CHEVRON DRILLING FLUIDS MANUAL

SECTION VII

PNEUMATIC DRILLING FLUIDS

Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction ..................................................................................... 2-7-2
2.0

Dry-Gas Drilling Fluids ............................................................... 2-7-3

2.1
Air ................................................................................ 2-7-4
2.2
Natural Gas ................................................................... 2-7-5

3.0

Mist Drilling Fluids ..................................................................... 2-7-6

4.0

Foam Drilling Fluids ................................................................... 2-7-6

4.1
Stiff Foam ..................................................................... 2-7-7
4.2
Stable Foam ................................................................. 2-7-8

5.0

Gasified (Aerated) Mud Drilling Fluids ......................................... 2-7-9

5.1
Air Application ............................................................... 2-7-9
5.2
Nitrogen Application .................................................... 2-7-11

6.0

Advantages/Disadvantages of Pneumatic Drilling Fluids ............. 2-7-13

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CHEVRON DRILLING FLUIDS MANUAL

SECTION VII

1.0

PNEUMATIC DRILLING FLUIDS

INTRODUCTION

Pneumatic drilling fluids are used to drill in areas where loss of circulation and low reservoir pressures
restrict the use of conventional drilling fluids. Pneumatic fluids also find application to minimize
formation damage caused by: 1) invasion of mud filtrate and solid particulates into reservoir pore
spaces, 2) flushing of hydrocarbons, 3) hydration of clays within the reservoir, 4) emulsion blocking,
or 5) formation of chemical precipitates within the reservoir. These damage problems are all caused
by having a large overbalance of pressure resulting from a high hydrostatic pressure of the mud
column and from chemical incompatibility between the invading filtrate and the reservoir fluid. Cause
of damage is eliminated, or at least diminished, by reducing the hydrostatic pressure of the drilling
fluid column and by selecting a fluid that will not hydrate clays and will not form precipitates in the
pore space.
Major equipment components which are required for pneumatic drilling, but not required for
conventional mud drilling, are: gas/air compressor and boosters, a rotating head, chemical injection
pumps (for foaming agents and corrosion inhibitors), and foam generator units. In some cases other
equipment may be needed. Of the required components, the gas/air compressor is by far the most
important and costly. The entire drilling system design depends upon the capability and efficiency
of the compressors.
The ratio of final pressure to initial pressure controls the number of compression stages that is
required. The number of stages of compression bears directly on the total drilling cost. Type and
number of compressors required to handle each specific pneumatic drilling operation must be well
thought out in advance. Calculation of the compression ratio and ratio of discharge pressure to
intake pressure is the first step in deciding on the number of compression stages. The compression
ratio in a single stage should not exceed four because the temperature of the discharge air will be
too high. Cylinder temperatures above 300-400F will cause mechanical lubrication problems and
metal fatigue. Large capacity, high-efficiency, radiator-type coolers are required in order to reduce
the air temperature between each stage of compression. Elevation and maximum air temperature
at the drillsite must be considered because compressor efficiency decreases with increasing
temperature and elevation.
Pneumatic drilling fluids may require one or more of three basic chemicals, but simple air drilling
may not need any of these:
Surfactants, as detergents or foaming agents
Corrosion Inhibitors
Drying Agents
Surfactants as Detergents and Foaming Agents - Anionic or nonionic surface active agents
(surfactants) are injected into the inlet air stream when formation water is encountered. These
foaming agents also help clean the hole and keep the bit and drill string free of sticky solids.
Surfactants prevent the cuttings from sticking together and from forming mud rings which can plug
off the annulus.

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CHEVRON DRILLING FLUIDS MANUAL

Surfactants may also be added to the air stream or they may be added along with varying amounts
of water to generate foam, as required by hole conditions. When water influx is minor, surfactants
may be added in slugs down the drill pipe on connections. The surfactant (foaming agent) builds
a homogeneous mixture that has ample consistency to bring out the water and cuttings, thereby
cleaning the hole. The amounts of injection water and foaming agent used will vary according to the
hole size, formation characteristics, available air, and quality and quantity of water/oil influx.
Corrosion Inhibitors - Corrosion during pneumatic drilling can be disastrousunless the drill string
is properly protected by corrosion inhibitors and scavengers. Oxygen, carbon dioxide and hydrogen
sulfide in the presence of water are extremely corrosive in pneumatic drilling. The rate of corrosion
can be minimized depending on the type of pneumatic fluid being used, by: 1) maintaining a high
pH (10 or above) with NaOH or KOH if water is being injected, or 2) injecting corrosion inhibitors into
the gas or air. Sulfide scavengers such as zinc carbonate, zinc oxide or zinc chelate are used to
react with hydrogen sulfide to form inert zinc sulfide. Water-soluble and/or coating-type corrosion
inhibitors (such as filming amines or phosphonates) should also be added to the fluid in order to
further protect the steel components which are exposed to the circulating fluid.
Drying Agents - A wellbore which contains only a minor amount of water may be dried simply by
discontinuing drilling and circulating air for a short time. Another method, which may prove to be
more economical, is to add slug treatments of drying agents such as CMC or silicate powders.
These additives require the use of a dry chemical injector.
When deciding if a pneumatic drilling fluid is applicable, one must consider pore pressures, rock
types, porosity and permeability, reservoir fluids, economics, and location. Types of pneumatic
drilling fluids discussed in this section are:

2.0

Dry Gas (air or natural gas)

Mist
Foam
Gasified (Aerated) Mud

Dry Gas Drilling Fluids

Applications for dry-gas drilling are hard formations where water or oil flows are not likely to be
encountered and areas where drill water is scarce. Dry-gas drilling (also called dusting) uses
compressed air or natural gas to cool and to lubricate the bit, to remove the cuttings from around
the bit and to carry them to the surface. Dry gas is injected down the drill pipe while drilling and
the cuttings are returned to the surface as fine particles. The returns are vented away from the rig
in order to minimize the noise and dust. Cuttings are caught by a specially designed screen at the
end of the blooey line.
In dry-gas drilling operations, the bottomhole pressure consists of the weight of the gas column, plus
the annular pressure losses, plus the blooey-line pressure losses. The sum of these pressures will
usually be far less than the formation pressure. Thus, the rate of penetration can be very rapid due
to the low hydrostatic pressure. Chip-hold-down is also eliminated, making cuttings release from
the bottom of the hole much more efficient. Overall, dry-gas drilling offers economic advantages in
high ROP and lower operational costs per foot of hole, compared to mud drilling.
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CHEVRON DRILLING FLUIDS MANUAL

Dry-gas drilling operations require special and careful planning. Gas compressibility is a significant
engineering consideration during both planning and drilling phases. Other equally important
considerations are annular velocity requirements and logging suite selections. Fluid annular
velocity, rather than fluid rheology, is the primary factor for cuttings transport when drilling with dry
gas. The annular velocity necessary to lift cuttings determines the volume of gas that must be
circulated. These annular velocities are such that turbulent flow always exists. To lift 3/8" to 1/2"
cuttings, as a general rule, an annular velocity of about 3000 ft/minute is required. Although most
air- or gas-drilled cuttings are quite small (dust particle size) when they reach the surface, they are
larger when they leave the bottom of the hole. The milling action of the drill string, impact with other
cuttings, and regrinding of large particles at the bit are responsible for pulverizing them.
Logging is another factor to consider when drilling with dry gas. Wellbores containing no fluid other
than air or gas can be surveyed only with devices that need no liquid to establish contact with the
formation. The Induction Log is the only tool which can measure formation resistivities in such holes.
The Gamma Ray Log can distinguish shales from non-shales. The Gamma-Gamma Density Log
shows porosity even in gas-bearing zones where the Neutron Log indicates low apparent porosity.
If both Gamma Ray and Gamma-Gamma Density Logs are run, the percent gas saturation may be
computed in clean formations. In flowing gas wells, the Temperature Log detects the producing
zones by showing the cooling effects of the gas as it expands into the hole. Also, in multiple-zone
production, the Temperature Log indicates the relative volumes of gas coming from each zone. The
Noise Log may be used to record zones of liquid or gas influx as well as zones of severe loss. A
relative amplitude log is recorded and the noise may be monitored at the surface.
Water-bearing formations are the greatest limiting factor to air or gas drilling. Small amounts of water
can be tolerated by adding drying agents such as CMC to the dry gas to absorb the water. However,
if the cuttings become too moist they will stick together to form mud rings which can block the
annulus. If this occurs, loss of circulation, stuck pipe, or even a downhole fire may result.
2.1 Air - Air drilling is commonly used in areas where loss of circulation with liquid type muds is
a major problem. Air is also used to drill hard, extremely low permeability rock or formations. When
drilling gas-bearing formations the risk of downhole fires can be high. The chance of a downhole fire,
when gas is present, is increased if the annulus becomes restricted, thus increasing the pressure
below the obstruction. Mud rings can cause this type of problem. The standpipe pressure must be
continually monitored in order to detect and prevent an excess pressure build-up. Even an increase
in pressure of about 15 psi can cause combustion to occur. Several downhole tools have been
designed to help combat fire hazards. The Fire Float and Fire Stop are two of these tools. The Fire
Float is installed above the bit as a near-bit protector. Under normal conditions it allows flow of air
while drilling, but does not allow back flow of air. If the heat-sensitive ring is melted away by a
downhole fire, a sleeve falls and stops air flow in either direction. A Fire Stop unit should be located
at the top and midway in the drill collar assembly. It consists of a simple flap retained by a heatsensitive zinc band. When the melt temperature of the zinc band is exceeded, the flap closes and
air flow is halted. A quick rise in pressure at the surface is noted which alerts the crew to the
likelihood of a fire.
Volume and pressure requirements must be considered when selecting equipment for an air drilling
program. Surface pressure is determined by the total system pressure losses. Atmospheric
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CHEVRON DRILLING FLUIDS MANUAL

Table 1
Hole Depth and Volume Required CFM
Hole
Size

Stem
Size

1000'

2000'

4000'

6000'

8000'

10,000'

12,000'

12-1/4

6-3/8
5-1/2
4-1/2

1840
2100
2260

1920
2150
2310

2090
2350
2520

2400
2640
2820

2520
2780
2930

2750
3000
3150

2870
3100
3230

11

6-3/8
5-1/2
4-1/2

1370
1580
1780

1430
1650
1810

1590
1820
1980

1850
2070
2250

1970
2160
2340

2180
2380
2530

2290
2500
2630

9-7/8

5-1/2
5
4-1/2

1180
1300
1350

1240
1360
1410

1400
1490
1540

1640
1710
1771

1730
1800
1850

1890
1990
2050

1970
2100
2150

5
4-1/2
3-1/2

990
1080
1130

1050
1140
1180

1180
1260
1300

1380
1470
1500

1480
1550
1580

1640
1720
1730

1740
1820
1790

8-3/4

5
4-1/2
3-1/2

930
1000
1130

970
1050
1180

1100
1160
1300

1320
1360
1500

1420
1440
1580

1570
1620
1730

1640
1730
1790

7-7/8

4-1/2
3-1/2

760
910

800
950

920
1040

1080
1220

1190
1300

1330
1440

1440
1500

7-3/8

3-1/2

760

790

880

1050

1120

1250

1330

6-3/4

3-1/2

610

630

730

890

980

1080

1140

6-1/4

3-1/2
2-7/8

500
570

520
600

610
680

750
810

800
890

930
990

1000
1070

4-3/4

2-7/8
2-3/8

300
320

340
350

400
400

480
500

560
660

630
640

690
700

FOR GAS DRILLING INCREASE VOLUME 50%

pressure decreases with increasing elevation and temperature and increases with increasing
relative humidity. Equipment requirements for a location which is situated at a high elevation in a
hot and dry climate are considerably different than requirements for one which is in a cold, humid
climate at sea level. Air requirements, based on an average annular velocity of 3000 ft/min, are listed
in Table 1. In addition, as a rule of thumb for compressors there is a 3% loss in efficiency per 1000
feet of elevation.
2.2

Natural Gas

Gas, rather than air, is used as the circulating medium when reservoirs contain appreciable
quantities of gas. Air cannot be used because of the danger of downhole fires. The gas is
compressed in the same manner as air, but the return gas must either be flared or collected to be
put into a pipe line. Recycling of the gas is not recommended because of the abrasive particles in
the used gas which would tend to damage the compressors. Fire and explosion hazards around
the rigsite, due to gas leaks, are a constant danger when drilling with gas.
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CHEVRON DRILLING FLUIDS MANUAL

3.0

Mist Drilling Fluids

Misting may be used after drilling zones which produce more water than can adequately be absorbed
by adding drying agents. In situations where the downhole influx of water is too much for dry-gas
drilling, but too little for mist drilling, it is possible to inject water at the surface to allow mist drilling.
The quantity of water for mist drilling will depend on the hole size, type of formation, rate of
penetration, etc. A high-volume water flow presents a different set of problems. The intrusion of large
volumes of water requires converting to a foam-type fluid and possibly other additives in order to
successfully remove the water.
In mist drilling, air lifts the cuttings, but water wets the hole. Mist drilling requires at least 30% more
air than with dry air or gas and higher injection pressures to adequately clean the hole. Increased
air volume is necessary due to the weight of the heavier fluid-wet column, the higher frictional losses
caused by the wet cuttings adhering to the drill string and the wall of the hole, and the higher slip
velocities of the larger wet cuttings.
Air drilling techniques are used in areas where water-sensitive shales exist. In most cases these
shales do not cause major problems if the air remains dry. However, these shales have a high affinity
for water and may become completely unstable if mist is used. These problems have been
controlled, in some cases, by adding 1 to 5 weight % potassium chloride and/or PHPA (liquid) to
the injection water. Addition of the KCl reduces hydration and softening of shales and thus reduces
hole enlargement. Small amounts (1 quart or less) of liquid PHPA can be added as a slug treatment
down the drill pipe to act as a lubrication agent, reduce torque and drag and also to prevent hydration
and softening of shales. Injection of KCl-water into the air stream creates severe corrosion problems.
Oxygen corrosion can be reduced by raising the pH of the water to the 10-11 range and by adding
a corrosion inhibitor.
4.0

Foam Drilling

Foams can be classified as Foam, Stiff Foamand Stable Foamfor discussion purposes. They
are in many ways similar type drilling fluids.
Foam is differentiated from mistby the fact that foams may contain a blend of water, polymers,
clays, surfactants and corrosion inhibitors. Transition from mist to foam may be necessary when
difficulties are encountered while using dry gas or mist. Some of these problems are hole erosion,
inadequate hole cleaning, loss of returns and water flows. Foam structure provides rheology for lifting
cuttings. Foam quality is the ratio of gas volume to total foam volume. This is the major factor which
affects flow behavior. Apparent viscosity of the foam increases rapidly as the foam quality increases.
Foam quality and foam stability will vary depending on the foaming agent used. The composition
of the injection water and the type of fluids entering the wellbore also affect foam properties. Some
foaming agents are not effective in salty or hard water. Foams are often damaged by presence of
oil. Selection of the right foaming agent can determine the success or failure of a foam drilling
operation.

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CHEVRON DRILLING FLUIDS MANUAL

4.1

Stiff Foam

Stiff Foam is another type of foam classification. It is rheologically more like a mud than ordinary
form. It is a low-density drilling fluid used to drill poorly-consolidated formations in which holestabilizing materials can be included. The stronger foam supports larger cuttings compared to
simple foam. When stiff foam is used, the annular velocity can be from 100 to 200 ft/min for adequate
hole cleaning. Consequently, compressor requirements are much less than for other types of
pneumatic drilling.
Stiff foam is formulated by premixing polymers in water in a mud pit. Sometimes small
concentrations of bentonite are added. The mixture is transferred to the foam tank and the foaming
agent is folded into this mixture with as little agitation as possible. Then, it is injected into the air
stream. Enough air must be injected into the mixture to give 100 to 200 feet/minute annular velocity
near the surface. Air-to-mud ratios range from 100:1 to 300:1. The foam is very stiff, similar to the
consistency of aerosol shaving cream, in order to inhibit air breakout in the annulus. It cannot be
recirculated and must be discarded at the surface by running it through a blow line to a sump or
reserve pit. Stiff foam was introduced by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission for drilling largediameter holes in loosely consolidated formations. The original composition consisted of 10 to 15
lb/bbl of bentonite, 0.2 to 0.5 lb/bbl of guar gum, 1 lb/bbl of soda ash, and 1% by volume foaming
agent. Another relatively inexpensive, and somewhat more effective, formulation is: 12 lb/bbl of
bentonite, 1 lb/bbl of soda ash, 1/2 lb/bbl Hi-Vis CMC, and 1/2 to 1% by volume foaming agent. This
mixture, however, has the disadvantage of being relatively ineffective in the presence of salt water
or oil.
Table 2 lists typical additives, their function and concentration for formulating a stiff foam drilling fluid.

Table 2
STIFF FOAM
Concentration
Additive
Prehydrated Bentonite
Carboxymethylcellulose (CMC)

lb/bbl

Vol. %

Function

10 - 15

Builds Foam Structure

0.5

Foam Stabilizer
Drying Agent

Guar Gum

0.2 - 0.5

Foam Stabilizer

Soda Ash

0.5 - 1.0

Calcium Treating Agent

Caustic Potash

0.55 - 0.5

Corrosion Protection

Foaming Agent

1%

Stabilizes Air in Liquid

Potassium Chloride

3-5%

Filming Amine

0.5%

Caustic Soda/

Shale Stabilizer
Corrosion Protection

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CHEVRON DRILLING FLUIDS MANUAL

4.2

Stable Foam

The difference between Stiff Foam and Stable Foam is the method used to prepare the foam. Stable
Foam was developed by Chevron as a completion and workover fluid. Its distinguishing
characteristic is that it is preformed on the surface in a foam generating unit. Then, it is injected
into the drill pipe. The equipment required for making stable foam is: 1) an air compressor, 2) tanks
for blending water, detergent and additives, 3) detergent solution pump, and 4) the foam generator
and injection manifold.
Stable Foam consists of a detergent, fresh water and gas. Other additives such as viscosifiers,
salts, or corrosion inhibitors may be included in the mixture. To be used effectively as a circulating
medium, stable foam must be preformed. This means it is made before it encounters any solids
and liquids from the wellbore. The foam is circulated only once. Foam systems have characteristics
which make them stable and resistant to wellbore contaminants. Impurities introduced during foam
generation can destabilize the foam.
Foams can be prepared with densities as low as two pounds/cubic foot by carefully controlling
selection and mixing of components. Viscosity can be varied so that high lifting capacities result
when annular velocities equal or exceed 300 feet/minute. (Bottomhole pressure measurements
have indicated actual pressures of 15 psi at 1,000 feet and 50 psi at 2,900 feet while circulating stable
foam.)
Stable foam should have a gas-to-liquid volume ratio in the range of 3 to 50 ft3/gal, depending on
downhole requirements. The water-detergent solution which is mixed with gas to form stable foam
can be prepared using a wide range of organic foaming agents (0.1-1 percent by volume). A
schematic diagram of a stable foam unit is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1
Stable Foam Unit

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CHEVRON DRILLING FLUIDS MANUAL

Table 3 lists typical components, their function and concentration for formulating a preformed stable
foam drilling fluid.

Table 3
STABLE FOAM

Additive
Prehydrated Bentonite

Concentration
lb/bbl
Vol. %
10 - 15

Function
Foam Stabilizer

Polyanionic Cellulose

0.5

Filtration Agent

Sodium Polyacrylate

Filtration Control

Foaming Surfactant

1%

Foaming Agent

Drying Agent

Potassium Chloride
XC Polymer
Filming Amine
Lime

5.0

3-5%

0.25 - 1

Borehole Stabilizer

0.5%

Corrosion Protection

0.25 - 0.5

Corrosion Protection

Foam Stabilizer

Gasified (Aerated) Mud Drilling Fluids

Air or gas can be used to reduce mud density and the resulting hydrostatic pressure of any mud.
Gasified mud may be used for a drilling fluid when downhole drilling conditions prohibit the use of
dry gas, mist or foams. It may also be used when drilling into low pressure reservoirs. Returns are
often lost at a shallow or medium depth while an overpressured zone is being drilled at a greater
depth. Gasification can be beneficial as a way to reduce the hydrostatic pressure of shallow zones
while maintaining adequate hydrostatic pressure at the deeper zone. Two of the most common
gases to reduce the hydrostatic pressure of the mud column are air and nitrogen. Both of these
applications will be briefly discussed in this section.
5.1

Air Application

Due to its compressibility, air in an aerated mud is compressed to very small bubbles as it travels
down the drill pipe and through the bit. As the air in the mud travels up the annulus toward the surface,
the air bubbles slowly expand due to the decreasing hydrostatic pressures, which in turn increase
the air-volume to mud-volume ratio in the upper portion of the annulus. The rate of air bubble
expansion increases according to the general gas law as the aerated mud approaches the surface.
This increase of air-volume to mud-volume ratio not only decreases the downhole hydrostatic
pressure, but increases the annular velocity of the aerated mud as it approaches the surface. The
nomograph in Figure 2 may be used to estimate air requirements for reducing density of a water mud
by aeration.

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CHEVRON DRILLING FLUIDS MANUAL

Figure 2
Air Requirements for Reducing Density of water muds

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A de-aerator, such as a mud-gas separator, must be used to control high velocity and possible
surging of the returning mud before it goes to the shale shaker. This device will prevent surface mud
losses due to surging and splashing as well as remove a large portion of the air from the mud. The
separator should have an overflow line going to the shaker in case of excessive fluid flow. The balance
of the air will be removed by the degasser prior to reaching the mud pumps.
Control of the mud properties is extremely important when drilling with aerated mud. The density,
solids content, gel strengths, and plastic viscosity must all be controlled at low and constant values.
The yield point will depend on the type of fluid being used, but should be in a proper range with respect
to the plastic viscosity. Yield point control is required in order to allow the air to be removed when
it reaches the surface. Injection pressures will remain low if hydrostatic pressure and system
pressure losses are maintained at low values. As well depth increases, controlling hydrostatic and
system pressure losses becomes more important in order to avoid surpassing the capabilities of
the air equipment. Maintaining a pH above 10 will assist in corrosion control; however, higher pH
could cause polymer precipitation or cuttings dispersion depending on the type of mud being used.
Some common fluids used in aerated drilling are low-solids, non-dispersed muds and salt muds.
Low-solids, non-dispersed (LSND) muds are especially good as aerated drilling muds because they
offer shear thinning properties which give low circulating pressures. Their major drawback is a
tendency to disperse cuttings at high pH, so care must be exercised when selecting additives in
order to prevent dispersion.
Potassium chloride muds are very successful in solving unstable shale problems in air-liquid
circulating systems. Potassium hydroxide should be used for pH control. Fluid loss control may
be obtained by using polyanionic cellulose. The major disadvantage of salt muds is higher corrosion
rate compared to freshwater muds. Removal of entrained air or gas from a salt mud can be difficult.
5.2

Nitrogen Application

Nitrogen can be used to solve loss of circulation in areas which have an abnormally low pressure
gradient. Nitrogen can be injected into the mud system at the standpipe in order to accurately
control annular hydrostatic pressures and thus regain mud returns.
Nitrogen has advantages over other aerated systems because pressure, volume, and temperature
of the gas from a tank of liquid N2 can be better controlled and temperature is lower than air from
a compressor. Temperature is a major factor to be considered while working with an aerated system.
If nitrogen is put into the drill string at a cool temperature, it will expand as the temperature increases.
The amount of expansion, and thus the effective lowering of mud density will be greater. The effective
mud density at various depths is shown in Table 4. Tables available from nitrogen suppliers are
designed for a geothermal gradient of 1.6F per 100 feet of depth.

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Table 4
Effective Mud Density at Various Depths Using Nitrogen
Mud
Density Nitrogen
lb/ gal

scf/bbl

Depth, Feet
1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

8000

9000

9.0

10

7.72

8.16

8.36

8.48

8.56

8.61

8.65

8.68

8.71

9.0

20

6.62

7.19

7.63

7.88

8.05

8.17

8.26

8.33

8.39

9.0

50

3.04

4.58

5.53

6.13

6.55

6.85

7.08

7.26

7.41

10.0

10

8.69

9.15

9.35

9.47

9.55

9.60

9.64

8.68

9.70

10.0

20

7.16

8.15

8.60

8.86

9.03

9.16

9.25

9.32

7.42

10.0

50

3.67

5.41

6.43

7.07

7.50

7.81

8.04

8.23

8.38

11.0

10

9.66

10.13

10.34

10.46

10.54

10.60

10.64

10.67

10.70

11.0

20

8.08

9.11

9.85

9.94

10.02

10.14

10.24

10.31

10.37

11.0

50

4.29

6.25

7.33

7.99

8.44

8.76

9.00

9.19

9.35

Nitrogen is pumped at the required rate directly into the standpipe until a joint of pipe is
drilled down. In order to prevent the mud in the drill pipe from blowing back during
connections, a mud cap (a column of liquid mud) equal to approximately 1000 ft can be
pumped prior to breaking the connection or a string float can be used. The connection can
then be made before the nitrogen can come back up through the mud. A string float may
also be used for this purpose.
Due to the compressibility of nitrogen, the pressure gradient of the mud inside the drillpipe
while circulating is not greatly reduced. For example, a mud pressure gradient of 0.467 psi/
ft, with a pump pressure of 2,000 psi, will only be reduced to 0.440 psi/ft with the addition
of 50 standard cubic feet (scf) of nitrogen per barrel. Only after passing through the bit jets
and coming up the annulus will the nitrogen bubbles expand and lower the pressure gradient
drastically. This can be seen in Table 4 where the density of a 9.0 lb/gal mud is reduced
from 7.41 lb/gal at 9,000 ft to 6.55 lb/gal at 5,000 ft as the pressure is decreased in the
annulus.

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CHEVRON DRILLING FLUIDS MANUAL

6.0 Advantages/Disadvantages of Air Drilling Fluids

There are a number of significant advantages for using air as a drilling fluid. Table 5 lists
some of these advantages as well as some of the disadvantages.

Table 5
DRY GAS VERSUS LIQUID MUDS
Advantages

Disadvantages

Excellent ROP in dry competent formations.

Will not tolerate water.

Low-cost fluid.

Dust and noise problems on location.

Longer bit life.

Excessive erosion near top of hole where

expansion results in high annular velocity.

Minimum damage to water-sensitive pay .

zones.

May cause downhole fire when hydrocarbons are encountered. (Air Drilling)

Little or no fluids disposal problems.

Hole cleaning success difficult to de

termine due to inability to adequately
quantify cuttings removal.

Hydrocarbon identification immediate and

continuous.

Requires experienced rig personnel.

Lost circulation eliminated.

Special (rental) equipment required.

Limited information on reservoir characteristics because cuttings are pulverized.
Disposal of waste gas can be a hazard.
(Gas Drilling)

Table 6 compares Mist and Dry Gas drilling fluids. Mist offers nearly the same advantages as dry
gas versus liquid muds with one exception: it can handle a sizable water volume compared to dry
gas drilling. The Table also lists some of the disadvantages of using mist versus dry gas.

Rev. 1/93
7-13

CHEVRON DRILLING FLUIDS MANUAL

Table 6
MIST VERSUS DRY GAS
Advantages

Disadvantages

Same as dry gas except chemical

additive cost increases.

Requires more air volume.

Handles sizeable water influx.

Corrosive.
More hole enlargement due to water-shale
interaction.

Stiff foam exhibits additional advantages over dry gas or mist drilling fluids. Table 7 lists some of
these advantages as well as some of the disadvantages.
Table 7
FOAM VERSUS MIST OR DRY GAS
Advantages
Wall building capability

Disadvantages
Increased mud and chemical costs.
Loses solids carrying capability when encoun
tering oil, salt water or calcium ion
contamination.

Rev. 1/93
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CHEVRON DRILLING FLUIDS MANUAL

Table 8
STABLE FOAM VERSUS STIFF FOAM
Advantages

Disadvantages

Lost circulation and formation damage

eliminated.

High surfactant costs.

Low compression requirements.

Additive ratios critical.

Good thermal stability.

Specialized equipment required for measuring and regulating liquid and air proportions
and quantities.

Compatible with oil, salt water and calcium

and most formation contaminants.
Can safely absorb considerable volume of
gas into aqueous foam rendering it nonflammable until sumped.
Less hole washout in unconsolidated
formations while drilling.

Rev. 1/93
7-15