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Electro Magnetism
Structure
2.1
Introduction
Objectives
2.2
Magnetic Circuit
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
Magnetic Hysteresis
2.7
Self Inductance
2.8
Mutual Inductance
2.9
Coefficient of Coupling
2.13 Summary
2.14 Answers to SAQs
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Electromagnetism describes the relationship between electricity and magnetism. Nearly
everyone, at some time or another, has had the opportunity to play with magnets. Most of
us are acquainted with bar magnets or those thin magnets that usually end up on
refrigerators. These magnets are known as permanent magnets. Although permanent
magnets receive a lot of exposure, we use and depend on electromagnets much more in
our everyday lives. Electromagnetism is essentially the foundation for all of electrical
engineering. We use electromagnets to generate electricity, store memory on our
computers, generate pictures on a television screen, diagnose illnesses, and in just about
every other aspect of our lives that depends on electricity. Electromagnetism is the key to
the operation of a large number of electrical devices used in home as well as industry.
Transformers, motors, generators, circuit breakers and relays are some examples of
widely used electromagnetic devices.
Electromagnetism works on the principle that an electric current through a wire generates
a magnetic field. Whenever electric current flows through a conductor, a magnetic field
is produced in the space surrounding the conductor. This magnetic field is the same force
that makes metal objects stick to permanent magnets. In a bar magnet, the magnetic field
runs from the north to the south pole. In a wire, the magnetic field forms around the wire.
If we wrap that wire around a metal object, we can often magnetize that object. In this
way, we can create an electromagnet.
In this unit, we will discuss about electromagnetism and study the relationship that exists
between electric current and magnetic flux. Magnetic circuit provides path for magnetic
flux and it is the basis of electromagnetism. We shall study about various types of
magnetic circuits which may be series or parallel.
37
Electrical
The way in which electric current magnetizes a magnetic material will be discussed in
magnetization curve or B-H curve. The magnetization curve caused by an increasing
current is not the same when the current decreases and this phenomenon is called
magnetic hysteresis and this will also be discussed.
A current carrying coil has self inductance which is a property by which it can store
energy. The inductance between two coils is called mutual inductance. We shall elaborate
on these with examples. When two coils are coupled together, flux in one coil is linked
with the other. The coefficient of coupling between two coils gives idea about the degree
of this linking. We shall study about it.
When two coils are mutually coupled, their emfs may be aiding or opposing and it is
determined by dot convention which will be illustrated.
Two current carrying coils may be connected in series or parallel. Series and parallel
connection may again be aiding or opposing. We shall study about them in details.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
write the emf equation for a current carrying coil and find the selfinductance,
Now we shall get acquainted with some important terms related to a magnetic circuit.
These are magnetomotive force, magnetic field intensity, flux density, permeability,
reluctance, etc.
Magnetic field is measured in terms of flux which has unit weber (Wb). Flux density
(B) is the flux per unit area, i.e. B = . Magnetomotive Force (m.m.f.) is the force which
A
38
drives flux through a magnetic circuit. Unit of m.m.f. is Ampere Turns (AT) and it is
defined as the product of current and number of turns in a magnetic circuit. So,
Magnetomotive force (m.m.f) = NI AT. Magnetomotive force per unit length of
magnetic flux path is known as magnetic field intensity (H) and it is defined as
H =
NI
AT/m .
l
B = 0 r H =
So,
Electro Magnetism
0 r NI
Wb/m 2
l
. . . (2.1)
=B A=
0 r A NI
Wb
l
NI
Wb
l
0 r A
. . . (2.2)
. . . (2.3)
Reluctance (S)
It is the property of a material which opposes the passage of magnetic flux in it.
Reluctance S =
l
AT/Wb
0 r A
. . . (2.4)
Flux =
=
or,
m.m.f
reluctance
NI
Wb
S
. . . (2.5)
Permeance
It is the reciprocal of reluctance and its unit is AT/Wb.
Example 2.1
A coil is wound uniformly with 300 turns over a steel ring of relative permeability
900, having a mean circumference of 40mm and cross-sectional area of 50 mm2. If
a current of 25A is passed through the coil, find (a) m.m.f, (b) reluctance of the
ring, and (c) flux.
Solution
(a)
(b)
l
40 10 3
=
0 r A 4 10 7 900 50 10 6
Flux =
m.m.f
7500
=
= 10.6 m Wb .
reluctance 0.707 106
39
Electrical
1.6
1.4
Cast Iron
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
2000
4000 6000
8000
H in AT/m
40
Total reluctance =
l
0 r A
Electro Magnetism
l3
l
l1
l2
+
+
+ a
0 r1 A1 0 r 2 A2 0 r 3 A3 0 Ag
. . . (2.6)
Example 2.2
A ring is composed of three sections. The cross-sectional area is 0.001 m2 for each
section. The mean lengths of each section are la = 0.3 m, lb = 0.2m, lc = 0.1 m. An
air-gap length of 0.1 mm is cut in the ring. Relative permeabilities for sections a, b,
c are 5000, 1000 and 10000 respectively. Flux in the air gap is 7.5 10 4 Wb and
the coil has 100 turns. Find (a) Total m.m.f, and (b) exciting current.
Solution
la
0.3
=
= 47746.37 AT/Wb
7
0 ra A 4 10 5000 0.001
lb
0.2
=
= 159154.57 AT/Wb
7
0 rb A 4 10 1000 0.001
lc
0.1
=
= 7957.73 AT/Wb
7
0 rc A 4 10 10000 0.001
Reluctance of air-gap
Sg =
lg
0 A
0.1 10 3
4 10 7 0.001
= 79577.73 AT/Wb
Total Reluctance
S = Sa + Sb + Sc + S g = 294436.4 AT/Wb
(a)
(b)
Exciting Current =
m.m.f
220.83
=
= 2.21 Amp
No. of turns
100
SAQ 1
(a)
A ring has a diameter of 21cm and a cross-sectional area of 10cm2. The ring
is made up of semicircular sections of cast iron and cast steel, with each
joint having an air-gap of 0.2 mm. Find the ampere-turns required to
produce a flux of 8 10 4 Wb. The relative permeabilities of cast iron and
cast steel are 166 and 800 respectively.
(b)
41
Electrical
l1
A
/2
/2
l2
l2
B
Figure 2.5 : Parallel Magnetic Circuit
Example 2.3
For the magnetic circuit shown in Figure 2.6 the flux in the right limb is
0.48 m Wb and the number of turns wound on the central limb is 1000. Calculate
(a) flux in the central limb, and (b) the current required.
The magnetiSation curve for the core is given as below :
H (AT/m)
200
400
500
600
800
1060
1400
B (AT/m)
0.4
0.8
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
Figure 2.6
Solution
0.48 10 3
12 10
= 0.4 Wb/m 2
42
Since the coil is wound on the central limb and the magnetic circuit is symmetrical,
flux in the central limb = 2 0.48 = 0.96 m Wb.
0.96 10 3
= 0.8 Wb/m 2
12 10 4
Electro Magnetism
180
= 0.18 Amp .
1000
SAQ 2
A cast steel magnetic structure made of a bar of cross-section 4 cm2 is shown in
Figure 2.7. Find the current that the 500 turn magnetizing coil on the left limb
should carry so that a flux of 2 mWb is produced in the right limb. Iron has r 600.
Figure 2.7
/2
Airgap
/2
Example 2.4
Figure 2.9 shows an electromagnet made of cast steel has a coil of 500 turns
wound on the central limb. The cross-sectional area of the outer limbs and central
limb are 2.5 cm2 and 6 cm2 respectively. Determine the current that the coil should
carry to produce a flux of 0.6 m Wb in the air-gap. The magnetization curve for
cast steel is as given below :
Flux Density
B (Wb/m2)
0.2
0.5
0.7
1.0
1.2
H (AT/m)
300
540
650
900
1150
43
Electrical
Figure 2.9
Solution
0.6 10 3
6 10
= 1 Wb/m2 .
B 0.6 10 3
=
= 477.46 AT/m
0 4 10 7
768.82
= 1.54 Amp .
500
Current required =
SAQ 3
A magnetic circuit made of wrought iron is shown in Figure 2.10. The central limb
has a cross-sectional area of 8 cm2 and each side of the limb has a cross-sectional
area of 5 cm2. Calculate the ampere turns required to produce a flux of 1 m Wb in
the central limb. The magnetization of wrought iron is given by :
Flux Density (Wb/m2)
1.00
1.25
200
500
C
5cm2
1mm
F
15cm
E
8cm2
44
Figure 2.10
Electro Magnetism
e
or,
di
dt
e=L
di
dt
. . . (2.6)
45
Electrical
In Eq. (2.6), the constant of proportionality L is known as self-inductance of the coil and
its unit is Henry.
According to Faradays law of electromagnetic induction, the induced e.m.f. in a coil
having N turns is given by
e=N
d
dt
. . . (2.7)
di
d
=N
dt
dt
L=N
or,
d
dt
. . . (2.8)
L=N
. . . (2.9)
Ni
=
S
N 0 r A
Ni
=
i
l
l
0 r A
N 0 r A
=
i
l
So,
. . . (2.10)
N 0 r A N 2 A
=
l
l
. . . (2.11)
= 0 r
where
SAQ 4
(a)
A coil of 150 turns is linked with a flux of 0.01 Wb when carrying a current
of 10 A. Calculate the inductance of the coil. If the current is uniformly
reversed in 0.01 sec, calculate the induced e.m.f.
(b)
An iron rod 2 cm in diameter and 20 cm long is bent into a closed ring and
is wound with 3000 turns of wire. It is found that when a current of 0.5 A is
passed through this coil, the flux density in the coil is 0.5 Wb/m2. Assuming
that all the flux is linked with every turn of the coil, find (a) the B/H ratio for
iron, (b) the inductance of the coil, and (c) the voltage that would be
developed across the coil if the current through the coil is interrupted and
the flux in the iron falls to 10% of its former value in 0.001 sec?
46
Two circuits may be coupled magnetically as shown in Figure 2.12. Here coil1 and coil 2
have magnetic coupling in between them. Coil1 has N1 number of turns and coil 2 has N2
Electro Magnetism
r2
Coil 1
N1 Turns
Coil 2
N1 Turns
So,
1 = 11 + 12
. . . (2.12)
The mutual flux 12, which is alternating in nature, produces an induced e.m.f e2 in
coil 2 according to Faradays law of electromagnetism,
e2 = N 2
d 12
dt
. . . (2.13)
e2
or,
di1
dt
e2 = M12
. . . (2.14)
di1
dt
. . . (2.15)
where M12 is the constant of proportionality known as mutual inductance between two
coils. Its unit is Henry (H).
From Eqs. (2.13) and (2.15) we get,
N2
or,
d 12
di
= M12 1
dt
dt
M12 = N 2
d 12
di1
. . . (2.16)
. . . (2.17)
The induced voltage e2 produced in coil 2 causes alternating current i2 to flow in coil 2.
Current i2 produces an alternating flux 2 in coil 2. Out of flux 2, a portion 22
completes its path around the coil. The other portion 21 is linked with coil 1 and it
produces an induced e.m.f given by
N1
d 21
di
= M 21 2
dt
dt
. . . (2.18)
M 21 = N1
d 21
di2
. . . (2.19)
If the flux and current are having a linear relationship which we assume to be true,
Eq. (2.17) and Eq. (2.19) can be written as
M12 = N 2
12
i1
. . . (2.20)
47
Electrical
M 21 = N1
and
21
i2
. . . (2.21)
Assuming that the permeability of the mutual flux path is constant, we have
M 12 = M 21 = M
Example 2.5
(a)
(b)
e=L
(c)
M = N2
1 600 0.5 10 3
=
= 0.15 H
i1
2
di 0.15 (6 0)
=
= 450 V
dt
2 10 3
1 400 0.5 10 3
=
= 0.1 H .
i1
2
L1 = N1
1
i1
. . . (2.22)
L2 = N 2
2
i2
. . . (2.23)
Let 1 be the total flux produced by current i1 in coil 1 and 12 be the part of 1 that is
linked with coil 2.
Let
12 = k1 1
M = N2
12
k
= N2 1 1
i1
i1
. . . (2.24)
Similarly, let 2 be the total flux produced by current i2 in coil 2 and 21 be the part of 2
that is linked with coil1.
Let
21 = k2 2
M = N1
48
21
k
= N1 2 2
i2
i2
. . . (2.25)
M2 =
Electro Magnetism
N N
k1 k2 N1 N 2 1 2
= k1 k2 1 1 2 2 = k1 k2 L1 L2
i1 i2
i1 i2
M = k1 k2
where
k = k1 k2
L1 L2 = k
. . . (2.26)
L1 L2
k=
M
L1 L2
. . . (2.27)
The number of turns in two coupled coils A and B are 600 and 1700 respectively.
When a current of 6 A flows in coil B, the total flux in this coil is 0.8 m Wb and
the flux linking the first coil is 0.5 m Wb. Calculate self inductances of coils A and
B, mutual inductance between the coils and coefficient of coupling.
Solution
k=
2 1700 0.8 10 3
=
= 0.227 H
i2
6
21 0.5 10 3
=
= 0.625
2
0.8 10 3
Self inductance
L=
N2 A
l
L1 =
N12 A
l
L2 =
N 22 A
l
L2 N 22
=
L1 N12
L1 = L2
N12
N 22
= 0.227
(600)2
(1700) 2
= 0.028 H
Mutual Inductance
M =k
SAQ 5
The coefficient of coupling between two coils is 0.75. There are 250 turns in
coil 1. The total flux of coil 1 is 0.4 m Wb when the current in this coil is 3 A.
When current in coil1 is changed from 3 A to zero linearly in 3 milliseconds, the
voltage induced in coil 2 is 70 V. Calculate L1, L2, M and N2.
49
Electrical
M Negative
Self-induced e.m.f e1 = L1
di
dt
. . . (2.28)
di
[due to change of current in coil 2]. . . (2.29)
dt
Coil 2
di
dt
. . . (2.30)
di
[due to change of current in coil 1]. . . (2.31)
dt
Electro Magnetism
Therefore the total induced e.m.f of the series coupled coils can be written as
e = e1 + e2 + e1 + e2
or,
e = L1
di
di
di
di
L2
2M
= ( L1 + L2 + 2M )
dt
dt
dt
dt
. . . (2.32)
e=L
di
dt
. . . (2.33)
di
di
= ( L1 + L2 + 2M )
dt
dt
or,
or,
L = L1 + L2 + 2 M
. . . (2.34)
Self-induced e.m.f e1 = L1
di
dt
. . . (2.35)
di
[due to change of current in coil 2] . . . (2.36)
dt
Coil 2
di
dt
. . . (2.37)
di
[due to change of current in coil 1] . . . (2.38)
dt
Self-induced e.m.f e2 = L2
e = L1
di
di
di
di
L2
+ 2M
= ( L1 + L2 2M )
dt
dt
dt
dt
. . . (2.39)
e=L
di
dt
. . . (2.40)
51
Electrical
di
di
= ( L1 + L2 2M )
dt
dt
L = L1 + L2 2 M
or,
. . . (2.41)
Example 2.7
Two coils with a coefficient of coupling of 0.6 between them are connected in
series so as to magnetize (i) in the same direction, and (ii) in the opposite direction.
The corresponding values of equivalent inductance are obtained as
1.8 H for (i) and 0.8 H for (ii). Find the self inductance of the two coils and the
mutual inductance between them.
Solution
(b)
1.8 = L1+L2 + 2M
. . . (2.42)
0.8 = L1 + L2 2M
. . . (2.43)
M = 0.25 H
L1 + L2 = 1.3
We know,
M =k
L1 L2 =
. . . (2.44)
L1 L2
M2
k2
(0.25) 2
(0.6) 2
= 0.1736
. . . (2.45)
L1 L2 = 0.9978
. . . (2.46)
SAQ 6
The combined inductance of two coils connected in series is 0.6 H and 0.1 H
depending on the relative directions of the current in the coils. If one of the coils
when isolated has a self-inductance of 0.2 H, calculate (a) mutual inductance, and
(b) coupling coefficient.
52
Electro Magnetism
Also,
V = L1
di1
di
+M 2
dt
dt
. . . (2.47)
V = L2
di2
di
+M 1
dt
dt
. . . (2.48)
L1
di1
di
di
di
+ M 2 = L2 2 + M 1
dt
dt
dt
dt
Now
i = i1 + i2
i2 = i i1
. . . (2.49)
. . . (2.50)
L1
di1
d (i i1 )
d (i i1 )
di
+M
= L2
+M 1
dt
dt
dt
dt
or,
L1
di1
di
di
di
di
di
+M
M 1 = L2
L2 1 + M 1
dt
dt
dt
dt
dt
dt
or,
( L1 + L2 2M )
di2
( L2 M ) di1
=
dt
L1 + L2 2 M dt
. . . (2.51)
Similarly,
di2
( L1 M ) di
=
dt
L1 + L2 2M dt
. . . (2.52)
di1
di
= ( L2 M ) 1
dt
dt
L2 M
di
L1 M ) di
V = L1
+M
L1 + L2 2 M dt
L1 + L2 2M dt
or,
V =
L1 L2 L1 M + L1 M M 2 di
L1 + L2 2M
dt
. . . (2.53)
. . . (2.54)
53
Electrical
or,
V =
L1 L2 M 2 di
L1 + L2 2M dt
. . . (2.55)
Let L be the equivalent inductance of the parallel combination, then we can write
V =L
di
dt
. . . (2.56)
L L M 2 di
di
= 1 2
dt L1 + L2 2M dt
L=
L1 L2 M 2
L1 + L2 2M
. . . (2.57)
i2
M
L2
Also,
V = L1
di1
di
M 2
dt
dt
. . . (2.58)
V = L2
di2
di
M 1
dt
dt
. . . (2.59)
L1
Now
di1
di
di
di
M 2 = L2 2 M 1
dt
dt
dt
dt
. . . (2.60)
i = i1 + i2
i2 = i i1
. . . (2.61)
54
L1
di1
d (i i1 )
d (i i1 )
di
M
= L2
M 1
dt
dt
dt
dt
or,
L1
di1
di
di
di
di
di
M
+ M 1 = L2
L2 1 M 1
dt
dt
dt
dt
dt
dt
or,
( L1 + L2 + 2M )
di1
( L2 + M ) di
=
dt L1 + L2 + 2M dt
di1
di
= ( L2 + M ) 1
dt
dt
. . . (2.62)
di2
( L1 + M ) di
=
dt
L1 + L2 + 2 M dt
Similarly,
. . . (2.63)
Electro Magnetism
di
L1 + M ) di
L2 + M
V = L1
M
L1 + L2 + 2M dt
L1 + L2 + 2M dt
. . . (2.64)
or,
V =
L1 L2 + L1 M L1 M M 2 di
L1 + L2 + 2 M
dt
. . . (2.65)
or,
V =
L1 L2 M 2 di
L1 + L2 + 2M dt
. . . (2.66)
Let L be the equivalent inductance of the parallel combination, then we can write
V =L
di
dt
. . . (2.67)
L L M 2 di
di
= 1 2
dt L1 + L2 + 2M dt
L=
L1 L2 M 2
L1 + L2 + 2M
. . . (2.68)
Example 2.8
L1 = 4 H
L2 = 6 H
M=3H
(a)
L=
L1 L2 M 2
4 6 32
=
= 3.75 H
L1 + L2 2M 4 + 6 2 3
(b)
L=
L1 L2 M 2
4 6 32
=
= 0.9375 H
L1 + L2 + 2 M 4 + 6 + 2 3
SAQ 7
A coil of inductance 200 mH is magnetically coupled to another coil of inductance
800 mH. The coefficient of coupling between the coils is 0.5. Calculate the
equivalent inductance of (a) series aiding, (b) series opposing, (c) parallel aiding,
and (d) parallel opposing.
2.13 SUMMARY
In this unit we studied about electromagnetism and the relationship that exists between
electric current and magnetic flux. The way in which electric current magnetizes a
55
Electrical
magnetic material was discussed in magnetization curve or B-H curve. In relation to B-H
curve, phenomenon of magnetic hysteresis was also discussed.
Magnetic circuit provides path for magnetic flux and it is the basis of electromagnetism.
Types of magnetic circuits which may be series or parallel were discussed.
A current carrying coil has self inductance and the inductance between two coils is
called mutual inductance. We had elaborate discussion on these with examples. The
coefficient of coupling between two coils determines the degree of linking between their
fluxes and it was studied.
Dot convention determines whether e.m.fs between two mutually coupled coils are aiding
or opposing and this was illustrated with examples.
Series or parallel connection between two current carrying coils was explained. Series
and parallel connection may again be aiding or opposing. We studied about them in
details.
(a)
(b)
Using Eq. (2.1), ampere turns required for the air-gap is found as
AT = Bla/0 = 1000B (la is air gap length). Length of the iron ring,
li = (4 0.04 ) cm. So ampere turn required for iron ring is
AT = Bli/0 r = 99B. Total AT required is 1000 B + 99 B = 1099 B. Again
given that AT applied is 2000 2 10 3 = 4, we have 1099B = 4 and B is
obtained as 3.64 10 3 Wb/m2. So air gap flux = BA = 3.64 10 4 Wb.
SAQ 2
In Figure 2.5, path C and path D are parallel with each other with respect to path E.
So the m.m.f across the two paths is the same. If flux produced in the left limb is
, flux in limb C is 1 and flux in limb D is 2 (2 = 2 m Wb), then
= 1 + 2. If S1 and S2 are reluctances of path C and path D, then m.m.f across C
is 1 S1= m.m.f across D 1 S1. S = l/0 r A and we get from here 1 = 10/3 mWb.
Thereby we get = 10/3 + 2 = 16/3 m Wb.
Flux density in path E = /A. Flux density in path D = 2/A.
Total AT required = AT required for path E + AT required for either of two paths
C or D. Using Eq. (2.1),
AT =
Follow exactly as in Example 4, Flux density in the central limb and air-gap is
found to be 1.25 Wb/m2. Corresponding H from the given table = 500 AT/m. AT
required for the central limb is 75. AT for the air-gap is 994.72.
56
Flux divides equally at A in Figure 2.7 along two parallel paths. So flux through a
parallel path ACDE is 0.5 m Wb and flux density B = 1 Wb/m2. Corresponding
value of H from the given table is 200 AT/m and AT required for path ACDE
is 68.
Electro Magnetism
(a)
, we get L = 0.15 H
i
di
. Change of current is 20 A in 0.01 sec.
dt
So e = 300 V.
(b)
From H =
Ni
B
= 6.67 10 5 Henry/m
, we get H = 7500 AT/m. So
l
H
L=N
d2
, = B A.
4
d
.
dt
d = 90% of the final flux, dt = 0.001 sec and N = 3000. Substituting these
values, we get
e = 424.11 V
SAQ 5
From L1 =
N1 1
, we get L2 = 33.34 mH.
i1
di1
dt
L1 L2 and so L2 =
M2
k 2 L1
L2 N 22
=
, we get N 2 = N1
L1 N12
= 0.261 H
L2
and thus obtain N2 = 700.
L1
SAQ 6
M
L1 L2
= 0.72
57
Electrical
SAQ 7
From M = k
L1 L2 , we get M = 200 mH
L1 L2 M 2
= 200 mH
L1 + L2 2M
In parallel opposing L =
58
L1 L2 M 2
= 85.71 mH .
L1 + L2 + 2 M