UNIT 1: WHAT IS FOOD SCIENCE?

Food Science and Technology is a convenient name used to describe the application of
scientific principles to create and maintain a wholesome food supply. Food Science has given us
frozen foods, canned foods, microwave meals, milk which does not need refrigeration, easily
prepared traditional foods and, above all, variety in our diets. The Food Scientist learns and
applies a wide range of scientific knowledge to maintain a high quality, abundant food supply.
Food Science allows us to make the best use of our resources in a sustainable manner and
minimize waste.
To be a Food Scientist and help handle the world's food supply to maximum advantage,
you need some familiarity in a number of disciplines including the application of microbiology,
chemistry, aspects of biochemistry and some specialized statistics. The investigation of how
biological materials behave in harvesting, processing, distribution, storage and preparation is
complex and full awareness of all important aspects of the problem requires broad-based
training.
With the special training in the applied science known as Food Science, a wide range of
employment opportunities exist for the trained professional. Examples include the Product
Development Specialist, Sensory Scientist, Quality Control and Quality Assurance Specialist,
Technical Sales Specialist, Research and Development Scientist, Marketing, Consumer Behavior
and Management to name a few. Food Science can lead to many exciting and productive
careers.
A number of interesting and unique options in the Food Science and Technology program
include:
Food Processing
Product Development
Food Chemistry
Food Microbiology
Food Quality Management
Biochemistry
Marketing and Consumer Behavior
Human Resource Management and Industrial Relations
Asian Studies
Business Management
Why does there seem to be so much chemistry in Food Science? What if I haven't done well
in this subject before?
Food Science requires about the same amount of basic science as other science programs.
The difference is that in Food Science every student gets an exposure to a wide range of

scientific disciplines and has a chance to succeed in more areas. The chemistry you study in the
program is not pure chemistry but applied chemistry e.g. in studying the formation of alcohol
during a wine fermentation or the flavor components of coffee. Food Science classes then allow
the student to apply those basic ideas learned in general science classes.
QUESTIONS
1. What do you know about Food Science and Technology?
2. As a Food Scientist, what specialized subjects do you need apply?
3. After the training course in Food Science, what jobs can you get?
4. List some options in the Food Science and Technology program.
5. Is it right if chemistry that you study in the program is pure chemistry?
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UNIT 2: CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates make up a group of chemical compounds found in plant and animal cells.
They have the empirical formula CnH2nOn, or (CH2O)n. An empirical formula tells the atomic
composition of the compound, but nothing about structure, size, or what chemical bonds are
present. Since this formula is essentially a combination of carbon and water, these materials are
called hydrates of carbon, or carbohydrates for short.
Carbohydrates are the primary products of plant photosynthesis. The simplified lightdriven reaction of photosynthesis results in the formation of a carbohydrate: nH2O+ nCO2 (CH2O)n- + nO2. This type of carbohydrate is found in the structures of plants and is used in the
reverse reaction of photosynthesis (respiration) or is consumed as fuel by plants and animals.
Carbohydrates are widely available and inexpensive, and are used as an energy source for
our bodies and for cell structures. Food carbohydrates include the simple carbohydrates (sugars)
and complex carbohydrates (starches and fiber). Before a big race, distance runners and cyclists
eat foods containing complex carbohydrates (pasta, pizza, rice and bread) to give them sustained
energy.
Carbohydrates are divided into monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.

Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides are single-molecule sugars (the prefix mono means one) that form
the basic units of carbohydrates. They usually consist of three to seven carbon atoms with
attached hydroxyl (OH) groups in specific stereochemical configurations. The carbons of
carbohydrates are traditionally numbered starting with the carbon of the carbonyl end of the

chain (the carbonyl group is the carbon double-bonded to oxygen).The number of carbons in the
molecule generally categorizes monosaccharides. For example, three-carbon carbohydrate
molecules are called trioses, five-carbon molecules are called pentoses, and six-carbon molecules
are called hexoses.
One of the most important monosaccharides is glucose (dextrose). This molecule is the
primary source of chemical energy for living systems. Plants and animals alike use this molecule
for energy to carry out cellular processes. Mammals produce peptide hormones (insulin and
glucagon) that regulate blood glucose levels, and a disease of high blood glucose is called
diabetes. Other hexoses include fructose (found in fruit juices) and galactose.
Different structures are possible for the same monosaccharide. Although glucose and
fructose are identical in chemical composition (C6H12O6), they are very different in structure.
Such materials are called isomers. Isomers in general have very different physical properties
based on their structure.

Disaccharides
Disaccharides are two monosaccharide sugar molecules that are chemically joined by a
glycosidic linkage (- O -) to form a double sugar (the prefix di means two). When two
monosaccharide molecules react to form a glycosidic bond (linkage), a water molecule is
generated in the process through a chemical reaction known as condensation. Therefore,
condensation is a reaction where water is removed and a polymer is formed. The most well
known disaccharide found in nature is sucrose, which is also called cane sugar, beet sugar, or
table sugar. Sucrose is a disaccharide of glucose and fructose. Lactose or milk sugar is a
disaccharide of glucose and galactose and is found in milk. Maltose is a disaccharide composed
of two glucose units. Disaccharides can easily be hydrolyzed (the reverse of condensation) to
become monosaccharides, especially in the presence of enzymes (such as the digestive enzymes
in our intestines) or alkaline catalysts. Invert sugar is created from the hydrolysis of sucrose into
glucose and fructose. Bees use enzymes to create invert sugar to make honey. Taffy and other
invert sugar type candies are made from sucrose using heat and alkaline baking soda.
Disaccharides are classified as oligosaccharides (the prefix oligo means few or little).
This group includes carbohydrates with 2 to 20 saccharide units joined together. Carbohydrates
containing more than 20 units are classified as polysaccharides.

Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides (the prefix poly means many) are formed when many single sugars are
joined together chemically. Carbohydrates were one of the original molecules that led to the
discovery of what we call polymers. Polysaccharides include starch, glycogen (storage starch in
animals), cellulose (found in the cell walls of plants), and DNA.

Starch is the predominant storage molecule in plants and provides the majority of the
food calories consumed by people worldwide. Most starch granules are composed of a mixture
of two polymers: a linear polysaccharide called amylose and a branched-chain polysaccharide
called amylopectin. Amylopectin chains branch approximately every 20-25 saccharide units.
Amylopectin is the more common form of starch found in plants. Animals store energy in the
muscles and liver as glycogen. This molecule is more highly branched than amylopectin. For
longer-term storage, animals convert the food calories from carbohydrates to fat. In the human
and animals, fats are stored in specific parts of the body called adipose tissue.
Cellulose is the main structural component of plant cell walls and is the most abundant
carbohydrate on earth. Cellulose serves as a source of dietary fiber since, as explained below,
humans do not have the intestinal enzymes necessary to digest it.
Starch and cellulose are both homopolymers (homo means same) of glucose. The
glucose molecules in the polymer are linked through glycosidic covalent bonds. There are two
different stereochemical configurations of glycosidic bondsan alpha linkage and a beta
linkage. The only difference between the alpha and beta linkages is the orientation of the linked
carbon atoms. Therefore, glucose polymers can exist in two different structures, with either alpha
or beta linkages between the glucose residues. Starch contains alpha linkages and cellulose
contains beta linkages. Because of this difference, cornstarch has very different physical
properties compared to those for cotton and wood. Salivary amylase only recognizes and
catalyzes the breakdown of alpha glycosidic bonds and not beta bonds. This is why most
mammals can digest starch but not cellulose (grasses, plant stems, and leaves).

Food Uses of Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are widely used in the food industry because of their physical and
chemical properties. The sweet taste of sucrose, glucose, and fructose is used to improve the
palatability of many foods. Lactose is used in the manufacture of cheese food, is a milk solids
replacer in the manufacture of frozen desserts, and is used as a binder in the making of
pills/tablets.
Another useful aspect of some carbohydrates is their chemical reducing capability. Sugars
with a free hemiacetal group can readily donate an electron to another molecule. Glucose,
fructose, maltose, and lactose are all reducing sugars. Sucrose or table sugar is not a reducing
sugar because its component monosaccharides are bonded to each other through their hemiacetal
group. Reducing sugars react with the amino acid lysine in a reaction called the Maillard
reaction. This common browning reaction produced by heating the food (baking, roasting, or
frying) is necessary for the production of the aromas, colors, and flavors in caramels, chocolate,
coffee, and tea. This non-enzymatic browning reaction differs from the enzymatic browning that
occurs with fresh-cut fruit and vegetables, such as apples and potatoes. Carbohydrates can
protect frozen foods from undesirable textural and structural changes by retarding ice crystal
formation. Polysaccharides can bind water and are used to thicken liquids and to form gels in
sauces, gravies, soups, gelatin desserts, and candies like jelly beans and orange slices. They are

also used to stabilize dispersions, suspensions, and emulsions in foods like ice cream, infant
formulas, dairy desserts, creamy salad dressings, jellies and jams, and candy. Starches are used
as binders, adhesives, moisture retainers, texturizers, and thickeners in foods.

QUESTIONS:
1. What are monosaccharides?
2. What is the most important monosaccharides? What is its role?
3. Explain the term isomers.
4. What are disaccharides? Give some examples of disaccharides.
5. How is invert sugar created?
6. What are polysaccharides? Give some examples of polysaccharides.
7. What are starch granules composed of?
8. Can human digest starch or cellulose? Why?
9. What are the important roles of carbohydrates in food processing?
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UNIT 3: PROTEINS
Proteins are the most complex and important group of molecules because they possess
diverse functionality to support life. Every cell that makes up plants and animals requires
proteins for structure and function. Enzymes, specialized proteins, catalyze chemical reactions
that are necessary for metabolism and cell reproduction. Our muscles are made from a variety of
proteins, and these proteins allow our muscles to contract, facilitating movement. Other types of
proteins in our body are the peptide hormones; insulin and glucagon are two common examples.
Proteins are complex polymers composed of amino acids. Amino acids contain carbon,
hydrogen, nitrogen, and sometimes sulfur and serve as the monomers for making peptides and
proteins. Amino acids have a basic structure that includes an amino group (NH2) and a carboxyl
group (COOH) attached to a carbon atom. This carbon atom also has a side chain (an R group).
This side chain can be as simple as an -H or a -CH3, or even a benzene group.

There are twenty amino acids found in the body. Eight of these amino acids are essential
for adults and children, and nine are essential for infants. Essential means that we cannot
synthesize them in adequate quantities for growth and repair of our bodies, and therefore, must
be included in the diet.
Amino acids are linked together by a peptide bond in which the carboxyl carbon of one
amino acid forms a covalent bond with the amino nitrogen of the other amino acid. Short chains
of amino acids are called peptides. Longer chains of amino acids are called polypeptides.
Although the term polypeptides should include proteins, chains with less than 100 amino acid
residues are considered to be polypeptides, while those with 100 or more amino acid residues are
considered to be proteins.
Many of the major hormones in the body are peptides. These hormones can influence
enzyme action, metabolism, and physiology. Certain antibiotics and a few anti-tumor agents are
also peptides. The artificial sweetener aspartame is a dipeptide composed of aspartic acid and
phenylalanine with a methyl group attached at the carboxyl terminal group (L-aspartyl-Lphenylalanine methyl ester).
The sequence of amino acid residues in a polypeptide chain is critical for biological
function. A single structural change resulted in a dramatic alteration in physiological function.
The ability of an enzyme to catalyze a particular reaction depends on its specific shape. Its a lot
like a key and lock; if the key is broken or in a different shape, it wont open the lock. The
receptor sites on cell surfaces must be in a specific shape for polypeptide hormones to interact
with the cell. With twenty different amino acids and each polypeptide consisting of hundreds of
amino acids, it is no wonder that proteins play such a variety of roles in the human body.

Chemistry of Proteins
The protein backbone is formed from the peptide bonds created from the amino and
carboxyl groups of each monomer that repeat the pattern -N-C-C- or C-C-N-. The number and
sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain is referred to as the primary structure of a
protein. The free amino group and carboxyl group on opposite ends of a polypeptide chain allow
proteins to act as pH buffers (resist changes in pH) inside the cell. The amino group (NH2)
accepts a proton and becomes (NH3+ ), and the carboxyl group (COOH) donates a proton and
becomes dissociated (COO-).
As noted previously, each amino acid residue in the polymer may have a different side
chain or chemical group attached to it, such as hydroxyl (OH), amino (NH2), aromatic ring
(conjugate rings such as the phenol ring in phenylalanine), sulfhydryl (SH), carboxyl (COOH),
or various alkyl (CHn). This variety of side chain groups on the polymer backbone gives proteins
remarkable chemical and physical properties. For example, carboxylate groups can function as
carboxylic acids (COO-), or amino groups can behave as bases (NH3+). This allows protein
polymers to be multifunctional molecules, with both acidic and basic behavior at the same time!
Additionally, the presence of hydroxyls, carboxylates, sulfhydryls, and amino groups allows

hydrogen bonding, and the alkyl groups provide hydrophobic interactions, both within the
protein polymer itself and between separate protein molecules.
In the case of macromolecules, such as proteins, the polymeric structure of the
macromolecule allows it to simultaneously carry many different charges (on different amino acid
residues). However, unlike the small single molecules, the amino acid residues are constrained
by linear peptide linkages and thus cannot move freely to randomly associate with other charged
molecules. Assuming that charged residues will seek to bond with the nearest convenient counter
ion, it is most likely that oppositely charged amino acid residues located at different points
within a single protein chain will bond. These structural differences result in the folding of
proteins into a three-dimensional structure, which is, in part, responsible for their functional
properties as biocatalysts, structural materials, muscles, and chemical receptors. Proteins can be
shaped as long flat sheets or in globular spheres. This leads to the names fibrous or globular for
protein shapes. Most enzymes are globular proteins.
In standard acid base chemistry, we know that molecules carry electrostatic charges based
on the type of atoms that make up a molecule and the environment of the molecule. Given that
opposite charges attract, cationic and anionic atoms can combine to form covalent bonds, in
which electrons are shared between atomic orbitals, or form ionic bonds, in which only
electrostatic attractions exist. In solution with smaller molecules, such as HCl (an acid) or NaOH
(a base), protein molecules can freely move around and associate with each other on a more-orless random basis.
Protein polymers extend the simple acid base charged chemical species concepts to
explain how biological systems have greater levels of complexity and can utilize simple,
monomeric chemical structures (like amino acids) to create exquisitely complex biological
structures like antibodies, muscle, and skin. Protein polymers have physical structure, even when
dissolved in liquids. The charged and hydrophobic residues within a protein tend to associate,
causing the protein to fold up. When you unfold the protein molecule (called denaturation), its
charged residues can reassociate with other charged molecules (precipitation or coagulation).
Protein precipitation is widely used to recover recombinant protein products, enzymes, or in the
production of many common foods. Cheeses and soybean tofu are examples of coagulated
protein food products.

Food Uses of Proteins

Proteins also serve important roles in the processing of food products. They are used for
their thickening, gelling, emulsifying, and water-binding properties in meats (sausages), bakery
products, cheese, desserts, and salad dressings. Proteins are used for their cohesive and adhesive
properties in sausage making, pasta, and baked goods. Egg proteins are used for their foaming
properties in desserts, cakes, and whipped toppings. Milk, egg, and cereal proteins are used as fat
and flavor binders in low-fat bakery products. Proteins are used for texture and palatability in
bakery products (breads, cakes, crackers, and pizza crust) and sausages.

Milk protein consists of 80% casein and 20% whey proteins. There are four major types
of casein molecules: alpha-s1, alpha-s2, beta, and kappa. Milk, in its natural state, is negatively
charged. The negative charge permits the dispersion of casein in the milk. When an acid is added
to milk, the H+ concentration neutralizes the negatively charged casein micelles. When milk is
acidified to pH 4.7, the isoelectric point (the point at which all charges are neutral) of casein, an
isoelectric precipitate known as acid casein is formed. Cottage cheese and cream cheese
manufacture involves an acid precipitation of casein with lactic acid or lactic acid producing
microorganisms. Acid casein is used in the chemical industry and as a glazing additive in paper
manufacturing.
Casein also can be coagulated with the enzyme rennin, which is found in rennet (an
extract from the stomach of calves). Rennin works best at body temperature (37C). If the milk is
too cold, the reaction is very slow, and if the milk is too hot, the heat will denature the rennin,
rendering it inactive. The mechanism for the coagulation of the casein by the rennin is different
from the acid precipitation of casein. The rennin coagulum consists of casein, whey protein, fat,
lactose, and the minerals of the milk, and has a fluffier and spongier texture than the acid
precipitate. Rennet is used in the manufacture of cheese and cheese products, and rennet casein is
used in the plastics industry. Casein is solubilized with sodium hydroxide and calcium hydroxide
to produce sodium caseinate and calcium caseinate, respectively. Caseinates are added to food
products to increase their protein content and are key ingredients in non-dairy coffee creamers.
Approximately 90% of soybean proteins are classified as globulins, based on their
solubility in salts. More specifically, the proteins are conglycinin (a glycoprotein) and glycinin.
Tofu is manufactured by coagulating the proteins in soymilk with magnesium sulfate. As
bonding occurs between the positively charged magnesium ions and negatively charged anionic
groups of the protein molecules, the proteins coagulate.

QUESTIONS
1. What are proteins?
2. Why are proteins important group of molecules?
3. Describe a basic structure of amino acid.
4. What does essential amino acid mean?
5. How are amino acids linked together in protein molecule?
6. Distinguish the terms peptides and polypeptides
7. What are the important roles of protein in the processing of food products?
8. What is rennin? For what reason we utilized rennin in cheese processing?

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UNIT 4: ENZYMES
Living systems contain large protein molecules called enzymes. Those large globular
proteins range in molecular weight from about 10,000 to several million. Each of the thousands
of known enzymes has a characteristic three- dimensional shape with a specific surface
configuration as a result of its primary, secondary, and tertiary structures. The unique
configuration of each enzyme enables it to find the correct substrate from among the large
number of diverse molecules in the cell.
Although some enzymes consist entirely of proteins, most consist of both a protein
portion called an apoenzyme and a nonprotein component called a cofactor. Together, the
apoenzyme and cofactor form a holoenzyme, or whole enzyme. If the cofactor is removed, the
apoenzyme will not function. The cofactor can be a metal ion or a complex organic molecule
called a coenzyme. Coenzymes may assist the enzyme by accepting atoms removed from the
substrate or by donating atoms required by the substrate. Some coenzymes act as electron carries,
removing electrons from the substrate and donating them to other molecules in subsequent
reactions. Many coenzymes are derived from vitamins.
The name of enzymes usually end in ase. All enzymes can be grouped into six classes,
according to the type of chemical reaction they catalyze. Enzymes within each of the major
classes are named according to the more specific types of reactions they assist. They are:
1. Oxidoreductase: oxidation-reduction in which oxygen and hydrogen are gained or lost.
2. Transferase: Transfer of functional groups, such as an amino group, acetyl group, or
phosphate group
3. Hydrolase: hydrolysis (addition of water)
4. Lyase: removal of groups of atoms without hydrolysis
5. Isomerase: Rearrangement of atoms within a molecule
6. Ligase: joining of two molecules (using energy usually derived from break down of ATP)
Mechanism of Enzymatic Action
Enzymes can speed up chemical reaction in several ways. Whatever the method, the
result is that the enzyme lowers the activation energy for the reaction without increasing the
temperature or pressure inside the cell. Although scientists do not completely understand how
enzymes lower the activation energy of chemical reaction, the general sequence of events in
enzyme reaction is as follows:
1. The surface of the substrate contacts a specific region of the surface of the enzyme
molecule, called the active site.
2. A temporary intermediate compound forms, called an enzyme-substrate complex.

3. The substrate molecule is transformed by the rearrangement of existing atoms, the

breakdown of the substrate molecule, or combination with another substrate molecule.
4. The transformed substrate molecules the products of the reaction are released from
the enzyme molecule because they no longer fit in the active site of the enzyme.
5. The unchanged enzyme is now free to react with other substrate molecules.
Enzymes are extremely efficient. Under optimum conditions, they can catalyze reaction
at rates 108 to 1010 times (up to 10 billion times) higher than those of comparable reactions
without enzymes.
In living cells, enzymes serve as biological catalysts. As catalysts, enzymes are specific.
Each acts on a substrate (or substrates, when there are two or more reactants), and each catalyzes
only one reaction. For example, a specific enzyme may be able to hydrolyze a peptide bond only
between two specific amino acids. Other enzymes can hydrolyze starch but not cellulose; even
though both starch and cellulose are polysaccharides composed of glucose subunits, the
orientation of the subunits in the two polysaccharides differ. Enzymes have this specificity
because the three dimensional shape of the active site fits the substrate somewhat as a lock fits
with its key. However, the active site and substrate are flexible, and they change shape somewhat
as they meet to fit together more tightly. The substrate is usually much smaller than the enzyme,
and relatively few of the enzymes amino acids make up the active site.
A certain compound can be a substrate for a number of different enzymes that catalyze
different reactions, so the fate of a compound depends on the enzymes that acts upon it. Glucose
6-phosphate, a molecule that is important in cell metabolism, can be acted upon by at least four
different enzymes, and each reaction will yield a different product.
Factors influence enzyme activity
Several factors influence the activity of enzyme. The more important are temperature,
pH, substrate concentration, and presence or absence of inhibitors.
The rate of most chemical reactions increases as the temperature increases. Molecules
move more slowly at lower temperatures than at higher temperatures and so may not have
enough energy to cause a chemical reaction. For enzymatic reactions, however, elevation beyond
a certain temperature drastically reduces the rate of reaction. This decrease is due to the
enzymes denaturation, the loss of its characteristic three-dimensional structure (tertiary
configuration). Denaturation of a protein involves breakage of hydrogen bonds and other
noncovalent bonds. As might be expected, denaturation of an enzyme changes the arrangement
of the amino acids in the active site, altering its shape and causing the enzyme to lose its catalytic
ability. In some cases, denaturation is partially or fully reversible. However, if denaturation
continues until the enzyme has lost its solubility and coagulates (as with cooked albumin) the
enzyme cannot regain its original properties. Enzymes can be denatured by concentrated acids,
bases, heavy-metal ions (such as lead, arsenic, or mercury), alcohol, and ultraviolet radiation.

Most enzymes have an optimum pH at with their activity is characteristically maximal.

Above or bellow this pH value, enzyme activity, and therefore the reaction rate, declines. When
the H+ concentration (pH) in the medium is changed, many of the enzymes amino acids are
effected and the proteins three-dimensional structure is altered. Extreme changes in pH can
cause denaturation.
There is a maximum rate at which a certain amount of enzyme can catalyze a specific
reaction. Only when the concentration of substrate(s) is extremely high can this maximum rate
be attained. Under condition of high substrate concentration, the enzyme is said to be saturation;
that is, its active site is always occupied by substrate or product molecules. In this condition, a
further increase in substrate concentration will not effect the reaction rate because all active sites
are already in use. If a substrates concentration exceeds a cells saturation level for a particular
enzyme, the rate of reaction can be increased only if the cell produces additional enzyme
molecules. However, under normal cellular conditions, enzymes are not saturated with
substrate(s). At any given time, many of the enzyme molecules are inactive for lack of substrate;
thus, the rate of reaction is likely to be influenced by the substrate concentration.
Enzyme inhibitors are classified according to their mechanism of action as either
competitive or noncompetive inhibitors. Competitive inhibitors fill the active site of an enzyme
and compete with the normal substrate for the active site. A competitive inhibitor is able to do
this because its shape and chemical structure are similar to those of normal substrate. However,
unlike the substrate, it does not undergo any reaction to form products. Some competitive
inhibitors bind irreversibly to amino acids in the active site, preventing any further interactions
with the substrate. Others bind reversibly, alternately occupying and leaving the active site, these
slow the enzymes interaction with the substrate. Reversible competitive inhibition can be
overcome by increasing the substrate concentration. As active site becomes available, more
substrate molecules than competitive inhibitor molecules are available to attach to the active sites
of enzymes. Noncompetitive inhibitors do not compete with the substrate for the enzymes active
site; instead, they interact with another part of the enzyme. In this process, called allosteric
(other space) inhibition, the inhibitor binds to a site on the enzyme other than the substrates
binding site. This binding causes the active site to change its shape, making it nonfunctional. As
a result, the enzymes activity is reduced. This effect cab be reversible or irreversible, depending
on whether or not the active site can return to its original shape. In some cases, allosteric
interaction can activate an enzyme rather than inhibit it. Another type of noncompetitive
inhibition can operate on enzymes that require metal ions for their activity. Certain chemical can
bind or tie up the metal ion activators and thus prevent an enzymatic reaction. Cyanide can bind
the iron in iron-containing enzymes, and fluoride can bind calcium or magnesium. Substances
such as cyanide and fluoride are sometimes called enzyme poisons because they permanently
inactivate enzymes.

QUESTIONS:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

What do enzymes generally consist of?

What can the cofactor be?
How do coenzymes work?
What is the important role of enzyme?
Describe the general sequence of events in enzyme reaction.
Why enzymes have their own specificity?
Can a certain compound be a substrate for a number of different enzymes that catalyze
different reactions?
8. What are the important factors that influence the activity of enzyme?
9. What does denaturation of a protein involve?
10. What does denaturation of an enzyme cause?
11. By what factors can arrangement enzymes be denatured?
12. When the enzyme is said to be saturation?
13. How are enzyme inhibitors classified?

UNIT 5: STERILIZATION VERSUS PASTEURIZATION

Thermal processing covers the broad area of food preservation technology in which heat
treatments are used to inactivate microorganisms to accomplish either commercial sterilization or
pasteurization. Sterilization processes are used with canning to preserve the safety and
wholesomeness of ready-to-eat foods over long terms of extended storage at normal room
temperature (nonrefrigerated) without additives or preservatives, and pasteurization processes are
used to extend the refrigerated storage life of fresh foods. Although both processes make use of
heat treatments for the purpose of inactivating microorganisms, they differ widely with respect to
the classification or type of microorganisms targeted, and thus the range of temperatures that
must be used and the type of equipment systems capable of achieving such temperatures.
SECTION I:
PASTEURIZATION
Pasteurization is a relatively mild heat treatment given to foods with the purpose of
destroying selected vegetative microbial species (especially the pathogens) and inactivating the
enzymes. Because the process does not eliminate all the vegetative microbial population and
almost none of the spore formers, pasteurized foods must be contained and stored under
conditions of refrigeration with chemical additives or modified atmosphere packaging, which
minimize microbial growth. Depending on the type of product, the shelf life of pasteurized foods
could range from several days (milk) to several months (fruit juices). Because only mild heat
treatment is involved, the sensory characteristics and nutritive value of the food are minimally
affected. The severity of the heat treatment and the length of storage depend on the nature of the
product, pH conditions, the resistance of the target microorganism or enzyme, the sensitivity of
the product, and the method of heating.

Most pasteurization operations involving liquids (milk, milk products, beer, fruit juices,
liquid egg, etc) are carried out in continuous heat exchangers. The product temperature is quickly
raised to the pasteurization levels in the first heat exchanger, held for the required length of time
in the holding tube, and quickly cooled in a second heat exchanger. For viscous fluids, a swept
surface heat exchanger is often used to promote faster heat transfer and to prevent surface
fouling problems. In-package pasteurization is similar to conventional thermal processing of
foods except that it is carried out at lower temperatures. The thermal processing of high acid
foods (natural or acidified) is also sometimes termed pasteurization to indicate that relatively
milder heat treatment is involved (generally carried out at boiling water temperatures).
SECTION II:
STERILIZATION
Sterilization implies the destruction of all viable microorganisms and is not the
appropriate word to be used for thermal processing of foods, because these foods are far from
being sterile in the medical sense of the word. The success of thermal processing does not lie in
destroying all viable microorganisms but in the fact that together with the nature of the food
(pH), environment (vacuum), hermetic packaging, and storage temperature, the given heat
process prevents the growth of microorganisms of spoilage and public health concern. In
essence, it presents a thermal process in which foods are exposed to a high-enough temperature
for a sufficiently long time to render them commercially sterile. The process takes into account
the heat resistance of the spore formers in addition to their growth sensitivity to oxygen, pH, and
temperature. The presence of vacuum in cans prevents the growth of most aerobic
microorganisms, and if the storage temperature is kept below 25 0C, the heat-resistant thermopiles
pose little or no problem. From the public health perspective, the most important microorganism
in low-acid (pH > 4.5) foods is Clostridium botulinum, a heat-resistant, spore-forming, anaerobic
pathogen that, if it survives processing, can potentially grow and produce the deadly botulism
toxin in foods. Because C. botulinum and most spore formers do not grow at pH < 4.5 (acid and
medium-acid foods), the thermal processing criterion for these foods is the destruction of heatresistant yeasts and molds, vegetative microorganisms, or enzymes. Because spore formers
generally have high heat resistance, the low-acid foods that support their growth are processed at
elevated temperatures (115-1250C), whereas acid foods need only to be brought to 80-900C for
adequate inactivation of enzymes or destruction of vegetative cells, yeasts, and molds.
QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

What is the difference between sterilization and pasteurization?

The main purpose of sterilization and pasteurization.
Are spore former microorganisms destroyed in pasteurization?
Can pasteurized foods be preserved in normal storage condition?
Does the pasteurization process affect greatly the sensory characteristics and nutritive
value of the food?
6. Are enzymes inactivated in the pasteurization process?
7. Give example of food products which is treated by pasteurization
8. Describe the stages in the pasteurization process.
9. What is the equipment for holding the pasteurization temperature called?
10. What does the term pasteurization mean for heat treatment of high acid foods?
11. Are all viable microorganisms destroyed by sterilization or pasteurization?

12. What microorganism is considered as the most important in terms of public health
concern, especially in low acid foods ? Why?
13. What are the ph values for low-acid and acid foods?
14. What target microorganisms are destroyed by heat processing for acid foods?
15. Why is temperature requirement of thermal processing for acid foods lower than for low
acid foods?

UNIT 6: THE BISCUIT INDUSTRY

WHAT ARE BISCUITS?
Biscuits are small baked products made principally from flour, sugar and fat. They
typically have a moisture content of less than 4% and when packaged in moisture-proof
containers have long shelf lives, perhaps six months or more. The appeal to consumers is
determined by the appearance and eating qualities. For example, consumers do not like broken
biscuits nor ones that have been over or under baked.
Biscuits are made in many shapes and sizes and after baking they may be coated with
chocolate, sandwiched with a fat-based filling or have other pleasantly flavored additions.
HOW ARE BISCUITS MADE?
Biscuits are a traditional type of flour confectionery which were, and can still be, made
and baked in a domestic kitchen. Now they are made mostly in factories on large production
plants. These plants are large and complex and involve considerable mechanical sophistication.
Forming, baking and packaging are largely continuous operations but metering ingredients and
dough mixing are typically done in batches.
There is a high degree of mechanization in the biscuit industry but at present there are
very few completely automatic production plants. This means that there is a high degree of
dependence on the operators to start and control production plant. It is essential that operators are
skilled in the tasks they have to do and this involves responsibility for product quality. As part of
their training they must know about the ingredients and their roles in making biscuits. They must
be aware of the potential ingredient quality variations and the significance of these.
There are basically two types of biscuit dough, hard and soft. The difference is
determined by the amount of water required to make dough which has satisfactory handling
quality for making dough pieces for baking.
Hard dough has high water and relatively low fat (and sugar) contents. The dough is
tough and extensible (it can be pulled out without immediately breaking), like tight bread dough.
The biscuits are either crackers or in a group known as semi-sweet or hard sweet.
Soft doughs contain much less water and relatively high levels of fat and sugar. The
dough is short, (breaks when it is pulled out) which means that it inhibits very low extensible
character. It may be soft that it is pourable. The biscuits are of the soft eating types which are
often referred to as cookies. There are a great number of biscuit types made from soft doughs
and a wide variety of ingredients may be used.

The machinery used to make biscuits is designed to suit the type of dough needed and to
develop the structure and shape of the individual biscuits.
Secondary processing, which is done after the biscuit has been baked, and packaging of
biscuits are specific to the product concerned. There is normally a limited range of biscuit types
that can be made by given set of plant machinery.
Many biscuit production plants bake at the rate of 1000-2000 kg per hour and higher rates
are not unusual. Given this and the sophistication of the production line it is most economical to
make only one biscuit type for a whole day or at least an eight hour shift.
QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.

Which ingredients are biscuits made from?

What moisture do biscuits typically have?
In terms of packaging, how is the shelf life of biscuits prolonged?
Due to a high degree of mechanization in the biscuit industry, how important is the role
of the operators?
5. What requirements do operators in biscuit production need to meet?

UNIT 7: FOOD PRESERVATION

Food preservation is the process of treating and handling food in such a way as to stop or
greatly slow down spoilage to prevent foodborne illness while maintaining nutritional value,
texture and flavor.
Preservation usually involves preventing the growth of bacteria, fungi and other microorganisms, as well as retarding the oxidation of fat which cause rancidity. It also includes
processes to inhibit natural aging and discolouration that can occur during food preparation such
as the polyphenoloxidase reaction in apples which causes browning when apples are cut. Some
preservation methods require the food to be sealed after treatment to prevent re-contamination
with microbes; others, such as drying, allow food to be stored without any special containment
for long periods.
Preservation processes include:

Heating to kill or denature organisms (e.g. boiling)

Oxidation (e.g use of sulphur dioxide)
Toxic inhibition (e.g. smoking, use of carbon dioxide, vinegar, alcohol etc)
Dehydration (drying)
Osmotic inhibition ( e.g use of syrups)
Low temperature inactivation (e.g. freezing)
Many combinations of these methods

One of the oldest methods of food preservation is by drying, which reduces water activity
sufficient to delay or prevent bacterial growth. Most types of meat can be dried and this is

especially valuable in the case of pig meat since this is difficult to keep without preservation.
Many fruits can also be dried and the process is often applied to apples, pears, bananas, mangoes,
papaya, coconut etc. Drying is also the normal means of preservation for cereal grains such as
wheat, maize, oats, barley, rice.
Probably as old as drying, many Arctic communities would preserve food in holes or
larders dug into the ice. There is a tradition in Scandinavia of preserving fish and especially
herrings in this way. Freezing is also one of the most commonly used processes commercially
and domestically for preserving a very wide range of food stuffs including prepared food stuffs
which would not have required freezing in their unprepared state. For example, potato waffles
are stored in the freezer, but potatoes themselves require only a cool dark place to ensure many
months' storage. Cold stores provide large volume, long-term storage for strategic food stocks
held in case of national emergency in many countries.
Canning involves cooking fruits or vegetables, sealing them in sterile cans or jars, and
boiling the containers to kill or weaken any remaining bacteria. Various foods have varying
degrees of natural protection against spoilage and may require that the final step occur in a
pressure cooker. High-acid fruits like strawberries require no preservatives to can and only a
short boiling cycle, whereas marginal fruits such as tomatoes require longer boiling and addition
of other acidic elements. Many vegetables require pressure canning. Food preserved by canning
or bottling is at immediate risk of spoilage once the can or bottle has been opened. Lack of
quality control in the canning process may allow ingress of water or micro-organisms. Most such
failures are rapidly detected as decomposition within the can causes gas production and the can
will swell or burst. However, there have been examples of poor manufacture and poor hygiene
allowing contamination of canned food by the obligate anaerobe, Clostridium botulinum which
produces an acute toxin within the food leading to severe illness or death. This organism
produces no gas or obvious taste and remains undetected by taste or smell.
Pickling is a method of preserving food by placing it or cooking it in a substance that
inhibits or kills bacteria and other micro-organisms. This material must also be fit for human
consumption. Typical pickling agents include brine (high in salt), vinegar, ethanol, and vegetable
oil, especially olive oil but also many other oils. Most pickling processes also involve heating or
boiling so that the food being preserved becomes saturated with the pickling agent. Frequently
pickled items include vegetables such as cabbage, peppers, and some animal products such as
corned beef and eggs.
Vacuum-packing stores food in a vacuum environment, usually in an air-tight bag or
bottle. The vacuum environment strips bacteria of oxygen needed for survival, hence preventing
the food from spoiling. Vacuum-packing is commonly used for storing nuts.
Modified atmosphere is a way to preserve food operating on the atmosphere around it.
Salad crops which are notoriously difficult to preserve are now being packaged in sealed bags
with an atmosphere modified to reduce the oxygen concentration and increase the carbon dioxide
concentration. There is concern that although salad vegetables retain their appearance and texture
in such conditions, this method of preservation may not retain nutrients, especially vitamins.
Grains may be preserved using carbon dioxide. A block of dry ice is placed in the bottom and the

can is filled with grain. The can is then "burped" of excess gas. The carbon dioxide from the
sublimation of the dry ice prevents insects, mold, and oxidation from damaging the grain. Grain
stored in this way can remain edible for five years.
Some foods, such as many traditional cheeses, will keep for a long time without use of
any special procedures. The preservation occurs because of the presence in very high numbers of
beneficial bacteria or fungi which use their own biological defences to prevent other organisms
gaining a foot-hold.
Sugar is used to preserve fruits, either in syrup with fruit such as apples, pears, peaches,
apricots, plums or in crystalized form where the preserved material is cooked in sugar to the
point of crystalization and the resultant product is then stored dry. This method is used for the
skins of citrus fruit (candied peel), angelica and ginger. The use of sugar is often combined with
alcohol for preservation of luxury products such as fruit in brandy or other spirits.
Food may be preserved by cooking in a material that solidifies to form a gel. Such
materials include gelatine, agar, maize flour and arrowroot flour. Some foods naturally form a
protein gel when cooked.
QUESTIONS:
1. What is food preservation?
2. What is foodborne illness?
3. What do preservation processes include?
4. How can drying method preserve foods?
5. What is the role of cold stores in food preservation?
6. What is pickling method?
7. How can grains be preserved by using modified atmosphere?
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UNIT 8: FOOD PACKAGING

Food packaging development started with humankinds earliest beginnings. Early forms
of packaging ranged from gourds to sea shells to animal skin. Later came pottery, cloth and
wooden containers. These packages were created to facilitate transportation and trade.
Utilizing modern technology, todays society has created an overwhelming number of
new packages containing a multitude of food products. A modern food package has many
functions, its main purpose being to physically protect the product during transport. The package
also acts as a barrier against potential spoilage agents, which vary with the food product. For
example, milk is sensitive to light; therefore, a package that provides a light barrier is necessary.
The milk carton is ideal for that. Other foods like potato chips are sensitive to air because the
oxygen in the air causes rancidity, which is a condition of spoiled oil characterized by

objectionable odor and flavor. The bags containing potato chips are made of materials with
oxygen- barrier properties. Practically all foods should be protected from filth, microorganisms,
moisture and objectionable odors. We rely on the package to offer that protection.
Aside from protecting the food, the package serves as a vehicle through which the
manufacturer can communicate with the consumer. Nutritional information ingredients and often
recipes are found on a food label. The package is also utilized as a marketing tool designed to
attract your attention at the store. This makes printability an important property of a package.
The food industry utilizes four basic packaging materials: metal, plant matter (paper and
wood), glass and plastic. A number of basic packaging materials are often combined to give a
suitable package. The fruit drink box is an example where plastic, paper and metal are combined
in a laminate to give an ideal package. This concept can be easily seen in your peanut butter jar.
The main package containing the food (primary package) is made of glass (or plastic), the lid is
made of metal lined with plastic, and the label is made of paper.
Each basic packaging material has advantages and disadvantages. Metal is strong and a
good overall barrier, but heavy and prone to corrosion. Paper is economical and has good
printing properties; however, it is not strong and it absorbs water. Glass is transparent, which
allows the consumer to see the product, but breakable. Plastics are versatile but often expensive.
Therefore, combining the basic materials works well in most cases. So, for a product like milk,
which is an essential food for children and young adults and therefore cannot be very expensive,
paper makes a good economical material. It also provides a good printing surface. However,
since paper absorbs water, it will gain moisture from the milk, get weaker and fail, thereby
exposing the milk to spoilage factors. It may even break and waste the product. When a thin
layer of a plastic called polyethylene is utilized to line the inside of the milk carton, it serves as a
barrier to moisture and makes an economical, functional package.
After making a food product and placing it in the appropriate package, a number of these
individual packages must be placed in a large container to facilitate shipment. These larger
containers are called secondary packages. The paperboard box is a very common secondary
package. Plastics also can serve as secondary packages. The milk case in which a number of milk
cartons are delivered to the supermarket is a good example.
We cannot discuss food packaging without discussing the effects of packaging waste on
the environment. Clearly, recycling is a sound approach. However, the problem often lies in
feasibility of collection, separation and purification of the consumers disposed food packages.
This mode of recycling is called post-consumer recycling. While it offers a logistic challenge,
recycling is gaining in popularity, and the packaging industry is cooperating in that effort.
Aluminum cans are the most recycled container at this time. Plastic recycling is increasing, yet
most plastic is recycled during manufacturing of the containers; not as post-consumer recycling.
For example, trimmings from plastic bottles are reground and reprocessed into new ones.
The plastics industry is helping to facilitate consumer recycling by identifying the type of
plastic from which the container is made. A number from 1 to 7 is placed within the recycling
logo on the containers bottom. For example, 1 refers to PET (Polyethylene Terephthalate), the

plastic used for the large 2 liter soft drink bottles. Plastics have the advantage of being light. This
helps to conserve fuel during transport and also reduces the amount of package waste.
There are many interesting packaging concepts being explored by the industry to keep up
with the changing life style of the consumer and new technologies. Many professionals are
involved in designing and manufacturing the modern package. Today's package is designed with
the consumer's safety and convenience in mind. Examples are microwaveable popcorn packages,
squeezable ketchup bottles and the tamper-proof milk bottle cap.

QUESTIONS
1. In term of packaging, what does barrier mean?
2. What does Primary Package mean?
3. What does Secondary Package mean?
4. What dose Printability mean?
5. Explain about rancidity
6. What is PET abbreviated for?
7. What is PE abbreviated for?
8. What does laminated package mean?
9. What are the three basic packaging materials that make up the fruit drink box?
10. Which plastic is utilized to line the inside of the milk carton?
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