A Study Guide in The Principles of Teaching 2

Instructional Planning and the Art of Questioning

Goals are
Objectives are

The Triadic Model of Teaching

Approach (Philosophical and Logical)
-is axiomatic (generally accepted principle or rule)
- in an enlightened viewpoint
- a philosophy with a set of principles or dogma
Examples: Discovery, Conceptual, Modular
Method (Procedural and Scientific)
- consist of a series of actions arranged logically for the smooth operation
of a task
- has steps and is intermediate
Examples: Inductive, Deductive, Demonstration
Technique (Personal and Practical)
- is implementational (with immediate applicability because of specificity)
- a tactic, personal trick, style
Examples: Charade, Games, Debate, Songs
Strategy - (of military origin) the art of devising or employing plans to
achieve a goal; can refer to approach, method or technique depending on
the context it is being used in.

very broad
content and behavior specific

Instructional Planning
Instructional Plan (Lesson Plan)
does not guarantee learning but is an indispensable tool
antidote to aimlessness
can be done every year (ex. PELC or PSLC), term (ex. course syllabus),
unit (segment of a year/course) , week or day
daily lesson plans may be skimpy/sketchy, semi-detailed and detailed
it contains the statements of achievement to be realized and the specific
means these are to be attained as a result of activities under the guidance
of the teacher (Lardizabal)
Basic Components of a Lesson Plan:
I. Objectives:
provide learning targets to be attained, give direction to the class
discussion
II. Subject Matter:
shows the topic, lesson or content to be covered
includes the sources of the lesson and other references
III. Materials:
necessary aids in teaching
teaching devices such as maps, graphs, flashcards, pictures, realia, tapes,
photographs, diagrams, charts, etc.
IV. Procedure/ Lesson Development:
shows the definite steps of the methods used
V. Evaluation:
important in checking whether learning has occurred
can be formative or summative
VI. Assignment:
tells what the pupils will do which will result in an educative experience
which could be done in home/school:
a lesson to be studied
project to be accomplished
theme to be written
exercise to be answered
interview to be accomplished
means of developing good study habits and independent work
Objectives
may be in a statement/question form that describe the behavior of the
learner that shows learning
it is also defined as the statement of achievements to be realized
it may be referred to as learner objectives, behavioral objectives and/or
specific objectives
it can be classified as a performance objective or a process objective
Goals Vs. Objectives

not necessarily observable

observable
long-term
immediate
can be classified as primary/major/terminal or ancillary/secondary/enabling
characteristics include S.M.A.R.T.-O.
components include A-B-C-D
domains include the cognitive, affective and psychomotor
The Three Types of Learning
There is more than one type of learning. A committee of colleges, led by
Benjamin Bloom (1956), identified three domains of educational activities:
o Cognitive: mental skills (Knowledge)
o Affective: growth in feelings or emotional areas (Attitude)
o Psychomotor: manual or physical skills (Skills)
Cognitive Domain
The cognitive domain (Bloom, 1956) involves knowledge and the
development of intellectual skills. This includes the recall or recognition of
specific facts, procedural patterns, and concepts that serve in the
development of intellectual abilities and skills. There are six major
categories, which are listed in order below, starting from the simplest
behavior to the most complex. The categories can be thought of as
degrees of difficulties. That is, the first one must be mastered before the
next one can take place.
Categories:
Knowledge: Recall data or information.
Comprehension: Understand the meaning, translation, interpolation, and
interpretation of instructions and problems. State a problem in one's own
words.
Application: Use a concept in a new situation or unprompted use of an
abstraction. Applies what was learned in the classroom into novel
situations in the work place.
Analysis: Separates material or concepts into component parts so that its
organizational structure may be understood. Distinguishes between facts
and inferences.
Synthesis: Builds a structure or pattern from diverse elements. Put parts
together to form a whole, with emphasis on creating a new meaning or
structure.
Evaluation: Make judgments about the value of ideas or materials.
The affective domain (Krathwohl,1973) includes the manner in which we
deal with things emotionally, such as feelings, values, appreciation,
enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes. The five major categories are
listed from the simplest behavior to the most complex:
Receiving Phenomena: Awareness, willingness to hear, selected
attention.
Examples: Listen to others with respect.
Responding to Phenomena: Active participation on the part of the
learners. Attends and reacts to a particular phenomenon. Learning
outcomes may emphasize compliance in responding, willingness to
respond, or satisfaction in responding (motivation).
Examples: Participates in class discussions. Gives a presentation.
Questions new ideals, concepts, models, etc. in order to fully understand
them.
Valuing: The worth or value a person attaches to a particular object,
phenomenon, or behavior. This ranges from simple acceptance to the more
complex state of commitment. Valuing is based on the internalization of a
set of specified values, while clues to these values are expressed in the

learner's overt behavior and are often identifiable.

Examples: Demonstrates belief in the democratic process. Proposes a
plan to social improvement and follows through with commitment.
Organization: Organizes values into priorities by contrasting different
values, resolving conflicts between them, and creating an unique value
system. The emphasis is on comparing, relating, and synthesizing values.
Examples: Explains the role of systematic planning in solving problems.
Internalizing values (Characterization): Has a value system that controls
their behavior. The behavior is pervasive, consistent, predictable, and most
importantly, characteristic of the learner. Instructional objectives are
concerned with the student's general patterns of adjustment (personal,
social, emotional).
Examples: Shows self-reliance when working independently.
The psychomotor domain includes physical movement, coordination, and
use of the motor-skill areas. Development of these skills requires practice
and is measured in terms of speed, precision, distance, procedures, or
techniques in execution. The categories according to Dave (1975) are as
follows:
Imitation Observing and patterning behavior after someone else.
Performance may be of low quality. Example: Copying a work of art.
Manipulation Being able to perform certain actions by following
instructions and practicing. Example: Creating work on one's own, after
taking lessons, or reading about it.
Precision Refining, becoming more exact. Few errors are apparent.
Example: Working and reworking something, so it will be just right.
Articulation Coordinating a series of actions, achieving harmony and
internal consistency. Example: Producing a video that involves music,
drama, color, sound, etc.
Naturalization Having high level performance become natural, without
needing to think much about it. Examples: Michael Jordan playing
basketball, Nancy Lopez hitting a golf ball, etc.

Problem Method
1. Preparation and Statement of the Problem/s
2. Planning of Ways to Solve the Problem
3. Gathering Data
4. Presentation of Solutions- can be through creative presentations
5. Application
Demonstration Method
1. Motivation 4. Discussion
2. Presentation 5. Return-Demo
3. Demo 6. Proper Assessment
Innovative Strategies
CAM- concept can be attained through examples; modification of the
inductive procedure because it also analyzes examples
1. Activation of Prior Knowledge
2. Giving of Examples and Non-Examples
3. Giving of Additional Examples and Non-Examples
4. Discriminating whether Examples or Non-Examples
5. Giving of Students own Examples
6. Conceptualization
7. Application
4 As
1. Awareness 3.Analysis
2. Activity 4. Abstraction
5. Application
5 Es
1. Excite/Engage 3. Explain
2. Explore 4. Extend
5. Evaluate/Exercise

The Classical Methods

Inductive Method (Herbartian Steps)
1. Preparation- unlocking of difficult terms, motivation, activating prior
knowledge, setting of objectives, springboard for context used in
presentation
2. Presentation- presenting specific facts, details, examples, cases to be
studied or this can also contain an activity for which the aforementioned
can be collected
3. Comparison and Abstraction- find the commonalities and the differences
of specific facts, details, examples and/or cases
4. Generalization- get the idea for generalization
5. Application practice for summary and/or connecting the lesson to the
real world
Deductive Method
1. Motivation and Statement of the Problem
2. Generalization can be by the teacher or by the pupils
3. Giving of Inferences- eliciting of inferences
4. Verification- through references (materials, persons/experts)
5. Synthesis- charts, cloze procedure, concept maps, diagrams
6. Application
Laboratory Method
1. Motivation and Statement of the Problem motivated in the way that the
problem comes from the students
2. Presentation
3. Work Period
4. Discussion of Results
5. Conclusion should answer the question/problem
6. Application

POE/PROBEX
o Predict
1. Introduction 3. Prediction
2. Situation or Event 4. Substantiation
o Observe
1. Activity or Work Period 2. Observations
o Explain
1. Explanation
2. Conclusion 3.Application
Instructional Materials
aids to teaching and learning which increase the effectiveness of the
teacher
stimulates interest, simplify, clarify subject matter, increase understanding
and motivate the learner
General Principles in Selecting Instructional Materials (Streit, et. al, 1984)
Instructional media should follow, not dictate learning objectives.
Instructors must be thoroughly familiar with the content of all media used in
instruction.
Instructors should select only instructional media that are consistent with
student capabilities and learning styles.
Instructional media should be chosen objectively rather than on the basis
of the teachers personal preference or bias.
Instructional media should be chosen on the basis of their contributions to
the learning outcomes rather than on the basis of availability or ease of
use.
The physical conditions surrounding the utilization of instructional media
should be arranged to enhance results
Instructional materials produced locally by instructors usually make
significant contributions to learning.
No one medium is best for all purposes.

The Art of Questioning

To question well is to teach well Charles DeGarmo
Questioning is an integral part of an inquiry-centered classroom
Types of Questions
According to the Lessons Objectives
Low-level- memory questions; simple recall
High-level- call for responders ability to analyze, evaluate and solve
problems
According to Extent of Inquiry Desired
Convergent require a single predictable answer
Divergent ask students to think in different directions, to think of
alternative actions or to arrive at own decision
According to How Students are Guided to Respond
Rhetorical- often asked in a fast pace and sometimes dont require an
answer
Informational- require one to supply information
Leading- give clue to the right answer
Probing-ask for application of principles learned or it can also be as simple
as asking your respondent for an example, or requesting additional
information to clarify a point which has been raised.
Funneling- technique using closed questions to draw detailed information
from a respondent, a series of questions are asked each focusing on a
point given in the previous answer and eventually get to open ended.
Chunking (Up/Down)- identifying segments in order to get to a specific
detail or a big idea
Guidelines: Donts in Asking Questions
Ask indefinite or vague questions
Ask double or multiple questions
Ask questions whose answers are obvious or can be answered even

without being in class

Asking questions that do not elicit answers
Asking fill-in questions
Asking tugging questions
Guidelines: Dos in Asking Questions
Provide sufficient wait-time
Know your own style of questioning
Increase your own repertoire of questions
Provide cues
Consider the individual abilities and interests of students
Effective teachers encourage all students to respond, rather than
depending on volunteers, or answering the question themselves.
Ask higher-level questions
Teacher feedback should be specific and discriminating. Students should
be acknowledged for their contribution, praise should underscore genuine
accomplishment, while criticism and remediation should point out areas in
need of improvement (focusing on the behavior, skills, and knowledge,
rather than the individual).
Assignment:
Research on the following approaches:
Didactic 8. Modular
Heuristic 9. Inquiry
Discovery 10. Process
Conceptual 11. Integrative
Constructivist 12. Values Clarification
Cooperative Learning 13. Contract Learning
Multiple Intelligences 14. Experiential