Chem 1

AP Chemistry Equations & Constants
Throughout the test the following symbols have the definitions specified unless otherwise noted.
L, mL
g
nm
atm
=
=
=
=
liter(s), milliliter(s)
gram(s)
nanometer(s)
atmosphere(s)
mm Hg
J, kJ
V
mol
=
=
=
=
millimeters of mercury
joule(s), kilojoule(s)
volt(s)
mole(s)
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
E = energy
= frequency
= wavelength
E = h
c =
Plancks constant, h = 6.626 1034 J s

Speed of light, c = 2.998 108 m s1
Avogadros number = 6.022 1023 mol1
Electron charge, e = 1.602 1019 coulomb
EQUILIBRIUM
Kc =
Kp =
[C]c [D]d
, where a A + b B c C + d D
[A]a [B]b
Equilibrium Constants
(PC )c (PD )d
Kc (molar concentrations)
Kp (gas pressures)
(PA ) (PB )
Ka (weak acid)
Kb (weak base)
Kw (water)
+
Ka = [H ][A ]
[HA]
Kb =
[OH - ][HB+ ]
[B]
Kw = [H+][OH] = 1.0 1014 at 25C

= Ka Kb
pH = log[H+],, pOH
pOH==log
log[OH
[OH]]
14 = pH + pOH
pH = pKa + log [A ]
[HA]
pKa = logKa , pKb = logKb
KINETICS
ln[A] t ln[A] 0 = kt
1 - 1
[ A ]t
[A]0
= kt
t = 0.693
k
k = rate constant
t = time
t = half-life
GASES, LIQUIDS, AND SOLUTIONS

PV = nRT
PA = Ptotal XA, where XA =
moles A
total moles
Ptotal = PA + PB + PC + . . .
n=
m
M
K = C + 273
D=
m
V
P = pressure
V = volume
T = temperature
n = number of moles
m = mass
M = molar mass
D = density
KE = kinetic energy
= velocity
A = absorbance
a = molar absorptivity
b = path length
c = concentration
KE per molecule = 1 mv 2
2
Molarity, M = moles of solute per liter of solution

A = a bc
THERMOCHEMISTRY/ ELECTROCHEMISTRY
q = mcDT
DS = S products - S reactants
DH = DHf products - DH f reactants
DG = DGf products - DGf reactants
DG = DH - T DS
= - RT ln K
= - n F E
I
q
t
Gas constant, R = 8.314 J mol - 1 K - 1

= 0.08206 L atm mol - 1 K - 1
= 62.36 L torr mol - 1 K - 1
1 atm = 760 mm Hg
= 760 torr
STP = 0.00 C and 1.000 atm
q
m
c
T
S
= heat
= mass
= specific heat capacity
= temperature
= standard entropy
H = standard enthalpy
G = standard free energy
n = number of moles
E = standard reduction potential
I = current (amperes)
q = charge (coulombs)
t = time (seconds)
Faradays constant, F = 96,485 coulombs per mole
of electrons
1 joule
1volt =
1 coulomb
AP Chemistry Notes
Stephen Akiki
Colchester High School
Download at http://akiscode.com/apchem
Special Thanks to Stephen Bosley (Boser)
Contents
1 FOREWORD/DISCLAIMER
2 Solubility Rules
2.1 Soluble . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 Insoluble . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3 Naming Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5
5
5
5
3 Periodic Table of Elements
4 Poly Atomic Naming
5 Common Units, Constants and Charges

5.1 Fundamental Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2 Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3 Radius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6
6
7
7
6 Atomic Theory
6.1 J.J. Thompson . .
6.2 Robert Millikan . .
6.3 Ernest Rutherford
6.4 Chadwick . . . . .
6.5 John Dalton . . . .
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7
7
7
7
7
7
7 Naming
7.1 Binary . . . . . . . . .
7.1.1 Greek Prefixes
7.2 Ionic . . . . . . . . . .
7.3 Acids . . . . . . . . .
7.3.1 Polyatomic . .
7.3.2 Binary . . . . .
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8
8
8
8
8
8
8
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8 Cations
9 Reaction Type
9.1 Combination (Synthesis) .
9.2 Decomposition . . . . . .
9.2.1 Special Binary Salt
9.3 Combustion . . . . . . . .
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. . . .
Splits
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9
9
9
10
10
10 Blackbody Radiation
10
11 Bohr Model
11.1 Energy Level Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.1.1 Energy Change during Level Jumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
11
11
12 Wavelength
12.1 De Broglie Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
11
13 Quantum Values
13.1 Quantum Value Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.2 Special cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
12
12
14 Periodicity
14.1 Electron Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.2 Isoelectricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
13
13
15 Nuclear Chemistry
15.1 Isotopes . . . . . . . . . .
15.2 Radiation . . . . . . . . .
15.2.1 Alpha Radiation .
15.2.2 Beta Radiation . .
15.2.3 Gamma Radiation
15.2.4 Positron Radiation
15.2.5 Electron Capture .
15.3 Nuclear Equations . . . .
15.3.1 Radiation Table .
15.4 Nuclear Stability . . . . .
15.4.1 Forces Invloved . .
15.4.2 Belt of Stability .
15.4.3 Magic Numbers . .
15.4.4 Half-Life . . . . . .
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13
13
14
14
14
14
15
15
15
15
16
16
16
16
17
16 Ionization and Affinity

16.1 Ionization Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.2 Electron Afinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
17
17
17 Reactions of Metals
17
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18 Chemical Bonds
18.1 Intramolecular . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.1.1 Ionic Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.1.2 Covalent Bonding . . . . . . . . .
18.1.3 Metallic Bonding . . . . . . . . . .
18.2 Intermolecular . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.2.1 Ion-Dipole . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.2.2 Dipole-Dipole . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.2.3 Hydrogen Bond . . . . . . . . . . .
18.2.4 London Dispersion/Van der Waals
18.2.5 Intermolecular Flowchart . . . . .
18.3 Rule of Octet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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17
17
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
19
19
19 Lewis Structures
19.1 Structures for Atoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.2 Structures for Ions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.3 Structure for Ions of Molecules . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.4 Lewis Structures for Molecular Structures (Covalent)
19.5 Resonance Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.5.1 Formal Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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19
19
19
19
20
21
21
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20 Lattice Energies of Ionic Solids
21
21 Bond Lengths of Covalent Bonds
22
22 Electronegativity
22.1 Dipole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22.1.1 Dipole Moment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
22
22
23 Bond Enthalpy
23
24 VSEPR
24.1 Bond Shape Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
23
25 Organic Chemistry
25.1 Polarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25.2 Alkanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25.3 Alkane Branch Structure Naming . . . .
25.3.1 Branch Structure Naming Table
25.4 Alkenes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25.4.1 Alkene Naming . . . . . . . . . .
25.5 Alkynes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25.5.1 Alkyne Naming . . . . . . . . . .
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23
23
24
24
25
26
26
26
27
26 Functional Groups
26.1 Alcohol . . . . .
26.2 Aldehyde . . . .
26.3 Carboxylic Acid .
26.4 Ester . . . . . . .
26.5 Ketone . . . . . .
26.6 Ether . . . . . .
26.7 Amine . . . . . .
26.8 Amide . . . . . .
26.9 Haloalkane . . .
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27
27
27
28
28
28
28
29
29
29
27 Complex Ions
27.1 Cations . . . . . . . .
27.2 Anions . . . . . . . . .
27.3 Coordination Number
27.4 Naming . . . . . . . .
27.4.1 Cations . . . .
27.4.2 Anions . . . . .
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29
29
30
30
30
30
30
28 Acidic and Basic Redox

28.1 Acidic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28.2 Basic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
30
31
29 Thermodynamics
29.1 Enthalpy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29.1.1 Stoichiometry Problems . . . . . .
29.1.2 Calorimetry . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29.1.3 Hess Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29.1.4 Standard Heat of Formation . . . .
29.2 Entropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29.2.1 State of Matter . . . . . . . . . . .
29.2.2 Number of Moles of Gasses . . . .
29.2.3 Pressure of Gas . . . . . . . . . . .
29.3 Gibbs Law of Free Energy . . . . . . . . .
29.3.1 H, S, G, Relationship Table
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31
31
31
32
32
32
33
33
33
33
33
34
30 Chemical Kinetics and Rate Laws

30.1 Physical State . . . . . . . . . . .
30.2 Concentration . . . . . . . . . . .
30.3 Temperature . . . . . . . . . . .
30.4 Pressure of Gas . . . . . . . . . .
30.5 Catalysts and Inhibitors . . . . .
30.6 Rate Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30.6.1 Order Table . . . . . . . .
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34
34
34
34
34
34
35
35
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31 Reaction Mechanisms
31.1 Elementary Steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
37
32 Equilibrium
32.1 Types of Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32.2 Equilibrium Constant Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32.2.1 Converting Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
37
37
37
33 Gas
33.1
33.2
33.3
33.4
33.5
33.6
37
37
37
38
38
38
39
Laws
Gas Units and Conversions . . . . .
Ideal Gas Law . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Real Gas Law . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Combined Gas Law . . . . . . . . . .
Daltons Law of Partial Pressures . .
Gas Collection over a Water Solution
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34 ICE ICE (Baby)
39
35 Acids and Bases

35.1 Definitions of Acids and Bases .
35.2 pH and pOH . . . . . . . . . . .
35.2.1 Changing Concentrations
35.3 Strong Acids and Bases . . . . .
35.3.1 Strong Acids . . . . . . .
35.3.2 Strong Bases . . . . . . .
35.4 Weak Acids and Bases . . . . . .
35.4.1 Ka Constant . . . . . . .
35.4.2 Kb Constant . . . . . . .
35.5 Common Ion Effect . . . . . . . .
35.6 Buffer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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36 Equilibrium of Saturated, Soluable Salts

37 Kinetic Molecular Theory
37.1 Postulates: . . . . . . . . .
37.2 Root Mean Square Velocity
37.3 Effusion and Diffusion . . .
37.3.1 Effusion . . . . . . .
37.3.2 Diffusion . . . . . .
37.3.3 Finding the rate . .
39
39
40
40
40
40
40
40
41
41
41
41
42
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42
42
43
43
43
43
43
38 Electro Chemistry
38.1 Identifying Oxidation Numbers . . . .
38.2 Galvanic/Voltaic Cells . . . . . . . . .
38.3 Calculating Cell Potential . . . . . . .
38.3.1 Nernst Equation to Find E cell
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43
43
43
44
44
39 Balancing Redox Reactions

39.1 Acidic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39.2 Basic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
44
45
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FOREWORD/DISCLAIMER
First and formost, I am going to say what everone has on their minds. No you really should not just forget
about taking notes anymore in AP Chemistry class because of this packet. This packet is meant to be a
review and should be used as such. However that does not mean you can use this packet as your main
notes and write notes in the margins to supplement your learning. Please take into account that this entire
thing was written over the course of 4 days. As such it is inevitable that I made mistakes in spelling and/or
formulas.
If you have any questions/comments/fixes to the text you can email me at theangrybaby@gmail.com
Good Luck
4
Solubility Rules
2.1
Soluble
Nitrates N O31 - All nitrates are soluble

Chlorates ClO31 - All chlorates are soluble
Alkali metal Cations and Ammonium cation compounds N H4+1 are all soluble
Chlorides, Bromides, and Iodides are all soluble EXCEPT Ag +1 , P b+2 , and Hg +2
Acetates - All are soluble except Ag +
Sulfates - All are soluble except Ba+2 , P b+2 , Hg +2 , Ca+2 , Ag +1 , and Sr+2
2.2
Insoluble
Carbonates CO32 - all carbonates are insoluble except alkali metals and ammonium compounds
Chromates CrO42 - all chromates are insoluble except alkali metals, ammonium, Ca+ 2, and Sr+ 2
Hydroxides OH 1 - all hydroxides are insoluble except alkali metals, ammonium, Ba+2 , Sr+2 , and
Ca+2 although the last two (Sr+2 and Ca+2 ) are only slightly soluble so a precipitate can form.
Phosphates P O43 all are insoluble except alkali metals and ammonium
Sulfites SO32 all are insoluble except alkali metals and ammonium
Sulfides S 2 all are insoluble except Alkali metals, alkali earth metals and ammonium
2.3
Naming Rules
All strong acids and bases are soluble and should be written as the ions when completing net ionic
reactions
. Sulfuric acid (H2 SO4 ) should be written as H + + HSO41
The strong acids are: HCL, HBR, HI, HN O3 , HClO4 , and H2 SO4
Strong bases are any alkali metal hydroxides (LiOH, N aOH, etc) and Ca(OH)2 , Sr(OH)2 , Ba(OH)2
All acids and bases should be left in their molecular form:
. Acetic acid HC2 H3 O2
Periodic Table of Elements
Poly Atomic Naming

Zinc Zn+2
Silver Ag +1
Ammonium N H4+1
Hydroxide OH 1
Cyanide CN 1
Nitrate N O31
Acetate C2 H3 O21
Chlorate ClO31
Bromate BrO31
Iodate IO31
Manganate M nO31
Sulfate SO42
Bisulfate (Hydrogen Sulfate) HSO41
Carbonate CO32
Bicarbonate (Hydrogen Carbonate) HCO31
Selenate SeO42
Biselenate (Hydrogen Selenate)HSeO41
Oxalate C2 O42
Phosphate P O43
Hydrogen Phosphate HP O42
Dihydrogen Phosphate H2 P O41
Chromate CrO42
Per Ate
Per Ic
+1 Oxygen
Ate
Ic
Most Common Ion
Ite
Ous
-1 Oxygen
Common Units, Constants and Charges
5.1
Fundamental Constants
Avogadros Number (N )
. 6.02214199 1023 mol1
Plancks Constant (h)
. 6.62606876 1034 J s
Speed of Light (c)
. 2.99792458 108 m/s
Hypo Ite
Hypo Ous
-2 Oxygen
5.2
Charge
e charge = 1.602 1019 coulombs

p+ charge = 1.602 1019 coulombs
Atomic Mass Unit (amu) = 1.66054 1024
. p+ = 1.0073 amu
. n = 1.0087 amu
. e = 5.486 104 amu
5.3
Radius
Angstroms (A) = 1010 meters
Atomic Theory
6.1
J.J. Thompson
Discovered e and
charge
mass
ratio
. Charge to Mass ratio: 1.76 108 Coulombs/Gram (Charge of e /mass)

Plum Pudding Model of atom
6.2
Robert Millikan
Found charge and mass of e

Millikan Oil Drop:
. Charge oil drops in a field and adjust field until drops levitate
6.3
Ernest Rutherford
Discovered 3 types of radiation (Decay Particles)

. Alpha particles: He2+ size, very damaging, stoppable -
. Beta particles - e size, damaging, hard to stop -
. Gamma particles - tiny, not so damaging, unstoppable -
Also discovered proton and new dense nucleus model
. Rutherford worked with particles most and discredited Thompsons model of the nucleus
6.4
Chadwick
Discovers neutron by shooting radiation at light elements and it watching it kick out a neutral particle
6.5
John Dalton
Four Postulates
. Everything made of atoms
. Atoms of one element differ from those of a different element
. Atoms will combine in whole number ratios
. Atoms can not be created or destroyed
Law of Constant Composition
. In a compound, atom ratios are constant
Naming
7.1
Binary
Smallest atomic number comes first

Second element ends with -ide
7.1.1
Greek Prefixes
1-Mono
2-Di
3-Tri
4-Tetra
5-Penta
6-Hexa
7-Hepta
8-Octa
9-Nona
10-Deca
Example
Cl2 O
Dichlorine Monoxide
7.2
Ionic
Finding Charge:
N a?3 Cl2+1
N adc Clba
(ab)
c
7.3
7.3.1
=d
Acids
Polyatomic
Per...ate Per...ic acid

. HN O4 pernitric acid
-ate
ic acid
. H + N O3 HN O3 (Nitric Acid)
-ite
ous acid
. HN O2 nitrous acid
Hypo...ite hypo...ous acid
. HN O hyponitrous acid
7.3.2
Binary
Hydro + (stem)ic
. H + Br Hydrobromic acid
. H + N Hydronitric acid
. Hydrocarbonic acid HC
. Carbonic Acid HCO3
8
Cations
Which cation forms a white precipate with HCL?
. Ag + (reversed proves Cl ).
What color is a typical Manganese solution?
. Pink/light purple. The precipate is dark black.
How would you test for Al+ and what would it look like?
. Add Aluminom, it will make a precipate red and leave the solution clear.
Which cation forms a gel like precipate?
. Aluminum.
Which cation turns deep red with KSCN ?
. Iron.
How do you confirm the presence of zinc and what color is it?
. Add acid, then ammonia, which results in a white/bluish precipate.
What cation turns a deep blue with ammonia?
. Copper.
Reaction Type
9.1
Combination (Synthesis)
When two or more chemicals react to form one product

Example
2M g + O2 2M gO
2N a + S N a2 S
Metal + Non-Metal Metal Nonmetal (Binary Salt)
Metal Oxide + Water Metal Hydroxide
. CaO + H2 O Ca(OH)2
. K2 O + H2 O 2KOH
Metal Oxide + CO2 Metal Carbonate
. N a2 O + CO2 N a2 CO3
Nonmetallic Oxides + water Acids (nonmetal oxides retains its oxide number)
. N a2 O + SO3 N a2 SO4
9.2
Decomposition
When one chemical decomposes into 2 or more

Example
2Ag2 O 4Ag + O2
= Heat
Metal Carbonate Metal Oxide + CO2
. CaCO3 CaO + CO2
Metal Hydroxide Metal Oxide + H2 O
. M g(OH)2 M gO + H2 O
Metal Nonmetal Metal + Nonmetal (diatomic in nature)
. 2N aCl 2N a + Cl2
Metal Chlorates Metal Chlorides + O2
. F e(ClO3 )2 F eCl3 + O2
9.2.1
Special Binary Salt Splits
These binary salts split into different elements

(N H4 )2 CO3 N H3 + H2 O + CO2
H2 SO3 H2 O + SO2
H2 CO3 H2 O + CO2
N H4 OH N H3 + H2 O
H2 O2 H2 O + O2
9.3
Combustion
Hydrocarbon + O2 CO2 + H2 O
........
Cx Hy double x (multiply by 2) then add 2
C1 : meth
C2 : eth
C3 : pro
C4 : bu
C5 : pent
C6 : hex
C7 : hept
C8 : oct
C9 : non
C10 : dec
10
Blackbody Radiation
When an object is heated it will emmit radiant energy

E = h
E = Energy
h = Max Plancks constant (6.626 1034 J s)
= frequency
Photoelectric effect: Metal will give off e s if light shines on it. Light shining on a clean sheet of
metals will release e s if is strong enough.
10
11
Bohr Model
Neils Bohr:
1. Only orbits of certain radii, corresponding to certain definate energies are permitted for the electron in
a hydrogen atom.
2. An electron in a permitted orbit has a specific energy and is in an allowed energy state. An electron in
an allowed state will not radiate energy and therefore will not spiral into the nucleus.
3. Energy is emmitted or absorbed by the e only as the e changes from one allowed energy state to
another.
4. Flawed theory because it only works for hydrogen
11.1
Energy Level Formula

En = (2.18 1018 J)( n12 )
E1 : 2.18 1018 J
E2 : 5.45 1019 J
E3 : 2.42 1019 J
E4 : 1.36 1019 J
E5 : 8.72 1020 J
E6 : 6.056 1020 J
E : 0
11.1.1
Energy Change during Level Jumps

E = EF E0
n = 3 2 | 3.03 1019 J
n = 4 2 | 4.09 1019 J
n = 5 2 | 4.578 1019 J
n = 6 2 | 4.844 1019 J
12
12.1
Wavelength
De Broglie Formulas
=
h
mv
or
=
h
p
= Wavelength
h = Plancks Constant (6.626 1034 J s)
m = Mass of particle in Kg
v = Velocity of particle ( meters
second )
p = Momentum
Example
m = 9.11 1028 g
v = 5.97 106 m/s
6.6261034 Js
= (9.111031 Kg)(5.97106 m/s) = 1.22 1010 m
11
13
Quantum Values
1. Principle Quantum number - (n)

n = 1 (lowest)
n = (at 8 or 9)
Follows Bohrs En = (2.18 1018 J)( n12 )
2. Azimuthal Quantum number - (l )
l =n-1
if...
l = 0 S shape
l = 1 P shape
l = 2 D shape
l = 3 F shape
Example
n=3
l =2
3d
3. Magnetic Quantum number (orbital) - (ml )
-l and l including zero
m0 = 0
m1 = 1, 0, 1
m2 = 2, 1, 0, 1, 2
4. Spin magnetic quantum number - (ms)
+ 12 or - 21
13.1
n
1
2
Quantum Value Table

Possible l values
0
0
1
0
1
2
0
1
2
3
13.2
Subshell
1s
2s
2p
3s
3p
3d
4s
4p
4d
4f
ml values
0
0
-1,0,1
0
-1,0,1
-2,-1,0,1,2
0
-1,0,1
-2,-1,0,1,2
-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3
# of orbitals in subshell
1
1
3
1
3
5
1
3
5
7
Special cases
Chromium has 6 half-filled orbitals

Copper has one half-filled orbital and 5 filled orbitals
12
total # of orbitals in shell

1
4
9
16
-
e in shell
2
8
18
32
-
14
Periodicity
14.1
Electron Configuration
14.2
Isoelectricity
Two atoms are considered isoelectric when they gain or lose electrons to become ions and have the same
electron configuration as each other.
Example
N a+1 : 1S2 , 2S2 , 2P6
N e: 1S2 , 2S2 , 2P6
15
Nuclear Chemistry
Nuclear Chemistry involves changes in the nucleus of an atom.

Normal
Reactions involve electron transfer
Reaction affected by factors such
as pH, temp, pressure, [], etc.
Reactions involve relatively small energy:
400 kJ-1500kJ
15.1
Nuclear
Reactions involve decay of nucleus i.e. transforming one element into another
Affected by the type of decay and the halflife of what is decaying
Reactions deal with huge amounts of energy
Isotopes
Isotopes: Atoms of the same element that have a different number of neutrons
X A
A
ZX
A
X = Element Symbol
A = Atomic Mass
Z = Atomic Number
13
15.2
15.2.1
Radiation
Alpha Radiation
When a big nucleus ejects a He+2 size chunk of itself.
15.2.2
Beta Radiation
When a neutrally charged particle (equal amount of p+ s and e s) ejects its e s leaving only the p+ s.
15.2.3
Gamma Radiation
When a particle experiences some type of radiation (called * here) that causes the remaining nucleus to
collapse. This causes gamma () rays to be emitted. Gamma radiation is also caused when a positron and
an electron smash into each other.
14
15.2.4
Positron Radiation
When a positively charged nucleus emits its p+ leaving only the n .
15.2.5
Electron Capture
When an electron in orbit falls into the nucleus (positively charged) and makes it neutrally charged.
15.3
15.3.1
Nuclear Equations
Radiation Table
Neutron:
Proton:
Electron:
Positron:
Alpha Particle:
Beta Particle:
1
0n
1 +
1p
0
1 e
0
1e
4
2 He
0
1 e
or 42
or 10
Example
Alpha
238
234
4
U
92
90 T h +2 He
Beta
131
131
0
I
54 Xe+1 e
53
11 p+10 e
Positron
11
0
C
11
6
5 B+1 e
1
0n
10 n+01 e
Electron Capture
81
0
81
37 Rb+1 e 36 Kr
1
1p
1
0
1 p+1 e
10 n
Positron-Electron Collision (Gamma)
0
0
0
1 e+1 e 0
15
15.4
Nuclear Stability
Understanding why are some nuclides are radioactive while others are not.
15.4.1
Forces Invloved
Electrostatic
. Try to rip apart the nucleus because of like charges
Strong Nuclear
. Try to pull together the nucleus because subatomic particles naturally stick together
The Glue
. Neutrons act as the glue and more of it is required when the electrostatic force gets really strong
15.4.2
Belt of Stability
Area A
. More neutrons than protons - Beta decay creates protons
Area B
. Less neutrons than protons - Positron emission (Smaller B) or Electron Capture (Larger B)
Area C
. Every element above 83 p+ is radioactive and no glue can hold it together - Alpha decay
15.4.3
Magic Numbers
The Magic Numbers tend to be stable if you have either a proton or neutron in those numbers. If you have
both, they are very stable.
(p+ )
(n )
2
2
8
8
20
20
28
28
If (p+ ) and (n ) even likely stable

If either is odd could go either way
If (p+ ) and (n ) odd likely unstable
16
50
50
82
82
126
15.4.4
Half-Life
The time it takes
1
2
the amount of a substance to decay.
1
2
Example
5g of nuclide
life of 15 years
How much of the original nuclide remains after 45 years?

5
(15 years)
2.5
(30 years)
1.25
(45 years)
0.625g
16
16.1
Ionization and Affinity

Ionization Energy
The energy needed to remove an e (how easy it is to lose an e ). Needs energy (+).
16.2
Electron Afinity
How much a gaseous atom will be attracted to a free e (how easy it is to gain an e ). Releases energy (-).
17
Reactions of Metals
Metal Oxides = Basic

Metal + Water Metal Hydroxide + H2
Metal + O2 (Li or any non-Alkali metal) Metal Oxide
K + O2 (Any other Alkali metal) Metal Peroxide (O21 )
. K + O2 KO2
Metal Oxide + H2 O Metal Hydroxide
. N a2 O + H2 O N aOH
Metal Oxide + Acid Salt + H2 O
. N a2 O + HCL N aCl + H2 O
Nonmetal Oxides = Acidic
Nonmetal Oxide + H2 O Acid
. CO2 + H2 O H2 CO3
. SO2 + H2 O H2 SO3
. P4 O10 + H2 O H3 P O4
Nonmetal Oxide + Base Salt + H2 O
. CO2 + N aOH N a2 CO3 + H2 O
18
Chemical Bonds
When 2 or more atoms are strongly attached (attracted) to each other.
18.1
Intramolecular
These forces act inside an atom or molecule:

17
18.1.1
Ionic Bonding
Gain/lose e s (strong metal + strong nonmetal)

18.1.2
Covalent Bonding
Share e s (weak metal or nonmetal + nonmetal)

18.1.3
Metallic Bonding
There are two models that explain metallic bonding:

Electron Sea Model
. Metal atoms are floating in a sea of e s. No one e belongs to any particular atom.
Orbital Bonding Model
. The valence e s are overlapped and shared so much you have bonds of delocalized e s that are
free to move but are still holding the atoms together.
Properties that result from metallic bonding include:
Conductivity of electricity and heat
Malibility and ductility
Ability to form alloys
18.2
Intermolecular
These forces act between molecules:

18.2.1
Ion-Dipole
Ions bonding to molecules with a dipole (polver solvent). The strongest intermolecular force.
18.2.2
Dipole-Dipole
Polar near another polar. Weaker than Ion-Dipole but still strong, based on how strong the
polarity is.
18.2.3
Hydrogen Bond
Either (H N ), (H O), or (H F ). No shielding e s on Hydrogen so central atoms e pair gets full pull
of Hydrogen nucleus.
18.2.4
London Dispersion/Van der Waals
An induced dipole between 2 polar molecules. An increase in pressure or decrease in temperature will cause
one side to have a more positive force as the majority of e s move to other side.
1 Of
the two theories, this is generally the more accepted one
18
18.2.5
18.3
Intermolecular Flowchart
Rule of Octet
Atoms tend to bond in such a way as to gain, lose, or share e s in order to gain a complete valence (outer s
and p).
19
Lewis Structures
19.1
Structures for Atoms
19.2
Structures for Ions
19.3
Structure for Ions of Molecules
19
19.4
Lewis Structures for Molecular Structures (Covalent)
1. Add valence e s from all the atoms.

2. Write the symbols for the atoms. If there are more than 2 atoms, identify the central atom. Connect
them with a single line which represents 2 shared e s. Subtract the number of e s from total found in
step 1.
. Central atom will be closest to Si, P or Metaloid staircase.
3. Complete octets around the atoms bonded to the central atom (Hydrogen does not get more than 2).
4. Place the remaining pairs around the central atom even if doing so gives more than an octet to the
central atom.
5. If there are not enough pairs to complete an octet in the central atom, then you ned to try using double
or triple bonds.
CH4
CH2 Cl2
HN O3
CO2
HCN
20
19.5
Resonance Structures
Benzene
19.5.1
Formal Charge
Valence e s of an atom - (total unbonded e s +
1
2
total bonded e s)
Molecular structures that tend to be the common one have a formal charge is closest to zero and any negative
charge is on the most electronegative element.
20
Lattice Energies of Ionic Solids

Coulombs Law
E=
KQ1 Q2
d
Q1 /Q2 = ion charges

d = Distance between ions of the final crystalized lattice form.
a The greater the charge, the higher the energy.
a The closer the ions, the higher the energy.
Example
Which has a greater lattice energy?
+1 1
+2 1
N aCl vs M g Cl2
+2 1
M g Cl2 has greater charges thus a higher lattice energy.

+1 1
+1 1
LiCl vs N aCl
+1
+1
+1
Li is smaller than N a so Li wil be closer

1
+1
+1 1
to Cl than N a will so LiCl will have a higher

lattice energy.
21
21
Bond Lengths of Covalent Bonds
Single - Longest
Double - Medium
Triple - Shortest
Length
22
Single
CO44
1.42 A
Double
CO2
1.24 A
Triple
CO
1.13 A
Electronegativity
Difference in electronegativity determines the character of the bond.

Large difference Ionic Bond
. Biggest difference is 3.3
Medium difference Polar Covalent
. HF - 1.8
Small/No difference Non-Polar Covalent
. H2 - 0
22.1
Dipole
H F
Arrow points towards more electronegative atom.
22.1.1
Dipole Moment
Numeric value that represents how strong the dipole is

Example
Which has the greater dipole moment?
OR
Which has greater electronegative difference?
HI or HF
Answer: HF
22
23
Bond Enthalpy
H: Energy given off or taken in during a reaction.

H = . Exothermic
H = +
. Endothermic
a Breaking bonds requires energy
a Forming bonds releases energy
Example
CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2 OO
Breaking
Forming
4 (C H) = (4 413) 2 (C=O) = (2 799)
2 (O2 ) =(2*495) 4 (H O) =(4*463)
2642
3450
H = Broken - Formed
H = 2642 - 3450 = -808 KJ
24
VSEPR
VSEPR stands for Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion. Make sure when counting bonds to treat double
and triple bonds like a single bond. Also keep in mind that bonded pairs and lone pairs repel.
24.1
Bond Shape Table
Shape
Linear
Trigonal Planar
Bent
Tetrahedral
Trigonal Pyramidal
Bent
Trigonal Bipyramidal
See-Saw
T-Shape
Linear
Octahedral
Square Pyramidal
Square Planer
25
25.1
Example
BeH2
BCl3
N O21
CH4
N H3
H2 O
P Cl5
SF4
BrF3
ICl2
SF6
BrF5
ICl4
Total e
2
3
3
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
6
6
6
Bonded Pairs
2
3
2
4
3
2
5
4
3
2
6
5
4
Lone e Pairs
0
0
1
0
1
2
0
1
2
3
0
1
2
Hybrid Orbital
sp
sp2
sp2
sp3
sp3
sp3
sp3 d
sp3 d
sp3 d
sp3 d
sp3 d2
sp3 d2
sp3 d2
Organic Chemistry
Polarity
Polarity in regards to organic chemistry relies on an element disrupting the symmetry of a molecule. For
example the double bonded oxygen in Acetone allows it to be more polar than Propane.
Acetone
Propane
23
25.2
Alkanes
a Spotted by seeing a single bond

CH4 Methane
C2 H6 Ethane
C3 H8 Propane
C4 H10 Butane
C5 H12 Pentane
C6 H14 Hexane
C7 H16 Heptane
C8 H18 Octane
C9 H20 Nonane
C10 H22 Decane
Pentane
CH3 (CH2 )3 CH3
25.3
Alkane Branch Structure Naming
To name all single-bonded Carbon chains, see subsection on Alkanes above.

To name a branch structure first look for the longest unbroken Carbon chain, this is the root name. Then
take the root prefix of the alkyl (the branch of the root chain) and add -yl (for instance Methane becomes
methyl). Number the Carbon chain giving the side with an alkyl the lowest number. The end result should
be something such as 2 Methyl Butane.
2 Methyl Butane
24
25.3.1
Branch Structure Naming Table
25
25.4
Alkenes
a Spotted by seeing a double bond

CH2 Methene
C2 H4 Ethene
C3 H6 Propene
C4 H8 Butene
C5 H10 Pentene
C6 H12 Hexene
C7 H14 Heptene
C8 H16 Octene
C9 H18 Nonene
C10 H20 Decene
25.4.1
Alkene Naming
Naming Alkenes is similar to naming Alkanes save for the naming of the root chain. To name the root chain
you must give side where the double bond is the lowest number and name all branches after using this number
scheme. You should end up with something like 2 Pentene
2 Pentene
25.5
Alkynes
a Spotted by seeing a triple bond

CH Methyne
C2 H2 Ethyne
C3 H4 Propyne
C4 H6 Butyne
C5 H8 Pentyne
C6 H10 Hexyne
C7 H12 Heptyne
C8 H14 Octyne
C9 H16 Nonyne
C10 H18 Decyne
26
25.5.1
Alkyne Naming
Naming Alkynes is similar to naming Alkenes. Identify the root chain as you would using Alkenes except
now you identify the triple bond instead of the double bond.
2 Hexyne
26
Functional Groups
When discussing functional groups, the letter R is used to signify any hydrocarbon or hydrocarbon
chain.
26.1
Alcohol
Root Name: -ol

Identification: R-OH
Ethanol
26.2
Aldehyde
Root Name: -al

Identification: R-CHO
Ethanal
27
26.3
Carboxylic Acid
Root Name: -oic

Identification: R-COOH
Propanoic Acid
26.4
Ester
Root Name: A-yl B-oate

Identification: R-COO-R
Ethyl Propanoate
B
z
}|
{z
}|
{
CH3 CH2 CO OCH2 CH3
26.5
Ketone
Root Name: -one

Identification: R-CO-R
Acetone
26.6
Ether
Root Name: A-yl B-yl Ether

Identification: R-O-R
Propyl Methyl Ether
A
z
}|
{ z }| {
CH3 CH2 CH2 O CH3
28
26.7
Amine
Root name: -amine

Identification: R-NH2
Methylamine
26.8
Amide
Root Name: -amide

Identification: R-CONH2
Ethanamide
26.9
Haloalkane
Root Name: None, use standard naming of root chain

Identification: Some Hydrogens in a a hydrocarbon are replaced with a halogen (F, Cl, Br, I)
2 Chloro Butane
27
Complex Ions
Complex Ions are usually metal ions with attached ligands (Lewis Bases).
27.1
Cations
[Cr(H2 O)6 ]+3
a The charge of a cation is the charge of the transition metal (Cr in this case).
29
27.2
Anions
[Al(OH)4 ]1
a The charge of a anion is determined by the individual charges of the elements.

. Al+3 + 4(OH)1
.3-4
. -1
27.3
Coordination Number
Generally (especially with cations) the coordination number is twice the charge of the transition metal.
Example
[Cr(H2 O)6 ]+3
Cr+3 3 2 = 6
27.4
Naming
27.4.1
Cations
Give the prefix associated with the coordination number

Give appropriate name for ligand
Name the transition metal
Give roman numeral of transition metal
Example
Chromium
z}|{
Cr
Hexa
(H2 O)
| {z }
z}|{
6
]+3
Aqua
Hexa Aqua Chromium (III)

27.4.2
Anions
Give prefix associated with the coordination number

Give appropriate Ligand name
Name transition metal with -ate ending
Give roman numeral
Example
[Al(OH)4 ]1
Tetra Hydroxo Aluminate
No roman numeral because Al is always +3
28
28.1
Acidic and Basic Redox

Acidic
Find oxidation number

Write
1
2
reaction with e s
Add H2 O, then H + and balance accordingly

Balance for e s and everything else
Add together both balanced
1
2
reactions and cancel out where possibly to simplify
30
28.2
Basic
Find oxidation number

Write
1
2
reaction with e s
Add H2 O, then H + and balance accordingly

Add OH amounts to both sides equal to the number of H +
Cancel out the H + with the OH to form H2 O
Move all H2 O to one side
Balance for e s and everything else
Add together both balanced
1
2
reactions and cancel out where possibly to simplify

Example
+7
+3 2 2
+1
C2 O4 M n
+4
M n O4 +
O22 + C O32
(4OH + C2 O4 2CO3 + 2e + 2H2 O) 3
(2H2 O + M nO4 + 3e M nO2 + 4OH) 2
12OH + 3C2 O4 6CO3 + 6e + 6H2 O
4H2 O + 2M nO4 + 6e 2M nO2 + 8OH
4OH + 3C2 O4 + 2M nO4 2M nO2 + 6CO32
29
Thermodynamics
The study of energy and its transformations

Units of Energy:
Joules and Calories
. 1 cal = 4.184 J
The two main driving forces of thermodynamics is Enthalpy and Entropy:
29.1
Enthalpy
Enthalpy stands for the Heat of the reaction and is denoted by H.

If:
H<0
. Reaction is exothermic
H>0
. Reaction is endothermic
There are 4 ways to find H.
29.1.1
Stoichiometry Problems
Example
How much heat is released when 3.2 grams of Hydrogen is reacted with excess Oxygen?
2H2 + O2 2H2 O
H = 572 KJ
3.2 g H2
1 mole H2
KJ
2.02 g H2 2572
1
mole H2 = 453.069 KJ
Released
Ratio = Coef f icientEnergy
of Hydrogen in f ormula
31
29.1.2
Calorimetry
Find the H by running a reaction and heating or cooling a substance.

q = m c T
q = Heat released or absorbed
m = Mass of what is being heated (grams)
J
c = Specific heat. Unique to every substance ( gC
)
. Specific heat of water is 4.184

T = Change in temperature
Example
Burn 0.1 grams of CH4 and it heats 100 grams H2 O from 20 C to 33.29 C.
q = 100 4.184 13.29 = 5560 J = 5.560 KJ
0.1 grams CH4
mole CH4
1 16
1
g CH4 = 0.00625 moles CH4
KJ
5.560
0.00625 = 889.6 M ole
29.1.3
Hess Law
Multiple reactions can be added together then Hs can be added together.

Example
Si + 2H2 SiH4 H = +34 MKJ
ole
Si + O2 SiO2
H = 911 MKJ
ole
H2 + 12 O2 H2 O H = 242 MKJ
ole
Find H for:
SiH4 + 2O2 SiO2 + 2H2 O
SiH4 Si+2H2 H = 34 MKJ
ole
Si+O2 SiO2
H = 911 MKJ
ole
2H2 + 2O2 H2 O H = 484 MKJ

ole
SiH4 + 2O2 SiO2 + 2H2 O H = 1429 MKJ
ole
29.1.4
Standard Heat of Formation
Standard heat (enthalpy) of formation (Hf )2 is the energy involved in forming one mole of a chemical from
its elements under standard conditions.
a Elemental substances (O2 , H2 , etc.) always have a H of zero.
Example
Find the H for:
2H2 O2 2H2 O + O2
Hf H2 O2 = 187
Hf H2 O = 285
2(285)
2(187)
2H2 O2 2H2 O + O2
}
|
{z
}
| {z
374
570
X
X
H =
product
reactant
H = 570 (374) = 196 MKJ
ole
2 This
symbol may be shortened to H or Hf in this subsection.
32
29.2
Entropy
Entropy stands for the Disorder of the reaction and is denoted by S.

If:
S<0
. Order is increasing
S>0
. Disorder is increasing
29.2.1
State of Matter
If:
Solid Liquid
. S = +
Gas Solid
. S =
Solid
Lowest S
29.2.2
Liquid
Gas
Highest S
Number of Moles of Gasses
a Solids and liquids do not apply

Example
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2N H3(g)
4 moles gas 2 moles gas | S =
2 moles gas 4 moles gas | S = +
29.2.3
Pressure of Gas
When pressure increases, disorder decreases.

When pressure decreases, disorder increases.
Example
What has more disorder?
N2 at 1 atm
N2 at 0.001 atm
Answer: N2 at 0.001 atm
29.3
Gibbs Law of Free Energy
Gibbs Law determines G which signifies whether a reaction is spontaneous or not.

G = H (T S)
G = Free Energy in a system
H = Enthalpy (KJ)
S = Entropy ( KJ
K )
. S MUST be converted from
J
K
to
KJ
K .
T = Temperature in Kelvin
. To convert C K add 273
33
If:
G<0
. Spontaneous
G>0
. Not spontaneous
29.3.1
H, S, G, Relationship Table
H = H = H = +
H = +
S = +
S = S = +
S = -
G = G = G = +
G = +
Always spontaneous
Spontaneous at low temperatures
Spontaneous at high temperatures
Never spontaneous
Example
P OCL3 2P Cl3 + O2
H = 542 KJ
J
S = 179 K
What temperature is it spontaneous at?
0 = 542 KJ (T 0.179 KJ
K )
542 = 0.179T
T = 3027.93 K
30
Chemical Kinetics and Rate Laws
Factors that affect reaction rates
30.1
Physical State
Solid
. An increase in surface area means in an increase in the rate.
Gas - Gas
Liquid - Gas
Liquid - Liquid
30.2
3
Concentration
Molarity =
moles
liter
[HCL] = 3M
An increase in concentration is generally an increase in rate.
30.3
Temperature
An increase in temperature is an increase in rate.
30.4
Pressure of Gas
An increase in pressure is an bincrease in rate.
30.5
Catalysts and Inhibitors
A catalyst lowers the activation energy while an inhibitor increases the activation energy.
3 Molarity
is signified by []s
34
30.6
Rate Laws
A+B C +D
rate = k[A]m [B]n
k = Constant
m = Order of A
n = Order of B
a Order of 0 No effect
a Order of 1 Linear - Double the concentration and you double the rate
a Order of 2 Squared - Double the concentration and you quadruple the rate
Trial
1
2
3
Example:
[A]
[B]
Rate
0.1 M 0.1 M 0.04 M/s
0.2 M 0.1 M 0.08 M/s
0.1 M 0.2 M 0.04 M/s
Solve for m:
trial 2
[]
rate
0.2 m
0.08
= ( )m =
=(
) =
trial 1
[]
rate
0.1
0.04
2m = 2
m=1
Solve for n:
(
0.2 n
0.04
) =
0.1
0.04
1n = 1
n=0
rate = k[A]1 [B]0

Solve for k:
0.04 = k[0.1]1 [0.1]0
k = 0.4
30.6.1
Order Table
Comments
Rate Law
Integrated Rate law
Graph
K = Slope
Half-Life (t 12 )
Zero Order
rate = k
[A] [A]0 = kt
[A] = kt + [A]0
[A] vs Time
Slope = k
0
t 12 = [A]
2k
First Order
rate = k[A]1
ln[A] ln[A]0 = kt
ln[A] = kt + ln[A]0
ln[A] vs time
Slope = k
t 12 = 0.693
k
35
Second Order
rate = k[A]2
1
1
[A] [A]0 = kt
1
1
[A] = kt + [A]0
1
[A] vs time
Slope = k
1
t 12 = k[A]
0
Example:
2N2 O5 4N O2 + O2
[N2 O5 ]
0.1
0.0707
0.05
0.025
0.0125
0.00625
Time (s)
0
50
100
200
300
400
1. What is the order of the reaction?

[A] 6= straight
1
[A]
6= straight
ln[A] = straight
Order of 1
2. What is the k constant value?
ln(0.0707)ln(0.1)
500
0.347
50
= 0.00693
k = 0.00693
3. What is the concentration of N2 O5 at t = 150?
ln[A] = (0.00693)(150) + ln(0.1)
ln[A] = 3.34
[A] = 0.0354 M
4. What is the rate at 150 seconds?
rate = k[A]
rate = 0.00693 [0.0354]
rate = 2.45 104 M/s
5. What is the half life?
t 12 = 0.693
k
0.693
t 21 = 0.00693
t 12 = 100 s
31
Reaction Mechanisms
Many/most reactions do not take place in one step. If a reaction were to react in one step, then you could
use the balanced reaction to determine the rate law. For example, assume the following occured in one step.
M gCl2 + 2Hbr 2HCl + M gBr2
rate = k[M gCl2 ]1 [HBr]2
In reality though, things are not always as easy.
Through experimentation we figure out that the rate law for:
N O2 + CO N O + CO2
is
rate = k[N O2 ]2
Because the rate law does not link up with the equation, it is not a single step reaction.
36
31.1
Elementary Steps
Unimolecular - 1 reactant
Bimolecular - 2 reactants
Terrmolecular - 3 reactants
32
Equilibrium
The state where the concentration or partial pressures (if it is a gas) of all the reactants and products remain
constant with time. For equilibrium to occur, the forward reaction rate must equal the reverse rate. In other
words, the amounts do not have to be equal, but the rates must be.
32.1
Types of Equilibrium
Static No movement
Dynamic Movement such as a sealed container of water
32.2
Equilibrium Constant Expressions

aA + bB *
) cC + dD
Kc =
Kp =
[C]c [D]d
[A]a [B]b
(P C c )(P Dd )
(P Aa )(P B b )
Kc = Concentration constant
Kp = Partial Pressure constant
32.2.1
Converting Constants
To convert between the two constants Kc and Kp use the formula:

Kp = Kc (RT )n
n =
33
33.1
P roduct Coef f icients
Reactant Coef f icients
Gas Laws
Gas Units and Conversions
1 Atm = 760 Torr (mmHg) = 101.3 kPa = 14.7 PSI
33.2
Ideal Gas Law

P v = nRT
P = Pressure (Atm)
v = Volume (L)
n = Number of moles
R = 0.0821 (constant)
T = Temperature (Kelvin)
Example
3 grams of HCl at 26 C in a 3 Liter container. What is the pressure?
P (3)
3
3 grams
( 36.5
)(0.081)(26+273)
g/mole
3
P = 0.0664 Atm
37
33.3
Real Gas Law
For use when the ideal gas law fails. The ideal gas law fails when these two postulates fail:
Molecules do have volume
Molecules are attracted
This law is also used when there are conditions with high pressure and low temperature.
P v = nRT
(P +
n a
) (v nb) = nRT
v2
a = constant that fixes the intermolecular force issue

b = constant that fixes the volume issue
a a and b are unique to each type of gas
a All other variables are the same as the ideal gas law
33.4
Combined Gas Law

P1 V1
P2 V2
=
T1
T2
33.5
Daltons Law of Partial Pressures
For a mixture of gases in a container, the total pressure (Ptot ) is equal to the sum of the pressures each gas
exerts as if it were alone.
Ptot = P1 + P2 + P3 + + Pn
Example:
A mixture of 1g H and 1g He in a 1 L container is at 27 C. Calculate the mole fraction of each gas, partial
pressures of each and total pressure.
H2 1 g
1
= 0.5 moles
2
x=
(H mole)
0.5
=
= 0.667
(H + He moles)
0.75
He 1 g
1
= 0.25 moles
4
x=
0.25
= 0.333
0.75
H2
P v = nRT
P (1) = (0.5)(0.0821)(300)
P = 12.3 Atm
He
P v = nRT
P (1) = (0.25)(0.0821)(300)
P = 6.15 Atm
Ptot = 12.3 + 6.15 = 18.45 Atm
38
33.6
Gas Collection over a Water Solution
Example:
A 0.986 g sample has Zinc and some impurities. Excess HCl is added and reacts with thte Zinc but not the
impurities. Find the percent Zinc in the sample if 240 mL of H2 are collected over H2 O at 30 C and 1.032
Atm (HINT: This is the Ptot ).
Ptot = P1 + PH2 O
1.032 = P1 + 0.042
P1 = 0.99 Atm H2
P v = nRT
(0.99)(0.240) = n(0.0821)(303)
n = 0.0096 mole H2
0.0096 mole H2 = 0.0096 mole Zn

0.0096 mole Zn 65.4 g Zn
= 0.628 g Zn
1
M ole
0.628 g Zn
100 = 63.7%Zn
0.986 g total
34
ICE ICE (Baby)
Given initial values for a system at equilibrium and one of the equilibrium values, you should find:
a - The other equilibrium values
b - The equilibrium constant
Example:
A closed system initially containing 1 103 M H2 and 2 103 M I2 at 448 C is allowed to reach
equilibrium. Analysis of the equilibrium mixture shows the [HI] = 1.7 103 M . Find the equilibrium
concentration for H2 and I2 as well as the Kc value.
H2 + I2 *
) 2HI
Initial
Change
Equilibrium
1 103 M
0.935 103
0.065 103
2 103 M
0.935 103
1.065 103
0M
1.87 103
1.87 103
[H2 ] = 0.065 M
[I2 ] = 1.065 103 M
Kc =
35
35.1
[1.87 103 ]2
[1.065 103 ][0.065 103 ]
Acids and Bases

Definitions of Acids and Bases
1. Arrhenius
. An acid dissociates in water to form H + ions and a base dissociates to form OH ions.
2. Bronsted-Lowry
. Acids are proton donors (H + ) and a base is a proton acceptor.
. Conjugate acid base pair
Acid 1
Base 2
Acid 2
Base 1
HN O3 + H2 O H3 O+ + N O3
3. Lewis Acid
. Acid is an e pair acceptor while a base is an e pair donor.

39
35.2
pH and pOH
pH and pOH are measures of the amount of ions in a solution that either cause the solution to be acidic or
basic.
pH Scale
Basic 0 14 Acidic
Important Formulas
pH = log[H + ]
pOH = log[OH ]
pH + pOH = 14
[H + ] = 1 10pH
[OH ] = 1 10pOH
Example
What is the concentration of HCl with a pH of 3?
[HCl] = 0.001 M
35.2.1
Changing Concentrations
M1 V 1 = M2 V 2
(0.25 M )(5 mL) = M2 (50 mL)
M2 = 0.025 M
35.3
Strong Acids and Bases
Strong acids and bases completely dissociate in water.

35.3.1
Strong Acids
HCl
H2 SO4
HBr
HI
HN O3
HClO4
35.3.2
Strong Bases
Group 1 - Hydroxides
. N aOH
. KOH
Group 2 - Heavier Hydroxides
. Ca(OH)2
. Sr(OH)2
. Ra(OH)2
35.4
Weak Acids and Bases
Weak acids and bases do not completely dissociate in water.
40
35.4.1
Ka Constant
HA *
) H + + A
HA + H2 O *
) H 3 O + + A
Ka =
[H + ][A ]
[HA]
Example
Benzoic acid dissociates as follows:
x
HC7 H5 O2 *
) H + + C7 H6 O2
|
{z
}
x2
[HC7 H5 O2 ] = 0.4 M
Ka = 6.3 105
What is the pH?
[H + ][C7 H5 O2 ]
[HC7 H5 O2 ]
x2
105 = 0.4
Ka =
6.3
35.4.2
Kb Constant
The Kb constant is used when bases are involved in a reaction (as opposed to Ka which is used in reactions
with acids). To convert between Kb and Ka use the following formula:
Ka Kb = Kw
Kw = 1 1014
Example
F + H2 O *
) HF + OH
Ka = 7.2 104
What is the Kb constant?
11014
11
Kb = 7.210
4 = 1.39 10
Find the pH and pOH.
[HF ][OH ]
[F ]
x2
11
10
= ( 0.002
20+13.3 )
7
Kb =
1.39
x = 9.13 10
pOH = 6.04
pH = 7.96
35.5
Common Ion Effect
The effect of ionization of a weak electrolyte (acid/base) is decreased by adding a strong electrolyte that
has an ion in common with the weak electrolyte.
35.6
Buffer
Made of 2 components:
1. Weak acid
2. The salt of that acid
41
36
Equilibrium of Saturated, Soluable Salts
Solubility is how well a solute dissolves in a solvent4 .

Example:
* Ca+2 + CO32 (aq)
CaCO3 (s) )
(aq)
Ksp = [Ca+2 ][CO32 ]
Ksp is the solubility product
. A large Ksp means the solution is very soluable (meaning lots of products)
. A small Ksp means the solution is not very soluable.
1. Given Ksp , find the ion concentration.
Ksp = [Ca+2 ][CO32 ] = 4.5 109
[Ca+2 ] = [CO32 ] = 4.5 109 = 6.7 105 M

2. Given Ksp , find the solubility (g/L).
6.7 105 M =
6.7105
1
100.1
1mole
= 6.37 103 g/L
3. Given solubility, find ion concentration.

Solubility of Silver Chloride at 25 C is 1.3 107 100gmL
1.3 107 100gmL
1.3106
L
1 mole
143.35 g
g
L
10
10
= 1.3 106 Lg
= 9.11 109 m
L
4. Given solubility, find Ksp

Ksp = [Ag + ][Cl ] = (9.11 109 )2 = 8.3 1017
37
37.1
Kinetic Molecular Theory

Postulates:
The volume of the individual particales of a gas can be assumed to be negligible.

. So volume is determined by the space between molecules
The gas particles are in constant motion. The pressure exerted by a gas is due to collisions of the gas
with the walls of the container.
Gas particles are not attracted to one another.
The average kinetic energy of a gas is directly proportional to the Kelvin temperature.
Kenergy = 23 (0.0821)T
OR
Kenergy = 12 (M olar M ass)(V elocity)2
A) CO at 760 torr and 0 C
B) N2 at 760 torr and 0 C
C) H2 at 760 torr and 0 C
Q. Which will have the highest kinetic energy?
A. All will have the same kinetic energy
Q. Which will have a higher velocity?
1
A. H2 will because if all kinetic energies are constant according to the formula k = mv 2 the
2
smallest mass will yield the highest velocity to keep k constant.
4 Virtually
every salt is soluable to some degree.
42
37.2
Root Mean Square Velocity

r
Urms =
3RT
M
J
R = 8.314 KM
ole
M = molar mass (Kg/mole)

. NOT g/mole
37.3
37.3.1
Effusion and Diffusion

Effusion
When you pass a gas through a small opening into an evacuated chamber.
37.3.2
Diffusion
When you mix gases

37.3.3
Finding the rate
The formula for finding the rate is as follows:

p
(M olar M ass 2)
Rate of Ef f usion of Gas 1
= p
Rate of Ef f usion of Gas 2
(M olar M ass1)
WHich effuses faster, He or N O2 ?
. He - it moves faster because it is smaller
For the reaction: H2 + N2 at 20 C and having a rate of effusion for H2 being 10 mL/min what is the
rate for N2 ?
.
10
x
x=
28
2
10
2
=
28
2.67 ml/min
The rate for the gas is 24 mL/min, at the same temperature methane has a rate of 47.8 mL/min. What
is the molar mass of the unknown gas?
.
24
47.8
16
x
x = 63.7 g/mole
38
38.1
Electro Chemistry
Identifying Oxidation Numbers
H2 O
H +1
O -2
H2 SO4
H +1
S +6
O -2
Cl2
Cl 0
The chemical that has been oxidized is the reducing agent. The chemical that has been reduced is
the oxidizing agent.
38.2
Galvanic/Voltaic Cells
There are two beakers with salt and e s in each solution. A salt bridge between the two solutions allows
passage of ions. One side is identified as the cathode an the other the anode. The cations go to the cathode
and the anions go to the anode. The e s go to the cathode.
43
38.3
Calculating Cell Potential

E cell = E reduction + E Oxidation
Example
Cu+2 + Zn Zn+2 + Cu
Oxidation
Zn Zn+2 + 2e
e = 0.76
Reduction
Cu+2 + 2e Cu
e = 0.34
E cell = 0.34 + 0.76 = 1.1 volts
38.3.1
Nernst Equation to Find E cell
The Nernst equation to be used under standard conditions is:

E cell = E
0.0592
log(Q)
n
E = Normal standard potential

n = Number of moles of e s changing
Q = Reaction Quotient =
[P roduct]
[Reactant]
Example
+2
+2
Cu(s) + Cu
| {z } Cu
| {z } +Cu(s)
1 M
0.1 M
Q = 0.1
1 = 0.1
n = 2 (2 e being transfered)
E = 0(1M 1M = N ovoltage
E cell = 0 0.0592
2 log(0.1)
This Nernst equation is to be used when the temperature is not standard and the concentrations
are not equal.
RT
E cell = E
ln(Q)
nF
R = 9.31
volt coulomb
mole Kelvin
F = 96,500 per mole e

T = Temperature in Kelvin
Example
+2
+2
Zn + Cu
| {z } Cu + Zn
| {z }
2 M
0.5 M
0.5
E cell = 1.1 0.0592
2 log( 2 )
E cell = 1.1178 volts
39
39.1
Balancing Redox Reactions

Acidic
+2
+3
Cr2 O72 + Cl Cr+3 + Cl2

Half-Reactions
[2Cl Cl2 + 2e ] 3
+6
14H + + 6e + Cr2 O7 2Cr+3 + 7H2 O
14H + + 6Cl + Cr2 O7 2Cr+3 + 7H2 O + Cl2

44
39.2
Basic
CN + M nO4 CN O + M nO2
Half-Reactions
+
2OH + H2 O + CN CN O + 2e + 2H
2OH }
|
{z
H2 O
4OH + 4H + +3e + M nO4 M nO2 + 2H2 O + 4OH

|
{z
}
2H2 O
+
(2OH + H2 O + CN CN O + 2e + 2H
2OH }) 3
{z
|
H2 O
(4OH + 4H + +3e + M nO4 M nO2 + 2H2 O + 4OH) 2

|
{z
}
2H2 O
6OH + 3CN 3CN O + 6e + 3H2 O

H2 O + 6e + 2M nO4 2M nO2 + 2OH
H2 O + 3CN
2M nO4
3CN O + 2M nO2 + 2OH
45
AP* Chemistry
Chemical Foundations
Chemistry: An Overview
Matter takes up space, has mass, exhibits inertia
- composed of atoms only 100 or so different types
- Water made up of one oxygen and two hydrogen atoms
- Pass an electric current through it to separate the two types of atoms and they rearrange
to become two different types of molecules
- reactions are reversible
Chemistry is defined as the study of matter and energy and more importantly, the changes between them
Why study chemistry?
- become a better problem solver in all areas of your life
- safety had the Romans understood lead poisoning, their civilization would not have fallen
- to better understand all areas of science
The Scientific Method
A plan of attack!
The fundamental steps of the

scientific method
*AP is a registered trademark of the College Board, which was not involved in the production of this product. 2013 by Ren McCormick. All rights
reserved.
Good experimental design coupled with repetition is key!

Theory hypotheses are assembled in an attempt at explaining why the what happened.
Model we use many models to explain natural phenomenon when new evidence is found, the
model changes!
Robert Boyle
o loved to experiment with air
o created the first vacuum pump
o coin and feather fell at the same rate due to gravity
o in a vacuum there is no air resistance to impede the fall of either
object!
o Boyle defined elements as anything that cannot be broken into
simpler substances.
Boyles Gas Law: P1V1 = P2V2
Scientific Laws a summary of observed (measurable) behavior [a theory is an explanation of behavior]

A law summarizes what happens; a theory (model) is an attempt to explain WHY it happens.
- Law of Conservation of Mass mass reactants = mass products
- Law of Conservation of Energy (a.k.a. first law of thermodynamics)
Energy CANNOT be created NOR destroyed; can only change forms.
- Scientists are human and subjected to
Data misinterpretations
Emotional attachments to theories
Loss of objectivity
Politics
Ego
Profit motives
Fads
Wars
Religious beliefs
Galileo forced to recant his astronomical observations in

the face of strong religious resistance
Lavoisier father of modern chemistry; beheaded due
to political affiliations.
The need for better explosives; (rapid change of solid

or liquid to gas where molecules become 2,000
diameters farther apart and exert massive forces as a
result) for wars have led to
-fertilizers that utilizes nitrogen
- Nuclear devices
Units of Measure
A quantitative observation, or measurement, ALWAYS consists of two parts: a number and a unit.
Two major measurements systems exist: English (US and some of Africa) and Metric (the rest of the globe!)
SI system 1960 an international agreement was reached to set up a system of units so scientists everywhere
could better communicate measurements. Le Systme International in French; all based upon or derived from
the metric system
KNOW THE UNITS AND PREFIXES shown in BLUE!!!
Volume derived from length; consider a cube 1m on each edge 1.0 m3

- A decimeter is 1/10 of a meter so
(1m)3 = (10 dm)3 = 103 dm3 = 1,000 dm3
1dm3 = 1 liter (L) and is slightly larger than a quart also
1dm3 = 1 L = (10 cm)3 = 103cm3 = 1,000 cm3 = 1,000 mL
AND 1 cm3 = 1 mL = 1 gram of H2O (at 4C if you want to be picky)
Mass vs. Weight chemists are quite guilty of using these terms interchangeably.
o mass (g or kg) a measure of the resistance of an object to a change in its state of motion (i.e. exhibits
inertia); the quantity of matter present
o weight (a force has units of Newtons) the response of mass to gravity; since all of our measurements
will be made here on Earth, we consider the acceleration due to gravity a constant so well use the terms
interchangeably as well although it is technically incorrect! We weigh chemical quantities on a
balance NOT a scale!!
Gravity varies with altitude here on planet Earth
The closer you are to the center of the Earth, the stronger the gravitational field
SINCE it originates from the center of the Earth.
Every object has a gravitational field as long as youre on Earth, they are masked
since the Earths field is so HUGE compared to the objects.
The strength of the gravitational field mass
Ever seen astronauts in space that are weightless since they are very far removed
from the center of Earth? Notice how they are constantly drawn to the sides of the
ship and must push away?
The ships mass is greater than the astronauts mass g is greater for the ship and
the astronaut is attracted to the ship just as you are attracted to Earth! The moon has
1 the mass of the Earth you would experience 1 the gravitational field you
6
6
experience on Earth and youd WEIGH
Physics connection:
Fw = ma
Fw = mg
9.8 m
= m 2
its units are

m
N = ( kg ) 2

s
of what you weigh on Earth.
Precision and Accuracy

- Accuracy correctness; agreement of a measurement with the true value
- Precision reproducibility; degree of agreement among several measurements.
- Random or indeterminate error equal probability of a measurement being
high or low
- Systematic or determinate error occurs in the same direction each time
Exercise 1
Precision and Accuracy
To check the accuracy of a graduated cylinder, a student filled the cylinder to the
25-mL mark using water delivered from a buret and then read the volume delivered.
Following are the results of five trials:
Trial
1
2
3
4
5
Average
The results of several
dart throws show the
difference between
precise and accurate.
(a) Neither nor
precise (large random
errors).
(b) Precise but
not accurate (small
random errors, large
systematic error).
(c) Bulls-eye! Both
precise and accurate
(small random errors,
no systematic error).
Volume Shown by
Graduated Cylinder
25 mL
25 mL
25 mL
25 mL
25 mL
25 mL
Volume Shown
by the Buret
26.54 mL
26.51 mL
26.60 mL
26.49 mL
26.57 mL
26.54 mL
Is the graduated cylinder accurate?
Note that the average value measured using the buret is significantly different from
25 mL. Thus, this graduated cylinder is not very accurate. It produces a systematic error (in this
case, the indicated result is low for each measurement).
Significant Figures and Calculations

Determining the Number of Significant Figures (or Digits) in a Measurement
Nonzero digits are significant. (Easy enough to identify!)
A zero is significant IF and ONLY IF it meets one of the conditions below:
- The zero in question is terminating AND right of the decimal [must be both]
- The zero in question is sandwiched between two significant figures
Exact or counting numbers have an amount of significant figures as do fundamental constants
(never to be confused with derived constants)
Exercise 2
Significant Figures (SF)
Give the number of significant figures for each of the following experimental results.
a. A students extraction procedure on a sample of tea yields 0.0105 g of caffeine.
b. A chemist records a mass of 0.050080 g in an analysis.
c. In an experiment, a span of time is determined to be 8.050 103 s .
a. three; b. five; c. four
Reporting the Result of a Calculation to the Proper Number of Significant Figures
When and , the term with the least number of significant figures (least accurate measurement)
determines the number of maximum number of significant figures in the answer. (Its helpful to
underline the digits in the least significant number as a reminder.)
4.56 1.4 = 6.38
corrected
6.4
When + and (), the term with the least number of decimal places (least accurate measurement)
determines the number of significant figures in the final answer.
12.11
18.0 limiting term (only 1 decimal place)
1.013
corrected
31.123
31.1 (limits the overall answer to only one decimal place)
pH the number of significant figures in least accurate measurement determines number decimal
places on the reported pH (usually explained in the appendix of your text)
Rounding Guidelines for the AP Exam and This Course:
Round ONLY at the end of all calculations (keep the numbers in your calculator)
Examine the significant figure one place beyond your desired number of significant figures.
IF > 5 round up; < 5 drop the remaining digits.
Dont double round! Example: The number 7.348 rounded to 2 SF is reported as 7.3
In other words, DO NOT look beyond the 4 after the decimal and think that the 8 rounds the 4 up to a
five which in turn makes the final answer 7.4.
[Even though you may have conned a teacher into rounding your final average this way before!]
Dimensional Analysis
Example: Consider a straight pin measuring 2.85 cm in length. Calculate its
length in inches.
Start with a conversion factor such as 2.54 cm = 1 inch you can write TWO
1 in
2.54 cm
Conversion factors:
or
. Why is this legal? Both quantities
2.54 cm
1 in
represent the exact same thing so the conversion factor is actually equal to 1.
To convert the length of the pin from cm to inches, simply multiply your given quantity by a conversion
factor you engineer so that it cancels the undesirable unit and places the desired unit where you want it.
For our example, we want inches in the numerator so our numerical answer is not reported in reciprocal
inches! Thus,
1 in
= 1.12 in
2.85 cm
2.54 cm
Lets practice!
Exercise 3
A pencil is 7.00 in. long. Calculate the length in centimeters?
17.8 cm
Exercise 4
You want to order a bicycle with a 25.5-in. frame, but the sizes in the catalog are given only in centimeters.
What size should you order?
64.8 in
Exercise 5
A student has entered a 10.0-km run. How long is the run in miles?
We have kilometers, which we want to change to miles. We can do this by the following route:
kilometers meters yards miles
To proceed in this way, we need the following equivalence statements (conversion factors):
1 km = 1000 m
1 m = 1.094 yd
1760 yd = 1 mi
6.22 mi
Exercise 6
The speed limit on many highways in the United States is 55 mi/h. What number would be posted if expressed
in kilometers per hour?
88 km/h
Exercise 7
A Japanese car is advertised as having a fuel economy of 15 km/L. Convert this rating to miles per gallon.
35 mi /gal
Temperature
I suspect you are aware there are three temperature scales commonly in use today. A comparison follows:
Notice a degree of temperature change on the Celsius scale represents the same quantity of change on the Kelvin
scale.
Density
mass
Density = volume
Exercise 8
Determining Density
A chemist, trying to identify the main component of a compact disc cleaning fluid, determines that 25.00 cm3
of the substance has a mass of 19.625 g at 20C. Use the information in the table below to identify which
substance may serve as the main component of the cleaning fluid. Justify your answer with a calculation.
Compound
Density (g/cm3) at 20C
Chloroform
Diethyl ether
Ethanol
Isopropyl alcohol
Toluene
1.492
0.714
0.789
0.785
0.867
Density = 0.7850 g / cm3 isopropyl alcohol
Classification of Matter
States of Matter (mostly a vocabulary lesson)
Be very, very clear that changes of state involve altering IMFs not altering actual chemical bonds!!
solid rigid; definite shape and volume; molecules close together vibrating about fixed points
virtually incompressible
liquid definite volume but takes on the shape of the container; molecules still vibrate but also have
rotational and translational motion and can slide past one another BUT are still close
together slightly compressible
gas no definite volume and takes on the shape of the container; molecules vibrate, rotate and translate
and are independent of each other VERY far apart highly compressible
- vapor the gas phase of a substance that is normally a solid or liquid at room temperature
- fluid that which can flow; gases and liquids
Mixtures can be physically separated

- homogeneous have visibly indistinguishable
parts, solutions including air
- heterogeneous have visibly distinguishable parts
- means of physical separation include: filtering,
fractional crystallization, distillation,
chromatography
Paper Chromatography:
Distillation:
Paper chromatograph of ink. (a) A line of the mixture to be separate

is placed at one end of a sheet of porous paper. (b) The paper acts as
a wick to draw up the liquid. (c) The component with the weakest
attraction for the paper travels faster than those that cling to the paper.
Pure substances compounds like water, carbon dioxide etc. and elements. Compounds can be separated
into elements by chemical means
- electrolysis is a common chemical method for separating compounds into
elements
- elements can be broken down into atoms which can be further broken down into
- nuclei and electrons
- p+, n0 and e- quarks
Electrolysis is an example of a
chemical change. In this apparatus,
water is decomposed to hydrogen gas
(filling the red balloon) and Oxygen
gas (filling the blue balloon).
AP* Chemistry
ATOMS, MOLECULES & IONS
THE EARLY HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY
This is the highest honor

given by the American
Chemical Society.
Priestly discovered
oxygen. Ben Franklin got
him interested in
electricity and he
observed graphite
conducts an electric
current. Politics forced
him out of England and
he died in the US in 1804.
The back side, pictured
below was given to Linus
Pauling in 1984. Pauling
was the only person to
win Nobel Prizes in TWO
Different fields:
Chemistry and Peace.
1,000 B.C.processing of ores to produce metals for weapons and

ornaments; use of embalming fluids
400 B.C.Greeksproposed all matter was make up of 4 elements:
fire, earth, water and air
Democritusfirst to use the term atomos to describe the ultimate, smallest
particles of matter
Next 2,000 yearsalchemya pseudoscience where people sought to turn
metals into gold. Much was learned from the plethora of mistakes
alchemists made.
16th centuryGeorg Bauer, German , refined the process of extracting
metals from ores & Paracelsus, Swiss, used minerals for medicinal
applications
Robert Boyle, Englishfirst chemist to perform quantitative
experiments of pressure versus volume. Developed a working definition for
elements.
17th & 18th CenturiesGeorg Stahl, Germansuggested phlogiston
flowed OUT of burning material. An object stopped burning in a closed
container since the air was saturated with phlogiston
Joseph Priestley, Englishdiscovered oxygen which was originally called
dephlogisticated air
FUNDAMENTAL CHEMICAL LAWS
late 18th CenturyCombustion studied extensively

CO2, N2, H2 and O2 discovered
list of elements continued to grow
Antione Lavoisier, Frenchexplained the true
nature of combustionpublished the first modern
chemistry textbook AND stated the Law of
Conservation of Mass. The French Revolution broke out the same year his
text was published. He once collected taxes for the government and was
executed with a guillotine as an enemy of the people in 1794. He was the
first to insist on quantitative experimentation.
THE LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS:

Mass is neither created nor destroyed.
*AP is a registered trademark of the College Board, which was not involved in the production of this product.
2013 by Ren McCormick. All rights reserved.
1808--John Dalton stated the Law of Definite proportions.

He later went on to develop the Atomic Theory of Matter.
THE LAW OF DEFINITE PROPORTIONS:

A given compound always contains exactly the same proportions of elements by mass.
THE LAW OF MULTIPLE PROPORTIONS:

When two elements combine to form a series of compounds, the ratios of the masses of the second element
that combine with 1 gram of the first element can always be reduced to small whole numbers.
Dalton considered compounds of carbon and oxygen and determined:
Compound I
Compound II
Mass of Oxygen that

combines with 1 gram of C
1.33 g
2.66 g
Therefore, Compound I may be CO while Compound II may be CO2.

Exercise 1
Illustrating the Law of Multiple Proportions
The following data were collected for several compounds of nitrogen and oxygen:
Mass of Nitrogen That Combines With 1 g of Oxygen
Compound A
Compound B
Compound C
1.7500 g
0.8750 g
0.4375 g
Show how these data illustrate the law of multiple proportions.

A = 1.7500 = 2
B 0.8750 1
B = 0.8750 = 2
C 0.4375 1
A = 1.750 = 4
C 0.4375 1
*AP is a registered trademark of the College Board, which was not involved in the production of this product.
DALTONS ATOMIC THEORY

Postulates of Daltons ATOMIC THEORY OF MATTER: (based on knowledge at that time)
1.
2.
3.
4.
All matter is made of atoms. These indivisible and indestructible objects are the ultimate chemical
particles.
All the atoms of a given element are identical, in both weight and chemical properties. However, atoms of
different elements have different weights and different chemical properties.
Compounds are formed by the combination of different atoms in the ratio of small whole numbers.
A chemical reaction involves only the combination, separation, or rearrangement of atoms; atoms are
neither created nor destroyed in the course of ordinary chemical reactions.
**TWO MODIFICATIONS HAVE BEEN MADE TO DALTONS THEORY:

1. Subatomic particles were discovered. Bet you can name them!
2. Isotopes were discovered. Bet you can define isotope as well!
1809 Joseph Gay-Lussac, Frenchperformed experiments [at constant temperature and pressure] and
measured volumes of gases that reacted with each other.
1811 Avogadro, Italianproposed his hypothesis regarding Gay-Lussacs work [and you thought he
was just famous for 6.02 1023] He was basically ignored, so 50 years of confusion followed.
AVOGADROS HYPOTHESIS:
At the same temperature and pressure, equal volumes of different gases contain the same number of
particles.
Atoms, Molecules and Ions
AP* Chemistry
Stoichiometry
ATOMIC MASSES
12
CCarbon 12In 1961 it was agreed that this isotope of carbon would serve as the standard used to
determine all other atomic masses and would be defined to have a mass of EXACTLY 12 atomic mass
units (amu). All other atomic masses are measured relative to this.
mass spectrometera device for measuring the mass of atoms or molecules
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
atoms or molecules are passed into a beam of high-speed electrons

this knocks electrons OFF the atoms or molecules transforming them into cations
apply an electric field
this accelerates the cations since they are repelled from the (+) pole and attracted toward the ()
pole
send the accelerated cations into a magnetic field
an accelerated cation creates its OWN magnetic field which perturbs the original magnetic field
this perturbation changes the path of the cation
the amount of deflection is proportional to the mass; heavy cations deflect little
ions hit a detector plate where measurements can be obtained.
Mass 13 C
1.0836129 Mass 13 C (1.0836129)(12 amu) 13.003355 amu
12
Mass C
Exact by definition
average atomic massesatoms have masses of whole numbers, HOWEVER samples of quadrillions of
atoms have a few that are heavier or lighter [isotopes] due to different numbers of neutrons present
percent abundance--percentage of atoms in a natural sample of the pure element represented by a
particular isotope
percent abundance =
number of atoms of a given isotope
100%
Total number of atoms of all isotopes of that element
counting by masswhen particles are small this is a matter of convenience. Just as you buy 5 lbs of
sugar rather than a number of sugar crystals, or a pound of peanuts rather than counting the individual
peanuts.this concept works very well if your know an average mass.
*AP is a registered trademark of the College Board, which was not involved in the production of, and does not endorse, this product.
mass spectrometer to determine isotopic compositionload in a pure sample of natural neon or other
substance. The areas of the peaks or heights of the bars indicate the relative abundances of 1020 Ne ,
21
10
Ne , and
Exercise 1
22
10
Ne
The Average Mass of an Element
When a sample of natural copper is vaporized and injected into a mass spectrometer, the results shown in the
figure are obtained. Use these data to calculate the average mass of natural copper. (The mass values for 63Cu
and 65Cu are 62.93 amu and 64.93 amu, respectively.)
63.55 amu/atom
THE MOLE
molethe number of C atoms in exactly 12.0 grams of 12C; also a number, 6.02 1023 just as the word
dozen means 12 and couple means 2.
Avogadros number6.02 1023, the number of particles in a mole of anything
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS DISCLAIMER: I will show you some alternatives to dimensional analysis.
WHY? First, some of these techniques are faster and well-suited to the multi-step problems you will face on
the AP Exam. Secondly, these techniques better prepare you to work the complex equilibrium problems you
will face later in this course. Lastly, I used to teach both methods. Generations of successful students have
encouraged me to share these techniques with as many students as possible. They themselves did, once they got
to college, and made lots of new friends once word got out they had this easy way to solve stoichiometry
problemsnot to mention their good grades! Give this a try. It doesnt matter which method you use, I
encourage you to use the method that works best for you and lets you solve problems accurately and quickly!
2
Stoichiometry
Screencasts are available at www.apchemistrynmsi.wikispaces.com
ALTERNATE TECHNIQUE #1USING THE MOLE MAP:

Simply reproduce this map on your scratch paper until you no longer need to since the image will be burned
into your brain!
MULTIPLY [by the con ver sion factor on the ar r ow] when tr avelin g IN THE
DIRECTION OF THE ARROW an d obviously, d ivide when tr avelin g again st an
ar r ow.
3
Stoichiometry
Exercise 2
Determining the Mass of a Sample of Atoms
Americium is an element that does not occur naturally. It can be made in very small amounts in a device known
as a particle accelerator. Calculate the mass in grams of a sample of americium containing six atoms.
2.42 1021 g
Exercise 3
Determining Moles of Atoms
Aluminum is a metal with a high strength-to-mass ratio and a high resistance to corrosion; thus it is often used
for structural purposes. Calculate both the number of moles of atoms and the number of atoms in a 10.0-g
sample of aluminum.
0.371 mol Al
2.23 1023 atoms
Exercise 4
Calculating the Number of Moles and Mass
Cobalt (Co) is a metal that is added to steel to improve its resistance to corrosion. Calculate both the number of
moles in a sample of cobalt containing 5.00 1020 atoms and the mass of the sample.
8.31 104 mol Co

4.89 102 g Co
MOLAR MASS AND FORMULA WEIGHT
molar mass, MM--the sum of all of the atomic masses in a given chemical formula in units of g/mol.
It is also equal mass in grams of Avogadros number of molecules; i.e. the mass of a mole
empirical formula--the ratio in the network for an ionic substance
formula weight--same as molecular weight, just a language problem molecular implies covalent
bonding while formula implies ionic bonding {just consider this to be a giant conspiracy designed to
keep the uneducated from ever understanding chemistrykind of like the scoring scheme in tennis}.
Just use molar mass for all formula masses.
A WORD ABOUT SIG. FIG.sIt is correct to pull from the periodic table the least number of sig.
figs for your MMs as are in your problemjust stick with 2 decimal places for all MMs much
simpler!
4
Stoichiometry
Exercise 5
Calculating Molar Mass I
Juglone, a dye known for centuries, is produced from the husks of black walnuts. It is also a natural herbicide
(weed killer) that kills off competitive plants around the black walnut tree but does not affect grass and other
noncompetitive plants [a concept called allelopathy]. The formula for juglone is C10H6O3.
(a) Calculate the molar mass of juglone.
(b) A sample of 1.56 102 g of pure juglone was extracted from black walnut husks. Calculate the number of
moles of juglone present in this sample.
a. 174.1 g
b. 8.96 10 mol juglone
5
Exercise 6
Calculating Molar Mass II
Calcium carbonate (CaCO3), also called calcite, is the principal mineral found in limestone, marble, chalk,
pearls, and the shells of marine animals such as clams.
(a) Calculate the molar mass of calcium carbonate.
(b) A certain sample of calcium carbonate contains 4.86 moles. Calculate the mass in grams of this sample.
Calculate the mass of the CO32 ions present.
a. 100 g/mol
b. 486 g; 292g CO32
5
Stoichiometry
Exercise 7
Molar Mass and Numbers of Molecules
Isopentyl acetate (C7H14O2), the compound responsible for the scent of bananas, can be produced commercially.
Interestingly, bees release about 1g (1 10-6 g) of this compound when they sting. The resulting scent attracts
other bees to join the attack.
(a) Calculate the number of molecules of isopentyl acetate released in a typical bee sting.
(b) Calculate the number of carbon atoms present.

5 1015 molecules
4 1016 carbon atoms
ELEMENTS THAT EXIST AS MOLECULES

Pure hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and the halogens exist as DIATOMIC molecules under normal conditions.
MEMORIZE!!! Be sure you compute their molar masses as diatomics. We lovingly refer to them as the gens,
Hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen & the halogens!
Others to be aware of, but not memorize:
P4tetratomic form of elemental phosphorous; an allotrope
S8sulfurs elemental form; also an allotrope
Carbondiamond and graphite covalent networks of atoms
PERCENT COMPOSITION OF COMPOUNDS
There are two common ways of describing the composition of a compound: 1) in terms of the number of its
constituent atoms and 2) in terms of the percentages (by mass) of its elements.
Percent Composition (by mass): The Law of Constant Composition states that any sample of a pure
compound always consists of the same elements combined in the same proportions by mass. Remember, all
part
100%
percent calculations are simply
whole
% comp = mass of desired element
total mass of compound
100%
Consider ethanol, C2H5OH

g
= 24.02 g
mol
g
Mass of H = 6 mol 1.01
= 6.06 g
mol
g
Mass of O = 1 mol 16.00
= 16.00g
mol
Mass of 1 mol of C2H5OH = 46.08 g
Mass of C = 2 mol 12.01
6
Stoichiometry
NEXT, THE MASS PERCENT CAN BE CALCULATED:

Mass percent of C = 24.02 g C 100% = 52.14%
46.08 g
Repeat for the H and O present.
Exercise 8
Calculating Mass Percent I
Carvone is a substance that occurs in two forms having different arrangements of the atoms but the same
molecular formula (C10H14O) and mass. One type of carvone gives caraway seeds their characteristic smell, and
the other type is responsible for the smell of spearmint oil. Calculate the mass percent of each element in
carvone.
C = 79.96%
H = 9.394%
O = 10.65%
Exercise 9
Calculating Mass Percent II
Penicillin, the first of a now large number of antibiotics (antibacterial agents), was discovered accidentally by
the Scottish bacteriologist Alexander Fleming in 1928, but he was never able to isolate it as a pure compound.
This and similar antibiotics have saved millions of lives that might have been lost to infections. Penicillin F has
the formula C14H20N2SO4. Calculate the mass percent of each element.
C = 53.82%
H = 6.47%
N = 8.97%
S = 10.26%
O = 20.49%
7
Stoichiometry
DETERMINING THE FORMULA OF A COMPOUND
When faced with a hydrocarbon compound of unknown formula, one of the most common techniques is to
combust it with oxygen to produce oxides of the nonmetals CO2 and H2O which are then collected and
weighed.
Calculating empirical and molecular formulas: empirical formulas represent the simplest or smallest
ratio of elements within a compound while molecular formulas represent the actual numbers of elements
within a compound. The empirical mass is the least common multiple of the molar mass.
Example: CH2O is the empirical for a carbohydrateget it? carbon waters.
Anyway, glucose is a perfect example of a carbohydrate (a sugar to be exact) with an empirical molar
mass of 12 + 2(1) + 16 = 30 g/mol and since glucose is 6 units of CH2O which is equivalent to (CH2O)6
or C6H12O6; the empirical mass of 30 is also multiplied by 6. Thus the MM of glucose is 180 g/mol.
Make your problem solving life easy and assume a 100 gram sample if given %sthat way you can
convert the percents given directly into grams and subsequently into moles in order to simplify your life!
Other twists and turns occurring when calculating molar masses involve:
hydrateswaters of hydration or dot waters. They count in the calculation of molar masses for
hydrates and used to cement crystal structures together
anhydrousmeans without waterjust to complete the storyjust calculate the molar masses of
anhydrous substances as you would any other substance
Example:
A compound is composed of carbon, nitrogen and hydrogen. When 0.1156 g of this compound is reacted with
oxygen [a.k.a. burned in air or combusted], 0.1638 g of carbon dioxide and 0.1676 g of water are collected.
Determine the empirical formula of the compound.
So, Compound + O2 oxides of what is burned. In this case Compound + O2 CO2 + H2O + N2
(clearly not balanced)
You can see that all of the carbon ended up in CO2 sowhen in doubt, calculate THE NUMBER OF MOLES!!
0.1638 g CO2 44.01 g/mol CO2 = 0.003781 moles of CO2 = 0.003781 moles of C (why?)
8
Stoichiometry
Next, you can see that all of the hydrogen ended up in H2O, so.calculate THE NUMBER OF MOLES!!
So, 0.1676 g H2O 18.02 g/mol H2O = 0 .009301 moles of H2O, BUT there are 2 moles of H for each mole of
water [ Think organ bank one heart per body, one C per molecule of carbon dioxide while there are 2 lungs
per body, 2 atoms H in water and so on] thus, DOUBLE THE NUMBER OF MOLES of H2O GIVES THE
NUMBER OF MOLES OF HYDROGEN!! moles H = 2 0 .009301 moles of H2O = 0.01860 moles of H
Therefore, the remaining mass must be nitrogen, BUT we only have mass data for the sample so convert your
moles of C and H to grams:
grams C = 0.003781 moles C 12.01
grams H = 0.01860 moles H 1.01
g
= 0.04540 grams C
mol
g
mol
Total grams :
= 0.01879 grams H
0.06419 total grams accounted for thus far
What to do next? SUBTRACT!

0.1156 g sample 0.06419 total grams accounted for thus far = grams N left = 0.05141 g N so.
0.05141 g N 14.01
g
= 0.003670 moles N
mol
Next, realize that chemical formulas represent mole to mole ratios, sodivide the number of moles of each by
the smallest # of moles for any one of them to get a guaranteed ONE in your ratiosmultiply by 2, then 3, etc
to get to a ratio of small whole numbers. Clear as mud? WATCH THE SCREENCAST!!
Element
# moles
C
H
N
0.003781
0.01860
0.003670
ALL Divided by the

smallest (0.003670
moles)
1
5
1
Therefore, the correct EMPIRICAL formula based on the data given is CH5N.
Finally (this is drumroll worthy), IF we are told that the MM of the original substance is 31.06 g/mol, then
simply use this relationship:
(Empirical mass)
n
=
MM
(12.01 + 5.05 + 14.01)
n
=
31.07 g/mol n = 0.999678
This is mighty close to 1.0! Thus, the empirical formula and the molecular formula are one and the same.
9
Stoichiometry
Exercise 10
Determine the empirical and molecular formulas for a compound that gives the following analysis in mass
percents:
71.65% C1
24.27% C
4.07% H
The molar mass is known to be 98.96 g/mol.
Empirical formula = CH2 C1

Molecular formula = C2H4C12
Exercise 11
A white powder is analyzed and found to contain 43.64% phosphorus and 56.36% oxygen by mass. The
compound has a molar mass of 283.88 g/mol. What are the compounds empirical and molecular formulas?
Empirical formula = P2O5

Molecular formula = (P2O5)2 or P4O10
10
Stoichiometry
Exercise 12
Caffeine, a stimulant found in coffee, tea, and chocolate, contains 49.48% carbon, 5.15% hydrogen,
28.87% nitrogen, and 16.49% oxygen by mass and has a molar mass of 194.2 g/mol. Determine the molecular
formula of caffeine.
Molecular formula = C8H10N4O2

BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
Chemical reactions are the result of a chemical change where atoms are reorganized into one or more new
arrangements. Bonds are broken [requires energy] and new ones are formed [releases energy]. A chemical
reaction transforms elements and compounds into new substances. A balanced chemical equation shows the
relative amounts of reactants [on the left] and products [on the right] by molecule or by mole.
Subtle details:
s, l, g, aqstate symbols that correspond to solid, liquid, gas,
aqueous solution
NO ENERGY or TIME is alluded to
Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794)The Law of Conservation of Matter: matter can be neither created nor
destroyed
this means you having to balance equations is entirely his fault!!
BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
Begin with the most complicated-looking thing (often the scariest, too).
Save the elemental thing for last.
If you get stuck, double the most complicated-looking thing.
MEMORIZE THE FOLLOWING:
metals + halogens MaXb
CH and/or O + O2
CO2(g) + H2O(g)
H2CO3 [any time formed!] CO2 + H2O; in other words, never write carbonic acid as a
product, it spontaneously decomposes [in an open container] to become carbon dioxide and
water
metal carbonates metal OXIDES + CO2

11
Stoichiometry
Exercise 13
Chromium compounds exhibit a variety of bright colors. When solid ammonium dichromate, (NH4)2Cr2O7,
a vivid orange compound, is ignited, a spectacular reaction occurs. Although the reaction is actually somewhat
more complex, lets assume here that the products are solid chromium(III) oxide, nitrogen gas (consisting of N2
molecules), and water vapor. Balance the equation for this reaction.
(NH4)2Cr2O7(s) Cr2O3(s) + N2(g) + 4H2O(g)

(4 2) H
(4 2) H
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CW4hN0dYnkM
Exercise 14
At 1000C, ammonia gas, NH3(g), reacts with oxygen gas to form gaseous nitric oxide, NO(g), and water vapor.
This reaction is the first step in the commercial production of nitric acid by the Ostwald process. Balance the
equation for this reaction.
4 NH3(g) + 5O2(g) 4NO(g) + 6H2O(g)
12
Stoichiometry
STOICHIOMETRIC CALCULATIONS: AMOUNTS OF REACTANTS AND PRODUCTS

Stoichiometry The study of quantities of materials consumed and produced in chemical reactions.
Stoichiometry is the most important thing you can learn as you embark upon AP Chemistry! Get good at
this and you will do well all year. This NEVER goes away!
Its time to repeat my dimensional analysis disclaimer.
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS DISCLAIMER: I will show you some alternatives to dimensional analysis. WHY? First, some of
these techniques are faster and well-suited to the multi-step problems you will face on the AP Exam. Secondly, these techniques better
prepare you to work the complex equilibrium problems you will face later in this course. The first problem you must solve in the free
response section of the AP Exam will be an equilibrium problem and you will need to be able to work them quickly. Lastly, I used to
teach both methods. Generations of successful students have encouraged me to share these techniques with as many students as
possible. They did, once they got to college, and made lots of new friends once word got out they had this cool way to solve
stoichiometry problemsnot to mention their good grades! Give this a try. It doesnt matter which method you use, I encourage you
to use the method that works best for you and lets you solve problems accurately and quickly!
First you have to be proficient at the following no matter which method you choose!:
Writing CORRECT formulasthis requires knowledge of your polyatomic ions and being able to use
the periodic table to deduce what you have not had to memorize. Review section 2.8 in your Chapter 2
notes or your text.
Calculate CORRECT molar masses from a correctly written formula
Balance a chemical equation
Use the mole map to calculate the number of moles or anything else!
Remember the mole map? It will come in mighty handy as well!
13
Stoichiometry
Heres the template for solving the problemsyoull create a chart. Heres a typical example:
Example: Calculate the mass of oxygen will react completely with 96.1 grams of propane?
[notice all wordsyou supply the chemical formulas!]
Molar Mass:
(44.11)
Balanced Eqn
C3H8
mole:mole
# moles
Amount
(32.00)
+ 5 O2
(44.01)
(18.02)
3 CO2
+ 4 H2O
1. Write a chemical equation paying special attention to writing correct chemical formulas!
2. Calculate the molar masses and put in parentheses above the formulassoon youll figure out you dont
have to do this for every reactant and product, just those in which you are interested.
3. Balance the equation! Examine the coefficients on the balanced equation, they ARE the mole:mole
ratios! Isolating them helps you internalize the mol:mol until you get the hang of this.
4. Next, re-read the problem and put in an amountin this example its 96.1 g of propane.
Molar Mass:
Balanced
Eqn
mole:mole
# moles
amount
(44.11)
C3H8
(32.00)
+ 5 O2
(44.01)
(18.02)
3 CO2
+ 4 H2O
2.18
10.9
6.53
8.71
96.1 grams
5. Calculate the number of moles of something, anything! Use the mole map. Start at 96.1 grams of C3H8,
divide the 96.1 g [against the arrow on the mole map] by molar mass to calculate the # moles of
propane.
6. USE the mole: mole to find moles of EVERYTHING! If 1 = 2.18 then oxygen is 5(2.18) etc. [IF the
first mol amount you calculate is not a 1, just divide appropriately to make it 1 before moving on to
calculate the moles of all the rest!] Leave everything in your calculatorI only rounded to save space!
7. Re-read the problem to determine which amount was asked forheres the payoff.AP problems ask
for several amounts! First, well find the mass of oxygen required since thats what the problem asked.
10.9 moles 32.00 g/mol = 349 g of oxygen
14
Stoichiometry
Now, humor meWhat if part (b) asked for liters of CO2 at STP [1 atm, 273K]?
Use the mole map. Start in the middle with 6.53 moles [in direction of arrow] 22.4 L/mol = 146 L
Molar Mass:
Balanced
Eqn
mole:mole
# moles
amount
(44.11)
C3H8
(32.00)
+ 5 O2
(44.01)
(18.02)
3 CO2
+ 4 H2O
2.18
10.9
6.53
8.71
96.1 grams
349 g
146 L
What if part (c) asked you to calculate how many water molecules are produced?
Use the mole map , start in the middle with 8.71 mol water 6.02 1023
molecules
mol
= 5.24 1024 molecules
of water.
Try these two exercises with whichever method you like best!
Exercise 15
Solid lithium hydroxide is used in space vehicles to remove exhaled carbon dioxide from the living
environment by forming solid lithium carbonate and liquid water. What mass of gaseous carbon dioxide can be
absorbed by 1.00 kg of lithium hydroxide?
920. g
15
Stoichiometry
Exercise 16
Baking soda (NaHCO3) is often used as an antacid. It neutralizes excess hydrochloric acid secreted by the
stomach:
NaHCO3(s) + HC1(aq) NaC1(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(aq)
Milk of magnesia, which is an aqueous suspension of magnesium hydroxide, is also used as an antacid:
Mg(OH)2(s) + 2HC1(aq) 2H2O(l) + MgC12(aq)
Which is the more effective antacid per gram, NaHCO3 or Mg(OH)2? Justify your answer.
Mg(OH)2
CALCULATIONS INVOLVING A LIMITING REACTANT
Ever notice how hot dogs are sold in packages of 10 while the buns come in packages of 8? Whats up with
that?! The bun is the limiting reactant and limits the hot dog production to 8 as well! The limiting reactant [or
reagent] is the one consumed most entirely in the chemical reaction.
Lets use a famous process [meaning one the AP exam likes to ask questions about!], the Haber process.
This reaction is essentially making ammonia for fertilizer production from the nitrogen in the air reacted with
hydrogen gas. The hydrogen gas is obtained from the reaction of methane with water vapor. This process has
saved millions from starvation!! The reaction is shown below.
Exercise17
Examine the particle views and explain the differences between the two situations pictured below with regard to
what is or is not reacting and total yield of ammonia.
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
Situation 1
Situation 2
16
Stoichiometry
Plan of attack: First, you must realize that you even need a plan of attack! IF ever you are faced with TWO
starting amounts of matter reacting, you have entered The Land of Limiting Reactant.
When faced with this situation calculate the number of moles of everything you are given. Set up your table
like before, only now youll have TWO amounts and thus TWO # s of moles to get you started.
Cover one set of moles up (pretending you only had one amount to work from) and ask yourself, What if all of
these moles reacted? How many moles of the other reactants would I need to use up all of these moles?
Next, do the calculation of how many moles of the other amount(s) you would need. Do you have enough?
If so, the reactant you began with IS the limiting reactant. If not repeat this process with the other reactant
amount you were given.
It doesnt matter where you start the What if? game.you get there either way.
Clear as mud? Read on(and consider listening to the SCREENCAST!)
Lets revisit the Haber process:
Molar Mass:
Balanced Eqn
(28.02)
N2
mole:mole
(2.02)
(17.04)
3 H2
2 NH3
# moles
amount
Suppose 25.0 kg of nitrogen reacts with 5.00 kg of hydrogen to form ammonia. What mass of ammonia can be
produced? Which reactant is the limiting reactant? What is the mass of the reactant that is in excess?
**Insert the masses in the amount row and find the number of moles of BOTH!
Molar Mass:
Balanced
Eqn
mole:mole
# moles
amount
(28.02)
N2
(2.02)
3 H2
(17.04)
2 NH3
892 moles
25,000 g
2,475 moles
5,000 g
WHAT IF I used up all the moles of hydrogen? Id need 1/3 2,475 moles = 825 moles of nitrogen.
Clearly I have EXCESS moles of nitrogen!! Therefore, hydrogen limits me.
OR
WHAT IF I used up all the moles of nitrogen? Id need 3 892 moles = 2,676 moles of hydrogen.
Clearly I dont have enough hydrogen, so it limits me!! Therefore nitrogen is in excess.
Continued on next page.
17
Stoichiometry
Either way, Ive established that hydrogen is the limiting reactant so I modify the table:
In English, that means Ill use up all the hydrogen but not all the nitrogen!
Molar Mass:
Balanced Eqn
mole:mole
# moles
(28.02)
N2
+
1
825 mol used
(2.02)
3 H2
3
(17.04)
2 NH3
2
1650 mol
produced
892 moles
2,475 moles
amount
825 mol (28.02) =

23,116 g used
5,000 g
1650 mol (17.04)

= 28,116 g
produced
25,000 g
1,884 g excess!!
Heres the question again, lets clean up any sig.fig issues:
Suppose 25.0 kg of nitrogen reacts with 5.00 kg of hydrogen to form ammonia. (3 sig. fig. limit)
What mass of ammonia can be produced? 28,100 g produced = 28.1 kg
(It is always polite to respond in the unit given).
Which reactant is the limiting reactant? Hydrogenonce thats established, discard the nitrogen amounts and
let hydrogen be your guide!
What is the mass of the reactant that is in excess? 1,884 g = 1.88 kg excess nitrogen!!
Exercise 18
Nitrogen gas can be prepared by passing gaseous ammonia over solid copper(II) oxide at high temperatures.
The other products of the reaction are solid copper and water vapor. If a sample containing 18.1 g of NH3 is
reacted with 90.4 g of CuO, which is the limiting reactant? How many grams of N2 will be formed?
CuO is limiting; 10.6 g N2

18
Stoichiometry
Theoretical Yield: The amount of product formed when a limiting reactant is completely consumed. This
assumes perfect conditions and gives a maximum amount!! Not likely!
Actual yield: That which is realistic.
Percent yield: The ratio of actual to theoretical yield.
Actual Yield 100% = Percent yield
Theoretical Yield
Exercise 19
Methanol (CH3OH), also called methyl alcohol, is the simplest alcohol. It is used as a fuel in race cars and is a
potential replacement for gasoline. Methanol can be manufactured by combination of gaseous carbon monoxide
and hydrogen. Suppose 68.5 kg CO(g) is reacted with 8.60 kg H2(g). Calculate the theoretical yield of
methanol. If 3.57 104 g CH3OH is actually produced, what is the percent yield of methanol?
Theoretical yield is 6.82 104 g

Percent yield is 52.3%
19
Stoichiometry
WRITING AP* NET IONIC EQUATIONS

AP equation sets are found in the free-response section of the AP test. You are
given eight equations and you must choose to answer five of these.** The equations
are of mixed types. The section is worth 15 points and is 15 % of the free response
grade. Free response is 55% of the total AP test grade.
All AP equations "work". In each case, a reaction will occur. These equations
need to be written in net ionic form. All spectator ions must be left out and all ions
must be written in ionic form. All molecular substances and nonsoluble compounds
must be written together (not ionized!). Weak electrolytes, such as acetic acid, are not
ionized. Solids and pure liquids are written together, also.
A saturated solution is written in ionic form while a suspension is written together.
AP equations do not need to be balanced. Don't waste your time on balancing!
Each equation is worth a total of 3 points. One point is given for the correct
reactants and two points for all correct products. If a reaction has three products, one
point is given for two correct products and two points for all correct products. Leaving
in the spectator ions will result in a one point deduction on the equation set (not 1 point
per problem).
The best way to prepare for the equation section of the AP test is to practice lots
of equations. The equation sets are similar and some equations show up year after
year. When you are reading an equation, first try to classify it by type. If it says
anything about acidic or basic solution, it is redox. If you are totally stuck, look up the
compounds in the index of your book or other reference books and try to find
information that will help you with the equation. All reactions do not fit neatly into the
five types of reactions that you learned in Chemistry I. Save the reactions that you
write and practice them again before the AP test in May.
Kristen Henry Jones 01/28/99
** There was a format change in 2007. Now students are given 3 equations and only
3 equations, each worth 5 points. They must write the net ionic equation (3 points total:
1 point for set of reactants and 2 points for products), balance the net ionic equation
( the 4th point), and answer a descriptive question about the reaction (the 5th and final
point). The methods presented in this document still hold true, but be sure and require
students to balance the equations by mass and charge even though they are not balanced
on the key!
(1) AP is a registered trademark of the College Board. The College Board was not involved in the production of and does not endorse this
product. (2) Test Questions are Copyright 1962-2008 by College Entrance Examination Board, Princeton, NJ. All rights reserved. For faceto-face teaching purposes, classroom teachers are permitted to reproduce the questions. Web or Mass distribution prohibited.
Double Replacement (metathesis)

Two compounds react to form two new compounds. No changes in oxidation
numbers occur. All double replacement reactions must have a "driving force" that
removes a pair of ions from solution.
Formation of a precipitate: A precipitate is an insoluble substance formed by the
reaction of two aqueous substances. Two ions bond together so strongly that water can
not pull them apart. You must know your solubility rules to write these net ionic
equations (see next page)
Ex. Solutions of silver nitrate and lithium bromide are mixed.
Ag + Br AgBr
Formation of a gas: Gases may form directly in a double replacement reaction or can
form from the decomposition of a product such as H2CO3 or H2SO3.
Common gasses: CO2, SO2, SO3, H2S, NO2, NH3, O2, H2
Ex. Excess hydrochloric acid solution is added to a solution of potassium sulfite.
H+ + SO32- H20 + SO2
Ex. A solution of sodium hydroxide is added to a solution of ammonium chloride.
OH- + NH4+ NH3 + H2O
Formation of a molecular substance: When a molecular substance such as water or
acetic acid is formed, ions are removed from solution and the reaction "works".
Ex. Dilute solutions of lithium hydroxide and hydrobromic acid are mixed.
OH- + H+ H2O
(HBr, HCI, and HI are strong acids)
Ex. Gaseous hydrofluoric acid reacts with solid silicon dioxide.

HF + SiO2 SiF4 + H2O
Kristen Henry Jones 01/28/99 Used with permission.
Writing Net Ionic Equations
Solubility Rules
These are strong electrolytes (100% ionized ) and written as ions
1. Strong Acids: HCl, HBr, HI, H2SO4, HNO3, HClO4, HClO3
2. Strong Bases: Hydroxides of group IA and IIA(Ba, Sr, Ca are marginal Be and Mg
are WEAK)
3. Soluble Salts (see table): (ionic compounds: metal/nonmetal)
ALWAYS SOUBLE IF IN A COMPOUND
EXCEPT WITH
NO3-, Group IA, NH4+, C2H3O2-, ClO4-, ClO3-
No Exceptions
Cl- , Br- , I-
Pb, Ag, Hg22+
SO42-
Pb, Ag, Hg2

Ca, Sr, Ba
2+
If it does not fit one of the three rules above, assume it is INSOLUBLE or a WEAK
ELECTROLYTE (and written together). This wont always be correct, but will cover
most of the situations.
Also, GASES, PURE LIQUIDS, and SOLIDS are non-electrolytes.
Remember H2CO3 decomposes into H2O(l) and CO2(g)
Remember NH4OH decomposes into H2O(l) and NH3(g)
Remember H2SO3 decomposes into H2O and SO2
Single Replacement
Reaction where one element displaces another in a compound. One element is
oxidized and another is reduced.
A + BC B + AC
Active metals replace less active metals or hydrogen from their compounds in
aqueous solution. Use an activity series or a reduction potential table to determine
activity. The more easily oxidized metal replaces the less easily oxidized metal.
The metal with the most negative reduction potential will be the most active.
Ex. Magnesium turnings are added to a solution of iron(III) chloride.
Mg + Fe 3+ Fe + Mg2+
Ex. Sodium is added to water.
Na + H2O Na+ + OH- + H2
Active nonmetals replace less active nonmetals from their compounds in aqueous
solution. Each halogen will displace less electronegative (heavier) halogens from their
binary salts.
Ex. Chlorine gas is bubbled into a solution of potassium iodide.
C12 + I- I2 + ClTricky redox reactions that appear to be ordinary single replacement reactions:
Hydrogen reacts with a hot metallic oxide to produce the elemental metal and water.
Ex. Hydrogen gas is passed over hot copper(II) oxide.
H2 + CuO Cu2+ + H2O
A metal sulfide reacts with oxygen to produce the metallic oxide and sulfur dioxide.
Chlorine gas reacts with dilute sodium hydroxide to produce sodium hypochlorite,
sodium chloride and water.
Copper reacts with concentrated sulfuric acid to produce copper(II) sulfate, sulfur
dioxide, and water.
Copper reacts with dilute nitric acid to produce copper(II) nitrate, nitrogen monoxide
and water.
Copper reacts with concentrated nitric acid to produce copper(II) nitrate, nitrogen
dioxide and water
Anhydrides
Anhydride means "without water"
Water is a reactant in each of these equations.
Nonmetallic oxides (acidic anhydrides) plus water yield acids.
Ex. Carbon dioxide is bubbled into water.
CO2 + H2O H2CO3
Metallic oxides (basic anhydrides) plus water yield bases.
Ex. Solid sodium oxide is added to water.
Na2O + H2O Na+ + OHMetallic hydrides (ionic hydrides) plus water yield metallic hydroxides and
hydrogen gas.
Ex. Solid sodium hydride is added to water.
NaH + H2O Na+ + OH- + H2
Phosphorus halides react with water to produce an acid of phosphorus
(phosphorous acid or phosphoric acid) and a hydrohalic acid. The oxidation
number of the phosphorus remains the same in both compounds. Phosphorus
oxytrichloride reacts with water to make the same products.
Ex. Phosphorus tribromide is added to water.
PBr3 + H2O H3PO3 + H+ + BrGroup I&II nitrides react with water to produce the metallic hydroxide and
ammonia.
OXIDATION-REDUCTION REACTIONS
Redox reactions involve the transfer of electrons. The oxidation numbers of at least
two elements must change. Single replacement, some combination and some
decomposition reactions are redox reactions.
To predict the products of a redox reaction, look at the reagents given to see if there
is both an oxidizing agent and a reducing agent. When a problem mentions an
acidic or basic solution, it is probably redox.

Common oxidizing agents
MnO4- in acidic solution
MnO2 in acidic solution
MnO4- in neutral or basic solution
Cr2O7- in acidic solution
HNO3, concentrated
HNO3, dilute
H2SO4, hot, concentrated
metal-ic ions
free halogens
Na2O2
HC1O4
H2O2
Products formed
Mn2+
Mn2+
MnO2 (s)
Cr3+
NO2
NO
SO2
metal-ous ions
halide ions
NaOH
ClH2O
Common reducing agents

halide ions
free metals
sulfite ions or SO2
nitrite ions
free halogens, dilute basic solution
free halogens, conc. basic solution
metal-ous ions
H2O2
C2O42-
Products formed
free halogen
metal ions
sulfate ions
nitrate ions
hypohalite ions
halate ions
metal-ic ions
O2
CO2
Ex. A solution of tin(II) chloride is added to an acidified solution of potassium permanganate.

Sn 2+ + H+ + MnO4- Sn 4+ + Mn2+ + H2O
Ex. A solution of potassium iodide is added to an acidified solution of potassium dichromate.
I- + H+ + Cr2O7- Cr3+ + I2 + H2O
Ex. Hydrogen peroxide solution is added to a solution of iron(II) sulfate.
H2O2 + Fe2+ Fe3+ + H2O
Ex. A piece of iron is added to a solution of iron(III) sulfate.
Fe + Fe3+ Fe2+
COMPLEX ION REACTIOINS

Complex ion- the combination of a central metal ion and its ligands
Ligand- group bonded to a metal ion
Coordination compound- a neutral compound containing complex ions [Co(NH ) ]Cl
3
(NH3 is the ligand, [Co(NH3)6]3+ is the complex ion)
Common complex ions formed in AP equations:

Complex ion Name
Formed from:
[AI(OH)4]-
tetrahydroxoaluminate ion
(Al or Al(OH)3 or Al
[Al(H2O)6]3+
hexaquaaluminum ion
(Al3+ in H2O)
[Ag(NH3)2]+
dimminesilver(I) ion
(Ag+ + NH3)
[Zn(OH)4]2-
tetrahydroxozincate ion
(Zn(OH)2 + OH-)
[Zn(NH3)4]2+
tetramminezinc ion
(Zn2+ + NH3)
[Cu(NH3)4]2+
tetramminecopper(II) ion
(Cu+2 + NH3)
[Cd(NH3)4]2+
tetramminecadmium(II) ion
(Cd2+ + NH3)
[FeSCN]+2
thiocyanoiron(III) ion
(Fe +3 + SCN-)
[Ag(CN)2]-
dicyanoargentate (I) ion
(Ag+ + CN-)
3+
+ OH-)
Adding an acid to a complex ion will break it up. If HCl is added to a silver
complex, AgCl(s) is formed. If an acid is added to an ammonia complex, NH4+ is
formed.
Kristen Henry Jones
01/28/99
DECOMPOSITION REACTIONS
Reactions where a compound breaks down into two or more elements or compounds.
Heat, electrolysis, or a catalyst is usually necessary.
A compound may break down to produce two elements.
Ex. Molten sodium chloride is electrolyzed.
NaCl Na+ + C12
A compound may break down to produce an element and a compound.
Ex. A solution of hydrogen peroxide is decomposed catalytically.
H2O2 H2O + O2
A compound may break down to produce two compounds.
Ex. Solid magnesium carbonate is heated.
MgCO3 Mg + CO2
Metallic carbonates break down to yield metallic oxides and carbon dioxide,
Metallic chlorates break down to yield metallic chlorides and oxygen.
Hydrogen peroxide decomposes into water and oxygen.
Ammonium carbonate decomposes into ammonia, water and carbon dioxide.
Sulfurous acid decomposes into water and sulfur dioxide.
Carbonic acid decomposes into water and carbon dioxide.
10
ADDITION REACTIONS
Two or more elements or compounds combine to form a single product.
A group IA or IIA metal may combine with a nonmetal to make a salt.
Ex. A piece of lithium metal is dropped into a container of nitrogen gas.
Li + N2 Li3N
Two nonmetals may combine to form a molecular compound. The oxidation
number of the less electronegative element is often variable depending upon
conditions. Generally, a higher oxidation state of one nonmetal is obtained when
reacting with an excess of the other nonmetal.
Ex. P4 + 6 Cl2 4 PCl3
P4 + 10 Cl2 4 PCl5
limited Cl
excess Cl
When an element combines with a compound, you can usually sum up all of the
elements on the product side.
Ex. PCl3 + C12 PCl5
Two compounds combine to form a single product.
Ex. Sulfur dioxide gas is passed over solid calcium oxide.
SO2 + CaO CaSO3
Ex. The gases boron trifluoride and ammonia are mixed.
BF3 + NH3 H3NBF3
A metallic oxide plus carbon dioxide yields a metallic carbonate. (Carbon keeps
the same oxidation state)
A metallic oxide plus sulfur dioxide yields a metallic sulfite. (Sulfur keeps the
same oxidation state)
A metallic oxide plus water yields a metallic hydroxide.
A nonmetallic oxide plus water yields an acid.
11
ACID-BASE NEUTRALIZATION REACTIONS

Acids react with bases to produce salts and water. One mole of hydrogen ions react
with one mole of hydroxide ions to produce one mole of water. Watch out for
information about quantities of each reactant! Remember which acids are strong
(ionize completely) and which are weak (write as molecule).
Sulfuric acid (strong acid) can be written as H+ and SO42- or as H+ and HSO4-.
Ex. A solution of sulfuric acid is added to a solution of barium hydroxide until the same
number of moles of each compound as been added.
H+ + SO42- + Ba2+ + OH- BaSO4 + H2O
Ex. Hydrogen sulfide gas is bubbled through excess potassium hydroxide solution.
H2S + OH- H2O + S2Watch out for substances that react with water before reacting with an acid or a
base. These are two-step reactions.
Ex. Sulfur dioxide gas is bubbled into an excess of a saturated solution of calcium
hydroxide.
SO2 + Ca2+ + OH- CaSO3 + H2O
12
COMBUSTION REACTIONS
Elements or compounds combine with oxygen.

Hydrocarbons or alcohols combine with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and
water.
Ammonia combines with limited oxygen to produce NO and water and with
excess oxygen to produce N02 and water.
Nonmetallic hydrides combine with oxygen to form oxides and water.
Nonmetallic sulfides combine with oxygen to form oxides and sulfur dioxide.
Ex. Carbon disulfide vapor is burned in excess oxygen.
CS2 + O2 CO2 + SO2
Ex. Ethanol is burned completely 'in air.
C2H5OH + O2 CO2 + H2O
AP CHEMISTRY EQUATIONS BY TYPE

Double Replacement
1. Hydrogen sulfide is bubbled through a solution of silver nitrate.
2. An excess of sodium hydroxide solution is added to a solution of magnesium nitrate.
3. Solutions of sodium iodide and lead nitrate are mixed.
4. A solution of ammonia is added to a solution of ferric chloride.
5. Solutions of silver nitrate and sodium chromate are mixed.
6. Excess silver acetate is added to a solution of trisodium phosphate.
7. Manganese(II) nitrate solution is mixed with sodium hydroxide solution.
8. A saturated solution of calcium hydroxide is added to a solution of magnesium chloride.
9. Hydrogen sulfide gas is added to a solution of cadmium nitrate.
10. Dilute sulfuric acid is added to a solution of barium acetate.
11. A precipitate is formed when solutions of trisodium phosphate and calcium chloride are mixed.
12. A solution of copper(II) sulfate is added to a solution of barium hydroxide.
13. Equal volumes of dilute equimolar solutions of sodium carbonate and hydrochloric acid are
mixed.
14. Solid barium peroxide is added to cold dilute sulfuric acid.
15. Excess hydrochloric acid solution is added to a solution of potassium sulfite.
16. Dilute sulfuric acid is added to a solution of barium chloride.
17. A solution of sodium hydroxide is added to a solution of ammonium chloride.
18. Dilute hydrochloric acid is added to a solution of potassium carbonate.
19. Gaseous hydrogen sulfide is bubbled through a solution of nickel(II) nitrate.
20. A solution of sodium sulfide is added to a solution of zinc nitrate.
21. Concentrated hydrochloric acid is added to solid manganese(II) sulfide.
22. Solutions of tri-potassium phosphate and zinc nitrate are mixed.
23. Dilute acetic acid solution is added to solid magnesium carbonate.
24. Gaseous hydrofluoric acid reacts with solid silicon dioxide.
25. Equimolar amounts of trisodium phosphate and hydrogen chloride, both in solution, are
mixed.
26. Ammonium chloride crystals are added to a solution of sodium hydroxide.
27. Hydrogen sulfide gas is bubbled through a solution of lead(II) nitrate.
28. Solutions of silver nitrate and sodium chromate are mixed.
29. Solutions of sodium fluoride and dilute hydrochloric acid are mixed.
30. A saturated solution of barium hydroxide is mixed with a solution of iron(III) sulfate.
31. A solution of ammonium sulfate is added to a potassium hydroxide solution.
32. A solution of ammonium sulfate is added to a saturated solution of barium hydroxide.
33. Dilute sulfuric acid is added to solid calcium fluoride.
34. Dilute hydrochloric acid is added to a dilute solution of mercury(I) nitrate.
35. Dilute sulfuric acid is added to a solution of lithium hydrogen carbonate.
36. Dilute hydrochloric acid is added to a solution of potassium sulfite.
37. Carbon dioxide gas is bubbled through water containing a suspension of calcium carbonate.
38. Excess concentrated sulfuric acid is added to solid calcium phosphate.
39. Hydrogen sulfide gas is bubbled into a solution of mercury(II) chloride.
40. Solutions of zinc sulfate and sodium phosphate are mixed.
41. Solutions of silver nitrate and lithium bromide are mixed.
Adapted from an original document by Kristen Henry Jones
42. Solutions of manganese(II) sulfate and ammonium sulfide are mixed.

43. Excess hydrochloric acid solution is added to a solution of potassium sulfite.
Single Replacement
1. A piece of aluminum metal is added to a solution of silver nitrate.
2. Aluminum metal is added to a solution of copper(II) chloride.
3. Hydrogen gas is passed over hot copper(II) oxide.
4. Small chunks of solid sodium are added to water.
5. Calcium metal is added to a dilute solution of hydrochloric acid.
6. Magnesium turnings are added to a solution of iron(III) chloride.
7. Chlorine gas is bubbled into a solution of sodium bromide.
8. A strip of magnesium is added to a solution of silver nitrate.
9. Solid calcium is added to warm water.
10. Liquid bromine is added to a solution of potassium iodide.
11. Chlorine gas is bubbled into a solution of potassium iodide.
12. Lead foil is immersed in silver nitrate solution.
13. Solid zinc strips are added to a solution of copper(II) sulfate.
14. Sodium metal is added to water.
15. A bar of zinc metal is immersed in a solution of copper(II) sulfate.
16. A small piece of sodium metal is added to distilled water.
Anhydrides
1. Excess water is added to solid calcium hydride.
2. Solid lithium hydride is added to water.
3. Liquid phosphorus trichloride is poured into a large excess of water.
4. Solid sodium carbide is added to an excess of water.
5. Solid magnesium nitride is added to excess deuterium oxide.
6. Water is added to a sample of pure phosphorus tribromide.
7. Water is added to a sample of pure sodium hydride.
8. Dinitrogen trioxide gas is bubbled into water.
9. Solid phosphorus pentachloride is added to excess water.
10. Solid dinitrogen pentoxide is added to water.
11. Sulfur trioxide gas is added to excess water.
12. Solid sodium oxide is added to water.
13. Phosphorus(V) oxytrichloride is added to water.
14. Water is added to a sample of solid magnesium nitride.
15. Solid potassium oxide is added to water.
16. Solid sodium cyanide is added to water.
17. Trisodium phosphate crystals are added to water.
18. Solid lithium oxide is added to excess water.
19. Solid barium oxide is added to distilled water.
20. Solid calcium hydride is added to distilled water.
21. Phosphorous(V) oxide powder is sprinkled over distilled water.
Combustion
1. Lithium metal is burned in air.
2. The hydrocarbon hexane is burned in excess oxygen.
3. Gaseous diborane, B2H6, is burned in excess oxygen.

4. A piece of solid bismuth is heated strongly in oxygen.
5. Solid zinc sulfide is heated in an excess of oxygen.
6. Propanol is burned completely in air.
7. Excess oxygen gas is mixed with ammonia gas in the presence of platinum.
8. Gaseous silane, SiH4, is burned in oxygen.
9. Ethanol is completely burned in air.
10. Solid copper(II) sulfide is heated strongly in oxygen gas.
11. Ethanol is burned in oxygen.
12. Carbon disulfide vapor is burned in excess oxygen.
Redox
1. Iron(III) ions are reduced by iodide ions.
2. Potassium permanganate solution is added to concentrated hydrochloric acid.
3. Magnesium metal is added to dilute nitric acid, giving as one of the products a compound in
which the oxidation number for nitrogen is -3.
4. A solution of potassium iodide is electrolyzed.
5. Potassium dichromate solution is added to an acidified solution of sodium sulfite.
6. Solutions of potassium iodide, potassium iodate, and dilute sulfuric acid are mixed.
7. A solution of tin(II) sulfate is added to a solution of iron(III) sulfate.
8. Metallic copper is heated with concentrated sulfuric acid.
9. Manganese(IV) oxide is added to warm, concentrated hydrobromic acid.
10. Chlorine gas is bubbled into cold dilute sodium hydroxide.
11. Solid iron(III) oxide is heated in excess carbon monoxide.
12. Hydrogen peroxide solution is added to acidified potassium iodide solution.
13. Hydrogen peroxide is added to an acidified solution of potassium dichromate.
14. Sulfur dioxide gas is bubbled through an acidified solution of potassium permanganate.
15. A solution containing tin(II) ions is added to an acidified solution of potassium dichromate.
16. Solid silver sulfide is warmed with dilute nitric acid.
17. A dilute solution of sulfuric acid is electrolyzed between platinum electrodes.
18. Pellets of lead are dropped into hot sulfuric acid.
19. Potassium permanganate solution is added to a solution of oxalic acid, H2C2O4, acidified
with a few drops of sulfuric acid.
20. Powdered iron is added to a solution of iron(III) sulfate.
21. A concentrated solution of hydrochloric acid is added to powdered manganese dioxide and
gently heated.
22. A strip of copper metal is added to a concentrated solution of sulfuric acid.
23. Copper(II) sulfide is oxidized by dilute nitric acid.
24. A solution of copper(II) sulfate is electrolyzed using inert electrodes.
25. A solution of potassium iodide is added to an acidified solution of potassium dichromate.
26. Hydrogen peroxide solution is added to a solution of iron(II) sulfate.
27. Solid silver is added to a dilute nitric acid (6M) solution.
28. A solution of formic acid, HCOOH, is oxidized by an acidified solution of potassium
dichromate.
29. A piece of iron is added to a solution of iron(III) sulfate.
30. An acidified solution of potassium permanganate is added to a solution of sodium sulfite.
31. A solution of tin(II) chloride is added to a solution of iron(III) sulfate.

32. Concentrated hydrochloric acid solution is added to solid manganese(IV) oxide and the
reactants are heated.
33. A strip of copper is immersed in dilute nitric acid.
34. Potassium permanganate solution is added to an acidic solution of hydrogen peroxide.
35. Solid copper is added to a dilute nitric acid solution.
36. Chlorine gas is bubbled into a cold solution of dilute sodium hydroxide.
37. A solution of potassium permanganate is mixed with an alkaline solution of sodium sulfite.
38. Solid sodium dichromate is added to an acidified solution of sodium iodide.
39. Hydrogen gas is passed over hot iron(III) oxide.
40. Solutions of potassium iodide and potassium iodate are mixed in acid solution.
41. Hydrogen peroxide is added to an acidified solution of sodium bromide.
42. Chlorine gas is bubbled into a cold, dilute solution of potassium hydroxide.
44. A solution of iron(II) nitrate is exposed to air for an extended period of time.
45. A stream of chlorine gas is passed through a solution of cold, dilute sodium hydroxide.
46. A solution of tin(II) chloride is added to an acidified solution of potassium permanganate.
47. A concentrated solution of hydrochloric acid is added to solid potassium permanganate.
48. A solution of potassium dichromate is added to an acidified solution of iron(II) chloride.
Acid-Base Neutralizations
1. Solutions of ammonia and hydrofluoric acid are mixed.
2. Hydrogen sulfide gas is bubbled through a solution of potassium hydroxide.
3. A solution of sulfuric acid is added to a solution of barium hydroxide until the same number
moles of each compound has been added.
4. A solution of sodium hydroxide is added to a solution of sodium dihydrogen phosphate until
same number of moles of each compound has been added.
5. Dilute nitric acid is added to crystals of pure calcium oxide.
6. Equal volumes of 0.1-molar sulfuric acid and 0.1-molar potassium hydroxide are mixed.
7. A solution of ammonia is added to a dilute solution of acetic acid.
8. Excess sulfur dioxide gas is bubbled through a dilute solution of potassium hydroxide.
9. Sulfur dioxide gas is bubbled into an excess of a saturated solution of calcium hydroxide.
10. A solution of sodium hydroxide is added to a solution of calcium hydrogen carbonate until
the number of moles of sodium hydroxide added is twice the number of moles of the
calcium salt.
11. Equal volumes of 0.1M hydrochloric acid and 0.1M sodium monohydrogen phosphate are
mixed.
12. Hydrogen sulfide gas is bubbled through excess potassium hydroxide solution.
13. Ammonia gas and carbon dioxide gas are bubbled into water.
14. Carbon dioxide gas is bubbled through a concentrated solution of sodium hydroxide.
15. Acetic acid solution is added to a solution of sodium hydrogen carbonate.
of
the
16. Excess potassium hydroxide solution is added to a solution of potassium dihydrogen phosphate.
17. Carbon dioxide gas is bubbled through a concentrated solution of potassium hydroxide.
Complex Ions
1. Concentrated (15M) ammonia solution is added in excess to a solution of copper(II) nitrate.
2. An excess of nitric acid solution is added to a solution of tetraaminecopper(II) sulfate.

3. Dilute hydrochloric acid is added to a solution of diamminesilver(I) nitrate.
4. Solid aluminum nitrate is dissolved in water.
5. A suspension of copper(II) hydroxide is treated with an excess of ammonia water.
6. A solution of diamminesilver(I) chloride is treated with dilute nitric acid.
7. An excess of concentrated ammonia solution is added to freshly precipitated copper(II)
hydroxide.
8. Excess dilute nitric acid is added to a solution containing the tetraaminecadmium(II) ion.
9. An excess of ammonia is bubbled through a solution saturated with silver chloride.
10. Solid aluminum oxide is added to a solution of sodium hydroxide.
11. A concentrated solution of ammonia is added to a solution of zinc iodide.
12. An excess of sodium hydroxide solution is added to a solution of aluminum chloride.
13. A concentrated solution of ammonia is added to a solution of copper(II) chloride.
14. Excess concentrated sodium hydroxide solution is added to solid aluminum hydroxide.
15. Excess concentrated ammonia solution is added to a suspension of silver chloride,
16. Pellets of aluminum metal are added to a solution containing an excess of sodium
hydroxide.
17. A suspension of zinc hydroxide is treated with concentrated sodium hydroxide solution.
18. Silver chloride is dissolved in excess ammonia solution.
19. Sodium hydroxide solution is added to a precipitate of aluminum hydroxide in water.
20. A drop of potassium thiocyanate is added to a solution of iron(III) chloride.
21. A concentrated solution of ammonia is added to a suspension of zinc hydroxide.
22. Excess concentrated potassium hydroxide solution is added to a precipitate of zinc
hydroxide.
23. A solution of ammonium thiocyanate is added to a solution of iron(III) chloride.
24. Excess sodium cyanide is added to a solution of silver nitrate.
Addition
1. The gases boron trifluoride and ammonia are mixed.
2. A mixture of solid calcium oxide and solid tetraphosphorus decaoxide is heated.
3. Solid calcium oxide is exposed to a stream of carbon dioxide gas.
4. Solid calcium oxide is heated in the presence of sulfur trioxide gas.
5. Calcium metal is heated strongly in nitrogen gas.
6. Excess chlorine gas is passed over hot iron filings.
7. Powdered magnesium oxide is added to a container of carbon dioxide gas.
8. A piece of lithium metal is dropped into a container of nitrogen gas.
9. Magnesium metal is burned in nitrogen gas.
10. Sulfur dioxide gas is passed over solid calcium oxide.
11. Samples of boron trichloride gas and ammonia gas are mixed.
Decomposition
1. A solution of hydrogen peroxide is heated.
2. Solid magnesium carbonate is heated.
3. A solution of hydrogen peroxide is catalytically decomposed.
4. Solid potassium chlorate is heated in the presence of manganese dioxide as a catalyst.
5. Sodium hydrogen carbonate is dissolved in water.
6. Solid ammonium carbonate is heated.
AP* Gas Law Free Response Questions

1971
2 HCOONa + H2SO4 2 CO + 2 H2O + Na2SO4
A 0.964 gram sample of a mixture of sodium formate and sodium chloride is analyzed by adding sulfuric
acid. The equation for the reaction for sodium formate with sulfuric acid is shown above. The carbon
monoxide formed measures 242 milliliters when collected over water at 752 torr and 22.0C. Calculate
the percentage of sodium formate in the original mixture.
1971
At 20C the vapor pressure of benzene is 75 torr, and the vapor pressure of toluene is 22 torr. Solutions in both
parts of this question are to be considered ideal.
(a) A solution is prepared from 1.0 mole of biphenyl, a nonvolatile solute, and 49.0 moles of benzene. Calculate
the vapor pressure of the solution at 20C.
(b) A second solution is prepared from 3.0 moles of toluene and 1.0 mole of benzene. Determine the vapor
pressure of this solution and the mole fraction of benzene in the vapor.
1972
A 5.00 gram sample of a dry mixture of potassium hydroxide, potassium carbonate, and potassium chloride is
reacted with 0.100 liter of 2.0 molar HCl solution.
(a) A 249 milliliter sample of dry CO2 gas, measured at 22C and 740 torr, is obtained from the reaction. What is
the percentage of potassium carbonate in the mixture?
(b) The excess HCl is found by titration to be chemically equivalent to 86.6 milliliters of 1.50 molar NaOH.
Calculate the percentages of potassium hydroxide and of potassium chloride in the original mixture.
1973
A 6.19 gram sample of PCl5 is placed in an evacuated 2.00 liter flask and is completely vaporized at 252C.
(a) Calculate the pressure in the flask if no chemical reaction were to occur.
(b) Actually at 252C the PCl5 is partially dissociated according to the following equation:
PCl5(g) PCl3(g) + Cl2(g)
The observed pressure is found to be 1.00 atmosphere. In view of this observation, calculate the partial
pressure of PCl5 and PCl3 in the flask at 252C.
1976
When the molecular weight of a volatile liquid is calculated from the weight, volume, temperature, and pressure of
a sample of that liquid when vaporized, the assumption is usually made that the gas behaves ideally. In fact at a
temperature not far above the boiling point of the liquid, the gas is not ideal. Explain how this would affect the
results of the molecular weight determination.
(1) AP is a registered trademark of the College Board. The College Board was not involved in the production of and does not endorse this product. (2) Test Questions
are Copyright 1984-2008 by College Entrance Examination Board, Princeton, NJ. All rights reserved. For face-to-face teaching purposes, classroom teachers are
permitted to reproduce the questions. Web or Mass distribution prohibited.
page 2
1982
(a) From the standpoint of the kinetic-molecular theory, discuss briefly the properties of gas molecules that
cause deviations from ideal behavior.
(b) At 25C and 1 atmosphere pressure, which of the following gases shows the greatest deviation from ideal
behavior? Give two reasons for your choice.
CH4
SO2
O2
H2
(c) Real gases approach ideality at low pressure, high temperature, or both. Explain these observations.
1984
The van der Waals equation of state for one mole of a real gas is as follows:
(P + a/V2)(V - b) = RT
For any given gas, the values of the constants a and b can be determined experimentally. Indicate which physical
properties of a molecule determine the magnitudes of the constants a and b. Which of the two molecules, H2 or H2S,
has the higher value for a and which has the higher value for b? Explain.
One of the van der Waals constants can be correlated with the boiling point of a substance. Specify which
constant and how it is related to the boiling point.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
1986
Three volatile compounds X, Y, and Z each contain element Q. The percent by weight of element Q in each
compound was determined. Some of the data obtained are given below.
Compound Percent by Weight Molecular
of Element Q
Weight
X
64.8%
?
Y
73.0%
104.
Z
59.3%
64.0
The vapor density of compound X at 27 degrees Celsius and 750. mm Hg was determined to be 3.53 grams per liter.
Calculate the molecular weight of compound X.
Determine the mass of element Q contained in 1.00 mole of each of the three compounds.
Calculate the most probable value of the atomic weight of element Q.
Compound Z contains carbon, hydrogen, and element Q. When 1.00 gram of compound Z is oxidized and all of the
carbon and hydrogen are converted to oxides, 1.37 grams of CO2 and 0.281 gram of water are produced. Determine
the most probable molecular formula.
page 3
1990
A mixture of H2(g), O2(g), and 2 millilitres of H2O(l) is present in a 0.500 litre rigid container at 25C. The number
of moles of H2 and the number of moles of O2 are equal. The total pressure is 1,146 millimetres mercury. (The
equilibrium vapor pressure of pure water at 25C is 24 millimetres mercury.)
The mixture is sparked, and H2 and O2 react until one reactant is completely consumed.
(a) Identify the reactant remaining and calculate the number of moles of the reactant remaining.
(b) Calculate the total pressure in the container at the conclusion of the reaction if the final temperature is 90C.
(The equilibrium vapor pressure of water at 90C is 526 millimetres mercury.)
(c) Calculate the number of moles of water present as vapor in the container at 90C.
1993
Observations about real gases can be explained at the molecular level according to the kinetic molecular theory of
gases and ideas about intermolecular forces. Explain how each of the following observations can be interpreted
according to these concepts, including how the observation supports the correctness of these theories.
(a) When a gas-filled balloon is cooled, it shrinks in volume; this occurs no matter what gas is originally placed in
the balloon.
(b) When the balloon described in (a) is cooled further, the volume does not become zero; rather, the gas
becomes a liquid or solid.
(c) When NH3 gas is introduced at one end of a long tube while HCl gas is introduced simultaneously at the other
end, a ring of white ammonium chloride is observed to form in the tube after a few minutes. This ring is closer
to the HCl end of the tube than the NH3 end.
(d) A flag waves in the wind.
1994
A student collected a sample of hydrogen gas by the displacement of water as shown by the diagram above.
The relevant data are given in the following table.
GAS SAMPLE DATA
Volume of sample
90.0 mL
Temperature
25C
Atmospheric Pressure
745 mm Hg
Equilibrium Vapor Pressure
of H2O (25C)
23.8 mm Hg
page 4
(a) Calculate the number of moles of hydrogen gas collected.

(b) Calculate the number of molecules of water vapor in the sample of gas.
(c) Calculate the ratio of the average speed of the hydrogen molecules to the average speed of the water
vapor molecules in the sample.
(d) Which of the two gases, H2 or H2O, deviates more from ideal behavior? Explain your answer.
1995
Propane, C3H8, is a hydrocarbon that is commonly used as fuel for cooking.
(a) Write a balanced equation for the complete combustion of propane gas, which yields CO2(g) and H2O(l).
(b) Calculate the volume of air at 30C and 1.00 atmosphere that is needed to burn completely 10.0 grams of
propane. Assume that air is 21.0 percent O2 by volume.
(c) The heat of combustion of propane is 2,220.1 kJ/mol. Calculate the heat of formation, Hfo, of propane given
that Hfo of H2O(l) = 285.3 kJ/mol and Hfo of CO2(g) = 393.5 kJ/mol.
(d) Assuming that all of the heat evolved in burning 30.0 grams of propane is transferred to 8.00 kilograms of
water (specific heat = 4.18 J/g.K), calculate the increase in temperature of water.
1996
Represented above are five identical balloons, each filled to the same volume at 25C and 1.0 atmosphere
pressure with the pure gas indicated.
(a) Which balloon contains the greatest mass of gas? Explain.
(b) Compare the average kinetic energies of the gas molecules in the balloons. Explain.
(c) Which balloon contains the gas that would be expected to deviate most from the behavior of an ideal gas?
Explain.
(d) Twelve hours after being filled, all the balloons have decreased in size. Predict which balloon will be the
smallest. Explain your reasoning.
2002B
A rigid 8.20 L flask contains a mixture of 2.50 moles of H2, 0.500 mole of O2, and sufficient Ar so that
the partial pressure of Ar in the flask is 2.00 atm. The temperature is 127C.
(a) Calculate the total pressure in the flask.
(b) Calculate the mole fraction of H2 in the flask.
(c) Calculate the density (in g L1) of the mixture in the flask.
The mixture in the flask is ignited by a spark, and the reaction represented below occurs until one of the
reactants is entirely consumed.
2 H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(g)
(d) Give the mole fraction of all species present in the flask at the end of the reaction.
AP* Chemistry
GASES
The gaseous state of matter is the simplest and best-understood state of matter. You inhale approximately
8,500 L of air each day. This amounts to about 25 lbs of air. Breathing is a three-step process: inhaling, gas
exchange with the circulatory system, and exhaling. Approximately 80% pressure differences created by your
body allow you to breathe. Nearly the Earths entire atmosphere is made up of only five gases: nitrogen,
oxygen, water vapor, argon, and carbon dioxide.
PROPERTIES OF GASES
Only FOUR quantities are needed to define the state of a gas:
1. the quantity of the gas, n (in moles)
2. the temperature of the gas, T (in KELVINS)
3. the volume of the gas, V (in liters)
4. the pressure of the gas, P (in atmospheres)
A gas uniformly fills any container, is easily compressed & mixes
completely with any other gas.
GAS PRESSURE is a measure of the force that a gas

exerts on its container. Force is the physical quantity
that interferes with inertia. Gravity is the force
responsible for weight.
Force = mass acceleration; (Newtons 2nd Law)
The SI units follow:
N = kg m/s2
Pressure-- Force/ unit area; N/m2; which is the
definition of 1.0 Pascal
Barometer--invented by Evangelista Torricelli in 1643; uses the height of a column of mercury to measure gas
pressure (especially atmospheric P)
1 mm of Hg = 1 torr
1.00 atm = 760.00 mm Hg = 760.00 torr = 29.92 in Hg = 14.7 psi = 101.325 kPa 105 Pa
At sea level all of the above define STANDARD PRESSURE.
The SI unit of pressure is the Pascal (named after Blaise Pascal);
1 Pa = 1 N / m2
The manometera device for measuring the pressure of a gas in a
container. The pressure of the gas is given by h [the difference in
mercury levels] in units of torr (equivalent to mm Hg).
a) Gas pressure = atmospheric pressure h
b) Gas pressure = atmospheric pressure + h
*AP is a registered trademark of the College Board, which was not involved in the production of, and does not endorse, this product.
2014 by Ren McCormick. All rights reserved. Some art copyright Pearson Education Inc. 2014
Exercise 1
Pressure Conversions
The pressure of a gas is measured as 49 torr. Represent this pressure in both atmospheres and Pascals.
Exercise 2
Pressure Comparisons
Rank the following pressures in decreasing order of magnitude (largest first, smallest last): 75 kPa, 300. torr,
0.60 atm and 350. mm Hg.
GAS LAWS: THE EXPERIMENTAL BASIS

BOYLES LAW: Father of Chemistry--the volume of a confined
gas is inversely proportional to the pressure exerted on the gas.
ALL GASES BEHAVE IN THIS MANNER!
Robert Boyle was an Irish chemist. He studied PV relationships

using a J-tube set up in the multi-story entryway of his home.
(Thus his was MUCH larger than the one shown right.)
o P 1/V
o pressure and volume are inversely proportional
o Volume Pressure at constant temperature, the
converse is also true
o for a given quantity of a gas at constant temperature, the product of pressure
and volume is a constant
PV = k
Therefore, V =
k
1
=k
P
P
which is the equation for a straight line of the type y = mx + b,
where m = slope, and b is the y-intercept
In this case, y = V, x = 1/P and b = 0. Check out the plot on the right (b).
The data Boyle originally collected is graphed on (a) above on the right.
P1V1 = P2V2 is the easiest form of Boyles law to memorize
Boyles Law has been tested for over three centuries.

It holds true only at low pressures.
Gases
Exercise 3
Boyles Law I
Sulfur dioxide (SO2), a gas that plays a central role in the formation of acid rain, is found in the exhaust of
automobiles and power plants. Consider a 1.53- L sample of gaseous SO2 at a pressure of 5.6 103 Pa.
If the pressure is changed to 1.5 104 Pa at a constant temperature, what will be the new volume of the gas?
Ideal Gases
At normal conditions such as standard temperature and pressure,
most real gases behave qualitatively like an ideal gas. Many gases
such as nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, noble gases, and some heavier
gases like carbon dioxide can be treated like ideal gases within
reasonable tolerances. Generally, a gas behaves more like an ideal gas
at higher temperature and lower pressure, as the work which is against
intermolecular forces becomes less significant compared with the
particles' kinetic energy, and the size of the molecules becomes less
significant compared to the empty space between them.
An ideal gas is expected to have a constant value of PV, as shown by
the dotted line on the graph pictured above. CO2 shows the largest
change in PV, and this change is actually quite small: PV changes from about 22.39 Latm at 0.25 atm to
22.26 Latm at 1.00 atm. Thus Boyles Law is a good approximation at these relatively low pressures.
So, why does CO2 deviate from ideal behavior the most? It has more electrons, thus is more polarizable, thus
has higher dispersion forces (a type of intermolecular force a.k.a. London dispersion forces or LDFs), therefore
the molecules are more attracted to each other, so carbon dioxide gas deviates from ideal behavior more than
oxygen or carbon dioxide do.
Gases
Exercise 4
Boyles Law II
In a study to see how closely gaseous ammonia obeys Boyles law, several volume measurements were made at
various pressures, using 1.0 mol NH3 gas at a temperature of 0C. Using the results listed below; calculate the
Boyles law constant for NH3 at the various pressures. Calculate the deviation from ideal behavior in each case.
Account for the trend apparent in the data.
Experiment
1
2
3
4
5
6
Pressure (atm)
0.1300
0.2500
0.3000
0.5000
0.7500
1.000
Volume (L)
172.1
89.28
74.35
44.49
29.55
22.08
Exercise 5
Boyles Law III
Next, PLOT the values of PV vs. P for the six experiments in Exercise 4. Extrapolate to determine what
PV equals at a hypothetical 0.00 atm pressure. Compare it to the PV vs. P graph on page 3 of these lecture
notes. What is the value of the y-intercept?
Gases
CHARLESS LAW: If a given quantity of gas is held at a constant pressure, then its volume is directly
proportional to the absolute temperature. Must use KELVINS Why?
Jacques Charles was a French physicist and the first

person to fill a hot air balloon with hydrogen gas
and made the first solo hot air balloon flight!
o V T plot = straight line
o V1T2 = V2T1
o Temperature Volume at constant pressure
o This figure shows the plots of V vs. T (Celsius) for
several gases. The solid lines represent
experimental measurements on gases.
The dashed lines represent extrapolation of the
data into regions where these gases would become
liquids or solids. Note that the samples of the
various gases contain different numbers of moles.
o What is the temperature when the volume
extrapolates to zero? Sound familiar?
Exercise 6
Charless Law
A sample of gas at 15C and 1 atm has a volume of 2.58 L. What volume will this gas occupy at 38C and
1 atm?
Each of the balloons below contains the same number of particles in the gas phase. This is yet another example
of heat em up and speed em up!. As the molecules warm, they gain kinetic energy, move faster, and thus
collide with the walls of their container with more energy. (Umph! If you prefer) In this case, the walls of the
container are made of rubber which can expand and contract.
Gases
GAY-LUSSACS LAW of combining volumes: volumes of gases always combine with one another in the
ratio of small whole numbers, as long as volumes are measured at the same T and P.
-
P1T2 = P2T1
Avogadros hypothesis: equal volumes of gases under the same conditions of temperature and pressure
contain equal numbers of molecules.
These balloons each hold 1.0 L of gas at 25C

and 1 atm. Each balloon contains 0.041 mol
of gas, or 2.5 1022 gas molecules.
AVOGADROS LAW: The volume of a gas, at a given temperature and pressure, is directly proportional to
the quantity of gas.
Vn
n Volume at constant T & P
HERES AN EASY WAY TO MEMORIZE ALL OF THIS!
Start with the combined gas law:
P1V1T2 = P2V2T1
Memorize just this use a simple pattern to figure the rest out:
Place the scientist names in alphabetical order.

Boyles Law uses the first 2 variables, Charles Law the second 2 variables & Gay-Lussacs Law the
remaining combination of variables.
Whichever variable doesnt appear in the formula is being held CONSTANT!
Exercise 7
Avogadros Law
Suppose we have a 12.2-L sample containing 0.50 mol oxygen gas (O2) at a pressure of 1 atm and a temperature
of 25C. If all this O2 were converted to ozone (O3) at the same temperature and pressure, what would be the
volume of the ozone?
Gases
THE IDEAL GAS LAW

Four quantities describe the state of a gas: pressure, volume, temperature, and # of moles (quantity).
Combine all 3 laws:
V nT
P
Replace the with a constant, R, and you get:
PV = nRT
The ideal gas law is an equation of state.

R = 0.8206 L atm/mol K also expressed as
0.8206 L atm mol1 K1
Useful only at low Pressures and high temperatures!
Guaranteed points on the AP Exam!
These next exercises can all be solved with the ideal gas law, BUT, you can use another if you like!
Exercise 8
Ideal Gas Law I
A sample of hydrogen gas (H2) has a volume of 8.56 L at a temperature of 0C and a pressure of
1.5 atm. Calculate the moles of H2 molecules present in this gas sample.
Exercise 9
Ideal Gas Law II
Suppose we have a sample of ammonia gas with a volume of 3.5 L at a pressure of 1.68 atm. The gas is
compressed to a volume of 1.35 L at a constant temperature. Use the ideal gas law to calculate the final
pressure.
Exercise 10
Ideal Gas Law III
A sample of methane gas that has a volume of 3.8 L at 5C is heated to 86C at constant pressure. Calculate its
new volume.
Gases
Exercise 11
Ideal Gas Law IV
A sample of diborane gas (B2H6), a substance that bursts into flame when exposed to air, has a pressure of
345 torr at a temperature of -15C and a volume of 3.48 L. If conditions are changed so that the temperature
is 36C and the pressure is 468 torr, what will be the volume of the sample?
Exercise 12
Ideal Gas Law V
A sample containing 0.35 mol argon gas at a temperature of 13C and a pressure of 568 torr is heated to 56C
and a pressure of 897 torr. Calculate the change in volume that occurs.
GAS STOICHIOMETRY
Use PV = nRT to solve for the volume of one mole of gas at STP:
Look familiar? This is the molar volume of a gas at STP. Work stoichiometry problems using your favorite
method, dimensional analysis, mole map, the table wayjust work FAST! Use the ideal gas law to convert
quantities that are NOT at STP.
Exercise 13
Gas Stoichiometry I
A sample of nitrogen gas has a volume of 1.75 L at STP. How many moles of N2 are present?
Gases
Exercise 14
Gas Stoichiometry II
Quicklime (CaO) is produced by the thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). Calculate the
volume of CO2 at STP produced from the decomposition of 152 g CaCO3 by the reaction
CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)
Exercise 15
Gas Stoichiometry III
A sample of methane gas having a volume of 2.80 L at 25C and 1.65 atm was mixed with a sample of oxygen
gas having a volume of 35.0 L at 31C and 1.25 atm. The mixture was then ignited to form carbon dioxide and
water. Calculate the volume of CO2 formed at a pressure of 2.50 atm and a temperature of 125C.
Gases
THE DENSITY OF GASES
d = m = P(MM) {for ONE mole of gas}= MM

V
RT
22.4 L
AND
Molar Mass = MM = dRT

P
Molecular Mass kitty catall good cats put dirt [dRT] over their pee [P]. Corny? Yep! Crude and socially
unacceptable? You bet! But youll thank me later when youre flying through such gas law problems.
Just remember that densities of gases are reported in g/L NOT g/mL.
What is the approximate molar mass of air expressed in g/L?
List 3 gases that float in air:
List 3 gases that sink in air:
Exercise 16
Gas Density/Molar Mass
The density of a gas was measured at 1.50 atm and 27C and found to be 1.95 g/L. Calculate the molar mass of
the gas.
GAS MIXTURES AND PARTIAL PRESSURES

The pressure of a mixture of gases is the sum of the pressures of the different components of the
mixture:
Ptotal = P1 + P2 + . . . Pn
John Daltons Law of Partial Pressures also uses the concept of mole fraction,
A =
so now,
moles of A
.
moles A + moles B + moles C + . . .
PA = A Ptotal
The partial pressure of each gas in a mixture of gases in a container depends on the number of
moles of that gas. The total pressure is the SUM of the partial pressures and depends on the
total moles of gas particles present, no matter what they are!
Gases
10
Exercise 17
Daltons Law I
Mixtures of helium and oxygen are used in scuba diving tanks to help prevent the bends. For a particular dive,
46 L He at 25C and 1.0 atm and 12 L O2 at 25C and 1.0 atm were pumped into a tank with a volume of 5.0 L.
Calculate the partial pressure of each gas and the total pressure in the tank at 25C.
Exercise 18
Daltons Law II
The partial pressure of oxygen was observed to be 156 torr in air with a total atmospheric pressure of 743 torr.
Calculate the mole fraction of O2 present.
Exercise 19
Daltons Law III
The mole fraction of nitrogen in the air is 0.7808. Calculate the partial pressure of N2 in air when the
atmospheric pressure is 760. torr.
WATER DISPLACEMENT
It is common to collect a gas in the laboratory by water
displacement. The confounding factor is that some of the
pressure in the collection vessel is due to water vapor
collected as the gas was passing through!
You must correct for this in order to report the P of dry
gas.
How? You simply look up the partial pressure due to water
vapor at a given temperature and subtract that value from
the total pressure.
The experiment pictured is a classic! You may have done it
with Mg rather than zinc and used a eudiometer or inverted
and sealed buret to measure the volume of the gas collected
over water.
Gases
11
Exercise 20
Gas Collection over Water
A sample of solid potassium chlorate (KClO3) was heated

in a test tube (see the figure above) and decomposed by the
following reaction:
2 KClO3(s) 2 KCl(s) + 3 O2(g)
The oxygen produced was collected by displacement of
water at 22C at a total pressure of 754 torr. The volume
of the gas collected was 0.650 L, and the vapor pressure
of water at 22C is 21 torr. Calculate the partial pressure
of O2 in the gas collected and the mass of KClO3 in the
sample that was decomposed.
KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY OF GASES

Assumptions of the MODEL:
1.
2.
3.
4.
All particles are in constant, random, motion.

All collisions between particles are perfectly elastic.
The volume of the particles in a gas is negligible
The average kinetic energy of the molecules is its Kelvin temperature.
This theory neglects any intermolecular forces as well. And it is important to note that gases expand to fill their
container, solids/liquids do not. And that gases are compressible; solids/liquids are not appreciably
compressible.
Gases
12
This helps explain Boyles Law:

If the volume is decreased that means that the gas particles will hit the
wall more often, thus increasing pressure
1
P = (nRT )
V
Constant
And also helps explain Charles Law
When a gas is heated, the speeds of its particles increase and thus hit
the walls more often and with more force. The only way to keep the P
constant is to increase the volume of the container.
nR
V = T
P
Constant
Yep, you guessed it! It also helps explain Gay-Lussacs Law
When the temperature of a gas increases, the speeds of its particles
increase, the particles are hitting the wall with greater force and greater
frequency. Since the volume remains the same this would result in
increased gas pressure.
nR
P = T
V
Constant
And it even helps explain Avogadros Law
An increase in the number of particles at the same temperature
would cause the pressure to increase if the volume were held
constant. The only way to keep constant P is to vary the V.
RT
V =
n
P
Constant
What about Daltons Law? The P exerted by a mixture of gases is the SUM of the partial pressures since gas
particles are acting independent of each other and the volumes of the individual particles DO NOT matter.
Gases
13
DISTRIBUTION OF MOLECULAR SPEEDS

Plot # of gas molecules having various speeds vs. the speed and you get a curve. Changing the temperature
affects the shape of the curve NOT the area beneath it. Change the # of molecules and all bets are off!
Maxwells equation:
3RT
MM
Use the energy R or 8.314510 J/K mol for this equation since kinetic energy is involved.
=
u 2 u=
rms
Exercise 21
Root Mean Square Velocity
Calculate the root mean square velocity for the atoms in a sample of helium gas at 25C.
If we could monitor the path of a single molecule it would be very erratic.

Mean free paththe average distance a particle travels between collisions.
Its on the order of a tenth of a micrometer. WAAAAY SMALL!
Examine the effect of temperature on the numbers of molecules with a given
velocity as it relates to temperature.
HEAT EM UP, SPEED EM UP!!
Drop a vertical line from the peak of each of the
three bell shaped curvesthat point on the x-axis
represents the AVERAGE velocity of the sample
at that temperature. Note how the bells are
squashed as the temperature increases. You
may see graphs like this on the AP exam where
you have to identify the highest temperature based
on the shape of the graph!
GRAHAMS LAW OF DIFFUSION AND EFFUSION

Effusion is closely related to diffusion. Diffusion is the term used to describe the
mixing of gases. The rate of diffusion is the rate of the mixing.
Effusion is the term used to describe the passage of a gas through a tiny orifice
into an evacuated chamber as shown on the right.
The rate of effusion measures the speed at which the gas is transferred into the
chamber.
Gases
14
The rates of effusion of two gases are inversely proportional to the square roots of their molar masses at the
same temperature and pressure.
Rate of effusion of gas 1
=
Rate of effusion of gas 2
MM 2
MM 1
REMEMBER rate is a change in a quantity over time, NOT just the time!
Exercise 22
Effusion Rates
Calculate the ratio of the effusion rates of hydrogen gas (H2) and uranium hexafluoride (UF6), a gas used in the
enrichment process to produce fuel for nuclear reactors.
Exercise 23
A pure sample of methane is found to effuse through a porous barrier in 1.50 minutes. Under the same
conditions, an equal number of molecules of an unknown gas effuses through the barrier in 4.73 minutes.
What is the molar mass of the unknown gas?
Diffusion
This is a classic! https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GRcZNCA9DxE (animation) Effusion of a Gas:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0uBK7VxT00E
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o7C4lo5n0zU (actual, but not great)
Distance traveled by NH3 = urmsfor NH3 =

Distance traveled by HCl
urms for HCl
Gases
MM HCl
=
MM NH3
36.5
= 1.5
17
15
The observed ratio is LESS than a 1.5 distance ratiowhy?

This diffusion is slow despite considering the molecular velocities are 450 and 660 meters per secondwhich
one is which?
This tube contains air and all those collisions slow the process down in the real world. Speaking of real
world.
REAL, thus NONIDEAL GASES
Most gases behave ideally until you reach high pressure and low temperature. (By the way, either of these can
cause a gas to liquefy, go figure!)
van der Waals Equation--corrects for negligible volume of molecules and accounts for inelastic collisions
leading to intermolecular forces (his real claim to fame).
[ P + a(
n 2
) ][V bn] = nRT
V
The coefficients a and b are van der Waals constants; no need to work problems, its the concepts that are
important! Notice pressure is increased (intermolecular forces lower real pressure, youre correcting for this)
and volume is decreased (corrects the container to a smaller free volume).
These graphs are classics and make great multiple choice questions on the AP exam.
When PV/nRT = 1.0, the gas is ideal

All of these are at 200K.
Note the Ps where the curves
cross the dashed line [ideality].
This graph is just for nitrogen gas.

Note that although nonideal behavior
is evident at each temperature, the
deviations are smaller at the higher Ts.
Dont underestimate the power of understanding these graphs. We love to ask question comparing the behavior
of ideal and real gases. Its not likely youll be asked an entire free-response gas problem on the real exam in
May. Gas Laws are tested extensively in the multiple choice since its easy to write questions involving them!
You will most likely see PV = nRT as one part of a problem in the free-response, just not a whole problem!
GO FORTH AND RACK UP THOSE MULTIPLE CHOICE POINTS!!
Gases
16
And, just for fun:

Collapsing Can: http://www.graspr.com/videos/The-Collapsing-Can-1
Shall we try a bigger can? http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Uy-SN5j1ogk&NR=1
How about the biggest can we can find? http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E_hci9vrvfw
Boiling water with ice: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zzVtbvVS2lQ
Cooling gases with liquid nitrogen MIT: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZvrJgGhnmJo
Getting a boiled egg into a bottle: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xZdfcRiDs8I&NR=1&feature=fvwp
Gravity has nothing to do with it! http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BofIBaYk5e0&feature=related
Getting egg OUT of bottle! http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x--4l-SL77Y&feature=related
Peeps in a vacuum: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lfNJJEdKgLU&NR=1
and another: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ciPr4Tg9k78&feature=related
Ideal Gas Law: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mytvt0wlZK8&feature=related
Diffusion of ammonia and HCl (animation): http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L41KhBPBymA&feature=related
Diffusion of ammonia and HCl (real deal): http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WAJAslkwolk&feature=related
Putting it all together:
http://www.mhhe.com/physsci/chemistry/animations/chang_7e_esp/gam2s2_6.swf
Why R as in PV = nRT?
This is the kind of stuff that drives me crazy as well! I went in search of the answer some time
ago, so I'll share what I found:
As usual, the answer relates to a history lesson. It was Clausius in the mid 1800s that refined
the conversion factor for converting degrees Celsius to Kelvins (from adding 267 to adding 273
to the Celsius temperature. He did so using the careful experimental data of another French
scientist, Regnault.
Clausius also noted that Regnaults data indicated that the farther the temperature and pressure
conditions were from the condensation point of the gas, the more correctly the Ideal Gas Law
applies. So, there is speculation that the constant was assigned the letter R to honor
Regnaults work.
In the spirit of giving credit where credit is due, my source was a Journal of Chem. Ed article
written by William B. Jensen Department of Chemistry, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati,
OH 45221-0172
Gases
17

Chem 1

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AP Chemistry Equations & Constants

Plancks constant, h = 6.626 1034 J s

Kw = [H+][OH] = 1.0 1014 at 25C

pKa = logKa , pKb = logKb

GASES, LIQUIDS, AND SOLUTIONS

Molarity, M = moles of solute per liter of solution

Gas constant, R = 8.314 J mol - 1 K - 1

Special Thanks to Stephen Bosley (Boser)

3 Periodic Table of Elements

4 Poly Atomic Naming

5 Common Units, Constants and Charges

16 Ionization and Affinity

20 Lattice Energies of Ionic Solids

21 Bond Lengths of Covalent Bonds

28 Acidic and Basic Redox

30 Chemical Kinetics and Rate Laws

34 ICE ICE (Baby)

35 Acids and Bases

36 Equilibrium of Saturated, Soluable Salts

39 Balancing Redox Reactions

Nitrates N O31 - All nitrates are soluble

Periodic Table of Elements

Poly Atomic Naming

Common Units, Constants and Charges

e charge = 1.602 1019 coulombs

Angstroms (A) = 1010 meters

. Charge to Mass ratio: 1.76 108 Coulombs/Gram (Charge of e /mass)

Found charge and mass of e

Discovered 3 types of radiation (Decay Particles)

Smallest atomic number comes first

Per...ate Per...ic acid

When two or more chemicals react to form one product

When one chemical decomposes into 2 or more

Metal Carbonate Metal Oxide + CO2

. CaCO3 CaO + CO2

Metal Hydroxide Metal Oxide + H2 O

Metal Nonmetal Metal + Nonmetal (diatomic in nature)

Metal Chlorates Metal Chlorides + O2

Special Binary Salt Splits

These binary salts split into different elements

When an object is heated it will emmit radiant energy

Energy Level Formula

Energy Change during Level Jumps

1. Principle Quantum number - (n)

Quantum Value Table

Chromium has 6 half-filled orbitals

total # of orbitals in shell

Nuclear Chemistry involves changes in the nucleus of an atom.

When a big nucleus ejects a He+2 size chunk of itself.

When a positively charged nucleus emits its p+ leaving only the n .

If (p+ ) and (n ) even likely stable

The time it takes

the amount of a substance to decay.

How much of the original nuclide remains after 45 years?

Ionization and Affinity

Metal Oxides = Basic

When 2 or more atoms are strongly attached (attracted) to each other.

These forces act inside an atom or molecule:

Gain/lose e s (strong metal + strong nonmetal)

Share e s (weak metal or nonmetal + nonmetal)

There are two models that explain metallic bonding:

These forces act between molecules:

London Dispersion/Van der Waals