisions of the
The
originalclans than by the clans themselves.
typical
noble
family at the time of the full development of the
nobility-nationsystem comprised thus the totality of
the individuals
the

same

of time

As

arms.

and

the

bearing
a

be united
each

; all

independent

over

its members

ing
hav-

tory
terri-

the

supposed

were

by stronger bonds than those which


of them
separatelywith the territorial

in which

bonds

and

name

was

scattered

However

space.

it

social group

of the Commonwealth,
to

family

same

he

Nor

lived.

the past and

did time

nected
conmunity
com-

weaken

these

future

generations theoretically
als
belonged to the family in an equal degree, all individuname
living simultaneously and bearing the same
and arms,
brothers
tenth cousins, were
lated
equally reor
another.
to one
Only the practical impossibility
of maintaining the full actual unity of the group
beyond
influence of Roman
certain limits and the individualizing
law

affected
These

the applications of this

agnatic family groups

innumerable

different
course

under

from

with

the

and
a

wife

different

of

whole

and

name

and

Christianitythe
between

unique character,

the

marriage.

The
a

by
nection
con-

ter
charac-

agnatic b)ood-relationship.Of

the influence

husband
assumed

had

interconnected

were

ties resulting from

by marriage

principle.

system.

which
But

mother
was

if

we

bond

dren
chil-

and
not

tween
be-

in

leave

cordance
ac-

this

ROLE

THE

unique

bond

OF

THE

out

of consideration

PEASANT

agnatic kinship and


clear.
the

male

same

through marriage
families.

Two

but

And

social

strongest

expected

connections

others,

and

We

of

constituted
from

aside

social elements

the

them
of the

of

Lithuania

"

strange that this social


has

political
system
which

the

of Poland.

relation

nation

and

and

the

leading
with

federated

^by extending

"

to

members

as

And

them.

The
itself

influence

essential
was

the

it is

hardly

only politically

of the

powerful

between

unity

absorbing

groups

structure
a

this

merous
actually establishing nu-

with

exercised

manifested

and

bility
no-

society,even

one

in

Ruthenia

and

family connections

this influence

unified

politicalmeasures
racial

spaceless

^the whole

"

of the ideal of

social body

active class

and

principles, treating them

same

same

families

of

spaceless unity

interest,how
political

any
other

of

consequence

timeless

nobility succeeded

Polonizing without
Poland

in
and

one
intrinsically

Polish

the

the

between

common

and

family

own.

how

and

the development

favored
how

the

^the

"

individual

his

between

easily understand

connection

strong

very

"

marriage

other.

each

past generations all the

his

with

one

important connections

most

agnatic family

with

kinship. Every

for many

connected

ried
intermar-

degree become

was

principles ^the timeless

two

the

know

least the

at

can

these

to

after

of

whole

between
once

connected

through marriage

families

the

in any

not

ever

link

bond

members

specificconnection

this

was

for

were

one

whose

distinct,did

is perfectly

which
primary bond
family. Connection

secondary

between

descendants

all the

into

families

remained

family

was

309

through marriage

was

members

LIFE

the difference

between

ancestor

individual

united

connection

Kinship

NATIONAL

IN

point in

on

the

which

the peculiar character


commonwealth

and

THE

310

POLISH

its members

assumed

monarchical

state

The

avoid

to

was

in the

in which

measure

superseded by

was

the earlv

ganisation.
republicanor-

fundamental

tendency of the nobility


positivepolitical
obligations which the

all

imposed.
originally

state

PEASANT

Taxes

reduced

were

to

most
al-

an

was
tory
obligamilitaryservice
jurisdictionassumed,
only for defensive purposes;
in fact if not in form, an
ever
increasing character of
arbitration.
The
whole
system of positive obligations
made
of which
the nation as a whole was
the object was
the state but upon
not
to rest
society,developed
upon

nominal

not

of

into
free

minimum;

moral

cooperation.

Every family was


to national

determination

free in the

was

family

had

but

to

spiritbut

as

the

to be able to

result

do.

to

imposed

any

state

of

as
an

system could
and

powers

contributions

enforced

not

untarily
vol-

Complete safetyfrom

governmental

any

thus

claim

be

not

than

more

from

the

moral

But
voluntarilyundertaken.
subject was
expected freely and

of

activities appear

every

be

much

freedom

in which

the

encroachments

any

The

particular duties.

sense

e., it could

its members

force

ever

do

without any

from

to

moral

as

of

contribute

to

of its powers,

limitation

or

activityis free, t.
outside

explicitlysupposed

life to the utmost

cooperation

but into one

legal duties

enforced

of

system

proofs of
old and

plete
com-

to state

lack of

public

desire
deep-rooted

morally meritorious
This
public cause.

as

any

activities

desire is quH^
performed for the
of the
with the familial structure
naturally connected
est
nobility. The family being itself a social body, the oldand

primary object of

sacrifices which
first

perhaps
the

mere

all individual

its members

even

any

made

aflv
obligations,

for

proof of national

refraining from

the

nation-^at

yond
besolidarity

doing positiveharm--

THE

ROLE

appeared

ing

PEASANT

IN

NATIONAL

as
originally
morally free and
sacrifices which
the family as a

make

to

THE

OF

become

for the
Such

part.

considered

larger

social

sacrifices

whole

but

the

moral

group

is the real

public spiritcannot

subject of

take

any

torious
meriwill*

was

of which

it had

gradually to
family, instead

duty of the
remaining outside of the sphere of that which
not
as
an
morally obligatory; and when
as

311

therefore

unit
came

LIFE

of
garded
re-

ual
individ-

activities,

national

other

is

be

It is

form.

ically
log-

and

impossible for a group, as long as


practically
it remains
tarily
solidary and self-conscious,to reach volunanother
it would
to have
a
point where
agree
of which
nation
it is a part
even
a
forcibly
group
instead of apimpose any obligationsupon its members
pealing
to the moral
feelingof the group as a solidary
that this group
had lost its
unity,for this would mean
solidarityand self -consciousness, had resigned control
"

"

its

over

members,

and

in

far

so

ceased

to

exist

as

group.
But
was

if

more

thus, on
than

social life and

the

anywhere
the

state

social life

perhaps
"

^turned into

was

in ancient

else
was

cooperationof society,on
of

life
hand, political

one

formally
nothing

the other
more

Greece

channels
political

subordinated

without

hand

than
and

and

in Poland
to

free

the

the whole

rent
cur-

cept
anywhere else exin republican Rome
"

the

state

was

the

object of social cooperation. This again is


essentially
explainedby the fact that the nobilitywas
It had
differentiated
itself
active group.
a politically
from the peasants and the bourgeoisie chiefly,almost
life,and the
exclusively,
by its participationin political
its only
rightand duty of this participationremained
We
of existence as a separate class.
might say
reason
that cver3rthingthe nobilitydid was
directlyor indi-

exclusive

POLISH

THE

3ia

PEASANT

rectlysupposed to have a political


bearing^,everything
direct or
the nobilitypossessed was
a
supposed to have
indirect significance
The
for the state.
principle whidi
is now
in all countries applied to specialpoliticaloffices
the principlethat a person
or
wielding political
group

"

by virtue

power

but

only

not

when

not

to

to

be

he

public

influence

of

the

he

At

the

same

his

of

most

exact

King

as

defined
his

''L'Rtat,c'est

moi"

though

more

strictlylimited

in

usually

fact

wider

was
"subjects,**

presiding
This

; the

King

than

system

utilized

be

not

could
^no

"

the

use

thority
au-

he
The

influence.

Louis

by

do

for

all his

time

control

limited

positionis
Ever)'

XIV.

sphere could

of

Poland, whose

by

the

say,

sphere,

Constitution,

was

of any of his nominal


inter pares, the sovereign

confederation

worked

dependents;

that

only primus

over

which

of

one

illustrate this

can

within

nobleman

could

fortune, his

his

parallelwhich
of the

status

Polish

person,

he would

by

national

political
power

; no

tion,
func-

sense

v/sls

his
to

nomic
eco-

activity and

"

was

purely moral
him
constrain
to do anything
except social opinion
obligationswere

made

purposes

in

nobleman,

in

was

had

country.

to

specificpublic

any

himself, his family and

social

benefit

for

used

support

whatever

the

also

public official. His person, his


belonged to the nation; his fortune

property

the

perform
private person;

but

influence.

social

owner

extended

^was

"

functions
political

and

the

not

his life

was

this power

he did not

was

nature

of

to

ownership
even

official position is

an

the manager

only

Poland

of

just

of
as

sovereigns.

absolute

monarchy

did

ing
felt to be bindobligationwas
The
by the politicalsovereign,king or nobleman.
teenth
decay of public spiritin the second half of the seven-

"

as

long

and

as

the

moral

first half of the

eighteenthcenturies

was

fol-

ROLE

THE

lowed

by

OF

THE

movement

of

May

PEASANT

IN

of reform
1

3,

to

the

of

politicallife.

partitionsof
made

But

Poland

work.

to

hand, the consciousness


social

no

of national

was

Polish

the

state

latter

remained

active

body

other

the

coercion, had
gone,

there

seemed

have

social

nothing

to

for

70

the

years

"

in the

sacrifices

past, but with

than

brought
until,after

the

and

of

role

power
was

and

death

ruin

last disastrous
the

finished.

on

political
the

common

of

state
cept,
ex-

the

state.

Every
to

always

unsuccessful

thousands

of

lution
revo-

families

effort in 1863, the

nobilitybroke
Thereafter

it had

greater difficulties and

much

before.

ever

nobility,

pursued by
nobilityrelentlessly
and
this new
political
supreme

diplomacy or by sword
aim
^pursuingit voluntarilyand freelyas
acted

the

the

with

in

do

of
The

On

cooperation, not
object;

was

unified and

conditions.

activities of

one

merely

not

indeed, the struggle for the recovery


And

the

nation.

remained

their

as

be

to

On

be

loss of

the

by

Polish

the

of

national

state

could

unity as

external

any

free

on

end

would

and

all the

based

of

an

under

hand,

though

as

third

and

deeply rooted that there


interpretingthe downfall

so

whatever
possibility

special
bourgeoisie

second

created

own

to

the

quite unique.

was

its

Constitution

the

situation

politicalindependence
but
political

the

313

stitution
the Con-

to

of coercion

came

before

The

led

by admitting

then

LIFE

nobilitylimited

power

and

state

which

the

791;

sovereignty by giving some


organs

NATIONAL

the

down

and

spirit

its political

militarystruggle for

carried on not by any particularclass


independence was
of
but by special organizations in which, indeed, men
first the National
noble origin played the main
part
tary
the miliLeague, later the Polish Socialist Party, finally
the leadership of Pilsudski.
organization under
"

But

meanwhile, in expectation of

an

ultimate

re-estab-

THE

314

of the

Kshment

PEASANT

POLISH

state, it

Polish

important the maintenance


for the

was

could

and
were

had

to

Thus

tional
na-

the

to

been

the

utilized

were

and

culture.

in hand

Church

also in

was

Here

factor, as

most

secure

life

national

field

the

ern
southeast-

White

and
interests

went

But

of the Uniats.

precc^dingchapters, the

national

ence
little influ-

but

as

we

role of the

olic
Cath-

limited

ternatio
its in-

by

the

and

cooperation lay elsewhere

"

widest
^in the

domain.

the

no
nobilitywas
longer the predominant
in political
in intellectual life.
and even
it was

function

which

it

performed

that of large estate-owners,

century, in
confiscations
of

of

basis,

population and,
was

strumen
in-

were

measure

had

life

art,

intellectual

Lithuania

of the

national

ure.
meas-

national

some

persecution

the

in Polish

of

economic

on

national

religiousand

politics.The
groimd

and

preservation

large masses

in the

seen

unified

intellectualinterests

the

some

century, Polish

aesthetic

Poland,

during

aesthetic and

have

the

for

Russian

of

upon

in

cooperation,particularlyin

Ruthenia, where
hand

the

became

Religion

national

part

done

(particularlyhistory)

which

interests of the Poles


and

already

nineteenth

science

through

was

this purpose.

for

had

during
and

literature

The

limited

be

longer

no

the latter

used

be

This, indeed,

of

consciousness,

narrowed
practically
racial struggle, inefficient parliamentary diplomacy
secret
revolutionary preparations. If the nation
terests
into remain
common
a solidarysocial body, other

field,since
political
to

revolutionary spirit

national

preservationof

cooperation

of

ever
how-

that

evident

was

the

consequence

of

following each
peasants,

the

and

as

economic

by

the end

several

causes

class
of
"

crisis

the

last

^wholesale

revolution,economic
financial

was

ation
liber-

precipitated

THE

3i6

part did

most

and

such

No

who,

peasants

reliable

and

large

because

estates

into their

both

the

the nation.

Thus

future

the

the

cooperative institutions
could

energy
and
the

That

turned

plan

its

the

then

obstacles

by

L.

social
and

purposes

of

no

would

body

logical
psychonational
thus

unity,as

in

means

Posen,
in

Bernhard,
the

come
be-

the

bility
no-

chimerical

is

where

hostile

1906 employed
adequate

most

economic

Polish

terra

system in this province.

the

which

put in the way


the

removed;

division

peasants has been


of laws

passed.
a

and

the German
of

Polish

of

decided

all

by

Russian

institutions

large

estates

the Polish

to

have

based

all
litical
po-

been
the

among
a

have

be expected that the

cooperative system,

the

ments
govern-

Diet, and

favoring cooperative associations

It is therefore

nation-wide

of

system

cooperative organizations of
made
to have
an
astonishingprogress
peasants seem
Poland, particularlyduring the war.
over
Lately
Since

be

to

foundation.
political

"peasant republic"as

to characterize

year

began

economic

of national

was

observer. Prof.

of

unity of
by unifying the

peasants

proved by the results achieved


the words

proving
is im-

every

coherent

to

The

social foundation

such

outside

pass

through

and

enormous

be

was

been

economic

the

of

vast

expansion.

in the past

^has

"

farming

class

peasant

peasants

whose

be created

defense

lots and

bearer

of

interests

jority
ma-

economic

land

on

their

because

absolute

whose

By organizing sociallyand

economic

might

based

in small

sold

are

the

and

the

among

continuallyincreasing number

hands.

considered

Poland

because

continuallygrowing,

found

were

stillconstitute

population of

most

"

difficulties

moreover,

of the
power

tions),
participatein Polish national institucompetition predominant in trade and

not

of the

industry.

PEASANT

POLISH

ber
num-

been

idea

chieflyon

of
the

THE

OF

ROLE

cities,will rapidlyprogress

of

in order

But
economic

to have

assume

evidentlyindispensable

in

the

conscious

and

[There

about

Our

realization.

the

national

purpose

of

ideal

tion
coopera-

in this

documents

ter
chap-

of national

chieflythis growth

be

belief in such

The

1913.

would

popular prophecies that Poland

were

although only half serious.


ism"

working

in the peasant.

consciousness

freed

national

clear.

the

toward

implant

to

the

to illustrate

meant

183.

make

to

masses,

also

317

organizationbased on
it
national significance,

is

LIFE

social

the

cooperation

are

NATIONAL

IN

PEASANT

including probably

class but

peasant
class

THE

(conceiving Poland

prophecies is very frequent


of "Messianmystical current

The

the Messiah

as

of the

nations) developed

after

has lasted up to the present,


1831, the influence of which
helped to create an atmosphere in which these beliefs lived. The
Polish

great
all

more

less

or

closelyrelated

Messianism,

to

their

writings a prophetic character

eyes

of the

the influence

which
we

read

hearts

our

such

Will

colors.

Hand

more

1913, that

still in

when

us

they showed

because

for in His

touched

is

in the

of the young
less

or

by

infancy, about

our

dawn

future

of

to

future

in

God

families

our

which
dear

so

the

of

these hopes be realized?

fate, the

our

the

us

about

great year

prophecies,so mysterious but also

many

beautiful

be

last the year

at

told

nurses

our

fail to

Few

of

some

ideas.]

of Messianic

beginning

are

have

education

some

in

this character

bear

and

Krasinski,

and

assume

nation, particularlyof the youth.

people with
We

Slowacki

romanticists, Mickiewicz,

knows,
of

and

all nations.

We

look with
is

do

must

share

our

It is

warrior.

of the law
on

for

the contrary

hope and

with

fatherland, and

days.

of
us

arouse

regeneration.

begin
the

hope toward

faith and
bad

to

Let

the firm
God

will

to

see

greet the

give

us

to

work

new

loses

he who
that

expropriation] shall
to play the national

decision

work, in order

national

future, as

part

our

then

us

the

not

part

year

age
cour-

this blow

forcemen
[en-

deadly

be

and

with

to

but

prepare

faith and

ardently for the Polish

justiceand

we

shall

see

better

THE

3i8

POLISH

PEASANT
Polska,

G"ueta

[It is interestingto

184.
slow

and

of the construction

process

of national
from
the

What

the

series of those

mother-nation,

beginning

of

brought

in the midst
on

which

It is the

The

nations.

idea

which

for

only

while

live the life of

to

It is

is

The

then

on

26
.

blows
once

more,

duty

to

hope.

Polish

must

diffusing and
of

says

have

of
:

"In

in

women

deliberate

"Polish

violent

so

strength into
hero,

young

It
such
even

the

us

resistance

jurious
heavy and in-

Polish

grief and
about
the
to

ways

Polish
the

I.

in Beu-

population

Silesia consider

Upper

together

1913,

Day"

the face of the

common

strengtheningamong
fortifyingour

Women's

recently struck

publicly our

announce

We

which

we

fate of

littlewhile.

proclamation

March

It

chosen.

once

not

victory!

the

Lech,

185.

true

breast.

the

decides

love and

us,

the

life of the nation

our

to

It is not

spiritliving in

the way

to

arose

closer

world!

has

matured

It

bayonets decides

little from

put ourselves,

It is worth

to

Slavs.

gives strength and

even

service.
if it lasts

it, the

and

is heroism

the

and

recede

while

the

at

last year

accomplish everything!

of the heroic

is worth

lusion
de-

new

bom

was

comes

name

governs

power

it cannot

beloved

dream

to

the

land?
father-

our
our

Balkans

and

Its

us.

cannon

does

spiritwhich

is the radiant

that

of

It

brother

our

world

of the fist can

power

with

fate, one

began

in the

cannon

of

might

that

true

that the number

true

of

^to cheer

"

her

we

pression.]
self-ex-

now

whole

the

this

of

strengthening faith.

in the blood

splendid victorious
It is not

is

sight of

face
of

romantic

passing away.
disappointments^ that lapse of time

of the thunder

of

the

on

hopes which

and

admiration

that the

scar

of

comparison

the

istence
ex-

exchnfel

intense

more

in

us

sigh because

secret

soil drenched

the

deeper
more

new

to

mean

is almost

outburst

an

passed before

have

the year

of

fuller and

some

spiteof all the

us

time

to

last year

one

the

in

Yet

time

which
still

One

tions
founda-

elementary

higher cultural life

longing for

does

with

the

from

appearance
a

of the

i-

the sober

of

life,in the prosaic every-day struggle for

which

enthusiasm,

middle

in the

how

note

I9i3"

our

and

it

our

common
means

national

Germanization

of
sciousness,
con-

in-

ROLE

THE

OF

and

nundation

of

and

ideals which

the

Baltic

the

Polish

hamlets

of

Poland.

that

are

we

ancient

our

the

from

show

The

186.

the

*'We

conscious

the

of

that

wish

we

in this

love

Christ

and

and

that

above

that

will

we

our

5)

to

7)
Polish

declare

do

souls:

our

taking

to

Polish

sacraments,

language inherited

care

language,
that

they

from

the

that

will work

and

after

watch

all national

on

for the

outposts

strengthening of this

that

we

we

continually and

will

we

national

that

tongue

Polish

conscientiously
work

will

join

and

6)

all the

from

in Beuthen,

1913

efforts

the

receive

passed :
and

country

the

women

were

moment,

write

and

always speak only

native

our

we

associations

for

honor

meeting-house

the depths of

utmost

Silesia

Upper

hundred

31,

present

from

our

and

March

on

the

read

to

language

and
persistently,

4)

of

the

of

66.

purity of
3)

meeting

devote

to

learn

only

2)

mother, of

one

in

Fifteen

all parts

sight of God

the

pray

fathers

the

at

children

our

also,

all, from

we

following resolutions

importance

before

solemnly
that

preserve

appear

Polish

of the

Beuthen.

from

women

all classes,present

i)

to

Slqski, 1913,

Women

Polish

court

near

The

meetings.

Polish

the

31, in the

[hive],in Rossberg,

attended

the

of

Convention
March

place on

"Ur

the national

fatherland."
Kuryer

took

Polish

fatherland,

that

of

all of

the

our

you

children

Carpathians, are

of

honor

Do

all the

Come

fathers, and

our

provinces and

Polish

of

and

generations.

coming

the

to

defend

to

inherited

the

other

Sea

wish

cause.

from

daughters

true

319

Polish

holy

our
women

have

for

from

sisters

for

LIFE

sisters, Polish

ardent

our

we

intact

them

hearts

feel heartily,keenly the wrong

we

it is

that

NATIONAL

IN

our

here

thus

show

nation, that
and

wanning

villagesand

towns,

PEASANT

hasten

Therefore

you

THE

honor
will

will

as

far

as

books

we

will
and

tend

in

property

our

possiblecarry

Kindred," i.e.,go only


that

on

guard

deposit

banks

everywhere stand

to

always

our

to

own

out

the

kindred

financial

slogan

to

learn

stitution
in-

dred
''Kin-

[Poles] ;

enlightenment,

more

publications in order

Polish

to

know

read
our

POUSH

THE

320

[Polish] civic duties and


of

God

This

faith and

Catholic

native

Polish

im

often

in various

When
national

in the

learn

we

this

[Immediate and

to

Polish

from

and

the hidden

beg

put

assumption

Dec

end

an

the Lord

its knees

on

its

to

In

the

with
at

was

so

wish

The

in

prison

issued

was

who

son

refuse

to

as

[Clear and

school

157.

1912,

stitution
Con-

Russian

to

except

in

one

had

forgave
the

court

offended

was

the

munal
com-

ended

were
on

other

each

this

all

condenmed
his

father

to

and

beg his pardon.

practicalconnection

Swiqtecxna,

of

1905, 4d

religionand

ity
moral-

nationality.]

Parents
to

hope.

constitution

the

Gaseta

with

snn

all of

our

parties,for people

quarrel and

to

decree

one

them

of the

agreement

not

obdurate

190.

is

law-suits

30

were

time, but all of

this

did

months

three

this

created

Gdanska,

proclamation of

great joy. There

Only

offences.

ardent

hopes of national autonomy

in Poland

the
.

by the spontaneous
joyful day

of all Lords

gloomy clouds;

emotions.

effect of national

Podd^bice
court

is

realized.]

not

celebrated

igu.

sufferings. An

Gaseta

provoked

29,

world.]

Him

of 1905

Our

nationalism

that

us

[Moral

land.
father-

forward

go

Stanislawowski,

penetrates

sun

wishes

limits

we

has

were

expressed

our

it without

unconquerable spiritof our nation. God


ruin.
He will not permit our
With
Poles.

which

it

1831"

love of the

our

is the

189.

our

j"

1913,

circle of

slowly, yet

very

of the

will

nation

pity its thralldom

ray

find

We

shall love

naive

part of the divine order


The

of

after

poetry

innermost

Kuryer

Polish

through

we

r^eneration proceeds

188.

love

Polenlager,

virtues.

shall be re-bom

We

freedom.

for

the

forms.]

regeneration is

National

the

of all human

basis

glorj

tongue."

[This idea originatedin

patriotism as

of

name

Umschau

187.

the

nation.

the

in

for

children

our

up

Polish

solemnly

promise

we

bring

to

benefit of the

the

and

PEASANT

The

and

not

time
to

approaches
Polish

one

when

but

to

your
the

children

Prussians,

must

which

go
is

ROLE

THE

dangerous for

very

that Germanization

if you

bring

up

ancient

Polish

customs,

leads

little children

your

you

be

may

will not

has

in

Wohyn

so

is situated

lasie which

is inhabited

what

on

went

here

Every
aloud

nor

life

had

religiousand

national

attitudes.]

district of Pod-

of that

last 30

so

what

few

the

different

the

hurts

complain

undoubtedly have

proclamation of

also to say

fered.
suf-

we

to

not

as

knew

alone

God
and

years

his breath

tell what

to

296.

them,

ished.
per-

high

most

parts of the
tants
inhabi-

the

we,

at least about

words

our

during these three decades.


Uniat

removed,

etc.

Then

of their own,

church,

our

were

always nominated

such

as

imposed

Banachowicz,

clergyman of
in

of October
from

and

what

and

not

for

our

it is not
was.

the

whom

One

we

those

of

actually tortured
Itmds, ran away.
tried

it should

Today

we

dead
etc.

Mayors
Stefan

mayors,

and

us

finally,

In the school
Catholic

teach

to

after the

allowed

without

elected but

had

be but it is

are

property.

our

Orthodox],

complaints. Today
as

collect these

to

sent

destroyed

denomination

yet

by the decisions

burying

those

us.

upon

another

it

longer a church

no

us

troops
and

fines

the communal

spite of
30

and

cows

oppressed and

having embezzled

priest

spite of the prohibition.


upon

[ratherthan Greek

religiousceremonies

children

Hurko,

oxen

in

imposed

were

paid innumerable

were

having

L^niat

the

go to divine service with us to the Catholic


church
also closed.
Our people having
was

fines

enormous

Uniats

the Uniats,

opened the church

pray

devoured

closed,

was

to

of the Governor-General
fines

here

when

Catholic

to

this

church

began

our

place

The

and

1912,

people from

30

wish

Wohyn,
the

For

nation,

Ludotua,

the

after

when

First

no

into

grow

Gazeta

pain, for he would

beginning

are

the

hold

to

of October

of

Polish

so-called Uniats.

the

by

from

Today
country

in

tongue,

they will

the

and

Therefore

mother

that

sure

the borderline

on

during

one

groan

Manifesto

the

generally

tioner
prison or under the axe of an execuoften happened recently in Upper Silesia.

[Connection between

xgx.

it is

since

321

their lives in

end

as

LIFE

Lutheranization.

to

acceptable to God, the Church

men

Poles, Catholics,

you,

known

NATIONAL

IN

PEASANT

THE

OF

Manifesto

ent
already differ-

to

complain

at

least.
In

gratitudeto the Most

High God

for

having

sent

us

ray of

POLISH

THE

3aa

hope

we,

have

put

roubles

together

which

least

at

[Cz^stochowa]
his

according^to
Warsaw.

The

of the

Beloved

our

Queen,

the

Most

few

and

each

grosz

7 roubles

send

to

and

in

for

Jasna Gora

Editor

mass

to

be said before

must

Virgin of Czgstochowa, the Holiest


she will

that

so

deign

in

intercede

to

34

the

of

Jasoa

remaining 27 roubles
in
htmgry brethren

our

among

much,

collected

holy

the

distribute

to

discretion

own

mass

contribute

to

sending herewith, begging

are

we

Swiqteczna

the Gaaeta
Gora

fellows, though unable

ruined

poor

PEASANT

the

akar

and

Mother
favor

our

before

High Manager of the world for all our permissible


and
particularlythat he deign to give us back as soon

possible the opportunity of praying in


is stillclosed

which

to

up

and

now,

persecuted for having been

that

and

born

last

at

for

of

church

our

be

we

quests
reas

Wohyn
longer

no

remaining Poles

and

Catholics.

written

Poetry
went

to

On
I

by
school.]

the

desire

in

slavery, chained

to

king of
and

meadows,

primeval forests.

millions

soul, may

your

leaving the world.

garlands of those
tomb
the

as

from
an

But

every

songs.

from

never

Middewicz,

the

to

in

''bom

man

the

Pan

poem

I will

of

loved

May

take

I will

at

spring

you
who

how

poured

you

least consecrate
hands
for your

will

put

can

so

you

much.

cept
Ac-

them

I express

in my
to

and

our

wreath

girlssing

upon
in

your

turning
tude
grati-

my

soul, warming

your

plant with

sake

and

com

people

loved

which

songs

these

the whole

beloved

which

poor;

with

able

strength of
the 50th anniversary of

honor

your

not

am

place let sing

my

with

people

your
am

in

us

people

which

songs

but

glory !

fields covered

our

country

willing Polish

blossom
your

the

offering for

for these

which

Adam

sing it worthily.

to

field-flowers

spinning wheels.

heart?

life

my

[quotation

song,

You, who

your

them

of

death

poet of eternal

song,

magnificent

you

waters

our

weak

interests.

hand, it will inspireme.

Adam,

sing

of

cradle"

his

I feel too

but

lute in my
O

first song

sing the

national

scarcely spell and

can

the

of

50th anniversary

to

Tadeusz],

who

peasant

and

aesthetic

[Connection between

192.

memory

worship;

rustle

trees

50

they

may

softlywhen

my

sing

THE

324

of the emperor,

jects and

and

who

lead them

PEASANT

all people who

remember

scoundrels

POLISH

their

oath

think

faithful

sanely, are

ought

not

perhaps promise them

listen

to

various

to

gold but

of

mountains

sdh

destruction.

They ought to prove their feelingsas


truthful subjects and quietlyawait die decision of higher powen
to

concerning their demands.


mentioned,

written

authorities.

..."

When
to

the

in Polish, have

this circular

circular

be

to

follows

as

''We

2) As

have

we

''scoundrels.''

wish

but

to write

this occasion

basing

today and
of October
demand
shall

give us papers

2)

year.

village to the

We

papers

police and

paying, and
to

lamation
Proc-

offensive

an

ner,
man-

people, we

do

equally o"Fensive,

manner

us

the

the most

omitted

we

of

term

demand

we

decide

to

at

high Manifesto

last

our

We

meetii^.

interest at the

and

not

be

be

not

; in

rate

of

per

12

admitted

every

Swiqtecsna, and

Gcuseta

Dziennik

gendarmes shall

weeks

two

immediately for

subscribe

the paper

positivelyshall

than

more

no

Zorza

Pohk,

office to
the

also upon

of

the decision

3)

Pawszeckny.

given
to

wagons

vrithout

communal

ings.
meet-

shall be admitted
4) All adult inhabitants of the commune
communal
meetings. 5) We request the abolition of the taxes

imposed

upon

hogs, and
care

what

within

for the comn!iune


The

The

"i) The governmental fire-insuran"^ offices


the payWe
demand
written only in Polish.
ments

follows:

as

of

understand

not

add, in conformity with

action

1905,

30,

of postponement

cent

in

proclamation of the chief gives

we

our

of insurance
case

do

cultured

persons

so/'

right to do
On

are

we

authorities

our

that the

mention

we

to

As

the

proclamation
i

in

commune

400

"

reasons,
we

proper

the resolution"

the

to

answer

language which*

the

to

judged

signed

informed, it is written

been

callingus
not

in

communes

commune

unanimously

for two

Wggrow

the

meeting of the

i8, the

any

of

presented

all of whom

give

cannot

is written

the

at

resolved

meeting,

the chief of the district

been

December

on

illegaland

present at the

were

read

was

present

persons

All the resolutions

at

butchers, the insurance

also the road

all about

taxes, because

the state

liberation

of all

solidaritywith those who

taxes

of

our

roads.

on

cattle,horses

the government

6) We

demand

politicalprisoners. 7) We
demand

that the losses which

does
the

express

and
not

mediate
imour

they have

THE

ROLE

OF

in consequence

8) We

PEASANT

of the state

of

IN

and

other

using of the

the

We

[name].

ol

only by

demand

the

demand

we

the autonomy

10) We

the

commit
be

can

of

representatives and
at

the

suspended

as

reason

lative
legis-

direct

decision

in

things

the

to

mayor,

vote.

mune
com-

elected

Gtuchowski,

of the 399

of 310

who

presidency of the local


similar

to

of
and
national

found

those

in

Polish

and

addition

have

beaten.

We

from

the

Kingdom

of

army

but

band

We

population. 14)
inside the

of

and

unarmed
the

removal

Poland, because

they

that

and

persons

at

troducti
in-

general

more

people

innocent
of

are

Cossacks

the
not

r^^lar

demoralizing

17) We

liberty. 18) We

homes,

Koztowice

the

militaryservice be performed

shortened.

be set

in Warsaw,

...

offenders
political

of
inviolability

demand

be

the

tion,
administra-

commune

robbers, stealing,and

and

country

the

demanding
have

farmers

quite

demand

under

protest against the beating of

and

localities,where

been

of

autonomy

13) We

brothers, the workmen

to the number

met

[passed resolutions

last document

following which

the

duced."
intro-

not

right to vote, and

Jan Puhata

the
the

:
significance]

other

the

mayor
in

Kaski

commune

have

office

SwiqiecMnQ; unpublished.

Gazeia

to

of (Re

inhabitants

The

Z94.

all

with

11) The functions in the commune


long as the Polish language is

Letter

and

the

be

can

present meeting.

remain

our

demands

of Poland

or

name

proper

land, for this

Aleksander

Mr.

to

the

of the present
to

them.

to

the Vistula/'

by general and

executed

immediately

325

''Kingdom of

our

of the

good

name

of

use

these

elected

execution

UFE

near

t^heKingdom

in Warsaw

congress

which

9) Because
general autonomy

the

"Land

name

''Kingdem of Poland."
realized

NATIONAL

shall be made

war

protest against the abolition

Poland''
any

THE

the

demand

that

that the

demand

libertyof speech and

of

the press,
We

of

that

demand

of Poland

meetings be put into effect. 19)


be called for the Kingdom
legislative
congress

associations
a

in Warsaw

"

one

and

for Russia

demand

that

peasants.
As

long

as

our

Petersburg
"

upon

the

equal suffrage.

22)

governmental lands be distributed among

less
land-

principleof general, direct, secret


We

in

and

...

demands

are

not

granted, we

will

not

pay

any

POLISH

THE

326
taxes,
will

will

we

the present

I.
1

Decisions

Considering
The

with

decision

Letter

295.

and

to

that

of

we

Here

police.

low.]
signed. [310 signatures fol-

(1905)-

Sxviqiecsna;unpublished

Gazeta

Poland

meeting

in Warsaw.

is

it has

separate country, that

needs, and

national

this

from

that

organization;
separate political

2) that the country

be

can

deprived of voice

managed

well

but

decides

can

govern

if its

only

itself about

tion
popula-

matters

nected
con-

this management;

3) that local authorities


if

only
itself,and

the

and

court

necessityof

with

the officials and


it is

distinct social, reUgious and

is not

the

of the peasant

Kingdom

results the

will close

give recruits,we

not

interruptall relations

ends

PEASANT

they

therefore

the country

from

come

in

from

country

our

skilfullyand
and

tiously
conscien-

from

the Polish

the

society

population;

that

authorities
forty ye^rs of government
by Russian
have brought incalculable losses to this country ;
unable
authorities are
to
5) that the present Russian
form
per-

4)

their

even

safety

of

primary duty, that is,to

life and

Kingdom

of

of

Poland

and

the

Kingdom

the

politicalinstitutions
into the

i.e.,autonomy.

meeting

of

peasants

of the

decides:

i) Social order
of

the

property;

the inhabitants

to

assure

Poland

development

prosperous

only
of

the

of

Kingdom

after

thorough

country, that

self-government should

This

of

reconstruction

is, after the

of national

Poland

possible in

are

duction
intro-

self-government,

be

based

upon

the

following principles:
a)

All

by
whole

laws

regulations for

and

diet in Warsaw,

country

without

the

constituted

excluding

any

country

should

be

by representatives of
class

estate, any

of

population, that is, elected by universal,equal, direct and


suffrage of
b)
the

c)
IL

inhabitants

local government

The

official

Polish

all the

language

in

of the
be

must

schools,

courts

Polish

the
the

secret

land;

constituted
and

acted
en-

by Poles

offices

must

be

and
the

language;
Local

governments

i) Before

language

must

should

be

responsible to the Diet.

is introduced
complete autonomy
necessarilyand immediately be made

the

Polish

the

official

ROLE

THE

in all schools, courts

language
called

be

PEASANT

THE

OF

and

civil offices,and

civil administration

the

to

NATIONAL

IN

LIFE

327

Poles

should

of the country;

2) It is indispensablethat the principlesof the Manifesto


October
and

be

30

proclaimed

that this constitution


III.

i) The

tasks

g^reat

country

and

the

basis of

as

which

authorities ;

do

offices nor
look
for help but
to them
governmental
with
particular zeal, spontaneously satisfying its

its solicitude

extending

safety of

the

The

IV.

their

lives and

Polish

inhabitants, and

the

over

moment

when

and

people

stand

members]

against

with

counts

The

her.
such

the whole

whole

the

nation

help of

the

Polish

the

upon

work

must

needs,

own

for

watching

be

is in

order

and

At

the

her
ent
pres-

rights for herself

win

must

incite

who

[her

settle internal

to

ac*

for

preparing destruction

are

will oppose

peasants

nation

successful.

danger, those

in

violence

the

national

of

ground

of

work

nation

another

one

Russian

property.

unity, for only by unity will the


struggle for her rights and welfare
when

their

perform

not

for the call of the

wait

cannot

dependen
in-

moment,

every

disorganizationreigns in the

its authorities

commune

constitution,

self-government has

fulfil at

it must

when

and

as

by the Monarch.

to

sworn

moment

government

functions,

promise but

standpoint of the Russian

2) At the present
Russian

be

as

commune

duties

of the

not

of

with

all their

strength all

attempts.
The

V.

meeting acknowledges that


citizens of

and

the

country

quarrels between

workmen

settled in

them

The

VI.

concord

good

Polish

and

to

it is the

mediate
and

duty of all

lightened
en-

in misunderstandings

landlords,

as

so

have

to

peacefully.

people, through

their

representatives

at

the

meeting of the peasants of the Kingdom of Poland, express their


faith and to their fatherland,
attachment
to the holy Catholic
Poland, and
national

desire

to

build

the

future

of the

religiousprinciples handed

and

country

down

to

us

upon

by

the
our

fathers.
Gazeta

196.

by

[This and
the Poles

goods in
which

gave

of the

answer

the

the

to

Prussian

following documents
Congress Kingdom
the

Prussian

Commission

concern

and

''Law
of

Swiqttczna,

of

Galicia

1905, 52.

the

cott
boy-

of German

Expropriation,"

Colonization

the

right

THE

3a8

POLISH

PEASANT

expropriate Polish landowners

to

for the benefit of German

tlers]
set-

Zaglfbia is informed

Kuryer

commercial

and

that

government

an

answer

will be

of Russian

received

was

represented

that

from

no

further

any

securities.

Russian

the

to

boycott by
reference

With

in

Poland

the

Yet

spreading.

one

trial
indus-

Petersburg [stating]that

prevented from

declare

have

they will reply to

the value

on

circles

that influential German

sure
pres-

this

to

the

Warsaw

cott
boypapers
news-

thinking of ending

is

the

boycott.

Grudsiqdgka encourages

Gcaeta

197.

words:

"How
and

Savings Banks

Polish

much

the Poles

Banks!

place their hard earned

savings in German

of the enemy

against their

nation?

own

deposit them

weapon
We

in German

traitors to their
Prussian

adjure

to

government

who

Mme.

who

put in the hands

savings

they will by

because

of

Walewska

recommends

those

wishes

one

no

that
to

not

to

become

help

the

expropriate."

to boycott the Prussian

who

man
yet in Gernot

possess

Umschau

198.

Do

lowing
fol-

the

associates,against their

people. Probably

own

with

even

banks

own

all those

banks

is

money

Raiffeisen

Polenlager, 1908, d

im

Umschau

Warsaw

resorts

Prussian

resort

Polenhger,

im

her

encourages

and

says

his

to

that every

iqqB.

ii.

men
country-

physician

patientscommits

sin

against the nation.


im

Umschau

tradespaper [in Posen], issued a memorial


tion
that the first aim of the [Polish industrial]exhibi-

Kupiec,

Z99.

shows

which
is

boycott German

to

directlyencours^
a

list of

order

that

and

to

firms

Polish

company

promote

of that

in

more

it is the wish

issue be

in every

efficient way

of the publication

contents

boycotting,e.g., in

only, and

copy

The

commerce.

article it

gives
of the publishing

an

Polish

the national

house

in

commerce

industry.
Umschau
200.

ago

Polenlager, 1908, 52.

The

issued

boycott committee

which

call to the school

youth

im
was

to

Polenlager, 1908, 87.


established

some

time

buy books, supplies and

THE

ROUE

uniforms

from

German

PEASANT

THE

OF

firms

Polish

IN

only and

The

boycotting
German

boycott committee

German

do

absolutely every

hide

commission

also

publish

and

the

to

To

eliminate

and

Polish
made

circles

only

not

nations

which

Polish

soil

to

Polish

also

capital but

Cracow

formed
the

promote

appeal will be
the capital of all

to

make

to

purchase of

the

prevent

it possible

by Germans.

In

been

24.

an

in order

im

Umschau

203.

stores

ing
Galicia, the lead-

e.g.,

industry and

German

will

igofi*Sept

PoUnlager,

im

gigantic move,

committee

boycotted.

friendly to Poland,

are

check

to

plan

that

of the

listof German

industry from

German

they

The

stores.

Umschau
aoa.

boycott

declare

permit the members

and

merchants

be

which

stores.

of

organization,give proof that

exjimine their

should

7.

methods

new

specialsigns if

by

the list of such

goods which

The

Galicia.

goods,

German

planning

is

1908, Sept.

PoUnlager,

im

the rules of the

out

carry
not

boycott

in

goods

will be marked

ware

they will

and

329

store.

aoi.

has

LIFE

avoid

to

Umschau

they

NATIONAL

first of

for

Prussian

and

11.

highest circles
in great

ware

all the

this movement

1909,

Czartoryska

leadershipof Princess

the

boycott of German
all win

of ladies of the

committee

under

Polenlager,

style,

and

women

to

girls

of Galicia.

204.

Polskie

Stowo

Polenlager, 1909, 51-

im

Umschau

Lemberg, Dec. 28th, 1912,

of

with

notes

pleasure the fact that the Polish national stamps with the printed
continuallyincreasing
are
watch-word, "Away with Germanism,"
in

circulation
are

an

in

less

invisible and

Galicia

frequent

and
in

disregardof
with black paint"

at

tears

once

the embellishment

The

them

im

it discloses

and

commonplace

and

ments
announce-

they

down,"

appear,

city,"covers

Polentager,

with

or,

them

1913,

i.

struggle [in Posen] is so


peculiar and striking content

study of the national

interestingbecause
in well-known

"wherever

of the

Umschau

205.

signs

German

Lemberg, and

hand
pitiless

evident

that

forms.
.

THE

330

Small

and

country
with

loan

banks

sometimes

and

in

town

the

traditional

lean.

which

on

central

bank

market, and

great money

the

and

central

all

on

often

smaller,

receiving
help, forming

giving advice

over

schematically,

together, sometimes

furnishingnecessary

some

spread

are

almost

way,

larger institution

all these

capitaland

PEASANT

professional unions

the

dwarfish, associations
bind

POLISH

ment
manage-

the

surplus

bridge

to

questions of

organization.
Every

country

Exactly the
Prussia

[system] has

same

i860

since

proved successful
The

Rhine.

the

in

problems

in this

whatever

"Credit

associations

hears

one

does

of

12

sec.

the

"proper authorities," and


proved by
they

used

ever

politicalpurposes.
And

The

far

Polish

are

On

the

contrary,
avoided.

be

struggle,"

explicitly,''
says
"that

field

the

questions

such

takes

good

the
I

as

know,

it has

credit associations
election

or

smallest

part of

the

ings."
meet-

at

that

care

be

could

openly

denounced

day

same

ligious
re-

of

which

association

activities
the

even

terests
politicalin-

any

everything which

on

been

never

took

an

to

active

propaganda,

their

income

or

for

credit associations

yet, in spite of all this, the


unions

discuss

be

as

part, for instance, in Sokol


that

and

meetings,

at

of

outside

lie

that Polish

one

any

had

which

of national

administration

politicalcolors would

showed

in West

agriculturalunions,

politicalactivity. An

interpreted as

models

understood

keep far from

associations

Polish

be

to

to

Prussian

the

Besides
the

allowed

it is not

and

unions

and

politicsshould

all

Polish

of

program

system.

notice

not

instruments

be

cannot

politicalproblems

and

the

peaceful construction*

meetings. **It is

at

up

in Posen

discussed

are

emphatically repeated that

it is

such

developed provinces, particularlyon

more

same

now

upon

superficialinvestigationone

on

grown

formed
.

has

province

every

the
.

real

in

arsenals

associations

are

and

fessional
pro-

politicalwarfare.

politicalpower;

they

have

This is how
gradually the leading political
power.
is explained. The
bridge which constitutes the
the contradiction
even

become

passage

from

the

purely economic

business

field

to

the domain

of

A
credit associa*
politicalstruggle is called personal union.
national
from
politics,but the
tion must
keep carefully away
and
professionalorganizations
leaders of the credit associations
...

THE

332

president together
is considered

After

of

particularlyexperienced tnembers

few

workmen's

Catholic

"Alliance

the

with

agriculturalorganizationscome,

the

"Alliance

with

PEASANT

representative of agriculturalinterests.

the young

power,

POLISH

unions,

Unions"

Workmen's

Trade-unions"

of

have

leaders

The
the

of industrial

and

associations

forward

the Strae

associations
political

overrated, for the

activityof these

sistingin agitationand calculatingon


rational

wealth

the Sokols

should

few

members

and

national

work

shouU

men

organizations, cooeffects,prevents

sudden

added

be
of

the

have

few

high church

nobilitywho

won

through

selves.
them-

there
.

fifteen to twenty

are

Up

the

to

in the

men

[the latter] lacks,

present

ment!
''govern-

....

might

faction

the

manifest

and

represents

will the

commonwealth

Polish

the

properly cleansed

is

world

real

"government

strongly to the outside

more

say,

in

Poles"

great

strong position for

politicalrepresentation,for the Polish faction


[Prussian] parliament is incapable and unprepared.
of

any

taries,
digni-

official

when

put

leaders

and

Thus
"

ness
weak-

work.
these

To

and

of these

presidents,but the influence

their

be

not

the

Only
ture
pic-

of the

its volitions

tendencies.
L.

The

and

classes

multiform

is not

from

the

both

In

fact

we

have

pp.

I5i-i54f

even

as

find in the

we

nineteenth

in favorable

conditions

the

studied

is

tellectua
in-

yet,

as

sufficiently

the

supreme

social ization.
organof the social activities

behavior

psychology

Polish

century, and

quoted, it

individual

214-217.

imparted to the
approximately as rich

ideals

examples here

become

developed to
principleof
which

PoUnfrage,

that which

as

circles in the
see

Die

Bernhardt

of the national

content

uneducated

we

of

organizations.

the

Among

of the

imposing personalities,
partly because

very

of their

and

on

are,

contrary, provisionallyin the badcground, partly because

their not

of

influence.

an

commercial

the

president

the

and

....

real

to

president of

the

that

so

regard

in this volume

and

can

be

properly

ROLE

THE

tanderstood

OF

THE

only

if

PEASANT

IN

NATIONAL

realize that

we

LIFE

all of them

and

each

333

lutionary
preservationof the old system, revotendencies, social re-organizationwith the help

of

education

popular
and

Have

the

for

struggle

their

from

wider

in

source

"

determined

the national

is in most

munity
com-

either
cooperative institutions
national aspirationsand their ultimate
national

the

by

subjected to
continually

are

the

through

purpose
least

of

basis

the

on

criticism and

not

or

at

tion
apprecia-

national

This

standpoint.

cases

ideal

ground
back-

formulated, partly
explicitly

it is

of
accepted as self-evident,as a matter
under the
partlybecause its explicitformulation
course,
dividual
conditions was
not
given political
only dangerous for inbut also would
imperil the existence of those
institutions whose
sidered
preservationor development was connationallyimportant.

because

The

in which

way

the

in

and

purpose

it resembles

case

reasons

highest criterion
one

everything
of

else.

national

as

method

Any
any

is

made

was

of

the

preferertceshown,
kind

Thus

treason.

sume
as-

mate
ulti-

ideal is exalted

national

other

to

interestingbecause
in religiouspropaganda.

used

hand, the

conflict,to

branded

dared

the

ideal

society this character

closelythe

On
above

of

eyes

the national

of

in

interests

indivdual

an

the
is

who

put borth hedonistic,economic, moral, religious

to

doing something

for

the nation
to

or

do

the strongest
the national

for

not

which

be harmful

may

which

doing something

he

is

to
pected
ex-

for the benefit of the nation, would

incur

social condemnation.

hand,

On

the other

idea is

interpretedas includingeverything
else. It includes individual
happiness; the realization
of national aspirationswill bring to every
member
of
the nation

alleviation of his troubles

his desires, and

no

individual

can

and
or

satisfaction

should

be

of

happy

POLISH

THE

334

the nation

while

; the

has

states

is

fact

PEASANT

that

the

prevented the

subjection of Poland
normal

of
Polish

of

wages

the

in the

factors, science

national

ard
stand-

low

of

progress

emigration,

under

are

identified with

virtue

in

are

ily
eas-

literature

^art and

"

as

ethnical

upon

institutions

favorable

pursuit of

and

values

expression

and

requiring

as

acceptance

idea

content

freelydevelop only

which

the

prosperity is
prosperity. Intellectual

dependent for their

The

ganda
propa-

and
foreign domination
shown
as
directlydependent

national

included

of

nomic
eco-

national

slow

rate

enormous

its

direct effects of

individual's
on

the

city workers,

commerce,

interpretedas
the

for

of the country masses,

poverty

of

curity
se-

hostile

to

development

is fully utilized
possibilities
; the

economic

It includes

oppressed.

which

can

politicalconditions.

the national

general

ther
is fur-

identification

^an

"

idea

is

justifiedin a large measure


by the fact that
active patriotism under
foreign oppression really does
desertion
of the
qualitieswhereas
require high moral
desirable
always indicates a generally uncharacter.
the
Finally,the harmony between
and religiousideals is achieved
by identifying

national

national

possible Catholicism

wherever

the

on

Polish

almost

cause

and

the

this method
Poles
with

made

borderland

not

work,

as

relations

Catholics

in Austria

Poles

of

other

(Polish Protestants

or

Polonized

German

reference

to

to

between

Prussia, or

tions
religiousdenomina-

Jews), appeal

"

part of the divine

nation

Where

general principles nationality is

more
a

and

has

hinders
official church

of the world

particular mission

national
"

order

sins

"

^be it

is

ceived
con-

in which

and
fulfil,

to

self-determination

against God.

ticular,
par-

ethnically

territories.

in the

in

"

the

between

ethnicallyRussian

does

and

as

each

eastern

Polonism

and

even

ever
whoan

THE

OF

ROLE

Of

PEASANT

THE

NATIONAL

IN

LIFE

ideal

all these aspects of the national

course,

335

were

simultaneously and systematicallyexplained to


national
the
politicalcensorship made
peasant;
open
propag^anda
through the press and in public meetings
seldom

difficult.

very
leaders

and

far

as

the

but

an

to

the

; at

life and

with

activities

tionally
na-

by secret
emphasized
This

value.

supposed

was

Poland.

it

the

most

is found

endowed

every

the

act

to

of

consider

to

the direction
ideal

national

exaltation,

intense

religiousmysticism
furnished, like religion,rules

Educating

belonging

The

in

most

his

every

God,

to

action

his children

commonplace

peculiarsignificance.Just

refers

man

of

which
time

same

everyday

to

with

and

press

duty lay in

demands.

object

that

his

feel that

these

by

become

quite equal
for

the

class, and

peasant

comprehensive

most

him

least made

indicated
could

and

or

connection

in every

was

classes

with

entirelyunquestionable authority and produced


which
attitude of reverence
might not always
individual to act in conformity with its demands

the
at

the

contact

an

an

lead

of

individuals

idea

highest
it

gave

higher

possible through the

was

agitation, this
as

personal

the

of

members

conscious
as

in every

But

as

the

so

the

with

in Polish

ligious
re-

triot
pa-

ence
refer-

tions,
tradi-

patrioticpolitical
organization, going

pilgrimage to Cz^stochowa during religiouspersecutions,


forbidden
reading patriotic Polish books
by
Russian
the
to
teaching neighbors how
government,
tory,
read, subscribingto a Polish paper, knowing Polish hisin Posen,
buying a piece of land from a German
in a Polish bank, boycotting German
depositingmoney
of the comcontributingto the economic
munity,
ware,
progress
on

even

opening
treated

farming

were

national

viewpoint.

new
as

But

business
meritorious
above

improving

or

actions

all the

one's

from.

formation

the
and

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