1

JoelFagerberg
02June2015
EpimelesthaiSautou
and
GnothiSauton
:ResistingtheMilitarizationand
CommodificationofInnerSpaceinthe21stCentury

I.
Introduction
Iscritiquecapableofsupportingaresilient,resistantformofselfhoodagainstthe
encroachmentsoftheStateandcapitalismuponourpsychesinthepresent?Whilemanycritical
theoristshaveremainedcaughtupinattemptstodeconstructimposedformsofselfhood
followingthelegacyofpoststructuralism,thishasnotstoppedthesecuritystatenorthemarket
fromusingtheunstableselfasablankslatefortheirdesigns.Withcritiquecaughtflatfooted,
theU.S.governmentandmajorcorporationshavemovedtocolonizefrontiersofselfhoodinnew
ways,continuallyclaimingtherighttoproduce
formsof

knowledgeabout
and
waysofcaringfor
theselfregardingitsmoods,motivations,fears,andprescribedprotectivemeasures.While
critiquestrugglestofindanewethosbeyondtheneverendingdissectionsofpoststructuralism,
thepsychologyofthedeconstructedselfisbeingincreasinglymilitarizedandcommodified.
Ivechosentofocusonthemilitarizationandcommodificationofourpsyches(inner
space)becauseitisatthissiteinparticularthatthedeconstructedselfappearstobeincreasingly
importanttoreconsider.Ofcoursethisistrueofothersites,too,suchasinongoing
conversationssurroundingthestatusofreasonorthebodyincontemporarycritique.Butin
workingtowardsanapproachtoresistancethatmightgobeyonddeconstruction,itbecameclear
tomethatsuchanapproachwouldfindsomeofitsstiffestoppositionintheformofthis
profoundfocusonourmoods,inspirations,fears,andmotivationsdrivingboththeStateand
Capitalismtoday.Thisisbecause,whenitcomestotheirapproachtotherealmofinnerspace,
thenotionoftheselfasdeconstructediscurrentlyfoldeddirectlyintotheprogramsofboththe
securitystateandthemarket.Whetheritbethroughtheoverwhelmingproliferationofpotential
terroristthreatsviatheWaronTerror,orthroughmanagerialtechniquesformaximizingworker
productivityviapresentdaycapitalism,individualsareactuallybeingfragmentedalongthelines
ofgovernmentandcorporateinterests.Theirdispositions,frommoodtomotivation,arebeing
moldedinnewwayswhichdonotrequiretheconstructionofastandardized,fixed,rational
subject.Movingbeyondthedeconstructedselfisdifficultherenotjustbecauseofthehistorical
inertiaofthinkerssuchasGillesDeleuzeandJacquesDerridawithintheLeft.Itisespecially
difficultbecausetheStateandCapitalismhaveinternalizedaspectsofthosepoststructuralist
critiques,incorporatingthedeconstructedselfintotheirstrategicframeworksformilitarizingand
commodifyinginnerspace.Gainingmomentumonthisfrontwouldbeamajorstepforwardfor
critique,andistherefore,worthconsideringatlength.Itwouldallowustoreconstructselfhood
anewinwayswhichsubverttheseforces,utilizingtheconstructiveagencyofthesubjectfor
resistingtheStateandcapitalismtodayonanumberoffrontsincluding,butnotlimitedto,inner
space.
AfterattendingtothetacticsoftheStateandcapitalismintheirmilitarizationand
commodificationofinnerspace,thisessaywillthusseektoformulateacounterproject.Inhopes
ofmovingcritiquetowardsamoredurableformofselfhood,onecapableofresistingthe
encroachmentsoftheStateandcapitalisminourpresent,IwillturntoMichelFoucaultswork
ontheintertwinedvaluesof
epimelesthaisautou
and
gnothisauton
.Inlecturesandwritingsnear
theendofhiscareer,Foucaultshiftedhisfocusto...therelationbetweencareand

selfknowledge,therelationfoundinGrecoRomanandChristiontraditionsbetweenthecareof
oneselfandthetoowellknownprincipleKnowyourself(MichelFoucaultTechnologiesof
theSelf1988).Instudyingtheserelations,henotedthatparticipationintheGreek
polis
was
foundedonthepremisethatonehadalreadycommittedoneselftoselfknowledge
and
selfcare
asaprerequisiteforpoliticalinvolvement.Byunpackingthisaspectofantiquity,histhinking
aroundtheseissuesultimatelyarrivesatthepotentialforanewpoliticsinourcontemporary
world,andnotbysimplyromanticizingAtheniandemocracyasaperfectlyfunctioningmodel
(whichitcertainlywasnot).Instead,hespursonaconsiderationofwhattherelationship
betweenboth
epimelesthaisautou
(totakeofyourself)and
gnothisauton
(toknowyourself)
mightmeanforthetaskofrethinkingpoliticstoday.
Alongthelinesofthisintellectualturn,Iwillalsobecallingonsupportfromwhatsome
mayconsidertobeanunlikelysourceofpoliticalinspiration:theDanishphilosopherSren
Kierkegaard.ByturningtoKierkegaardsradicalsubjectivity,withemphasisplaceduponhis
conceptsofironyandrepetition,IwillbeanimatingthethoughtsofalaterFoucaultinsucha
wayastomakeclearerthissubjectinresistancewhohasreclaimedboth
epimelesthaisatou
and
gnothisauton
.Ifthetaskremains,asFoucaulthimselfsaidinTheSubjectandPower,touse
...resistanceasachemicalcatalyst,thenwemaybewellservedtoalsomixinsomeof
KierkegaardsinsightfulworkonsubjectivityinordertoseeinwhatwaysresistancetotheState
andCapitalismmaytakeform.(MichelFoucaultTheSubjectandPower
MichelFoucault:
BeyondStructuralismandHermeneutics
211).Thiswillprovideuswiththeawindowintothe
waysinwhichareclamationofselfknowledgeandselfcaremaybeapproachedbya
subjectinresistancetoday.Iwillalsobelookingatspecificexamplesofcontemporaryattempts
toresistthemilitarizationandcommodificationofinnerspace,highlightingthewaysinwhich
peoplearereorientingthemselvestopowerininnerspacebyundertakingselfknowledgeand
selfcareontheirownterms.

II.
MilitarizedInnerSpace
UndertheruleofaStatewhosefearofterrorismhasbecomeanoverwhelmingphobia
withaneverexpansivescope,theinnerspaceoftheUnitedStatescitizenryhasbeenrepeatedly
inundatedwiththeparanoiaofthesecuritystate.Thismilitarizationofinnerspace,asJackieOrr
callsit,aimsfor...the
psychologicalorganizationofcivilsocietyfortheproductionofviolence

(JackieOrrTheMilitarizationofInnerSpace456).TheStatetriestoembedthenecessityofits
violencebytyingittopathologicaldepictionsofnationalsecuritythreates,imprintingthe
relationshipbetweensafetyconcernsandstateinterventiondirectlyontothepsychesofits
citizens.DepartmentofHomelandSecuritypostersshowunattendedbackpacksontrain
platforms,compellingthecitizentocalllawenforcementimmediatelyiftheyaretoencounter
suchasuspicioussite(JosephMasco
TheTheatreofOperations
29).Simulatedbioterrorist
attacksinmiddleAmericahelplocalboyscoutsandtherestoftheirtownparticipateina
nationalobsessionwithpotentialcatastrophethatismanagedbytheStateinbothitssimulated
andpragmaticdimensions(Orr474475).Everydayrealitybecomesinfusedwitha
hyperattentiveattunementtothepossibilityofterrorism,withlargedosesofvaguefearand
patriotismaddedforgoodmeasure.Insecurityreignsandthreatsloomintheinnerspaceofthe
citizenry.Thisspaceis...notirreduciblyindividualbutisactuallybothaproductofanda
producerofsocialnorms(ibid456).Itdependsonanengagementbetweentheindividualandfelt
intensitiesthatareprojectedbytheStateatamasslevel,creatinganinterplay.(JosephMasco

TheTheatreofOperations
20).Tobeclear,thispaperwillconsiderinnerspacetomeanthe
realminwhichonessubjectiveawarenessesandaffects,onesemotionsandconcerns,are
formulatedthroughbothourindividualandcollectiveexperiences.Actionsandtheir
accompanyingnarrativesarebolsteredbythenotsorationalexchangesbetweentheStateandits
citizenrywhichoccuronapsychologicalplane.Lookingatthemilitarizationofinnerspacethis
waywillallowus,withOrr,toseethehowcontemporarytechniquesofpowerareshapinga
landscapethatisatoncebothprivateandpublic,bothpartlyindividualizedandpartly
communal.Itwillalsoallowustoconsiderinnerspaceinthesamewaywhenweapproach
capitalisminthenextsection(sectionIII).Doingsoisimportanttothelargerscopeofthisessay,
inwhichanewpoliticsofethicalsubjectivitywillrequireanawarenessoftheintersection
betweenthepersonalandthecollectiveasafraughtbutdynamiclocusforchange.
TheU.S.governmenthasencroacheduponinnerspacebyusingauniquecombinationof
certaintyanduncertainty:theyrecertainthatanattackisjustaroundthecorner,butitsnotclear
aroundwhichcornerthatthreatlurksbehindexactly,norwhatformitwillultimatelytake.
JosephMasco,followinginthefootstepsofOrr,articulatesthispointaswellwhenhewrites:
TheinabilitytoperfectlypredictandcounterthreatcreatesintheAmericansecuritysystemthe
opportunitytoconstitutenearlyeverydomainandobjectofeverydaylifeasapotentialvectorof
attack(JosephMasco
TheTheatreofOperations
20).ThuswhenGeorgeW.Bushannounced
thatEveryAmericanisasoldiernowshortlyafterSeptember11th,hewaseffectivelyenlisting
citizensinawarfueledbyanobsessionwithuncertaintythatwouldfloodthepsychological
landscapewithinsecurities(Orr452).ThisiswhatsetstheWaronTerrorapartfromthemore
specificformsoffearthatundergirdedpreviousnationalsecurityprojects.Masconotesthat
Specifically,thecounterterrorstateproliferatesdangerratherthanregulatingit,rehearsing
vulnerabilityinpublictoamplifythreatratherthanestablishingapsychosocialspaceof
sustainability...astheColdWarsystemattemptedtodo(JosephMasco
TheTheatreof
Operations
26).WithoutthespecificityofthenuclearbombortheSovietUniontostabilizethis
formoffear,theindividualcitizentodayismetwiththevaguebuthorrifyingnotionofthe
TerroristwithaWMD.Mascoelaboratesfurther:

Thiscounterterrorstateprojectamplifiespublicfearnottomobilizecitizenswiththegoalofengineeringa
politicalconsensus...buttoimmobilizethem,tosuppresspublicparticipationintherealmofsecurity
politicsbygeneratinganatmosphereofconstantimminentdangerthatistoolargetoindividuallyengage.
(ibid168)

Eachofthesetacticsservestohighlighttheelusiveomnipresenceofpotentialthreats.
Furthermore,theyactasattemptstolegitimate,withlittletonodemocraticinvolvement,the
followingcapabilitiesonthepartoftheState:theirincreasingmeansfor
producingknowledge
about
thelivesofindividuals,andtheirgrowingclaimstothemeansforproviding
waysof
caringfor
citizens,namelythroughpreemptiveviolenceinthenameoffendingoffproliferating
terror.
Withlifethreateningyetincompletelydefinedthreatsalwaysonthehorizon,the
citizensroleanddutiesarenotsoclear:howcanIknowwhereandwhenexactlythenext
terroristattackonU.S.soilwilloccur,andwhatcanIdoaboutit?Ifpublictransportationand
theairwebreathearebothprecariouslypoisedontheborderbetweensafeandunsafeduetoa
constantfearofterroristattacks,thenoursubjectpositionsareprecariouslypoisedaswell.Tobe
sure,somesubjectsareframedinmoreOtherizingposes.GlennGreenwald,describingthe

apparentcognitivedissonanceinU.S.publicopinionbetweenbeing
against
thetargetingof
AmericancitizensthroughDronestrikesand
infavor
oftheexecutionofAnwarAlAwlaki,
writesthatformanyofthoseintheU.S.,...thetermAmericansdoesn'tincludepeoplelike
AnwaralAwlaki.Americansmeanstheirauntsanduncles,theirniceneighborsdownthe
street,andanyoneelsewholookslikethem,wholooksandseemsAmerican(Glenn
GreenwaldTheracismthatfuelsthewaronterror
TheGuardian
2013).Theracial
distinctionsareclear,basedonmorethanjustGreenwaldsthoughtsonthesubject:theFBIhas
beenoutedbytheACLUandothersforusingmosqueoutreachprogramsascoversforillegal
spyingonIslamiccommunitiesinAmerica(KariHuusACLU:FBImosqueoutreachprogram
usedtospyonMuslims
NBCNews
2012).Butinthecontextofthecounterterrorstate,this
racialdistinctionisinfactpossiblewithoutarticulatingafullyformedsubjectpositionfor
citizenstooccupyagainstthosewhoarecruciallyidentifiedasOther.
WhatImeantosayhereisthat,becauseoftheemphasisplaceduponinsecurityand
uncertaintyinTheWaronTerror,thepositionofthecitizensoldierisinherentlyunstable.This
everpresent,incompletelydefinedterrorshattersthepossibilityofastableexperienceforthe
subjectpositionofacitizensoldier.MichaelTaussigthoughtsonTerrorasUsualmaybehelpful
here:

...Icanseemyselfalreadylost,lostouttoterroryoumightsay...utterlyunabletoabsorb
thefactthatterrorstalkalwaystalksbacksuperoctaneddialogisminradicaloverdrive,
itstalkpresupposingifnotanticipatingmyresponse,underminingmeaningwhile
dependentuponit,stringingoutthenervoussystemonwaytowardhysteria,theother
waytowardnumbingandapparentacceptance(MichaelTaussig
TheNervousSystem
11)

Theoverzealous,expandingscaleofdangersprojectedbythecounterterrorstatebecomestoo
muchforthestablesubjecttobear.Individualsbecomepsychologicallywipedout:thegolden
meanofthemorestabilizedterrorsfromtheColdWarandWWII,betweentooscaredto
respond(orconsequently,conform)andscaredenoughtorespond(orconsequently,conform),
hasbeeneradicated(ibid).Theselfhasbeenbrokenapartinresponsetoanoverflowoffear.
Taussigdescribesthisfurther:...onemovesinburstsbetweensomehowacceptingthesituation
asnormal,onlytobethrownintoapanicorshockedintodisorientationbyanevent,arumor,a
sight,somethingsaid,ornotsaidsomethingthatevenwhileitrequiresthenormalinorderto
makeitsimpact,destroysit(ibid18).Alternatingbetweenhystericallyonedgeandnumbed
acceptance,theindividualhasbeendeconstructedbythegovernmentitself.TheStatedoesnot
needtofashionacoherentselfforitscitizenrytotakeoninthismodel,evenasitstigmatizes
certainpopulationswithinthatcitizenry.Itachievesitsendspreciselybycreatinganincoherent,
overwhelming,andeverchangingsetoffearsforthecitizensoldiertoconsider,fracturingand
neutralizingthoseindividualsintheprocess.Moreover,thisfocusonimminentterroristattacks
enlargesinsecuritiesrelatedtootherrealthreatstoindividualsandcommunities.Masconotes:
Theslowviolenceofcapitalism,industrialtoxicity,oraginginfrastructureisnomatchforthis
imageofthreat,whichisatonceeverywhereandnowhere(JosephMasco
TheTheatreof
Operations
27).Theattentionnecessaryfordefiningandrespondingtotheveryrealthreatsof
ourpresentiscrippledaspsychicresourcesaredraineddownthesinkholeofthisnew,potent
propaganda.InstabilityisonlyworsenedastheStateoverreachestodefinethenatureofmore
andmorethreatsalongwiththeiraccompanyingstrategiesofprotection.Theresultisan
expandingbubbleofsecuritydiscoursesandpracticesthat,whilethreateningtoburst,still

managestoreflectthevisionoftheState.Thegovernmentthuscontinuestoproducevast
amountsofknowledgeandtoengagewithnewformsofpreemptiveviolenceunderthebannerof
aWaronTerror.Intheprocess,theymovetomoldouremotionsintheshapeofcertainfears,to
torturethousandsofindividuals,tocommitmurdersundertheguiseoftakingcareofAmerican
citizens,andtoinvadetheprivacyofthoseverycitizenswhotheyclaimtoprotect.
Themilitarizationofinnerspaceanditsaccompanyingfragmentationofselfhoodare,of
course,beingacceleratedbydevelopmentsonthetechnologicalfront.Thesedevelopmentsare
alsodeeplyintertwinedwiththewaysinwhichcapitalismisseekingtocommodifyinnerspace,
whichwillbethefocusofsectionIII.Therefore,itwouldbemorethanworthourtimetoatleast
brieflyconsiderthewaysinwhichadvancementsspecificallyinconsumertelecommunications
technologiesarebeingutilizedbythecounterterrorstate.Themostobviousexamplesarethe
massivesurveillanceprojectssuchasthoseundertakenbytheNationalSecurityAgencysince
9/11.AstheAssociatedPressreported:...shortlyaftertheSept.11attacks,PresidentGeorgeW.
BushsecretlyauthorizedtheNSAtoplugintothefiberopticcablesthatenterandleavethe
UnitedStates,knowingitwouldgivethegovernmentunprecedented,warrantlessaccessto
Americans'privateconversations(TheAssociatedPress2013).BoththeBushandObama
administrationshavepursuedaparanoidsearchfordigitalneedlesinagrowingglobalhaystack.
ThissearchistheresultofwhatMascocallsa
mosaictheory
ofinformationinwhichtheState
thinksitmust,atallcosts,piecetogetheracomplicatedpuzzleofdatabitsinordertodetermine
whenandwherethenextterroristattackmighttakeplace(JosephMasco
TheTheatreof
Operations
130).Hewrites:TheextensivesurveillanceprogramsrunbytheNationalSecurity
Agencyafter2001involvingdigitalsurveillance,archivingtelecommunicationsacross
platforms,anddataminingonanewlycomprehensiveglobalscalerelyonthisconcept(ibid).
TheStatehasthusbeenabletomilitarizeinnerspacebyvirtueoftheimportanceofconsumer
technologiesinboththeirmosaictheoryofinformationandinoureverydaylife.Masconotes:
...ifyouusetheInternet[or]oruseacellphone,youbecomepartofacounterrorsystemthatis
interestedincomprehensivelyarchivingtelecommunications...andaccruingdetailedknowledge
aboutover800,000peopleonanevergrowingglobalwatchlist(ibid3435).Inmilitarizing
thesetechnologies,theStatehasfoundnewwaystoencroachuponanincreasinglyimportant
facetofinnerspace:namely,itscyberbaseddimensions.TheStatecontinuestolayclaimto
innerspacebydefiningtheworldofcyberexchangesasfraughtwithevermorethreatsthatonly
stateinterventioncanprevent,relyingonthesamenarrativethatpowersDepartmentof
HomelandSecurityposters.Knowledgeaboutonesdigitalactivities,andthusaboutoneself,is
producedatanamazinglyfastrateandonahumongousscaleintheformofsplinteredbitsof
digitaldatagainedthroughinvasionsofprivacy.This,allinthenameofprotectingAmericans
fromthenext9/11.

III.
CommodifiedInnerSpace
Thissimultaneouslypersonalandcollectiverealmknownasinnerspaceisalsobeing
commodifiedbycapitalistforcesinourpresent.Tostart,ourrelationshipwithanexpandingfield
ofpharmaceuticalshasbecomeavitalsitefornotonlyselfmaking,butalsoprofitmaking.As
EmilyMartinwrites,thewaythatphysiciansprescribeeverchangingcombinationsof
LithiumP,Effexor,Prozac,Zoloft,andmanyothersshowshowthesedrugs...canbebought
andsoldandcombinedondemandinmanyways,morelikethepartsofamotororthe
ingredientsofacake...(EmilyMartin
BipolarExpeditions
152).Sincedirecttoconsumer

advertisingopenedupin1997,thebudgetsformarketingpharmaceuticalroseaccordingly,and
salesreached...over$15billionin1999(ibid157).Intheprocess,theseneurochemicaltools
havegivenrisetoaboomingbusiness.Bymakingtheseemergingpracticesofselfalterationinto
commodifiedventures,apeculiarattentiontoourmoodsandmotivationsisgrowing.Onewayin
whichthisphenomenonhasdevelopedhasbeenthroughtheuseofmoodcharts.Martinnotes
thatAllchartsIhaveseenhaveasection,oftenoccupyingnearlyhalfofthechart,forrecording
whatmedicinesthepersontakesaswellashowmuchandwhentheytakethemthroughoutthe
day,goingontoreferspecificallytoanewsoftwareprogramcalledMoodMonitor(ibid186).
Thisprogramlinksthepatientschartsdirectlytodoctorsinrealtime,sothattheycanreview
relationshipsbetweenmoodsandmedicationsinapromptlymanner(ibid).Onesnotionsof
selfknowledgeandselfcarearesquishedintoarubricwhichisproducedbytheauthorityofBig
Pharmaandthedoctorswhoprescribetheirdrugs.Thistypeofconstantselfexaminationand
medicinalrecalibrationundertheguidanceofforprofitentitieshaspredictablyfoundspecific
expressionswithregardstotherelationshipbetweenmoodsandworkerproductivity.Martin
writesthat:In2001,thebusinessnewsreportedthatBankOne,concernedaboutproductivity
lossesbecauseofdepressionamongitsemployees,institutedprogramstoencourageeducation,
screening,andtreatment(ibid189).Anumberofsimilarstudiesintheearly2000sshowedthat
depressioncostemployers$31billionperyearinlostproductivetime,whileInternetarticles
andothermediasuchas
60
minutesbeganexamining...linksbetweenmoodslikedepression
andtheinabilitytoleavethewelfarerollsbymeansoffindingajob(ibid).Butsuchcrudely
drawnlinksbetweenworkerpsychologyandtheeconomyareultimatelyincapableofaddressing
thecomplexitiesofthescenario.Martinposesthequestion:...howdoweseparatethosewho
wouldbedepressedwhetherrichorpoorandthosewhoaredepressed
because
theyarepoor
(ibid190).Theseandothersimilarinquiriesintothewaythatoneseconomicstandingandstate
ofmindareshapedbytheirsocialcontext,cometorevealthatthetypesoflinksbeingmade
betweenproductivityandpsychehereareblindtootherobstacleswhichmaypreventcertain
individualsfromobtainingcertainmarkersoffinancialsuccessduetofactorssuchasracism,
sexism,classism,homophobia,andableism.
Whattheyarefitforinacapitalistworld,however,isanapproachtomoodsand
motivationsthatis...apparentlynecessaryforsurvivalinthefierceeconomyofthepresent
(ibid192).Optimizingmotivationaccordingtofinancialgainisausefuleconomicmechanism
thatcoordinatestheinnerspaceofindividualswithashared,commodifiedspaceofmarket
affect.AsMartinwrites:Intheindividualasinthemarket,highsgonaturallywithspeed,
energy,andactivity,andinthekindofsocietyweinhabit,thesestatesoftenmeanvigorous
circulationofourchieftokenofvalue:money(ibid237).Herethnographicresearchatan
outdooreducationsessionformembersofaFortune500corporationshowsthatstrategiesfor
overcomingworkerdepressionarebeingcomplementedbydirectattemptstoencouragemanic
statesinemployeeswithaneyetowardstheirrelationshiptomacroeconomicfactors(ibid239).
Exercisessuchashighwirewalkingweremeanttofacilitateflexibilityandfearlessness(ibid).
ShewritesthatThegoaloftheemployeetraining,whichwassubcontractedbythecorporation
toasmallfirm,wastoenableworkerstoadjustrapidlytocontinuouslychangingconditions,
especiallyif(orrather
when
)theyweredownsized(ibid).Otherfirmsshehasresearchedare
utilizingactivitiessuchasscavengerhuntsinorderto...generatehighenergyexperiences
(ibid).Consideringsuchapproachestogethermakesitclearthatflexibilityandmanic
productivityarebecomingemblemsofoureconomicpresent,emblemsdefinedbytheir

distinctlyintense,creative,passionate,productive,andoftentimes,
irrational
character.Herewe
canseethenotionoftheunstableselfasanintegralpartofpresentdaycapitalismsstrategic
frameworkinwhichtheindividualandthemarketarecoordinatedinamanicdance.Martin
noteshowacertainhypomanicpsychologicalorientationhasbecomehighlysoughtafterin
CorporateAmerica,onewhichshedescribesasadaptive,scanningtheenvironment,
continuouslychangingininnovativeways,acreativechameleon(ibid).This...increasing
demandforrestlesschangeandcontinuousdevelopmentofthepersonatalltimescreatesaself
whichcannotbefixedinfearoflosingthetypeofeconomicpotencywhichislaudedinour
currentsociety.Inthissocioeconomicclimate,ourmoodsandmotivationsarerendered
amenabletoconstantchange.Thiseffectivelydismantlesthenotionofastableidentityinfavor
ofaproductivemalleabilitywhichmustkeeppacewithmanicmarkets.
Theconceptofoptimizingtheadaptability,passion,andmotivationofworkersforthe
sakeofproductivityisreadilyapparentinLucBoltanskiandEveChiapellosreviewof1990s
Frenchmanagementliteraturefromvariousfirms(LucBoltanskiandEveChiapello
TheNew
SpiritofCapitalism
2005).Muchofthediscoursetheyreviewedfollows...alogicof
flexibilitypresupposingaseriesofengagementsin,anddisengagementsfrom,varioustasks
anddifferentjobsonthepartofworkers(ibid241).Thisburdenofflexibilityisfacedupon
enteringjobmarket,whichisevidentevenfromthebeginningoftheinterviewprocess(ibid217
and241).BoltanskiandChiapellodescribehowpersonalqualitiessuchas...openness,
selfcontrol,availability,goodhumour,composurearebeingincorporatedintotheselection
criteriaofinterviewers.Lookingatanexampleofmanagementliteraturefromtwoauthors
namedGorgeuandMathieu,theyquotethefollowingdescriptionofanidealemployee:You
doextraworkeveniftheworkingdayisover,youagreetocomeinonSaturdaymorningif
required,youarementallyadaptable(ibid241).Thisemployeeisnecessaryforthenewrealm
ofshortterm,everchangingoccupationalcommitments.Consequently,thewayonemanages
theirmoodsandmotivationsbecomesincreasinglyshapedbytheseeconomicexpectationsof
passionandresponsivity.BoltanskiandChiapellonoteadominantconcernthroughout
managementliteraturefromthisperiodwith:

..asocallednetworkorganizationofwork,whereinleanfirmsseektheresourcesthey
lackfromamongaprofusionofsubcontractors[and]alabourforcethatismalleablein
termsofemployment(casualjobs,temping,selfemployedworkers),workinghours,or
thedurationofwork(parttimers,variablehours).(ibid218)

Onespersonalitymustbemalleableandyetsomehowfixedinitscommittedtowork,evenas
subcontractingandotherpartialformsofemploymentdestabilizetheworkerseveryday
livelihood.Thisnewapproachtotheworker...penetrate[s]moredeeplyintopeoplesinner
selvespeopleareexpectedtogivethemselvestotheirwork(ibid98).Boltanskiand
Chiapellodescribeacollapsedseparationbetween...thequalitiesofthepersonandthe
propertiesoftheirlabourpower(ibid155).Themotivationtoworkandtheabilitytoaugment
oneselfaretiedtogetherintheimageoftheflexible,highenergy,passionateworker.Selfhoodis
undertakenintermsofadaptabilitytothemarket,hoistinginsecuritiesuponthepositionofthe
wageearner.Workers...with
restrictedmobility
,especiallywomenwithchildren,areespecially
vulnerableasaresult,sincetheymustfindawaytobalanceboththespecificdemandsof
motherhoodandthevolatileconditionsofwork(ibid241).Thesewageearnerscanbe...forced
toresignfollowingcompulsorytransfers,orchangesinhours,orsimplyasaresultofthe

abolitionoftheschoolbus(ibid).Ultimately,presentdaycapitalismsidealofanintense,
adaptable,hyperproductiveemployeefostersinsecuritiesforcertainworkerswhocant
immediatelymeetthosedemands.
Inconsideringthewaysinwhichinnerspaceisbeingcommodifiedbythispresentday
capitalism,wemustreturnonceagaintothesiteofconsumertelecommunicationstechnologies,
wheretheemergentfocusonworkerenthusiasmandflexibilityisallowingmoreandmoreprofit
tobesqueezedfromtheeffortsofworkers.FollowingBoltanskiandChiapellosthoughtsonthe
collapsingbarrierbetweenpersonalandprofessionalworlds,thisbarrierhasbeenincreasingly
weakenedbythetypesof24/7communicationmadepossibleinwhatJacobinMagazinewriter
andeditorNicoleM.AschoffreferstoasTheSmartphoneSociety.Inherarticle,titledafter
theaforementionedphrase,shedescribeshow:

Neoliberaldemandsforflexible,mobile,networkedworkersmake[thistechnology]essential.
Smartphonesextendtheworkplaceinspaceandtime.Emailscanbeansweredatbreakfast,specsreviewed
onthetrainhome,andthenextdaysmeetingsverifiedbeforelightsout.TheInternetbecomestheplaceof
work,withtheofficejustadotonthevastmapofpossibleworkspaces.(NicoleAschoffTheSmartphone
Society
JacobinMagazine
Spring2015)\

Shegoesontorefertothenew,exploitativeandinsecuretypesoftemporaryworklikecourier
serviceslikeTaskRabbitinwhichworkersmustmonitortheirphonesandrespondtoincoming
demandsforoddjobsanddeliveries.ThroughventureslikeTaskRabbitandothersimilaroutfits,
thesmartphoneisfacilitating...contingentemploymentmodelsandselfexploitationbylinking
workerstocapitalistswithoutthefixedcostsandemotionalinvestmentofmoretraditional
employmentrelations(ibid).
Buttheexploitationdoesntendthere.Iphonesandothersmartdeviceshavealsoallowed
companiestomineourdesireforcuratingandcommunicatingouridentities,reapingmassive
profitsallthewhile.Instagram,Facebook,snapchat,andothersofasimilarilkinviteustotake
partinadigitalcultivationofselfimage.Theseritualsofselfexpression,however,arealsohuge
sourcesofmoneyforthosebehindtheinnovations.Aschoffwrites:Regardlessofintention,
whenapersonusestheirsmartphonetoconnectwithpeopleandtheimagineddigital
community,theoutputoftheirlaborofloveisincreasinglylikelytobesoldasacommodity
(ibid).Facebookprovidesjustonestrikingexampleofthisdynamic,with945millionusers
accessingthroughtheirsmartphonesin2013and89percentofitsrevenuethatyear[coming]
fromadvertising,halfofwhichcamefrommobileadvertising(ibid).JustliketheState(with
whommanytelecommunicationsgiantsfromAppletoVerizonhaveworkedinprogramslikethe
NSAsPRISMoperations),capitalismhasseizeduponouraffinitywiththesetechnologiesin
ordertotrackourstatesofmindandourinterests.Itcanthenturnthisinformationintoprofitby
sellingittoadvertisers.Moreover,thesetechnologieschannelourselfexpressioninsuchaway
thatpushesustoupdateoursenseofselfhoodwitheverynewproduct:asnewwaysofsharing
ouremotionswithothersbecomeavailablethroughconsumertelecommunications,the
experienceofsharingthoseemotionsmustchangewhileremainingprofitable.Thisisdifferent
thantheoldmodelofstandardized,massproducedcommoditieswiththeiraccompanying
massifiedpopulations.Thesharedstabilitybetweencapitalandconsumershasbeenreplacedby
asysteminwhichconsumergoodstransformconstantlybutstillinconcertwiththedemandsof
profit.

ThusSmartphonesandtheirsoftwareaccoutrementsare,instead,whatBoltanskiand
Chiapellocallanexampleofcodifiedauthenticproducts.Theywrite:

Codificationisdistinctfromstandardization,whichwasaprerequisiteformassproduction,inthesense
thatitpermitsgreaterflexibility.Whereasstandardizationconsistedinconceivingofaproductfromthe
outset,andreproducingitidenticallyinasmanycopiesasthemarketcouldabsorb,codification,element
byelement,makesitpossibletooperateonacombinatory,andintroducevariationsinsuchawayasto
obtainproductsthatarerelativelydifferent,butofthesamestyle.Inthissense,codificationallowsfora
commodificationofdifferencethatwasnotpossibleinthecaseofstandardizedproduction.(Boltanskiand
Chiapello445)

Basedonthismodelofcodification,ourpersonalexperiencesthroughsuchtechnologiesas
consumersbecomescodifiedinaneverevolvingmanneraswell.Ourattemptstocommunicate
andrepresentourselvesontheInternettakeplaceonaconstantlychangingplatform,producing
notastandardizedsubjectpositionfortheconsumerbutrather,anexperienceofselfhoodwhich
isconstantlyupdatedwitheverynewIphone.
Theencroachmentsmadepossiblebythesetechnologieswillmostlikelyincreaseinthe
future,ifGoogleexecEricSchmidtisrightatleast.Thoughhedoesntparticularlyframeitin
thoseterms,SchmidtrecentlystatedthatTheevolutionofGoogleistogofromyouasking
Googlewhattosearchfor,toGooglehelpingyouanticipate,tomakeyousmarter...Youlet
Googleknowthings,Googlewillhelpyou.Willyouuseit?Absolutely,becauseitwillbecheap
orfree(LoganWhitesideGoogle:Wellmakeyousmarter...ifyoushareyourdata
CNN
Money
2014).WhatthisessentiallymeansisthatGooglewillbeaskingyoutoprovidemoreand
morepersonalinformationinordertorespondto(andintheprocess,shape)yourdesires.More
andmoreofonespracticesofselfknowledgeandselfcarearewillbefunneledthroughthe
profitmakingmechanismsofcorporateAmerica.Nomatterhowcheaporfreeitappearsonthe
surface,theadvertisingdollarsandotherrevenuestreamswillcertainlybolsterasystemwhich
continuestorejectinterestswhichdonotfitwiththemarkets.Thebottomline:smartphonesand
thelargerInternetrevolutionwhichcharacterizeoureverydaylifeareturningtheindividualinto
amalleableinterfaceforprofitableintervention.

IV.
ReclaimingSelfKnowledgeandSelfCare
Theseaforementionedtypesofencroachmentsintoinnerspace,inwhichanxietiesand
insecuritiesfragmentselfhoodalongStateandcorporateinterests,canonlybeadequately
respondedtobycritiqueifitatfirstrealizesthattheselfcannotsimplyremainhopeless
deconstructed.Presentedwithadeconstructedself,theStatehasdevelopedcontemporary
techniquesforcolonizingthefragmentedpsychesofbyproliferatinguncertainvulnerabilities
throughoutinnerspace.Atthesametime,anewapproachtomanagingthepsycheforeconomic
endsisemerging,oneinwhichtheindividualiscontinuallyreoptimizedformanicengagement
withthemarket.Thuscritiquemustfindawaytodomorethanjustdeconstructsuchmilitarized
andcommodifiedframeworksforselfknowledgeandselfcare:itmustalsohelpconstructanew
spaceinwhichsubjectscancollectivelydeveloptheirownmeansforselfunderstandingand
selfcare.IfwewanttoresisttheStateandcapitalismintheirattemptstomoldourfears,
inspirations,passions,andoverallstatesofmindfortheirends,thenthiswillalsomeanthatwe
willhavetoincreasetheattentionpaidtothewaysinwhichsuchtechniquesaretiedtotheir
claimstoenablepracticesofprotection,security,andcare.Sincethestrategiesbywhichthe

10

governmentandcorporationsarerenderingindividualsintocitizensoldiersand
consumer/workersarestrategicallyindebtedtopoststructuralism,itwouldbelargelyineffective
toapproachthemilitarizationandcommodificationofinnerspacewithoutpositingawaytodeal
withtheselfinabetterway.Idontmeantosuggestthatweneedtofindwaystoplaceourselves
innewstraitjacketsofbourgeoismoralityorconformistsystemsoffaith:thiswouldsimplymake
usdocileandvulnerableoncemore.However,intheremainingspaceofthisessay,Iwillbe
tryingtoanswerthefollowingquestion:canaselfgoverned,subjectiveethicsinourpresent
engageproductivelywithsocialchange?Iwillthenmovetofollowtheinsightsgainedfromthis
questiontowardssomepracticalapplicationsbasedintherealmofinnerspaceasatesttrialof
sortsforrethinkingourcontemporarypolitics.
ItakemyinspirationforthisquestionfromanumberofthoughtsputforthbyMichel
Foucaultinlectures,interviews,andshortwritingsfromthelaterendofhiscareer.Following
someofhis(tothisday)mostwellknownworkssuchas
MadnessandCivilization
and
DisciplineandPunish
,FoucaultstartedturningtowardsGreekAntiquityforhispointof
departureonahistoricaljourneyconcerningthewaysthatindividualshaveengagedinthe
cultivationoftheirownselfhood.ThefollowingpassagefromFoucaultinaninterviewpublished
asTheEthicsoftheConcernoftheSelfasaPracticeofFreedomilluminatesthedetailsofthis
transitioninhiscareer:

Ihadconceivedtheproblemoftherelationshipbetweenthesubjectandgamesoftruthintermseitherof
coercivepracticessuchasthoseofpsychiatryandtheprisonsystemoroftheoreticalorscientific
gamessuchastheanalysisofwealth,oflanguage,andoflivingbeings.InmylecturesattheCollegede
France,Itriedtograspitintermsofwhatmaybecalledapracticeoftheselfalthoughthisphenomenon
hasnotbeenstudiedverymuch,Ibelieveithasbeenfairlyimportantinoursocietieseversincethe
GrecoRomanperiod.IntheGreekandRomancivilizations,suchpracticesoftheselfweremuchmore
importantandespeciallymoreautonomousthantheywerelater,aftertheyweretakenovertoacertain
extentbyreligious,pedagogical,medical,orpsychiatricinstitutions.(MichelFoucaultTheEthicsofthe
ConcernoftheSelfasaPracticeofFreedom
Ethics,Subjectivity,andTruth
281282)

Healsogaveanindepthaccountoftheseancientpracticesofselfhoodinalectureatthe
UniversityofVermontinOctoberof1982.Inithefollowsatransitionwhichoccurredfrom
...GrecoRomanphilosophyinthefirsttwocenturiesA.D.oftheearlyRomanEmpire[to]
Christianspiritualityandthemonasticprinciplesdevelopedinthefourthandfifthcenturiesof
thelateRomanEmpire(MichelFoucaultTechnologiesoftheSelf1988).Foucaults
historicalexaminationdevelopssomeresourcesforunderstandingwhy,thoughitwasapplied
onlytopropertyowningmeninpractice,wemaystillbewellservedtoreclaimmore
autonomousformsof
epimelesthaisautou
and
gnothisauton
astheGreeksoncevalued.
Tostart,Foucaultdevelopstheclaimthatmethodsforselfknowledgeandselfcarewere
onceunitedinapoliticalsenseinthattheywereconsideredessentialtopoliticalengagement.
TheseintertwinedconceptswouldcometoimbueageneralmaximofGreeklife:tobecomethe
...thedoctorofoneself(ibid).Takethefollowingpassageforexample:

InGreekandRomantexts,theinjunctionofhavingtoknowyourselfasalwaysassociatedwiththeother
principleofhavingtootakecareofyourself,anditwasthatneedtocareforoneselfthatbroughtthe
Delphicmaximintooperation.ItisimplicitinallGreekandRomancultureandhasbeenexplicitsince
Plato'sAlcibiadesI.IntheSocraticdialogues,inXenophon,Hippocrates,andintheNeoplatonisttradition
fromAlbinuson,onehadtobeconcernedwithoneself.Onehadtooccupyoneselfwithoneselfbeforethe
Delphicprinciple...(ibid)

11

Therelationshipbetweentheideasofselfknowledgeandselfcarechangeswiththeriseof
Christianpracticesofconfessionandselfexamination,whichbegintostressselfknowledge
overselfcareandeventuallyarriveattheprincipleofselfrenunciation(ibid).Suchamovefrom
selfcaretoselfrenunciationasguidedbyapeculiarformofselfknowledgeisrelevanttothe
positionmanyindividualsareinwithregardstotheStateandcapitalismtoday(see:sectionsII
andIIIofthisessay).Foucaultexplainsthethinkingbehindcontemporarycallsfor
selfrenunciationasfollows:Wearemoreinclinedtoseetakingcareofourselvesasan
immorality,asameansofescapefromallpossiblerules.WeinheritthetraditionofChristian
moralitywhichmakesselfrenunciationtheconditionforsalvation.Toknowoneselfwas
paradoxicallythewaytoselfrenunciation(ibid).ThisChristianmoralityalsostressedan
externalauthority,somethingwhichourcontemporaryunderstandingofmoralityalsoputsforth
(ibid).Foucaultthenoffersthissummary:Therefore,itisdifficulttoseeconcernwithoneself
ascompatiblewithmorality.KnowthyselfhasobscuredTakecareofyourselfbecauseour
morality,amoralityofasceticism,insiststhattheselfisthatwhichonecanreject(ibid).We
havegivenupresponsibilityoverourownselfhood,firstinthefaceofGod,andnowinthefaces
ofboththeStateandcapitalism.Thefragmentationandinstabilitieswhichareproducedforthe
subjectbythecounterterrorstateandcontemporarycapitalismamounttoaformof
selfrenunciation:onessenseofselfwithersunderthethreatofimminentterroristattacksand
corporatemanagerialdemandsforflexibilityandpersonalinvestments.Underthesepressureswe
giveintothenarrativesofthreats,stateviolence,profit,andcapitalisminsteadofidentifying
problemsandsolutionsonourown.ThoughFoucaultslectureendswiththenotionthatthe
humanscienceshehaslongcriticizedhavebrokenwiththeChristiantraditionof
selfrenunciationinordertofacilitatetheconstructionofsubjects,Iwouldsaythatthesituation
inourpresentworldisoneinwhichtheselfhaseffectivelybeenrenouncedinboththemajority
ofcriticalcirclesandbythepowersthatbe:apragmaticpoststructuralismrulesthedayin
governmentbuildings,corporateboardrooms,andacademicwingsalike.Muchofthelegacyof
someofFoucaultsownwriting(especiallyearlierworkssuchasAPrefacetoTransgression)
areinfactprimeexamplesofthekindsoflimitdespising,transgressiveselfobliterationwhich
hascometodefinetheresistanceeffortsoftheLeftsinceMayof68.Thisdoesntmeanthathis
laterthoughtsonamoreautonomousandultimatelyethicalapproachtoselfhoodcannotbe
appliedtoourpresentsituation.Infact,theyseemparticularlyimportantaspotentialtoolsfor
respondingtoasituationinwhichhisearlierconcernswiththeconstructionoffixedsubject
positionshavebeensupersededbydifferenttechniquesofpower.
Withthisimpressionofourownhistoricalmomentinmind,itisnonethelessfruitfulto
considertheancientGreeklinkbetween
epimelesthaisautou
and
gnothisauton
.Whereas
Foucaultwashimselfmoreconcernedwithwhatmaybeconsideredastructuralistoreven
poststructuralistapproach(whoreallycares?)tocritiquinginstitutionsofpowerattimes,histurn
towardsthepracticesthroughwhichasubjectmayautonomouslyandethicallyconstitutetheir
ownselfhoodisultimatelyausefulpointofdepartureforthespiritofthisproject:namely,the
thinkingthroughofanew
thos
forcritiqueinwhichimposedstructuresarestillcriticized
withoutleavingthesubjectlostinatheoreticalrealmofmeaninglessness.Freedomfrom
institutionscannolongermeansimplyeradicatingauthority.Whatcomesafterthat?Howdowe
thenlivewithotherswithouttheseinstitutionsbetweenus?Byoutliningmorespecificallythe
methodsinactionwhichcharacterizedtheGreekmodel,Foucaultpointsusinapromising

12

direction:TheGreeksproblematizedtheirfreedom,andthefreedomoftheindividual,asan
ethicalproblem.ButethicalinthesenseinwhichtheGreeksunderstoodit:
thos
wasawayof
beingandofbehavior.Itwasamodeofbeingforthesubject,alongwithacertainwayofacting,
awayvisibletoothers(FoucaultTheEthicsoftheConcernoftheSelfasaPracticeof
Freedom286).Freedomisnotdetachedfromotherpeople.Foucaultalsopushesbackonour
contemporaryperceptionofconcernwithoneselfasessentiallyimmoralandselfindulgent:
WhatmakesitethicalfortheGreeksisnotthatitiscareforothers.Thecareoftheselfis
ethicalinitselfbutitimpliescomplexrelationshipswithothersinsofarasthis
thos
offreedom
isalsoawayofcaringforothers(ibid287).Aconcernwithoneselfisessentiallyaconcernalso
inpartwithhowonerelatestoothersasmadeconcretethroughtheiractions.Herethespace
opensupforanethicalsubjectivitywhichisnotaradicallyarbitrary,ultimatelyquestionableveil
forselfishnessbutis,instead,aconcernwiththeprototypicalexistentialnotionofoneselfasa
taskthatalsonecessitatesawarenessoftheeffectsthatonesactionshaveregardingothers.
PerhapsHellisnotOtherPeople,asSartrewouldhaveit.Regardless,freedomintheactually
existingworldoccursforthesubjectasitisenmeshedineventsotherpeople.Itremainsupto
individualstobuildtheirown
thos
whilestillnavigatingcoexistence
.
AsMarkG.E.Kelly
writes:Itremainsanopenquestionwhetherareactivationofethicscannotorwillproceedfrom
thisquarterFoucaultleavesusonlywithsomepossibleavenuesfortherenewalofethics,viaa
newconceptionofsubjectivity,ratherthanarticulatinganethicshimself(MarkG.E.Kelly
Foucault,Subjectivity,andTechnologiesoftheSelf523).Fromhere,itisuptoustotheorize
andputintoactionourownparticularapproachesfordevelopingselfknowledgeandcareofthe
selfinafreeandethicalfashion.ThisiswhatIwillbestartinginthenextsectionofthisessayby
animatingthenotionsof
epimelesthaisautou
and
gnothisauton
furtherviaSrenKierkegaards
subjectivityandbyconsideringsomeexamplesoftheseinsightsinactionagainstthe
militarizationandcommodificationofinnerspace.

V.
TheSelf,Irony,andRepetition:TowardsaSubjectiveEthicsinAction
Kierkegaardsentirephilosophicaloeuvreisconcernedwiththedilemmasofsubjectivity
andselfhood.Hiscommitmenttotheimportanceoftheindividualexistingpersonisevident
throughouthiswork,buthebynomeansglossesoverthedifficultiesthatonemustfaceontheir
own.Forthesakeofspecificallyconsideringareclamationofselfknowledgeandselfcarein
innerspace,hisviewonselfhoodisanespeciallypotentresource.In
ConcludingUnscientific
Postscript
forexample,hewrites:...knowledgehasarelationshiptotheknower,whois
essentiallyanexistingindividual...forthisreasonallessentialknowledgeisessentiallyrelatedto
existence(SrenKierkegaard
ConcludingUnscientificPostscript
177).Thisisthebasisof
Kierkegaardscommitmenttotheindividualself.Knowledgeaboutoneselfmosttruthfully
comesaboutforKierkegaardwhentheindividualcantakethisupintheirownway,ensuring
thatitremainsbaseduponastrongconsiderationandcareforoneself,theknower,asaparticular
existingindividual.Hewritesinalettertothereaderattheendof
Repetition
that:...the
exceptiongraspstheuniversaltotheextentthatitthoroughlygraspsitself.Itworksforthe
universalinthatitworksthroughitself.Itexplainstheuniversalinthatitexplainsitself...itwill
presenteverythingmuchmoreclearlythantheuniversalwould(SrenKierkegaard
Repetition
78).Arrivingatselfknowledgeentailsaction,whichbringstheparticularinrelationwiththe
universalinameaningfulway.Kierkegaardwrites:

13

...thehowwhichisthussubjectivelyaccentuatedpreciselybecausethesubjectisanexistingindividual,
isalsosubjecttoadialecticwithrespecttotime.Inthepassionatemomentofdecision,wheretheroad
swingsawayfromobjectiveknowledge...inthesamemomenttheexistingindividualfindshimselfinthe
temporalorder,andthesubjectivehowistransformedintoastriving(ibid182).

WhatisbeingsaidbyKierkegaardthroughhisidiosyncratic,postHegelianphilosophyisthatthe
individualdoesnotjustbecomeinfinitelyinterestedintheirownselfhoodwhentakingon
subjectivity.Theindividual,likeotherselvesinthisworld,existsintimeandthusmustmake
decisionswiththeknowledgethattheycannotgobackintimeandtryagainnomatterhowawful
theconsequencesareforoneselfandotherpeople.Onedoesnotsimplyliveinsidetheirown
thoughts:theyputthemintoaction,essentiallyputtingtheminrelationtootherpeopleinthe
world.
Theindividualisthus,infact,wellequippedtochallengethemilitarizationand
commodificationoftheiremotionsandconcernswithoutdevolvingintoselfishness.More
specifically,wecantestoutKierkegaardinthepresentbyseeinghowsomeofhismorespecific
notionsofsubjectivityinaction,suchasirony,arebeingutilizedinattemptstounderminethe
counterterrorstatetoday.IronyisnotsingularlydefinedbyKierkegaardatanypointinhis
writings,butwemayconsiderthefollowingpassagetobeastrongrepresentativeofhisbasic
conceptionofit:Ironyarisesfromtheconstantplacingoftheparticularitiesofthefinite
togetherwiththeinfiniteethicalrequirement,thuspermittingthecontradictiontocomeinto
being(ibid448).Onamorepragmaticlevel,ironyconsistsofpurposelyutilizingwords,
symbols,orgesturesinordermakeapointwhichcontradictstheirusualfunctions.Forexample,
whenJosephMascospokeofhiscolleaguespurposefullyusingthesupposedkeywordsthe
NSAlooksforintelecommunications(enriched,extremism,etc)asasymbolofdefiance,hewas
speakingofanironictacticforresistingthemilitarizationofinnerspace(JosephMasco
BoundlessInformant2015).Similarapproachesmaybenotedoutsidethepracticesofcritical
academiaonwebsitessuchasBuzzfeedwiththeirironicmemes.Onesuchexamplefeaturesa
pictureofthemaincharacterofthepopularDosEquiscommercialwiththefollowingtext:I
dontalwaysantagonizetheNSA.ButwhenIdoITargetOrganizationEnrichedIncident
ExtremismPlumeRecruitmentQuarantinePlotInfrastructureMethamphetamine(Buzzfeed37
HilariousNSAMemes&Jokes2013).Thoughitmayseempettytoturntothepersonalemail
practicesofacademicsandlowratepopculturehumorasasourceofseriousresistanceagainst
theStateandCapitalism,thepointisthatthesepracticesshowhowindividualsarenot
completelydominatedbyexternalforces.Theyarealreadyformulatingtheirownchallengesto
externalforcesonavarietyofscales,beginningwiththeseseeminglysimpleexamples.These
specificstrategiesneutralizethesupposedlythreateningcontentofthesewordswhichhavebeen
pumpedupwithparanoiabythecounterterrorstate.Theyalsoworktoputastickinthespokes,
sotospeak,oftheStatestechnocraticsurveillancewheelsbydisruptingthereliabilityofthe
keywordsasbeinglinkedtoanyparticulartypesofthreateningcommunication.
Thusthiscapacitytoironicallychallengethecounterterrorstatesdefinitionofthreats,
alongwithitsmosaictheoryofinformation,mayprovidetractionfortakingmoreseriouslythe
agencyofsubjectsagainsttheStateandcapitalismalike.AsKierkegaardwrites:Inirony,the
subjectisnegativelyfree,sincetheactualitythatissupposedtogivethesubjectcontentisnot
there(SrenKierkegaardOntheConceptofIrony
TheEssentialKierkegaard
29).Barry
Stockerinhisbook
KierkegaardOnPolitics
elaboratesonthemechanicsofironysvaluefor
politicalresistance:Thesignificanceofthenegativelyfreesubjectisthatitistheindividual

14

whoisfreefromtheconstraintsofthestate...(BarryStocker
KierkegaardonPolitics
121).The
selfisfreedbyitsabilitytobringsubjectivitytobearonanimposednotion,bringingattentionto
thecontradictionbetweenwhatthecounterterrorstatewantsonetothinkandwhatoneactually
doesthink.IronyactsasaclevercleaverbetweenwhattheStateprojectsandwhattheself
experiences.
Thisnegativelyfreesubjectisnotcapable,however,ofrobustlyresistingthe
militarizationandcommodificationofinnerspaceunlessheorshecanfindwaystotranslate
ironyschallengeintomoreconstructiveaction.Thehowofsubjectivitybecomesprominent
onceagain,asdoestheconnectionbetweenselfcareandselfknowledge.Kierkegaardwrites:
...theethicalisnotmerelyaknowingitisalsoadoingthatisrelatedtoaknowing,andadoing
suchthattherepetitionmayinmorethanonewaybecomemoredifficultthanthefirstdoing
(Kierkegaard
ConcludingUnscientificPostscript
143).Repetitionistheformthatthestrivingof
anethicosubjectivethinkertakes.Itconsistsofanapproachinwhichonetriestoremain
concernedwithonesownexistencewhilealsoengaginginareliablyethicalfashionwithothers.
WhenKierkegaardspokeofthemomentofdecisionin
ConcludingUnscientificPostscripts
,
hewaspointingtothetensionbetweenanindividualandtherestoftheworldwhichresultsupon
onesencounterwiththeaccountabilitythatcomeswiththeabsenceofdoovers.Facedwiththis
accountability,thefreesubjectmustconsiderhowtosustainitsfreedomwithoutwreakinghavoc
inthelivesofothers.Consistentlyreplicatinganethicalstanceisadauntingtaskthatpresents
itselfatthemomentoffreedom.Thefreeindividualiscompelledtogothroughtimealongside
otherindividualsinordertosurvive,andsorepetitionopenstheprojectoffreedomupto
considerableresponsibilities.StockerarticulatesthisfacetofKierkegaardsthoughtparticularly
inreferencetoKierkegaardsstatementsabouttheuniversalandparticularin
Repetition
(see
page11ofthisessay).Hewrites:

Wecouldalsothinkaboutthispassage,and
Repetition
asawhole,asanexplorationofindividualagency
andresponsibility.Itdoesnotofferaclearpoliticaldirectionfortheindividualandifthereisapolitical
lesson,itisthattheindividualcannotbereducedtocollectivegoals.Theindividualisshowntohavegreat
difficultyinreachingadesirableformofethicalsubjectivity,butthefailuresandthestrugglesareshownto
bethemostimportantthingsabouthumanlife.(BarryStocker
KierkegaardOnPolitics
15)

Kierkegaardsworkmayhelpusunderstandwhatasimultaneouslysubjectiveandethical
approachtopoliticsmightofferintermsofanalternativetoinstitutionalpoliticswhichdirectly
confrontsthedifficultiesoffreeandethicalcoexistence.ThusrepetitionprovesthatKierkegaard
wasnotjustconcernedwithselfindulgentintrospection:likeFoucault,hesawthatinorderto
knowoneself,onemustbeconcernedwithoneselfand,consequently,concernedwithones
relationtootherswhileavoidinghomogenizedcodesofexternallyenforcedmorality.
Wecanseehowthisunderstandingofrepetition,withitsemphasisonindividualagency
andthetensionsbetweenthepersonalandthecommunal,isbeingusedtoresistthe
commodificationofinnerspacethroughsuchinitiativesasEmilyMartinsLiveCrazyNetwork.
Thiswebsite,asaforumforpostingandreadingaboutindividualexperienceswithmentalhealth
struggles,facilitatesthetypeofspaceinwhichmoodsandmotivationsmaybereclaimedfrom
thecommodifyingforcesofpresentdaycapitalism.LiveCrazyis...anonprofitorganizationfor
thewritingsofanyonewhowishestodescribeandanalyzetheirexperiencesofthemind...that
...focusesonthosemindstatesinvolvingmoods,high,low,orinbetween,thatpeoplefind
interestingorproblematic.(LivingCrazy
LiveCrazyNetwork
).LiveCrazyisapromising

15

exampleofhowinnerspacemaybereclaimedfromcapitalisminourpresentthroughan
approachtoselfknowledgeandselfcarewhichalsofollowsuponKierkegaardsinsights.This
projectfacilitatesaspaceforindividualstodefinethenatureandsignificanceoftheirmoodson
theirownterms,engagingwithaprocessofselfcarethatispremisedonthenecessityforputting
subjectiveperspectivesindialoguewiththeperspectivesofotherswithoutinstitutional
interference.LiveCrazydoesmorethanjustchallengethemechanismscommodifyinginner
space.Italsorepeatedlyputsfreedomintoaction,asindividualsarticulateandstructuretheir
ownapproachtograpplingwithmentalhealthstruggles.Thosewhofrequentthesiteexpress
theirownconcernswhilealsorespondingtotheconcernsofothers.Formsofresistancelikethis
gobeyondcriticaldeconstructionsofimposedframeworkstowardsthebuildingofathriving
communityinwhichindividualsmayworkonselfknowledgeandselfcaretogether.

VI.
Conclusion
ThewaysinwhichtheStateandcapitalismarecurrentlymilitarizingandcommodifying
ourmoods,motivations,passions,andconcernscannotberesistedwithoutthedevelopmentofa
moreresilientconceptionofselfhoodthatisalsocapableofcontributingtoanew
thos
for
actuallyexistingpoliticalchange.Thenotionofadeconstructedselfhasbecomeessentialtothe
strategicframeworksofboththecounterterrorstateandpresentdaycapitalism.Nolongerwillit
sufficetoapproachtheseinstitutionsasthoughtheyareattemptingtoconstructastabilizedform
ofselfhoodforus.TheproliferatingthreatsandaccompanyinginsecuritiesoftheWaronTerror,
aswellasthedemandsforflexibilityandpersonalizedinvestmentonthepartofworkers,are
fragmentingindividualsalongthelinesofgovernmentandcorporateinterests.Innerspace,along
withthenewtechnologieswhicharemakingthemilitarizationandcommodificationofthis
psychologicalrealmmorepossible,havetoberecoupedbyindividualsinsuchawaythatwill
allow
epimelesthaisautou
and
gnothisauton
tobepracticedononesowntermswiththesupport
ofotherfreeindividuals.ThisiswhyexamplessuchasironicgesturesagainstNSAsurveillance
anddynamicforumsformentalhealthdiscussionaregoodplacestostartforresistanceinour
present:theyshowhowindividualscancometogetherandchallengeimposedapproachesto
producingknowledgeabout
and
waysofcaringfor
themselvesininnerspacewhilealso
restakingaclaimovertheirownrespectivecapacitiesforfreedom.
Followingtheseexamples,critiquemustmoveinthedirectionoffacilitatinga
reclamationofselfknowledgeandselfcareinsuchawaythatisnotchanneledthroughtheState
capitalism,norillfitmodelsofpurepoststructuralism.Thiscanandshouldbetakenupinour
presentifonewishestoengageinanysortofmeaningfulpoliticalchange.MarkG.E.Kelly
expoundsuponthisidea,writing:

anyargumentthatwearepowerlesstoproduceanethicstodaywillonlyservetobeselffullling.We
arenotconstrainedonlybysocialstructures,butbyourwayofthinkingaboutthings,suchasaconception
ofsubjectivitywhichdoesnotallowustorecognizethecrucialquestionoftherelationshipofthesubjectto
itselfwhichistheconditionofhavingaconsciousexerciseoffreedom.(MarkG.E.Kelly522).

SuchataskmaybetackledwithKierkegaardsinsightsonsubjectivityinmind,allowingoneto
expandKellysquestiontoincludenotjustthequestionoftherelationshipofthesubjecttoitself,
butalsotheequallycrucialquestionoftherelationshipofthesubjecttoothers.Combining
KierkegaardsideaswithFoucaultsinapoliticalarenamayseemoddatfirstgiventheir
differingpersonalresponsestovarioussocialdevelopmentsduringtheirownlives.Kierkegaard

16

wasanoutspokencriticofpopulistmovements,whereasFoucaultwasanactiveparticipantin
collectiveprotests.Butsuchareadingissuperficialandglossesoverthepotentialforustouse
thesetwothinkersasresourcesforbuildinganewanew
thos
forpoliticalchange.Writingon
therelationshipbetweenthesetwothinkers,BarryStockerprovidesagreatsummaryofwhat
puttingthesetwothinkerstogethermayaccomplish:ReplacingreferencestoChristianitywith
somethinglike'selfaffectingsubjectivity'maygetusquiteclosetoFoucault,ormaybewecan
justthinkofChristianityinKierkegaardasthekindofreligionwhichhasastyleoflivingas
somethingmorethansimpleasceticismorobedience(BarryStockerKierkegaardsSubjectivity
andFoucaultsStyleofLifeJuridificationDistinction2014).Boththinkerscanhelpusbuild
toolsfornewwaysofengagingwithpoliticsinourpresentbyconsideringourrelationshipto
ourselvesasarevolutionaryfrontofresistancewhichcansubvertthechannelsoftheStateand
capitalism.Theendresult(orperhaps,thestartingpointofrealpoliticalchange)isacallfora
reclamationof
epimelesthaisautou
and
gnothisauton
.Increasingourcapacitiestolearnabout
ourselves,changeourselves,remainthesameinsomeaspects,andtotakecareofourselvescan
contributetonewformationsofcollectivepoliticalengagementsuchasthechoiceexamples
mentionedinSectionV.Theseformationswillnotguaranteeacompletelyharmonious
polis
,but
theymostcertainlycanhelpgiverisetovaluablemethodsforengagingwithpoliticstodayin
suchawaythatvaluesbothsubjectivityandethicsaspowerful,intertwinednotions.

17

WorkCited

37HilariousMemes&Jokes.
Buzzfeed
.11July2013.Web.
Apuzzo,MattandStephenBraunandAnneFlahertyandJackGillum.PRISMisJustTheStart
OfNSASpying.
AssociatedPress
.15June2013.Web.
Aschoff,NicoleM.TheSmartphoneSociety.
JacobinMagazine
.Spring2015.Web.
Boltanski,LucandEveChiapello.
TheNewSpiritofCapitalism
.London:Verso,2005.Print.
Foucault,MichelTheEthicsoftheConcernoftheSelfasaPracticeofFreedom.
Ethics,
Subjectivity,andTruth
.Ed.PaulRabinow.NewYork:NewPress,1997.Web.
Foucault,Michel.TechnologiesoftheSelf.Ed.LutherH.MartinandHuckGutmanand
PatrickH.Hutton.Amherst:UniversityofMassachusettsPress,1988.Web.
Foucault,Michel.TheSubjectandPower.
MichelFoucault:BeyondStructuralismand
Hermeneutics
Ed.HerbertL.DreyfusandPaulRabinow.Brighton:Harvester,1982.
Print.
Greenwald,Glenn.TheRacismthatFuelstheWaronTerror.
TheGuardian
.25March2013.
Web.
Huus,Kari.ACLU:FBIMosqueOutreachProgramUsedtoSpyonMuslims.
NBCNews
.
29March2012.Web.
Kelly,MarkG.E.Foucault,Subjectivity,andTechnologiesoftheSelf.
ACompanionto
Foucault
.Ed.ChristopherFalzonandTimothyOLearyandJanaSawicki.Chichester:
Blackwell,2013.Web.
Kierkegaard,Sren.
ConcludingUnscientificPostscript
.Trans.DavidF.SwensonandWalter
Lowrie.Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,1941.Print.
Kierkegaard,Sren.OnTheConceptofIrony.
TheEssentialKierkegaard
.Ed.HowardV.
HongandEdnaH.Hong.Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,2000.Print.
Kierkegaard,Sren.
Repetition
.Trans.M.G.Piety.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2009.
Web.
LivingCrazy.
LiveCrazyNetwork
.Web.
Martin,Emily.
BipolarExpeditions:ManiaandDepressioninAmericanCulture
.Princeton:
PrincetonUniversity,2007.Print.
Masco,Joseph.BoundlessInformant:DigitalSurveillanceinthePostPrivacyEra.Bennington
College,Bennington.7May2015.
Masco,Joseph.
TheTheatreofOperations:NationalSecurityAffectfromtheColdWartothe

18

WaronTerror.
Durham:DukeUniversityPress,2014.Print.
Stocker,Barry.
KierkegaardOnPolitics
.London:PalgravePivot,2013.Print.
Stocker,Barry.KierkegaardsSubjectivityandFoucaultsStyleofLifeJuridification
Distinction.
NewAPPS:Art,Politics,Philosophy,Science
.12October2014.Web.
Whiteside,Logan.Google:WellMakeYouSmarter...IfYoushareYourData.
CNNMoney
.
16October2014.Web.