Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
A THESIS SUBMITTED TO
THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF NATURAL AND APPLIED SCIENCES
OF
MIDDLE EAST TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY
BY
ELF ARSLAN
DECEMBER 2003
ABSTRACT
Arslan, Elif
M.Sc., Department of Food Engineering
Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Ali Esin
Co-Supervisor: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Esra Yener
December 2003, 59 pages
iii
iv
Arslan, Elif
Yksek Lisans, Gda Mhendislii
Tez Yneticisi: Prof. Dr. Ali Esin
Yardmc Tez Yneticisi: Do. Dr. Esra Yener
Aralk 2003, 59 sayfa
Bu
almann
amac,
tahin/pekmez
karmlarnn
degiik
tahin
vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This thesis study was accomplished with the contribution and support of
very valuable people. In return, I would like to express my greatest appreciation
for each of these people in order to endure their support and assistance.
I extend my sincere appreciation to my supervisor Prof. Dr. Ali Esin for
his guidance, cooperation and support which brought this study to a successful
end. It is inevitable to emphasize the morale and motivation he provided
throughout this study.
I am very grateful to my co-supervisor Assoc. Prof. Esra Yener for her
help and understanding at all times of this study.
My special thanks go to Mr. Aytekin Gler for his various kinds of support
during the experimental studies.
Words are incapable to express my thanks and appreciation to my dearest
parents Fatma and Sleyman Arslan for their support love and encouragement all
through my life. And of course, my loving friend, Harika Parin deserves very
special thanks for her support.
I would like to express my deepest appreciation to Hakan Bakla for his
love and understanding which always motivated me during the completion of this
thesis.
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................
iii
Z ...................................................................................................................
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .............................................................................
vii
viii
xi
xiii
CHAPTER
1.
10
11
11
11
12
viii
13
13
13
14
15
15
15
16
2.
3.
Energy.........................................................................
16
17
18
18
19
21
21
22
22
23
24
24
24
24
25
25
25
26
27
28
28
ix
37
39
43
44
45
REFERENCES ..............................................................................................
47
APPENDICES ...............................................................................................
50
4.
A.
50
B.
ANOVA Tables...............................................................................
57
C.
59
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE
3.1
Power-law parameters for blends at different concentrations and
temperatures .............................................................................................. 35
3.2
3.3
3.4
A.1
44
A.3
A.4
A.5
55
B.1
54
A.7
53
A.6
52
56
ANOVA results for the flow behavior index under the effect of
temperature and concentration ..................................................................
xi
57
B.2
58
C.1
59
C.2
59
xii
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE
1.1
Steps in the production process of pekmez ............................................... 3
1.2
1.3
1.4
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
xiii
3.10
3.11
3.12
3.13
40
xiv
CHAPTER 1
LITERATURE SURVEY
1.1. Introduction
Tahin/pekmez blend is a traditional food product in Turkish breakfast. It
has a wide usage especially in winter due to its high energy content. The product
has high nutrition value arising from the constituents of tahin and pekmez. In the
Turkish food market, tahin and pekmez are sold separately so the blends are
prepared by the consumers. For blend preparation, the ratio of tahin to pekmez is
determined by consumers according to their taste and preference.
Tahin is made from roasted dehulled sesame seeds. It is an ingredient for
many other dishes such as halawah, chick peas (hommus), desserts, and bakery.
The product is also popular in Middle Eastern countries (Alparslan & Hayta,
2002; Rbbelen, 1989). Pekmez is also a traditional grape product in Turkey. On
the average, 20-25% of the grapes produced are used in the production of this
traditional food product (TZOB, 2003). Pekmez is the concentrated form of grape
juice with an extended shelf-life (Kaya & Belibal, 2002). It is regarded as a
substitute product for jam and marmalade and has a wide usage in Turkish
breakfast. It is also used for desserts such as Turkish aure or can be mixed with
tahin (ztrk & ner, 1999).
minerals. The aim of concentration or boiling is to pasteurize the grape juice and
to extend the shelf-life by decreasing the water content (Kaya & Belibal, 2002).
Fresh Grapes
Washing
Crushing
Pressing
Deacidification or neutralization by pekmez earth
Separation and Clarification
Concentration by boiling (65-68Brix)
Liquid Pekmez
Packaging and Storing
In pekmez production, (Figure 1.1) the first step is washing and crushing
the grapes. In order to obtain grape juice, washed grapes are processed with a
pneumatical or mechanical press. The obtained grape juice is then treated with a
calcareous soil known as pekmez earth. The pekmez earth is composed of
In Figure 1.2, typical flow chart for tahin production is illustrated. The
sesame seeds are wetted and left overnight for dehulling operation. When the
hulls are separated, the seeds are washed to remove any remaining undesired
particles like stone and dirt. Prior to roasting, the seeds are centrifuged for water
removal. The roasted seeds are milled to obtain the final product, tahin. It was
found that 90% of the original antioxidant, sesamin, can be retained after roasting
(Morris, 2002).
Sesame seeds
Wetting
Waiting (8-10 hrs)
Dehulling
Hull Separation
Washing
Centrifuging
Roasting
Cooling
Milling
Tahin
Figure 1.2. Flow chart for tahin production
For an ideal Newtonian fluid, the shear stress is linear function of the shear
rate and the proportionality constant for the relationship, , is called the dynamic
(or Newtonian) viscosity of the fluid. The relation is given by Newtons law of
viscosity when the flow is laminar (Geankoplis, 1993; Barnes et al., 1989; Van
Wazer & Lyons, 1966).
= &
(1)
where, is tangential shear stress, is the Newtonian viscosity and & is the shear
rate.
1.3.1. Newtonian Fluids
Fluids that obey Newtons law of viscosity (Eq.1) are called Newtonian
fluids. For such a fluid, there is a linear relationship between shear stress () and
the shear rate ( & ) (Figure 1.3). This suggests that the viscosity, , is constant and
it is independent of the rate of shear (Geankoplis, 1993). When shear rate is
plotted against shear stress, the slope of the curve, , is constant and the plot
begins at the origin. Using the units of N for force, m2 for area, m for length, and
finally m/s for velocity, gives viscosity as Pa s which is 1000 centipoise (1 Pa s =
1000 cP).
Typical Newtonian fluids contain low molecular weight compounds (e.g.
sugars) and that do not include large concentrations of either dissolved polymers
(e.g. protein, starch) or insoluble solids. Some examples of Newtonian foods are
water, sugar syrups, edible oils, filtered juices, and milk (Rao, 1999). The
following examples represent typical Newtonian viscosities at room temperature:
water, 1cP; coffee cream 10 cP; vegetable oil, 100 cP; and honey 10000 cP
(Steffe, 1996).
(E)
(B)
(A)
Shear stress, Pa
(C)
(D)
Figure 1.3. Flow curves for typical time-independent fluids. (A), Newtonian; (B),
Bingham Plastic; (C), Shear thinning; (D), Shear thickening; (E), Hersley-Bulkley
10
(2)
(3)
11
where, K is the consistency coefficient (Pa. sn) and n is the flow behavior index,
(dimensionless). The consistency coefficient is an indicator of the viscous nature
of a fluid.
a = f ( & ) =
K & n
= K & n 1
&
(4a)
of which the logarithmic form is used to determine the model parameters when
experimental data are available as,
ln a = ln K + (n 1) ln &
(4b)
12
decreases with increasing shear rate in shear thinning fluids. Eq.3 applies to this
type of behavior where, the flow behavior index is less than unity (n<1) (Rao,
1999; Steffe, 1996; Bourne, 1982).
1.4.2.2. Shear thickening Fluids
In shear thickening behavior, the shear stress vs. shear rate curve also go
through the origin and it is concave downward; that is, an increasing shear stress
gives a less proportional increase in shear rate (Figure 1.3). Apparent viscosity,
the slope of the associated curve, increases with increasing shear rate. This type of
flow is observed with gelatinized starch dispersions and corn flour-sugar solutions
(Rao, 1999). Power-law model equation (Eq.3) is often applicable with the flow
behavior index greater than unity (n>1).
1.4.3. Herschel-Bulkley Fluids
= K & n + 0
(5)
In some fluids, the apparent viscosity can either increase or decrease with
time of shearing at a constant shear rate. Such changes can be reversible or
13
a a
a 0 a
1 m
= (m 1)kt + 1
(6)
14
(7)
Ea
K = K t e R .T
(8)
15
(9)
a = K c Cb
(10)
K = K c1 e b1 C
(11)
K = K c2 C b 2
(12)
where, Kc, Kc0 Kc1, Kc2, b0, b, b1, and b2 are experimental constants (Rao, 1999).
1.6.2.1. Effect of Concentration on Activation Energy
E a = A1 e d 1 C
(13)
E a = A 2 Cd 2
(14)
16
where, A1, A2, d1, d2, are experimental constants and C is the total soluble solid
content (Kaya & Belibal, 2002).
1.6.3. Combined Effect of Concentration and Temperature
E
a = f (T, C, ) = K & , T.C exp a + b C n 1
R
T
(15)
(16)
where, K & ,T,C, KT,C, and b are experimental constants, and n is an average value
for flow behavior index (Steffe, 1996).
In this study, an alternate relation is also investigated to express the
combined effect of temperature, concentration and shear rate on apparent
viscosity,
E
a = K & , T, C exp a C b & n 1
R T
(17)
in which, only the parameter & n 1 is introduced to the right hand side of Eq.16.
17
18
If the properties of flow behavior are required for the design of processes, it is
recommended to use shear rates that cover the range that is expected to be used in
the process (Rao, 1999).
1.8.1. Concentric Cylinder Viscometer
Temperature is constant,
19
Rb
h
z
Rc
Regarding the Searle type systems, the torque exerted on the bob by the
fluid can be found by (Steffe, 1996),
M = 2 r 2 h
(18)
where, r is location in the fluid (Rb r Rc), M is the torque, and h is the hight of
bob. Solving Eq.18 for the shear stress at the bob, b, (r = Rb) gives,
b =
(19)
2 h (R b )2
20
For shear rate calculations, several techniques have been proposed such as
simple shear approximation, Newtonian approximation, Power-law approximation
and Krieger method (Steffe, 1996).
1.8.2. Shear Rate Approximation Techniques
1.8.2.1. Simple Shear Approximation
With a very narrow gap (Rc Rb Rb) the curvature of the walls is
negligible. The system approaches simple shear i.e., couette flow. Assuming a
uniform shear rate across the gap gives (Steffe, 1996);
& b =
Rb
=
R c R b 1
(20)
where, is the ratio of cup radius, Rc to bob radius Rb, and is the angular
velocity (rad/s).
For the gap to be classed as narrow 1/ must be greater than 0.97 (Barnes
et al., 1989).
When calculating shear rates with this approximation corresponding
average shear stress should be used (Steffe, 1996).
a =
1
M (1 + 2 )
( c + b ) =
2
4 h ( R c ) 2
(21)
where, a is the average shear stress, c is the shear stress at the cup,and b is the
shear stress at the bob.
21
For Newtonian fluids, the shear rate at the bob in a concentric geometry
can be calculated from the following expression (Steffe, 1996; Whorlow, 1992)
as,
2
& b = 2
2 1
(22)
For a power-law fluid, the shear rate at the bob can be derived (Steffe,
1996) as,
& b =
2 (2 / n )
n (2 / n ) 1
(23)
22
n=
d (ln b )
d (ln )
(24)
For power-law fluids, n is the slope of the straight line of ln b versus ln.
Once n is computed, Eq.23 can easily be evaluted (Steffe, 1996).
1.8.2.4. Krieger Method
& b =
d (ln )
(ln ) 2 d 2
+
1 + ln
ln
d (ln b ) 3d (ln b ) 2
(25)
23
CHAPTER 2
Commercial pekmez and tahin (Merter Helva San. ve Tic. A.., Istanbul)
were used in the experiments. Pekmez contained 66% total carbohydrate and 0.24
% sodium. The composition of tahin was 60.09% total fat, 10.5% carbohydrate,
and 25.51% protein. The stated compositions of pekmez and tahin were provided
by the manufacturer. Pekmez had an average total soluble solid content of 76
Brix which was determined by using a hand refractometer (Tajiri Ind. Co., Japan)
functioning in the range 58-90 Brix.
2.1.1. Soluble Solid Content Adjustment
In order to work with standard samples, pekmez was diluted with distilled
water and soluble solid content was adjusted to 70 Brix by using the hand
refractometer.
2.1.2. Vacuum Operation
24
After the vacuum operation, blends were prepared by mixing tahin with
pekmez at the concentrations of 20%, 23%, 26%, 29%, and 32% (w/w). In order
to attain a homogenous mixture, the blends were mixed evenly by a spatula. The
blends were rested for about 2 minutes prior to the rheological measurements.
2.2. Rheological Analysis
2.2.1. Rotational Viscometer
(26)
25
26
range. Thus each set of experiment required a different rpm range. On the overall,
the rotational speed range was 0.6-50 rpm. In order to investigate the
reproducibility of results two replicates were made and the average reproducibility
was 7%.
2.3. Statistical Analysis
27
CHAPTER 3
28
80
C=20% tahin
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
Power-law Model
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Figure 3.1. Rheograms for the blend containing 20% tahin at different
29
90
C=23% tahin
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
Power-law Model
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Figure 3.2. Rheograms for the blend containing 23% tahin at different
80
C=26% tahin
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
Power-law Model
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
Figure 3.3. Rheograms for the blend containing 26% tahin at different
30
80
C=29% tahin
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
Power-law Model
0
0
10
15
20
25
Figure 3.4. Rheograms for the blend containing 29% tahin at different
90
C=32% tahin
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
Power-law Model
0
0
10
12
14
16
Figure 3.5. Rheograms for the blend containing 32% tahin at different
31
400
C=20% tahin
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
Power-law Model
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Figure 3.6. Apparent viscosity-shear rate relationship for the blend containing
() 65C.
600
C=23% tahin
500
400
300
200
100
Power-law Model
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Figure 3.7. Apparent viscosity-shear rate relationship for the blend containing
32
1000
C=26% tahin
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
Power-law Model
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
Figure 3.8. Apparent viscosity-shear rate relationship for the blend containing
1800
C=29% tahin
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
Power-law Model
0
0
10
15
20
25
Figure 3.9. Apparent viscosity-shear rate relationship for the blend containing
33
3000
C=32% tahin
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
Power-law Model
0
0
10
12
14
16
Figure 3.10. Apparent viscosity-shear rate relationship for the blend containing
instead
of
34
power-law
approximation.
Table 3.1. Power-law parameters for blends at different concentrations and temperatures
C (%TAHIN)
20
23
R2
R2
K(mPa.sn)
35
0.85
462
0.9677 0.80
783
0.9940 0.79
1034
0.9851 0.79
1630
43
0.85
362
0.9753 0.77
611
0.9268 0.72
940
0.9824 0.74
50
0.79
341
0.9488 0.78
474
0.9743 0.78
626
58
0.75
308
0.9732 0.70
465
0.9618 0.73
65
0.73
282
0.9810 0.71
409
0.9574 0.70
K(mPa.sn)
29
T (C)
K(mPa.sn)
26
35
R2
K(mPa.sn)
R2
0.9960 0.76
2547
0.9950
1389
0.9736 0.77
1776
0.9877
0.9459 0.73
1087
0.9842 0.77
1388
0.9916
603
0.9936 0.73
834
0.9900 0.75
1157
0.9962
536
0.9738 0.76
640
0.9865 0.77
918
0.9889
K(mPa.sn)
32
R2
&
%Error = 1 newtonian
& power
(27)
36
its Newtonian behavior. Thus, the observed shear thinning behavior of the blends
appears to be an intermediate behavior between these two distinct flow properties.
This statement was supported by the experimental measurements of the apparent
viscosity of tahin/pekmez blends at a constant shear rate which revealed no
noticeable change with time.
The flow behavior of tahin/pekmez blends is in agreement with Alparslan
and Hayta (2002). They reported that tahin/pekmez blends having pekmez
concentration of 2-6% (w/w) behaved as shear thinning foodstuff at the
temperature range of 30-75 C. According to their results; the flow behavior
index, n, was in the range of 0.43-0.58, while the consistency coefficient, K,
varied from 9100 to 87200 mPa.sn. In this present study, however, the values for
flow behavior index appeared to be higher (0.7-0.85) which can be attributed to
the higher pekmez concentration (68-80%) used in the blends causing less
deviation from the Newtonian behavior. When shear rates cannot be evaluated in a
given viscometer geometry, determination of fundamental rheological properties
becomes very complex. Thus some viscometers can only generate comparative
rather that absolute flow behavior data (Steffe, 1996). In the study of Alparslan
and Hayta (2002), shear rates could not be computed, instead, rotational speed
data were used for flow behavior analysis. With regard to this fact, it seems that
comparison of the consistency coefficient values of these two studies in absolute
terms would not be providing valid information.
3.2. Effect of Temperature on Flow Behavior
37
temperature increases, viscosity of the fluid decreases since thermal energy of the
molecules increases and molecular distances develop due to reduction of
intermolecular forces (Torul & Arslan, 2003; Hassan & Hobani, 1998).
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) ( = 0.05) showed that flow behavior
index, n (Table B.1) and consistency coefficient, K (Table B.2) were significantly
influenced by the change in temperature. As shown in Table 3.1, the values of
both K and n decreased with increasing temperature except for the flow behavior
index value of the blend containing 32% tahin. The decrease in the flow behavior
index can be attributed to higher departure from Newtonian behavior.
While, there was not a descriptive trend for the flow behavior index,
temperature sensitivity of the consistency coefficient was successfully described
by an Arrhenius-type equation (Eq.8). Linear regression analysis was applied to
the logarithmic form of Eq.8 (Figure 3.11) in order to determine the parameters of
the relation (Table 3.2).
8.5
8
7.5
lnK
7
6.5
6
5.5
5
4.5
4
0.0029 0.003
38
Ea(J/mol)
13376
18253
20288
27346
28592
R2
0.9513
0.9297
0.9086
0.9835
0.9900
The activation energy, Ea, varied from 13376 to 28592 J/mol as the tahin
concentration of blends varied from 20% to 32 %. Activation energy is a measure
of temperature dependency for viscosity and consistency coefficient. As tahin
concentration was increased, activation energy and temperature dependency of K
was increased. It should be noted that the constant, Kt obtained by using the
Arrhenius model decreased with increasing tahin concentration. Alparslan and
Hayta (2002) also observed similar trends for activation energy, Ea and the
experimental constant, Kt.
3.3. Effect of Concentration on Flow Behavior
In this part of the study, the effect of tahin concentration on flow behavior
and rheological parameters were investigated. In the experiments tahin
concentrations of the samples varied in the range 20% to 32%. At every
temperature, the apparent viscosities of blends increased with increasing tahin
concentrations (Appendix A). This behavior is illustrated in Figure 3.12 for
T=50C. Similar trends were observed at other temperatures.
Figure 3.12 also presents a comparison for the apparent viscosity of tahin,
pekmez and tahin/pekmez blends. At 50 C, pekmez (70 Brix) exhibited
Newtonian behavior (Table A.6), which is in line with the study of Kaya and
39
Belibal (2002). On the other hand, the apparent viscosity of tahin decreased with
increasing shear rate (Table A.7). This result confirms the findings in the previous
studies (Abu-Jdayil, 2003; Abu-Jdayil et al., 2002; Alparslan & Hayta, 2002). The
apparent viscosity values of tahin/pekmez blends appeared within the range of
tahin and pekmez viscosities as already discussed.
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
Newtonian
400
Power-law Model
200
0
0
50
100
150
200
250
Figure
3.12.
Apparent
viscosity-shear
rate
relationships
for
pekmez,
40
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
15
20
25
30
35
C(%tahin)
41
temperatures.
Power
b2
3.5228
3.4284
3.0830
2.7501
2.3921
Model (Eq.12)
Kc2
R2
0.0119 0.9890
0.0129 0.9963
0.0311 0.9771
0.0811 0.9954
0.2195 0.9884
42
number of clusters formed will increase. These clusters disrupt streamlines and
require more effort for the same flow rate thus subsequently increase the viscosity
of the emulsion (Starov & Zhdanov, 2003). Increasing solid content with
increasing tahin concentration can be another explanation to this phenomenon. As
the solid content is increased, the interaction between particles and molecular
movements increase, causing higher viscosity values for the fluid (Torul &
Arslan, 2003; Alparslan & Hayta, 2002).
Moros, Franco, and Gallegos (2002) studied the effect of oil concentration
on the rheological behavior of concentrated oil-in-water emulsions. They also
reported that the apparent viscosities of the emulsions increased with an
increasing oil concentration. In the study of Alparslan and Hayta (2002), however,
increasing pekmez (decreasing tahin) concentration resulted in an increase of both
viscosity and the consistency coefficient of the blends. Although the authors
stated that the blends were oil-in-water emulsions, their results reveal water-in-oil
type emulsion characteristics where, water, the dispersed phase, was introduced to
the blends with the addition of pekmez causing an increase of the emulsions
viscosity.
3.3.1. Effect of concentration on Activation Energy, Ea
43
1
a = 1.819 10 3 exp 3236.524 + 0.11151 C & 0.2505
T
(28)
From the coefficients of Eq.28 the activation energy and average flow
behavior index were determined to be 26910 J/mol and 0.7495, respectively.
44
CHAPTER 4
45
proposed model equations can be used in designing equipment for the blends, in
quality control, process control applications and sensory evaluation of the product.
Further analysis can be conducted considering the blends shelf-life,
textural attributes, stability and sensory analysis in order to satisfy the end users.
46
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47
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USDA Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, 2003.
Van Wazer, J. R., Lyons, J.W. 1966. Viscosity and Flow Measurement. John
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Worlow R. W., 1992. Rheological Techniques. Ellis Horwood Limited, England.
49
APPENDIX A
Table A.1. Experimental Data of Shear Rate ( & ), Shear Stress () and Apparent
T (C)
35
43
50
58
65
(rpm)
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
10
12
15
18
22
25
28
15
18
22
25
28
32
35
20
24
28
32
36
40
44
25
29
34
38
42
46
50
& (1/s)
9.9
12.4
14.9
17.4
19.9
22.4
24.9
12.4
14.9
18.7
22.4
27.4
31.1
34.8
18.7
22.5
27.5
31.2
35
40
43.7
25.6
30.7
35.8
40.9
46
51.2
56.3
32
37.1
43.5
48.6
53.7
58.8
63.9
50
x 10-2 (mPa)
32.8
39
45.2
51.7
58.7
64.9
71.2
30.4
34.8
42.4
48.9
58.2
65.4
72.9
35.2
38.1
45.8
50.5
55.6
63.2
67.2
35.8
39.7
43
46.7
51.1
56.3
61
34.6
38
42.8
47.5
49.9
53.5
57.5
a (mPa.s)
335
319
308
302
300
295
291
249
237
231
222
216
214
212
190
176
170
165
162
161
157
136
132
125
119
116
115
113
113
107
103
102
97
95
94
Table A.2. Experimental Data of Shear Rate ( & ), Shear Stress (), and Apparent
C (%tahin)
23
T (C)
35
43
50
58
65
(rpm)
4
6
8
9
10
12
14
8
10
11
12
14
16
18
10
12
14
16
18
22
25
14
17
20
23
26
30
34
20
23
26
30
35
40
45
& (1/s)
5
7.5
10
11.3
12.5
15
17.5
10.1
12.6
13.8
15.1
17.6
20.1
22.6
12.5
15
17.5
20
22.5
27.6
31.3
17.5
21.3
25
28.8
32.6
37.6
42.6
25
28.7
32.5
37.4
43.7
49.9
56.2
51
-2
x 10 (mPa)
27.9
39.1
48.9
53.6
58.2
67.1
76.7
36.1
42.4
44.1
46.8
54
60.5
67.6
32.5
38.1
42.6
46.6
51.3
61.1
69
33.7
38.9
41.8
45.9
50.3
57.2
63.3
39.8
43.3
45.8
51
56.9
64.2
71
a (mPa.s)
567
533
500
487
475
457
448
369
346
328
325
315
310
307
272
260
249
238
233
227
222
197
187
172
164
158
156
152
163
154
146
139
133
131
129
Table A.3. Experimental Data of Shear Rate ( & ), Shear Stress (), and Apparent
C (%tahin)
26
T (C)
35
43
50
58
65
(rpm)
2
3
4
5
6
8
10
5
6
8
9
10
12
14
8
9
10
12
14
16
18
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
12
14
16
18
20
22
25
& (1/s)
2.5
3.7
5
6.2
7.5
10
12.5
6.3
7.5
10
11.3
12.5
15
17.5
10
11.3
12.6
15.1
17.6
20.1
22.6
12.7
15.2
17.8
20.3
22.8
25.4
27.9
15.3
17.8
20.4
22.9
25.5
28
31.8
52
-2
x 10 (mPa)
21.2
28.9
35.5
42.4
49.2
62.8
75.8
34.9
39.4
47.7
51.8
56.2
65
73.6
37.9
40
42.9
50.5
56.8
63.4
70.2
37.9
43
47.9
52.5
57.5
62.6
65.9
35.2
39
42.1
45.2
49.1
52.7
59.1
a (mPa.s)
866
789
728
692
671
642
620
571
536
487
470
460
443
430
388
363
351
344
332
324
319
305
290
280
268
261
256
245
238
227
215
205
201
196
193
Table A.4. Experimental Data of Shear Rate ( & ), Shear Stress (), and Apparent
C (%tahin)
29
T (C)
35
43
50
58
65
(rpm)
1
2
3
3.5
4
5
5.5
2.5
3
4
5
6
7
8
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
5
7
8
10
11
12
14
7
8
9
10
12
14
16
& (1/s)
x 10-2 (mPa)
a (mPa.s)
1.3
2.5
3.8
4.4
5
6.3
6.9
3.2
3.8
5.1
6.3
7.6
8.8
10.1
5.1
6.3
7.6
8.9
10.1
11.4
12.6
6.3
8.8
10.1
12.6
13.9
15.1
17.7
8.8
10.1
11.3
12.6
15.1
17.6
20.1
19.1
32.4
45.7
51.5
57.3
68.4
73.8
32.3
35.5
43.5
51.8
59.8
67.7
75.7
34.9
40.4
45.5
51.3
57
62.6
67.9
31.3
39.8
43
50.2
54.7
58.6
66.5
32.7
35.5
39
42.2
48.9
55.1
61.2
1558
1328
1237
1202
1170
1119
1096
1056
969
889
847
815
791
774
714
661
620
599
582
568
555
512
465
439
419
407
399
388
385
366
354
345
333
322
313
53
Table A.5. Experimental Data of Shear Rate ( & ), Shear Stress (), and Apparent
C (%tahin)
32
T (C)
35
43
50
58
65
(rpm)
0.6
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
1
2
2.5
3
4
5
5.5
2.5
3
4
4.5
5
6
7
3
4
5
6
7
8
10
4
5
7
8
9
10
12
& (1/s)
x 10-2 (mPa)
a (mPa.s)
0.75
1.3
1.9
2.5
3.1
3.8
4.4
1.3
2.5
3.1
3.8
5
6.3
6.9
3.1
3.8
5
5.6
6.3
7.5
8.8
3.8
5
6.3
7.6
8.8
10.1
12.6
5
6.3
8.8
10.1
11.3
12.6
15.1
20.2
29.2
39.5
49.9
59.4
68.6
77.5
20.9
34.5
40.8
47.3
59.6
71.1
76.8
33.1
37.2
40.5
51.3
55.7
64.1
72.7
30.6
37.4
44.3
50.8
57.2
63.2
75.2
31.5
36.4
47.2
52.5
57.7
63.1
72.5
2756
2389
2154
2038
1941
1870
1810
1706
1408
1334
1289
1218
1162
1141
1084
1015
951
932
911
874
850
835
765
724
693
667
646
615
643
594
551
537
524
516
494
54
Table A.6. Experimental Data of Shear Rate ( & ), Shear Stress (), and Apparent
T (C)
30
40
50
60
(rpm)
20
30
50
60
60
100
100
150
200
100
200
& (1/s)
x 10-2 (mPa)
a (mPa.s)
24.5
36.7
61.2
73.4
78.4
122.3
29.5
183.5
244.7
122.3
244.7
15.8
24.0
39.0
48.3
28.0
47.0
29.5
Not available
Not available
19.8
40.8
64.8
65.6
65
65.8
38.2
38.4
24.1
24.2
24.2
16.7
16.2
55
Table A.7. Experimental Data of Shear Rate ( & ), Shear Stress (), and Apparent
T (C)
35
43
50
58
65
(rpm)
0.6
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
2
2.5
3
4
5
2
2.5
3
4
5
6
2
2.5
3
4
5
6
2
2.5
3
4
5
6
10
& (1/s)
x 10-2 (mPa)
a (mPa.s)
0.8
1.3
2
2.7
3.3
4
2.6
3.2
3.9
5.2
6.5
2.6
3.2
3.8
5.1
6.4
7.7
2.6
3.2
3.9
5.1
6.4
7.7
2.6
3.3
4
5.3
6.6
7.9
13.2
33
41
51
59
67
74
46
52
58
69
81
36
41
46
55
65
74
28
32
36
43
50
57
24
27
30
37
43
49
54
4533
3371
2767
2429
2189
2019
1888
1698
1568
1418
1322
1482
1339
1248
1133
1055
1002
1141
1037
968
881
822
782
969
883
823
748
697
662
579
56
APPENDIX B
Table B.1. ANOVA results for the flow behavior index under the effect of
T (C)
35
43
50
58
65
20
0.85
0.85
0.79
0.75
0.73
23
0.80
0.77
0.78
0.70
0.71
C(%tahin)
26
0.79
0.72
0.78
0.73
0.7
29
0.79
0.74
0.73
0.73
0.76
SUMMARY
Row 1
Row 2
Row 3
Row 4
Row 5
Count
5
5
5
5
5
Sum
3.99
3.85
3.85
3.66
3.67
Average
0.798
0.77
0.77
0.732
0.734
Variance
0.00107
0.00245
0.00055
0.00042
0.00093
Column 1
Column 2
Column 3
Column 4
Column 5
ANOVA
Source of
Variation
Rows
Columns
Error
Total
5
5
5
5
5
3.97
3.76
3.72
3.75
3.82
0.794
0.752
0.744
0.75
0.764
0.00308
0.00197
0.00153
0.00065
8E-05
SS
df
MS
0.015504
0.007944
0.013736
0.037184
4
4
16
24
32
0.76
0.77
0.77
0.75
0.77
P-value
F crit
57
Table B.2. ANOVA results for the consistency coefficient under the effect of
T (C)
35
43
50
58
65
SUMMARY
Row 1
Row 2
Row 3
Row 4
Row 5
20
462
362
341
308
282
Count
5
5
5
5
5
Column 1
5
Column 2
5
Column 3
5
Column 4
5
Column 5
5
ANOVA
Source of
SS
Variation
Rows
1712941.8
Columns 4601525
Error
867210.96
Total
7181677.8
C(%tahin)
26
1034
940
626
603
536
29
1630
1389
1087
834
640
Sum
6456
5078
3916
3367
2785
Average
1291.2
1015.6
783.2
673.4
557
Variance
675952.7
328561.3
193483.7
110391.3
58795
1755
2742
3739
5580
7786
351
548.4
747.8
1116
1557.2
4788
22719.8
49878.2
161416.5
406235.7
df
MS
23
783
611
474
465
409
4
4
16
24
32
2547
1776
1388
1157
918
P-value
F crit
58
APPENDIX C
Ea/ R
n-1
ln K & ,T,C
Estimated values
3236.524
0.11151
-0.2505
-6.3093
57.322
0.0017
0.01
0.2321
0.9961
Degrees of Freedom
171
105.7
0.413
Ea/ R
n-1
ln K & ,T,C
Estimated values
3110.594
2.72039
-0.2791
-11.774
84.2061
0.0238
0.0146
0.4623
0.9914
Degrees of Freedom
171
105.2
0.913
59