AM PROCESSES AND MATERIALS

dditive manufacturing (AM) refers to a set of seven distinct

processes for applying successive layers of a raw material in
a directed fashion, according to a computer file that renders
objects in three-dimensions. All AM technologies begin with 3-D models created by computer-aided design (CAD) tools. The 3-D model is
converted into stereolithography format, which slices the model into
a series of cross-sections. AM machines are considered a form of industrial robot. They use the cross-sectional slices from the computer
file to lay down layer upon layer of material, eventually forming a 3-D
shape that matches that of the computer file that guides it.
Conceptually, the seven different processes are similar, but important technical differences exist. The descriptions here are adapted
from the ASTM F2792 Standard on AM terminology. Several of the
seven main types have various subcategories.
1. Binder jetting (used with metals, plastics and ceramics). Powder
material is spread over a build platform, and a liquid binder adhesive is deposited to join powder materials.
2. Directed-energy deposition (metal only). Focused thermal energy is used to fuse materials by melting as they are being deposited. The focused thermal-energy source could be a laser, electron
beam or plasma arc focused to melt materials being deposited.
3. Material extrusion (polymer only). Raw material is selectively dispensed through a nozzle or orifice. Examples include fuse-deposition modeling (FDM).
4. Material jetting (polymer). Droplets of build material are jetted
onto a build surface, where it solidifies. Examples include photopolymers and wax
5. Powder-bed fusion (both metal and plastic). Thermal energy (for
example, a laser or electron beam) selectively fuses regions of a
powder bed.
6. Sheet lamination (metal sheets, paper and plastic sheets). Sheets
of raw material are bonded together to form an object. Examples

the ability to use more different types

of materials in AM, but so far, the
leading companies have not really
pushed the envelope in terms of really going after a wide range of new
materials yet, Wohlers remarks.
Theres going to be a lot of interesting activity in the area of expanding
the materials, both in high-end performance materials to low-end, less
expensive materials, he predicts.
UTs Bourell says one of the holy
grails of AM is to have a systematic
way of evaluating materials for use in
AM, which doesnt exist yet, he says.
Currently, most AM materials are
developed in-house by the vendors
who also sell AM machines, as a way
to help ensure that the materials will
work well in the process. In the future, as standards come online, materials will come from a wider variety
of sources, Wohlers explains, meaning a more competitive environment
in the future.
There are many opportunities for
the chemical industry to develop new
polymer formulations and material
chemistries that work with AM processes, says ULs Brent Stucker.
22

include ultrasonic additive manufacturing and laminated object

manufacturing.
7. Vat photopolymerization (polymer only). Liquid photopolymer
resin in a vat is selectively cured by light-activated polymerization.
Powder-bed fusion processes, like polymer laser sintering, lasermetal sintering and electron-beam melting are the leaders right now,
and they have a head start on being used for direct production and
manufacturing of final products, says ULs Brent Stucker. Other technologies are useful for niche applications, and could move ahead rapidly, but powder-bed fusion is the sweet spot right now, he says.
Materials used in AM are varied and include the following:
Polymers
ABS (acrylonitrile butadiene styrene)
PLA (polylactide), including soft PLA
PC (polycarbonate)
Polyamide (nylon)
Nylon 12 (tensile strength 45 MPa)
Glass filled nylon (12.48 Mpa)
Epoxy resin
Photopolymer resins
Metals
Titanium alloy Ti6Al4V,
Aluminum AlSi10Mg alloy
Various types of steel (maraging steel, 15-5 PH stainless steel
Cobalt-chromium alloy
Inconel
Gold and silver
Ceramic powders
Silica/glass
Porcelain
Silicon carbide

Cost and qualification

Standardization efforts

To fully realize the potential of AM

technology, the cost of producing
parts by that method will be a key parameter. If you dissect the part cost,
it turns out that the largest segment
arises from the AM machine cost, followed closely by the feedstock cost,
explains UTs Bourell, so if machines
get faster and less expensive, and
that is coupled with low-cost feedstock, the markets will boom.
However, to be able to reliably use
a material in AM processing, a better understanding is required of the
microstructure of a product and its
degree of porosity, Bourell says.
With AM-derived products, consistency and quality control of the
final parts are major concerns. The
use of final AM-made metal parts
is limited primarily by the industrys ability to certify and qualify the
parts, says JHU-APLs Slotwinski.
The industry is still trying to figure
out how to do qualification and certification quickly and easily, but its
a tough problem. AMs full impact
will be felt when that can be done
routinely, he says.

Voluntary consensus standards

represent a critical aspect of addressing the questions raised in the
development of AM, and a committee at ASTM International (West
Conshohocken, Pa.; www.astm.
org) is working on that front. First
established in 2009, ASTM Committee F42 on Additive Manufacturing
Technologies now includes over 300
members from 22 countries. Were
seeing an important wave of activity
around industry standards for AM,
says Terry Wohlers, but theres still
much work to be done.
Among the top industry barriers is
a lack of standards, notes Slotwinski,
an F42 member who chairs the Test
Methods subcommittee. Standards
help ensure correctness, confidence,
consistency and common terminology. Standardized practices, materials and techniques must be identified
and validated for AM, he says.
Currently, there is no standardized means of evidencing the safety
and integrity of additive manufactured products, says Claire Ruggiero, technical vice president for

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FEBRUARY 2015