The Beauty of Anglo-Saxon Poetry (Riddles

Analysis)
Wulf and Eadwacer
Wulf and Eadwacer is an Old English poem of famously difficult interpretation. It has been
variously characterised, (modernly) as an elegy, (historically) as a riddle, and (in speculation on
the poem's pre-history) as a song or ballad with refrain. The poem's complexities are, however,
often asserted simply to defy genre classification, especially with regard to its narrative content.
The poem's only extant text is found within the 10th century Exeter Book, along with certain
other texts to which it possesses qualitative similarities.

Genre
The characterisation of the poem as a riddle is the oldest of its various treatments, the argument
for which characterisation is based largely upon the obscurity of its subject and the placement of
the poem within the Exeter Book, preceding the texts of the extant riddles themselves. However,
its length and its various textual problems not characteristic of the riddles have led few scholars
to pursue a simple riddle interpretation in modern textual study, and few such explanations have
garnered serious attention in the recent history of its scholarship. Rather, the thematic similarity
of the poem to The Wife's Lament, also found in the Exeter Book, has caused most modern
scholars to place it, along with the Wife's Lament, solidly within the genre of the frauenlied, or
woman's song and, more broadly, in that of the Old English elegy. Its adjacency to the riddles
has, however, continued to inform commentary and interpretation. The short lines and refrains of
Wulf and Eadwacer, along with the stream of consciousness narration have made it a popular
feminist reading. These features aided by the rhythm and syntax, cause the emotional buildup of
the poem.

Manuscript evidence
For lack of any historical evidence or attestation outside the Exeter Book's text, historical
criticism is limited to study of the Exeter Book itself and, particularly, to comparative study of its
various contained works. Though it is generally held that the poem's composition occurred at a
date significantly earlier than the date of the Exeter Book's own compilation, the degree of the
poem's age relative to the codex is difficult if not impossible to ascertain. The dating of the poem
in criticism is thus generally limited to what can be ascertained from the known history of the
Exeter Book, for which suggested dates of compilation range from 960CE to 990CE. Though the
folios on which the poem is recorded are not subject to any significant damage necessitating
reconstruction, its textual problems and, particularly, the grammatical confusion of the first lines
of the text, have resulted in widespread postulation that the initial lines of the poem may have
been lost prior to its inclusion in the Exeter Book but subsequent to an earlier transcription. There
is no manuscript evidence to directly support this theory, however.
Proposals regarding its heritage prior to inscription in the Exeter codex are consequently many
and various. The inclusion of a refrain in the text of the poem may support an originally nonEnglish origin, as the refrain is not conventional to the Old English elegy or to any other known
Old English poetical form. Among proposed explanations for this anomaly, a Scandinavian
1

inspiration for the Anglo-Saxon text offers one possible solution to this problem, and has
similarly been considered as an explanation for its difficult language, but this theory, as with most
others on the poem's prehistory, can only be regarded as hypothetical given lack of substantive
corroborating evidence. The suggestion is that the poem derives from some interpretation of the
Wayland story; that the woman is Beadohilde, Wulf is Wayland, and Eadwacer her angry father.
This episode is also discussed in the poem Deor.

Characters
The most conventional interpretation of the poem is as a lament spoken in the first person by an
unnamed woman who is or has in the past been involved with two men whose names are Wulf
and Eadwacer respectively. Both of these are attested Anglo-Saxon names, and this interpretation
is the basis for the common titling of the poem (which is not based on any other manuscript
evidence). However, even this point proves controversial. Some interpretations favour a single
male character, and virtually all commentaries acknowledge the possibility, though this is the less
orthodox of the two views. In recognition of this fact, for example, preeminent Old English
scholar Michael Alexander has chosen the title "Wulf" for his own reproduction of it in The
Earliest English Poems (Penguin, 1973). It has also been known to be titled simply as Eadwacer.
The title Wulf and Eadwacer, however, though apocryphal, has gained such widespread
acceptance over time that in the majority of texts it is accepted regardless of the treatment of the
titular name(s) and character(s).

Synopsis
The speaker of the poem is evidently separated from her lover and/or husband, Wulf, both
symbolically and materially (Wulf is on iege, | ic on oerre), and this separation is seemingly
maintained by threat of violence (willa hy hine aecgan, | gif he on reat cyme), possibly by
her own people (Leodum is minum | swylce him mon lac gife). Crying out in her sorrow for her
lover, she longs for him to take her in his arms (onne mec se beaducafa bogum bilegde). She
finds comfort in his coming, but it is also bittersweet (ws me wyn to on, ws me hwre eac
la). She then addresses 'Eadwacer', who may be her husband or her captor, and she appears to
identify their 'whelp' (Uncerne earne hwelp), generally understood to metaphorically imply 'child'
and possibly a reference to the child's being the 'whelp' of a man named 'Wulf'. She describes this
child as being taken off 'to the woods' (to wuda).

Differing arguments
Even though the poem is a mere nineteen lines there are many differing interpretations. The
before-mentioned is the most popular interpretation. One of the others is that the word Eadwacer
in the poem is not a proper noun, but a simple common noun which means "property watcher".
This brings the characters in the poem from three to two, the speaker and her lover, Wulf. If one
adopts this interpretation then her exclamation ("Do you hear me, Eadwacer?") could be meant to
be sarcastic or a calling out of his manhood. She is saying that his long absences have made him
anything but a protector to her and their child who she worries about. Using this interpretation,
the speaker's use of irony when speaking of her lover makes the last two lines make sense. The
speaker may be saying that Wulf has been her lover and her child's father, but has never treated
her as or actually been her husband. Therefore, the complications of their relationship is easily
unbound. However, this seems to be more easily done by Wulf than the speaker herself (Adams).

Though this argument is debatable among scholars, there is the thought that the character of Wulf
is actually the speaker's child and not her lover. In this case she would be lamenting and pining
after her son, hoping that he was okay, and not her lover. One scholar says: "In Wulf and
Eadwacer a woman finds herself in a situation typical of Old English poetry, torn between
conflicting loyalties. Many commentators see this particular situation as a sexual triangle, with
Wulf the womans lover and Eadwacer her husband. If so, then Wulf and Eadwacer is not typical,
because most Old English loyalty crises occur within the family groupIt istrue that romantic
or sexual love was not the literary commonplace before the twelfth century it has been since;
other loves took precedenceThe situation in Wulf and Eadwacer is far more typically AngloSaxon than as usually interpreted, if the speaker is understood to be the mother of the person she
addresses as Wulf, as well as of the whelp of line 16." This argument that Wulf is actually the
narrators son gives a different depth to the elegyit becomes a poem of mourning for her son
that seems to be exiled from her and their people. This idea has credibility when put in context
that she was peace-weaved to Eadwacer, making Wulf their son.

Old English text

Leodum is minum swylce him mon lac gife;
willa hy hine aecgan, gif he on reat cyme.
Ungelic is us.
Wulf is on iege, ic on oerre.
Fst is t eglond, fenne biworpen.
Sindon wlreowe weras r on ige;
willa hy hine aecgan, gif he on reat cyme.
Ungelice is us.
Wulfes ic mines widlastum wenum dogode;
onne hit ws renig weder ond ic reotugu st,
onne mec se beaducafa bogum bilegde,
ws me wyn to on, ws me hwre eac la.
Wulf, min Wulf, wena me ine
seoce gedydon, ine seldcymas,
murnende mod, nales meteliste.
Gehyrest u, Eadwacer? Uncerne earne hwelp
bire Wulf to wuda.
t mon eae toslite tte nfre gesomnad ws,
uncer giedd geador.

Wulf and Eadwacer translated

It is to my people as if someone gave them a gift.
They want to kill him, if he comes with a troop.
It is different for us.
Wulf is on one island I on another.
That island, surrounded by fens, is secure.
There on the island are bloodthirsty men.
They want to kill him, if he comes with a troop.
It is different for us.
I thought of my Wulf with far-wandering hopes,
Whenever it was rainy weather, and I sat tearfully,
Whenever the warrior bold in battle encompassed me with his arms.
To me it was pleasure in that, it was also painful.
Wulf, my Wulf, my hopes for you have caused
My sickness, your infrequent visits,
A mourning spirit, not at all a lack of food.
Do you hear, Eadwacer? A wolf is carrying
our wretched whelp to the forest,
that one easily sunders which was never united:
our song together.
Sources:
http://edsitement.neh.gov/lesson-plan/beauty-anglo-saxon-poetry-preludebeowulf#sect-activities
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0yUljMAqPEk
Interesting links:
http://www.thehypertexts.com/Wulf%20and%20Eadwacer%20Translation.htm

Compulsory Activity:

Riddles Analysis
Define the following terms:
1. kenning:
2. caesura:
3. alliteration:
Analyze the riddles at Texts and Translations. You are to give examples of the
following concepts as they are found in the riddles:
Riddle # 1:
1. kenning:
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
2. caesura:
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
3. alliteration:
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

Riddle # 2:
1. kenning:
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
2. caesura:
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
3. alliteration:
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
Riddle # 3:
1. kenning:
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
2. caesura:
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
3. alliteration:
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

KENNING
Definition of Kenning:
A Kenning is derived from Norse and Anglo-Saxon poetry. It is a stylistic device
and can be defined as a two-word phrase that describes an object through
metaphors. A Kenning poem is also called a riddle that consists of a few lines of
kennings which describe someone or something in confusing detail. It is also
described as a compressed metaphor that means meanings illustrated in a few
words. For example, a two-word phrase whale-road represents the sea.
Characteristics of Kenning
A literary piece may be considered as one of the Kenning examples if it
possesses the following defining features:

It is used to describe an object in detail.

The two parts of a compound word represent a relationship between
subjects and objects that creates associations in an abstract and concise
way.
It is also called a compressed metaphor.

Examples of Kenning from Literature

Example #1
May I for my own self songs truth reckon,
Journeys jargon, how I in harsh days
Hardship endured oft.
Bitter breast-cares have I abided,
Known on my keel many a cares hold,
And dire sea-surge, and there I oft spent.
That he on dry land loveliest liveth,
List how I, care-wretched, on ice-cold sea,
Deprived of my kinsmen;
Over the whales acre, would wander wide
Eager and ready, the crying lone-flyer,
Whets for the whale-path the heart irresistibly.
(The Seafarer by Ezra Pound)
The Seafarer is one of the best examples of kenning poems. The poet has used a
lot of kenning. Here, whale-path, whale-road and whales acre referred to
the ocean. Breast-hoard refers to the heart.

Example #2
. and its yellowing, ribbed
impression in the grass
a small ship-burial.
As dead as stone,
flint-find, nugget
of chalk,
I touch it again,
I wind it in
the sling of mind
to pitch it at England
and follow its drop
to strange fields..
Bone-house:
a skeleton
in the tongues
old dungeons.
(Bone Dreams by Seamus Heaney)
This poem is also a very good example of kenning. Here, the words which are
used as metaphors are ship-burial, flint-find and bone-house. The twoword phrases give a description of an object in an alternative way. Though
complex, kennings can make a poem more enjoyable.
Function of Kenning
The kenning is used as a poetic device and its function in poetry is to describe
something in alternative ways to provide a richer and different meaning. Kenning
is related to dialects as well, wherein it works as a showcase example of regional
or local dialect. Also, metaphorical usage of kenning makes the poetic language
more vibrant and increases thought provoking vocabulary. Hence, it tends to
keep the readers engaged.

Exercise 1:
There is a singer everyone has heard,
Loud, a mid-summer and a mid-wood bird,
Who makes the solid tree trunks sound again.
He says that leaves are old and that for flowers
Mid-summer is to spring as one to ten.
He says the early petal-fall is past
When pear and cherry bloom went down in showers
On sunny days a moment overcast..
(The Oven Bird by Robert Frost)
Mid wood: _____________________________________________________________________
Petal-falls:_____________________________________________________________________
Exercise 2:
I returned to a long strand
Were ocean-deafened voices
warning me, lifted again
in violence and epiphany.
was buoyant with hindsight
it said Thors hammer swung
to geography and trade,
thick-witted couplings and revenges,
the hatreds and behind-backs
of the althing, lies and women,
exhaustions nominated peace.
It said, Lie down
in the word-hoard, burrow
the coil and gleam
of your furrowed brain.
(North by Seamus Heaney)
Ocean-deafened_______________________________________________________________
Thick-witted
_______________________________________________________________
Word-hoard
_______________________________________________________________

DEFINITION OF ALLITERATION
Alliteration Definition
Alliteration is derived from Latins Latira. It means letters of alphabet. It is
a stylistic device in which a number of words, having the same first
consonant sound, occur close together in a series.
Consider the following examples:

But a better butter makes a batter better.

A big bully beats a baby boy.

Both sentences are alliterative because the same first letter of words (B)
occurs close together and produces alliteration in the sentence. An important
point to remember here is that alliteration does not depend on letters but on
sounds. So the phrase not knotty is alliterative, but cigarette chase is not.
Common Examples of Alliteration
In our daily life, we notice alliteration in the names of different companies. It
makes the name of a company catchy and easy to memorize. Here are
several common alliteration examples.

Dunkin Donuts
PayPal
Best Buy
Coca-Cola
Life Lock
Park Place

American Apparel
American Airlines
Chuckee Cheeses
Bed Bath & Beyond
Krispy Kreme
The Scotch and Sirloin

We also find alliterations in names of people, making such names

prominent and easy to be remembered. For instance, both fictional
characters and real people may stand out prominently in your mind due
to the alliterative effects of their names. Examples are:

Ronald Reagan
Sammy Sosa
Jesse Jackson
Michael Moore
William Wordsworth
Mickey Mouse
Porky Pig

10

Lois Lane
Marilyn Monroe
Fred Flintstone
Donald Duck
Spongebob Squarepants
Seattle Seahawks

Alliteration Examples in Literature

Example #1
From Samuel Taylor Coleridges The Rime of the Ancient Mariner

In the above lines we see alliteration (b, f and s) in the phrases

breeze blew, foam flew, furrow followed, and silent sea.
Example #2

From James Joyces The Dead

The fair breeze blew, the white foam flew,

The furrow followed free;
We were the first that ever burst
Into that silent sea.

His soul swooned slowly as he heard the snow falling faintly through
the universe and faintly falling, like the descent of their last end, upon
all the living and the dead.
We notice several instances of alliteration in the above mentioned
prose work of James Joyce. Alliterations are with s and f in the
phrases swooned slowly and falling faintly.
Function of Alliteration
Alliteration has a very vital role in poetry and prose. It creates a
musical effect in the text that enhances the pleasure of reading a
literary piece. It makes reading and recitation of the poems attractive
and appealing; thus, making them easier to learn by heart.
Furthermore, it renders flow and beauty to a piece of writing.
In the marketing industry, as what we have already discussed,
alliteration makes the brand names interesting and easier to
remember. This literary device is helpful in attracting customers and
enhancing sales.