Discovering Statistics

by Daniel T. Larose, Ph.D.

Detailed Table of Contents.

(Contents for Chapters 11 15 are preliminary.)

Preface.

Part One: Welcome to the World of Statistics.

Chapter One: Why Should I Study Statistics?

Section 1.1 Welcome to Discovering Statistics

Section 1.2 Data Stories Illustrating The World of Statistics
Chapter One Exercises
Try This in Class! Chapter One In-Class Activities

Chapter Two: The Nature of Statistics

Vista: Where we are coming from, and where we are headed

Chapter Two Objectives
Chapter Two Case Study: Does Friday the 13th Change Human Behavior?
Section 2.1 What is Statistics?
Section 2.1.1 Examples of Statistics
Section 2.1.2 A Statistical Literacy Quiz
Section 2.1 Exercises
Section 2.2 Descriptive Statistics: The Building Blocks of Data Analysis
Section 2.2.1 Elements and Variables
Section 2.2.2 Qualitative and Quantitative Variables
Section 2.2 Exercises
Section 2.3 Inferential Statistics: How Do We Get There From Here?
Section 2.3.1 Populations and Samples
Section 2.3.2 Statistical Inference
Section 2.3.3 Census
Section 2.3 Exercises
Chapter Two Glossary
Try This in Class! Chapter Two In-Class Activities

Chapter Three: Gathering Data

Vista: Where we are coming from, and where we are headed

Chapter Three Objectives
Chapter Three Case Study: How could the experts have been so wrong?
Section 3.1 Sources of Data: Where Can I Find That Information?
Section 3.1.1 Printed Sources
Section 3.1.2 Electronic Sources
Section 3.1 Exercises
Section 3.2 Surveys and Questionnaires: Careful What You Ask For
Section 3.2.1 Selection Bias
Section 3.2.2 Questionnaire Design
Section 3.2 Exercises
Section 3.3 Sampling Methods
Section 3.3.1 What is a Random Sample, and Why Do We Need It?
Section 3.3.2 Further Sampling Methods
Section 3.3 Exercises
Section 3.4 Statistical Studies
Section 3.4.1 Outcomes and Explanations
Section 3.4.2 Experimental Studies
Section 3.4.3 Observational Studies
Section 3.4 Exercises
Chapter Three Glossary
Try This in Class! Chapter Three In-Class Activities

Part Two: Descriptive Statistics.

Chapter Four: Describing Data Graphically

Vista: Where we are coming from, and where we are headed

Chapter Objectives
Chapter Four Case Study: The Caesar Cipher
Section 4.1 Summarizing Qualitative Data
Section 4.1.1 Frequency Distributions
Section 4.1.2 Relative Frequency Distributions
Section 4.1.3 How to Use SPSS to Summarize Qualitative Data
Section 4.1 Exercises
Section 4.2 Summarizing Quantitative Data
Section 4.2.1 Histograms
Section 4.2.2 Using SPSS to Summarize Quantitative Data
Section 4.2.3 Stem-and-Leaf Displays
Section 4.2.4 Symmetry and Skewness
Section 4.2 Exercises
Section 4.3 Summarizing Graphically the Relationship Between Two Variables
Section 4.3.1 Crosstabulations
Section 4.3.2 Scatter Diagrams
Section 4.3.3 Using SPSS to Summarize Graphically the Relationship Between
Two Variables
Section 4.3 Exercises
Chapter Four Glossary
Try This in Class! Chapter Four In-Class Activities

Chapter Five: Describing Data Numerically

Vista: Where we are coming from, and where we are headed

Chapter Five Objectives
Case Study: Bills Introduced in the Early Congresses
Section 5.1 Where is the Middle?
Section 5.1.1 The Mean
Section 5.1.2 The Median
Section 5.1.3 The Mode
Section 5.1.4 The Weighted Mean
Section 5.1 Exercises
Section 5.2 How Spread Out is the Data?
Section 5.2.1 The Range
Section 5.2.2 The Mean Absolute Deviation
Section 5.2.3 The Standard Deviation and Variance
Section 5.2 Exercises
Section 5.3 Applications: How Can I Use These Measures?
Section 5.3.1 Percentile
Section 5.3.2 Z-score
Section 5.3.3 Empirical rule
Section 5.3.4 Chebyshevs Rule
Section 5.3 Exercises
Section 5.4 Robust Measures:
Section 5.4.1 The Quartiles
Section 5.4.2 The Five-Number Summary,
Section 5.4.2 The Box Plot
Section 5.5 Summarizing Numerically the Relationship Between Two Variables
Section 5.5.1 The Correlation Coefficient
Section 5.5.2 Interpreting the Correlation Coefficient
Section 5.5 Exercises
Section 5.6 How to Use SPSS to Summarize Data Numerically
Section 5.6 Exercises
Chapter Five Glossary

Part Three: Probability and Distributions.

Chapter Six: Probability

Vista: Where we are coming from, and where we are headed
Chapter Six Objectives
Chapter Six Case Study: The Monty Hall Problem and Bayes' Rule
Section 6.1 Introducing Probability
Section 6.1.1 The Language of Uncertainty
Section 6.1.2 The Building Blocks of Probability
Section 6.1.3 How to Assign Probabilities to Outcomes
Section 6.1 Exercises
Section 6.2 Events
Section 6.2.1 The Tree Diagram
Section 6.2.2 Counting Rule
Section 6.2.3 How to Assign Probabilities to Events
Section 6.2 Exercises
Section 6.3 Combining Events and their Probabilities
Section 6.3.1 The Complement of an Event
Section 6.3.2 The Union and Intersection of Two Events
Section 6.3.3 The Addition Law
Section 6.3.4 Mutually Exclusive Events
Section 6.3 Exercises
Section 6.4 Conditional Probability
Section 6.4.1 Discovering Conditional Probability
Section 6.4.2 Independent Events
Section 6.4.3 The Multiplication Law
Section 6.4.4 Sampling with Replacement and Sampling without
Replacement
Section 6.4 Exercises
Section 6.5 Bayes' Theorem for Updating Probabilities
Section 6.5.1 Prior Probabilities and Posterior Probabilities
Section 6.5.2 Bayes' Theorem: General Form and Tabular Method
Section 6.5.3 Solving the Monty Hall Problem using Bayes'
Theorem
Section 6.5 Exercises
Chapter Six Glossary
Try This in Class! Chapter Six In-Class Activities

Chapter Seven: Discrete Distributions

Vista: Where we are coming from, and where we are headed
Chapter Seven Objectives
Chapter Seven Case Study: At What Age Do Youngsters Drink their First
Beer?
Section 7.1 Random Variables
Section 7.1.1 Discrete Random Variables
Section 7.1.2 Continuous Random Variables
Section 7.1 Exercises
Section 7.2 Discrete Probability Distributions
Section 7.2.1 Discrete Probability Distribution as a Table
Section 7.2.2 Discrete Probability Distribution as a Graph
Section 7.2 Exercises
Section 7.3 Expectation and Variability
Section 7.3.1 Expected Value of a Discrete Random Variable
Section 7.3.2 Variability of a Discrete Random Variable
Section 7.3 Exercises
Section 7.4 The Binomial Distribution
Section 7.4.1 The Binomial Experiment
Section 7.4.2 The Binomial Probability Formula
Section 7.4.3 The Binomial Table
Section 7.4.4 The Binomial Mean, Variance, and Standard
Deviation
Section 7.4 Exercises
Chapter Seven Glossary
Try This in Class! Chapter Seven In-Class Activities

Chapter Eight: Continuous Distributions

Vista: Where we are coming from, and where we are headed
Chapter Eight Objectives
Chapter Eight Case Study: The Story in Her Eyes
Section 8.1 Continuous Distributions: Don't Count It, Measure It!
Section 8.1.1 Why Continuous?
or, How Much Soda is in Your 12-Ounce Can?
Section 8.1.2 Working with Continuous Probability Distributions,
or What Two Species Live in This Habitat?
Section 8.1 Exercises
Section 8.2 The Normal Probability Distribution: It's Everywhere!
Section 8.2.1 Properties of the Normal Distribution: Beautiful Bell Shaped
Symmetry
Section 8.2.2 Drawing a Picture to Solve the Problem: Get Both Sides of
Your Brain in on It!
Section 8.2 Exercises
Section 8.3 The Standard Normal Distribution: The Keys to the Kingdom
Section 8.3.1 The Standard Normal Random Variable Z:
What's So Special?
Section 8.3.2 Strategies and Techniques for Finding Z
Probabilities: The PlayBook
Section 8.3.3 How to Find Z Values for a Given Area: Now Do It
Backwards!
Section 8.3 Exercises
Section 8.4 Applications of the Normal Distribution
Section 8.4.1 Standardizing: Out of Many, One
Section 8.4.2 Finding Probabilities for Applications of the Normal
Distribution
Section 8.4.3 Finding Normal Data Values for Specified Probabilities
Section 8.4 Exercises
Chapter Eight Glossary
Try This in Class! Chapter Eight In-Class Activities

Part Four: Inferential Statistics for One Population.

Chapter Nine: Sampling Distributions

Section 9.1 Point Estimation

o Section 9.1 Exercises
Section 9.2 Sampling Distributions
o Section 9.2.1 Variability of Sample Statistics
o Section 9.2.2 Sampling Distribution of the Sample Mean
o Section 9.2 Exercises
Section 9.3 The Central Limit Theorem
o Section 9.3 Exercises
Chapter Nine Glossary and Formulas
Try This in Class! Chapter Nine In-Class Activities

Chapter Ten: Confidence Intervals and Sample Size

Section 10.1 Confidence intervals for means, large sample case

o Section 10.1.1 Derivation of the Confidence Interval Formula
o Section 10.1.2 Large Sample Confidence Intervals for when is
known
o Section 10.1.3 Large Sample Confidence Intervals for when is not
known
o Section 10.1.4 Margin of Error
o Section 10.1 Exercises
Section 10.2 Confidence intervals for means, small sample case
o Section 10.2.1 The t Distribution
o Section 10.2.2 The Small Sample Confidence Interval for
o Section 10.2.3 Using Confidence Intervals to Determine Significance
o Section 10.2 Exercises
Section 10.3 Confidence intervals for proportions
o Section 10.3.1 The Sampling Distribution of the Sample Proportion
o Section 10.3.2 The Large Sample Confidence Interval for the Population
Proportion
o Section 10.3 Exercises
Section 10.4 Sample Size Considerations
o Section 10.4.1 Sample Size for Estimating the Population Mean
o Section 10.4.2 Sample Size for Estimating the Population Proportion
o Section 10.4 Exercises
Chapter Ten Glossary and Formulas

Chapter Eleven: Hypothesis Testing

Vista: Where we are coming from, and where we are headed

Chapter Eleven Objectives
Chapter Eleven Case Study
Section 11.1 An Introduction to Hypothesis Testing
Section 11.1 Exercises
Section 11.2 Type I and Type II Errors
Section 11.2 Exercises
Section 11.3 Hypothesis Tests About a Population Mean: Large Sample Case
Section 11.3 Exercises
Section 11.4 Hypothesis Tests About a Population Mean: Small Sample Case
Section 11.4 Exercises
Section 11.5 Hypothesis Tests About a Population Proportion
Section 11.5 Exercises
Chapter Eleven Glossary
Try This in Class! Chapter Eleven In-Class Activities

Chapter Twelve: Two-Sample Inference

Vista: Where we are coming from, and where we are headed

Chapter Twelve Objectives
Chapter Twelve Case Study
Section 12.1 Test for Difference in Means: Large Sample
Section 12.1 Exercises
Section 12.2 Test for Difference in Means: Small Sample
Section 12.2 Exercises
Section 12.3 Paired t-Test
Section 12.3 Exercises
Section 12.4 Test for Difference in Proportions
Section 12.4 Exercises
Chapter Twelve Glossary
Try This in Class! Chapter Twelve In-Class Activities

Chapter Thirteen: Tests for Goodness of Fit and Independence

Vista: Where we are coming from, and where we are headed

Chapter Thirteen Objectives
Chapter Thirteen Case Study
Section 13.1 Goodness of Fit Test for Multinomial Data
Section 13.1 Exercises
Section 13.2 Contingency Tables: Tests of Independence
Section 13.2 Exercises
Section 13.3 Goodness of Fit Test for Normal Data
Section 13.3 Exercises
Chapter Thirteen Glossary
Try This in Class! Chapter Thirteen In-Class Activities

Chapter Fourteen: Analysis of Variance and Experimental Design

Vista: Where we are coming from, and where we are headed

Chapter Fourteen Objectives
Chapter Fourteen Case Study
Section 14.1 Intuitive Introduction to Analysis of Variance
Section 14.1 Exercises
Section 14.2 Nuts and Bolts of Analysis of Variance
Section 14.2 Exercises
Section 14.3 Multiple Comparisons
Section 14.3 Exercises
Section 14.4 Completely Randomized Design
Section 14.4 Exercises
Section 14.5 Randomized Block Design
Section 14.5 Exercises
Section 14.6 Factorial Experiments
Section 14.6 Exercises
Chapter Fourteen Glossary
Try This in Class! Chapter Fourteen In-Class Activities

Chapter Fifteen: Regression and Correlation Analysis

Vista: Where we are coming from, and where we are headed

Chapter Fifteen Objectives
Chapter Fifteen Case Study
Section 15.1 Intuitive Introduction to Regression Analysis
Section 15.1 Exercises
Section 15.2 The Regression Model and Least Squares
Section 15.2 Exercises
Section 15.3 Is the Regression Useful?
Section 15.3 Exercises
Section 15.4 Testing for the Significance of the Regression Model
Section 15.4 Exercises
Section 15.5 Estimation: Confidence Intervals and Prediction Intervals
Section 15.5 Exercises
Section 15.6 Correlation Analysis
Section 15.6 Exercises
Chapter Fifteen Glossary
Try This in Class! Chapter Fifteen In-Class Activities