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I. Introduction
II. Cancer Pathogenesis
III. Invasion Promoter and Suppressor Genes
A. The E-cadherin gene CDH1, an invasion/tumor suppressor
B. The N-cadherin gene CDH2, an invasion promoter
C. The E-catenin gene CTNNA1, a differentiation promoter
D. The -catenin gene CTNNB1, a tumor/invasion-promoter gene
E. Kinase and phosphatase genes, invasion promoters and invasion suppressors
F. Invasion genes and metastasis genes, separate classes?
G. Noncancer invasion-suppressor and invasion-promoter genes
IV. Cancer Cells, Host Cells, and Tumor Cells: All Invaders
A. Cancer cells and host cells
B. Myofibroblasts: stimulators of invasion
C. Angiogenesis before invasion
D. Tumor-infiltrated leukocytes: helpers of invasion
E. Osteoclasts: targets for therapy
F. Molecular cross-talk in noncancerous situations
V. Cellular Activities Associated With the Invasive Phenotype
A. Cell-cell adhesion
B. Cell-matrix interactions
C. Migration
D. Proteolysis
VI. Conclusions and Perspectives
Mareel, Marc, and Ancy Leroy. Clinical, Cellular, and Molecular Aspects of Cancer Invasion. Physiol Rev 83:
337376, 2003; 10.1152/physrev.00024.2002.Invasion causes cancer malignancy. We review recent data about
cellular and molecular mechanisms of invasion, focusing on cross-talk between the invaders and the host. Cancer
disturbs these cellular activities that maintain multicellular organisms, namely, growth, differentiation, apoptosis,
and tissue integrity. Multiple alterations in the genome of cancer cells underlie tumor development. These genetic
alterations occur in varying orders; many of them concomitantly influence invasion as well as the other cancerrelated cellular activities. Examples discussed are genes encoding elements of the cadherin/catenin complex, the
nonreceptor tyrosine kinase Src, the receptor tyrosine kinases c-Met and FGFR, the small GTPase Ras, and the dual
phosphatase PTEN. In microorganisms, invasion genes belong to the class of virulence genes. There are numerous
clinical and experimental observations showing that invasion results from the cross-talk between cancer cells and
host cells, comprising myofibroblasts, endothelial cells, and leukocytes, all of which are themselves invasive. In bone
metastases, host osteoclasts serve as targets for therapy. The molecular analysis of invasion-associated cellular
activities, namely, homotypic and heterotypic cell-cell adhesion, cell-matrix interactions and ectopic survival,
migration, and proteolysis, reveal branching signal transduction pathways with extensive networks between individual pathways. Cellular responses to invasion-stimulatory molecules such as scatter factor, chemokines, leptin,
trefoil factors, and bile acids or inhibitory factors such as platelet activating factor and thrombin depend on
activation of trimeric G proteins, phosphoinositide 3-kinase, and the Rac and Rho family of small GTPases. The role
of proteolysis in invasion is not limited to breakdown of extracellular matrix but also causes cleavage of proinvasive
fragments from cell surface glycoproteins.
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year survival rates are 80% when the tumor invades into
the dermis but is 1.5 mm thick and 40% when it
invades into the subcutaneous fat. For primary brain tumors, the prognosis depends on the loss of differentiation
rather than on the degree of invasion. Patients with welldifferentiated astrocytomas, grade I and II, survive for 10
years or more, whereas poorly differentiated astrocytomas, grades III and IV, have a median survival of 1 year.
In infectious diseases, though they are treated much
more succesfully than malignant tumors, spread through
invasion and metastasis may also herald a bad prognosis.
In listeriosis, a disease caused by the bacterium Listeria
monocytogenes, spread from the site of entry in the intestine, to the meninges, or to the fetus in pregnant women
causes a potentially fatal disease (354). Resident noninvasive Streptococcus viridans is harmless; invasion
through wounded oral mucosa and metastasis to damaged heart valves is a cause of death in 21% of the patients
(211). Similarly, the cystic noninvasive form of Entamoeba histolytica is harmless; invasion of E. histolytica
trophozoites into the enteric mucosa causes amoebic enteritis with eventual spread to liver and brain (321).
Earlier experimental investigation of invasion and
metastasis focused on the development of appropriate
models to score invasion and invasion-related activities
by morphological techniques (1, 102, 109, 117, 164, 355,
416, 448). Today, the study of invasion benefits from the
enormous advances in genomics and proteomics, providing thousands of genes and proteins, all well characterized structurally and functionally. We review here the
more recent data about cellular and molecular mechanisms of invasion, taking selected examples with emphasis on homotypic and heterotypic cross-talk between the
invaders and the host. Noncancer invasion by normal
cells or by prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells will be discussed for comparison with cancer invasion. For a review
of the older literature, the reader is referred to Reference
249. A selected literature search for the present review
was closed in November 2001.
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after, invade and metastasize as nondividing cells. Parasitic trypanosomes and leishmania pass through an obligatory nondividing stage when they invade from one host
into another or from one tissue into another (279).
III. INVASION PROMOTER AND
SUPPRESSOR GENES
A series of alterations in the genome of the cell population of origin forms the basis of tumor development (40,
130). The genes of interest are classified as oncogenes or
tumor-promoter genes, one allele of which is activated leading to gain-of-function events, and tumor-suppressor genes
or antioncogenes, both alleles of which are inactivated leading to loss-of-function events. Genomic instability, due either
to impairement in DNA repair (microsatellite instability) or
to dominant negative mutations in mitotic check-point genes
(chromosomal instability), leads to activation of oncogenes
and inactivation of tumor suppressor genes. The products of
these genes belong to various classes of protein families,
such as cytokines, cell surface receptors, signal transducers,
and transcription factors. The list of oncogenes encoding
cell surface receptors of the protein-tyrosine kinase family
alone counts more than 40 members (42). Mechanisms of
activation of oncogenes implicate mutation, gene amplification, and promoter activation. Mechanisms of tumor-suppressor inactivation are exemplified by loss of heterozygosity (LOH) plus silencing of the second allele genetically,
through mutation, or epigenetically, through methylation. In
familial cancers, one mutation is carried with the germline.
Well-documented examples include RB in retinoblastoma,
BRCA1 in breast cancer, and adenomatous polyposis coli
(APC) in colon cancer of the familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP) type. Cancer-related genetic alteration are multiple
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catenins, -catenin, -catenin, and plakoglobin (-catenin). The gene encoding E-cadherin (CDH1, on chromosome 16q22.1) was one of the first to be considered as an
invasion-suppressor gene (30, 138, 432). The experimental
strategy consisted of the isolation from heterogeneous
cell lines of clones with an epithelioid (e-type, resembling
epithelial cells) morphotype and a fibroblastic (f-type,
resembling fibroblasts) morphotype. The e-type cells
were E-cadherin positive, failed to invade into organotypically cultured embryonic chick heart, and formed a differentiated epithelial layer around the heart tissue. The
f-type cells were E-cadherin negative, did invade, and
showed no epithelial differentiation. Similarly, a positive
correlation was found between the invasion into collagen
type I of human cancer cell lines and the lack of Ecadherin. The invasive phenotype as well as the morphotype of these cells could be manipulated in both directions, from e-type noninvasive to f-type invasive, and vice
versa, by transfection with sense or antisense E-cadherin
cDNA. The e- to f-type conversion is reminiscent of the
epithelial to mesenchymal transition (coined EMT) observed during gastrulation. Interestingly, loss of E-cadherin in immortalized cell lines of noncancerous origin
did induce the invasive phenotype, only when the cells
were transfected with an oncogene (Fig. 2). Conclusions
from these experimental findings were confirmed by immunohistochemical changes in E-cadherin expression
and localization in most human cancers (56, 92, 98, 275,
276, 305, 353, 366, 419, 421). The positive correlation
between cancer aggressiveness as evidenced by poor survival and disturbance of E-cadherin provides clinical support for E-cadherin as an invasion suppressor (304). Such
clinical evidence is, however, at best circumstantial since
deficient expression of E-cadherin may also be due to
posttranscriptional and posttranslational events. The
causal relationship between E-cadherin expression and
invasion in vivo was convincingly demonstrated in transgenic mice (319). Such mice, expressing the tumorigenic
simian virus 40 (SV40) T antigen under the insulin promoter (Rip1Tag), developed pancreatic -cell adenomas
in 74% and invasive adenocarcinomas in 26% of the mice.
Overexpression of E-cadherin under the same promoter
(Rip1E-cad) did not cause tumors. Rip1Tag Rip1E-cad
crosses had a lower (8%) ratio of adenocarcinomas, showing that overexpression of E-cadherin counteracted the
acquisition of the invasive phenotype. In contrast, crosses
of Rip1Tag mice with mice expressing dominant negative
E-cadherin that lacks the extracellular domain (Rip1dnEcad) had invasive and metastatic carcinomas in 50% of the
cases.
Mutations in CDH1 are the exception rather than the
rule as they occur only in diffuse type gastric cancer,
lobular breast cancer, and endometrial cancer (2527, 35,
36, 196). In invasive lobular breast cancers, a subtype in
which cancer cells invade as Indian files, total loss of
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E-cadherin expression is due to E-cadherin gene mutations combined with loss of the wild-type allele. The
above-mentioned observations are compatible with inactivation of CDH1 either at the transition between the
noninvasive to the invasive stage or earlier. In lobular
breast cancer early inactivation of CDH1 was demonstrated, putting forward CDH1 also as a tumor-suppressor
gene (435). The same truncating mutations associated
with loss of heterozygosity were found in sporadic lobular
carcinoma in situ as in the associated invasive components but not in atypical hyperplasia. In diffuse type gastric cancers, the amplification product of E-cadherin
cDNA was shorter than the expected 630 bp due to skipping of exon 9 or 8. In favor of the tumor-suppressor
function of the E-cadherin gene is the finding of inactivating germ line mutations in families with a higher incidence of diffuse gastric cancer. Interestingly, the mother
of one of the gastric cancer patients suffered from metachronous lobular breast cancer and diffuse gastric cancer
and had the same CDH1 germline mutation as her child
(206).
The low frequency of E-cadherin mutations is in
striking contrast to the almost ubiquitous disturbance of
E-cadherin in invasive and even in preinvasive cancers,
suggesting other mechanisms of transcriptional or posttranscriptional downregulation. Such forms of downregulation may be reversible. In an experimental tumor model
with an immortalized normal kidney-derived epithelial
cell line Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) transformed
by a mutated RAS oncogene and coined MDCK-ras, Ecadherin-positive variants had an e-morphotype and were
noninvasive in vitro, but produced invasive and metastatic cancers after injection into nude mice (246). Immunohistochemistry of the nude mouse tumors revealed loss
of E-cadherin, but ex vivo culture of the MDCK-ras tumors resulted in rapid reexpression of E-cadherin, acqui-
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FIG. 3. In vitro assays for invasion of cancer cells and of bacteria. For further details about these and other assays
for cancer cell invasion, see Ref. 61; for the bacterial invasion assay, see Ref. 349.
nied by localization of -CTN in the nucleus and an increased expression of MMP-9, next to an increase of
integrin-linked kinase (ILK), 1- and 3-integrins, and a
decrease of E-cadherin (186). We would like to emphasize, here, that an element of an invasion-suppressor complex transactivates genes that are implicated not only in
the modulation of growth, differentiation and response to
therapy, but also in the stimulation of invasion and invasion-associated cellular activities. In cancers where mutations in -catenin, APC or conductin (equal to axin) (28)
are uncommon, -catenin may be upregulated by the
prolyl isomerase (Pin1) resulting in the transcription of
several -catenin target genes (344). Pin1 interferes with
-CTN/APC interaction by changing the conformation of
the phosphorylated Ser/Thr-Pro bonds. There is less evidence in favor of CTNNB1 as an invasion-suppressor
gene. An in-frame deletion in the E-catenin binding site
of -catenin in a signet ring cell carcinoma cell line (HSC39) causes disruption of the cadherin-dependent cell-cell
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3. Ras
The RAS protooncogenes encode membrane-associated guanine nucleotide binding proteins of 21 kDa. Constitutive activation by substitution of amino acid residues
at various positions is frequently found in human invasive
colorectal carcinomas and in other types of human cancer
(45). Interestingly, activated Ras cooperates with TGF-
to regulate invasion via the Raf-MAPK pathway (154, 185,
303, 399). Invasion into chick heart as well as into collagen gels was conveyed by Py-MT or by mutated (Val-12)
Ha-ras upon SLC-44 rat intestinal epithelial cells immortalized by polyoma large T but not upon Caco-2 cells,
derived from a human colonic adenocarcinoma cell line
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G. Noncancer Invasion-Suppressor
and Invasion-Promoter Genes
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sion; they provide the routes for systemic spread of cancer cells; and they mediate the communication between
the primary tumor and its metastasis (309). These vessels
represent the response of existing blood and lymph vessels to balances between positive and negative angiogenic
factors produced by the cancer cells. The type of vessels,
hematogenic or lymphatic, that are invading the tumor
might be determined by the type of vascular endothelial
growth factor (VEGF) produced (368). Because invasion
into vessels initiates metastasis, the type of VEGF might
also determine the route of metastasis, lymphogenic or
hematogenic. In exceptional cases, the cancer cells themselves may transdifferentiate into endothelioid cells and
form the tumor vascular system, a phenomenon that is
called vasculogenic mimicry (244). Several excellent reviews on tumor angiogenesis were produced (70, 134,
207). We would, therefore, limit the discussion to the
observation that neoangiogenesis may be needed for primary invasion as well as it is for growth as evidenced by
an in vivo mouse model (14, 15). Transplantation of collagen gels coated with malignant murine keratinocytes on
the dorsal muscle fascia of wild-type mice resulted in
invasive squamous cell carcinomas. When plasminogen
activator inhibitor (PAI)-1 / knock-out mice were
used, the cancer cells failed to invade, and there was no
angiogenesis. Intravenous injection of a recombinant ad-
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F. Molecular Cross-Talk in
Noncancerous Situations
Epithelial-mesenchymal interactions are crucial in
morphogenesis (158, 367). In adults, invasive and metastatic normal leukocytic stem cells are retained in the
bone marrow through adhesion to stromal cells. Microbial
invasion is to a large extent governed by host factors.
Species specificity is a striking example of host-determined invasion. L. monocytogenes invades human,
chicken, rabbit, and guinea pig intestine but neither
mouse nor rat, a phenomenon that is explained through
single amino acid differences in the first extracellular
domain of the enteric E-cadherin, serving as the receptor
for the bacterial virulence factor inlA. In amoebiasis,
caused by E. histolytica, human species specificity is
explained by the transformation from noninvasive cysts
to invasive trophozoites depending on a number of human
host cell factors such as acid in the stomach, pancreatic
enzymes, low oxygen content, inorganic salts, and microflora (148). Organ specificity of metastasis is illustrated in
leishmaniasis. According to the type of leishmania, lesions will develop at the site of injection in the skin (L.
ropica) or in the mucocutaneous tissues of the respiratory and the genital tract (L. brasiliensis) or in the viscera, mainly liver and spleen (L. donovani). Although the
exact mechanisms of this organ specificity are unknown,
immune mediators may be involved, since the cutaneous
forms of leishmaniasis also affect the viscera in HIVpositive individuals. Examples of parasites that are transported by host cells, a kind of passive invasion, are
Trypanosoma and Leishmania using macrophages and
Plasmodium merozoites using erythrocytes (200).
The genomic alterations in epithelial cells, which
lead to cancer, disturb the molecular conversation between the epithelial cells and the underlying stroma. As a
consequence, the cancer cell population, developing at
the primary tumor site, attracts host cells and so creates
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In bone metastasis, a frequent complication in malignant tumors, cancer cells subvert the host dynamic homeostatic mechanisms that preserve the structure and
function of the skeleton. The result is excessive breakdown of bone, pain, and eventual fractures. Cancer cells
release osteoclast activating factors, such as interleukin-1, tumor necrosis factor, TGF-, epidermal growth
factor (EGF), PDGF, and prostaglandins, and activated
osteoclasts cause breakdown of bone matrix (Fig. 7). This
breakdown is probably not limited to osteoclasts as it has
been attributed also to cancer cells and even to osteoblasts and osteoblast-like cells (221). Bone matrix break-
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354
Homotypic (between cells of the same type) epithelial cell-cell adhesion counteracts the escape of cells into
neighboring tissues and, even, invasion by well-differentiated epithelial strands implicates some degree of weakening of cell-cell adhesion, as demonstrated in a direct
way for the first time by Coman (80). Heterotypic cell-cell
adhesion, e.g., between circulating cancer cells and the
vascular endothelium, promotes invasion through the vascular wall and the initiation of metastases. On rare occasions, homotypic cell-cell adhesion may promote invasion, mediating apical implantation of cancer cells into
the bladder mucosa (331) or lymphovascular permeation
in inflammatory breast cancer (407).
1. Homotypic cell-cell adhesion: the
E-cadherin/catenin/actin pathway
The prototype homotypic epithelial cell-cell adhesion
molecule operating through homophyllic interaction is
E-cadherin. Adherens junctions are the structure in which
E-cadherin operates. Other intercellular junctions, mentioned as putative players in invasion, are tight junctions,
desmosomes, and gap junctions. We have provided evidence (see sect. III) in favor of an invasion-suppressor
function of E-cadherin. The question is whether or not
homotypic cell-cell adhesion is responsible for suppression of invasion. E-cadherin is certainly suited for such
function as dimers on one cell form stable molecular
bonds with E-cadherin dimers on another cell. Such extracellular interaction is sufficient for a relatively weak
adhesion, whereas stronger adhesion necessitates also
intracytoplasmic interactions of E-cadherin (60) and an
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A. Cell-Cell Adhesion
intact transmembrane domain (177). In many experiments a positive correlation was found between lack of
invasion and cell-cell adhesion in vitro, the E-cadherin
specificity of both phenotypes being demonstrated with
the aid of functionally inactivating antibodies. (30, 46, 81,
253, 296, 390, 423). The expression of large proteoglycans
such as episialin, also called MUC-1, may sterically hinder
the homophilic interactions of E-cadherin and so contribute to invasion of cancer cells (380, 433). In vivo,
Rip1dnE-cad mice, overexpressing a dominant negative
form of E-cadherin in pancreatic -cells (see sect. III),
showed a transient perturbation of -cell aggregation during islet development (91). Other homotypic cell-cell adhesion complexes have also been implicated in invasion.
Desmosomes are considered as regulators of epithelial
structure and as invasion suppressors by some authors,
and the experimental arguments resemble the ones put
forward for adherens junctions (342, 413). These authors
presume that desmosomal cadherins and E-cadherin are
comparably involved in the maintenance of the epithelial
structure. L929 fibroblasts transfected with desmosomal
components, namely, desmocollin, desmoglein, and plakoglobin, become adhesive and noninvasive, and these reverted phenotypes are lost upon addition of short peptides
corresponding to cell-cell adhesion recognition (CAR) sites
of desmosomal cadherins. Furthermore, downregulation of
desmosomal adhesion molecules correlates with invasion
and metastasis in some human cancers without consideration of the E-cadherin status (95, 287). In invasive and
metastatic cancers of the oral cavity, downregulation of
desmosomal cadherins was associated with loss of Ecadherin (364). Gap junctions are membrane-spanning
channels composed of protein subunits called connexins;
they facilitate intercellular communication through small
(Mr 1,000) molecules. Such junctions may act as invasion
promoters, since transfection with connexins and homotypic coupling lead HeLa cells to invade into chick heart
fragments in organ culture (156). In human breast cancer
cell lines, relative amounts of different connexins were
held responsible for metastasis (350).
Although most attention has been paid to the cell-cell
adhesion function of E-cadherin, it can certainly not be
excluded that other invasion-associated cellular activities
are implicated. Loss of E-cadherin, eventually associated
with upregulation of N-cadherin, may stimulate migration
and so promote invasion (55, 163). In cancer of the prostate (406, 409) and of the head and neck mucosa (182),
migration of epithelial cells coincides with the loss of
E-cadherin and is sometimes accompanied by a gain of
N-cadherin expression. The E-cadherin/catenin complex
is implicated also in directed migration during epithelial
wound healing, presumably through contact inhibition of
membrane ruffling (6, 81) and in intercellular motility
during epithelial morphogenesis (158). This is in line with
the observation that a monoclonal antibody against E-
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E-cadherin/catenin complex in various manners: alterations of the binding of the complex to actin; disturbance
of the signaling function through conformational changes
that hamper the cross-talk with other proteins; and recruitment of new partner proteins that possess phosphotyrosine-specific binding domains. Abrogation of EGFRinduced tyrosine phosphorylation of -catenin inhibits
invasion of melanoma cells (44). Furthermore, the -catenin binding site of E-cadherin shows Pro-Glu-Ser-Thr
(PEST) sequences, candidates for degradation by the
ubiquitine/proteasome pathway, so that binding of -catenin prevents the cytoplasmic tail of E-cadherin from degradation (176). -Catenin links the E-cadherin/catenin
complex to the actin cytoskeleton (337). Successful transfection of -catenin-negative adhesion-deficient variants
of the HCT-8, coined HCT-8/R, colon cancer cell line with
T- or E-catenins restored cell-cell adhesion and compaction (187). p120 catenin is encoded by CTNND1 on
11q11 (205). In cancer cells, p120CTN can be found at the
membrane and in the nucleus, where it binds to the zinc
finger transcription factor Kaiso (94, 424). Unlike -catenin, p120CTN is not degraded through interaction with the
APC/GSK-3 complex. Larger aggregates were formed by
FIG. 8. The E-cadherin/catenin and the wnt/-catenin signaling pathways. For detailed description, see sections III
and V. Definitions are as follows: APC, adenomatous polyposis coli protein; Cdc42, cell division cycle 42, a small
G protein; CTN, catenin; DSH, dishevelled; EB1, microtubule end binding protein1; E-CAD, E-cadherin; Frz, frizzled; GF,
growth factor; GSK-3, glycogen synthese kinase-3b; ILK, integrin-linked (serine/threonine) kinase; IQGAP1, GTPaseactivating protein; Kaiso, transcription factor of the Pox virus and zinc finger superfamily; LEF, leukocyte enhancer
factor; MMP-7 (matrilysin), matrix metalloproteinase-7; PI3-K, phosphoinositide 3-kinase; PKB, protein kinase B; PTP,
protein tyrosine phosphatase ; Rac, Ras-related C3 botulinum toxin substrate; Ras, small GTPase of the Ras homolog
family; Rho, Ras homolog; RTK, receptor tyrosine kinase; Shp-1, SH2 domain protein tyrosine phosphatase; Src, tyrosine
protein kinase encoded by the cellular protooncogene homologuous to the viral Rous sarcoma oncogene v-SRC; Smad3,
Mad (mothers of decapentaplegic)-related protein 3, recognizing a palindromic DNA sequence; TFF, trefoil factors; Wnt,
vertebrate homolog of Wingless. [Adapted from Van Aken et al. (419), with data from McCartney and Peifer (266), Mu ller
et al. (281), Lickert et al. (235), Kuroda et al. (219), and Wu et al. (451).]
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VA.
FIG. 9. Heterotypic cell-cell adhesion at the site of extravasation in the brain. For detailed description, see section
[Adapted from Mareel et al. (251).]
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357
FIG. 10. Heterotypic (between bacteria and enterocytes) and heterophilic (between E-cadherin and internalin A;
between the c-Met receptor and internalin B) adhesion necessary for the invasion of L. monocytogenes into vertebrate
cells. For detailed description, see section VA. [Schematic was adapted from Lauwaet et al. (225), with data from
Mengaud et al. (269), Lecuit et al. (227, 228), Braun et al. (59), Shen et al. (362), and Cossart (87).]
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cancer cell migration, a dynamic formation and dissolution of cell-substrate contacts is needed, and ECM receptors are expected to have a dual function as they serve
adhesion to the matrix necessary for migration as well as
arrest of cells inside the matrix. To coordinate all these
functions, multiple extracellular and intracellular networks as well as fine tuning signaling are necessary.
Structurally, cell-substrate adhesion is manifested by
smaller focal complexes at the leading edge of migratory
cells, larger focal adhesions at the end of actin stress
fibers all over the surface of static cells, and hemidesmosomes between epithelial cells and the basement membrane.
Cellular receptors for ECM molecules belong mainly
to the integrin family. They recognize unique short amino
acid sequences, such as RGD, in the ECM molecules.
Integrins are integral membrane cell surface glycoproteins composed of two subunits and linked by disulfide bonds; the combination of different subunits determines ligand specificity (146). Several ECM molecules are
recognized by more than one integrin. Ligand binding can
be modulated by associated membrane molecules, by
lipid composition of the membrane, and by external factors. Integrins can be in the off or on state depending on
the conformation of the extracelular part of the molecule,
and this state might be regulated by small GTPase of the
Ras family (203). The latter may be changed by divalent
cations and by changes of the intracellular part of the
molecule. Trends of expression in tumors are exemplified
by failure to express v3, 21, and 41 in early stage
melanoma and abundant expression of the same integrins
in later stage more aggressive melanomas (361). Epithelial cancers tend to express fewer integrins, e.g., 64, and
they do so in a disorganized pattern (256). ECM/integrin
interactions are implicated not only in invasion but also in
differentiation, proliferation, and regulation of apoptosis
(49, 137, 393, 428). Invasive cells leave their natural ECM
context above the basement membrane and arrive in a
completely different ECM in the stroma. When such cells
fail to switch on survival pathways, they go into a form of
apoptosis called anoikis. Failure of immortalized cell lines
to produce benign, noninvasive tumors upon subcutaneous injection in appropriate hosts, in which their invasive
counterparts did produce invasive tumors, indicates the
association between invasion and ectopic survival. When
implanted orthotopically, i.e., above the stroma, noninvasive keratinocytes produce a viable surrogate epidermis
(369). Integrins transduce signals that regulate anchorage
dependence of growth and growth factor receptors, and
integrins show very similar signaling pathways (357). Anchorage-independent, growth factor (serum)-dependent
cell proliferation is a valuable counterpart of ectopic survival. In such model, activation of tumor promoter genes
encoding elements of the integrin signaling pathways may
overcome the necessity of integrin-mediated cell/sub-
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where the
rected CC
express at
and CCR7,
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Sternberg-Reed cells produce the T-cell-dichemokine TARC (422). Breast cancer cells
high levels the chemokine receptors CXCR4
and their ligands show peak levels in lymph
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FIG. 11. Schematic of some positive and negative invasion signaling pathways, with signaling and signal transduction
on the top and effector pathways plus cellular responses on the bottom; arrows and arcs indicate activation and
inactivation, respectively; dots and asterisks indicate pharmacological inhibitors (shaded) and transfection with dominant negative constructs (dotted lines), respectively. For detailed description, see section VC. Definitions are as follows:
Akt1 (PKB), murine thymoma viral oncogene homolog 1; AP-1, activator protein 1, transcription factors binding to the
AP-1 DNA binding site; Arp2/3, seven-polypeptide-containing complex participating at actin nucleation; Bad, BCL-2
antagonist of cell death; BCL-2, B-cell CLL/lymphoma 2 protein interfering with normal apoptosis; C3T, Clostridium
botulinum exoenzyme C3 transferase; CaMLCK, calcium-dependent myosin light-chain kinase; CAS, Crk-associated
substrate; Cdc42, cell division cycle 42, a small G protein; COX-2, cyclooxygenase-2; Crk, molecular adhesive containing
Src homology domains, encoded by the avian sarcoma virus oncogene homolog; CtARK, COOH-terminal end of the
-adrenergic receptor kinase; CTN, catenin; ECM, extracellular matrix; ERK (MAPK), extracellular signal-regulated
kinase; FAK, p125 focal adhesion kinase; Grb2, growth factor receptor-bound protein 2 with Src homology domains; G,
a subunit of heterotrimeric G proteins, subscripts indicate isoforms; G, subunit of heterotrimeric G proteins,
subscripts indicate isoforms; JAK2, Janus kinase 2; MAPK (ERK), mitogen-activated (serine/threonine) protein kinase;
MEK (MAPK kinase), dual-specificity protein kinase phosphorylating serine and tyrosine residues; MHC, myosin heavy
chain; MLC, myosin light chain; mTOR, mammalian target of rapamycin; N17Rac1, expressing dominant negative Rac1;
N19RhoA, expressing dominant negative RhoA; Ob-Rb, leptin receptor; p110DN, transfection with the dominant negative
mutant p110a EcoS of PI3-K; PAF, platelet activating factor; PAF-R, PAF receptor; PAK1, p21/Cdc42/Rac1-activated
kinase 1; PAR1, protease-activated receptor 1; PI3-K, phosphoinositide 3-kinase; PKB, protein kinase B; PKC, protein
kinase C; PLC, phospholipase C; PTx, pertussis toxin; Rac, Ras-related C3 botulinum toxin substrate; Raf, serine/
threonine protein kinase encoded by the cellular protooncogene homologous to the viral murine sarcoma oncogene
v-RAF; Ras, small GTPase of the Ras homolog family; Rho, Ras homolog; Rock, Rho kinases; RTK, receptor tyrosine
kinases; Shc, transforming proteins containing Src homology (SH) domains; Sos, son of the sevenless, Drosophila,
homolog; guanine nucleotide exchange factor; Src, tyrosine protein kinase encoded by the cellular protooncogene
homologous to the viral Rous sarcoma oncogene v-SRC; STAT3, signal transducer and activator of transcription 3; Tiam1,
T-cell invasion and metastasis 1, Rac GEF; TKI, tyrosine kynase inhibitor; TXA2, thromboxane A2; TXA2-R, TXA2
receptor; WASP, Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome protein. [Data from Collard (79), Empereur et al. (123), Schwartz (357), Jou
and Nelson (193), Kotelevets et al. (217), Coughlin (89), Attoub et al. (11), Emami et al. (122), Faivre et al. (128),
Marinissen and Gutkind (254), Rodrigues et al. (338), and Nguyen et al. (289).]
CANCER INVASION
3. Trefoil factors
Trefoil factors are protease-resistant peptides with a
three-loop trefoil structure (401). The human trefoil peptide family has three members, namely, pS2 (TFF1, originally identified as an estrogen-inducible gene in a breast
cancer derived cDNA library), spasmolytic polypeptide
(SP; TFF2), and intestinal trefoil factor (ITF; TFF3). They
are produced in the mammalian gastrointestinal tract by
mucus-secreting cells, and they participate at the maintenance of the mucosal barrier through direct interaction
with the mucins without a defined molecular receptor
identified (348, 405, 449). The latter function was confirmed by the findings that transgenic mice overexpressing pS2 in the jejunum were protected against indomethacin-induced mucosal damage (324) and that mice lacking
ITF died of severe colitis upon mild injury (261). TFF
inhibits apoptosis (397) and stimulates migration in
wound healing models (198) as well as branching morphogenesis of human mammary cells MCF-7 (223).
Clearly, TFF are motility factors, although this is not their
only invasion-associated function. The mpS2 null mice
develop antropyloric adenomas and intramucosal carcinomas but no invasive carcinomas, leading to the concluPhysiol Rev VOL
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362
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ase-activated receptors (PAR). Such receptors can be activated through a soluble ligand (TRAP, thrombin receptor-activating peptide) or through tethering of an internal
ligand by a proteinase (103, 139). Thrombin cleaves the G
protein-coupled receptor PAR to influence many cellular
activities, including platelet aggregation, inflammation,
chemotaxis, mitogenesis, apoptosis, and angiogenesis
(89, 195). Biologically functional thrombin receptors were
found on various types of cancer cells from various species (447). Preferential expression of thrombin receptors
in highly invasive and metastatic cancers led some workers to conclude that this receptor was on the invasionstimulatory pathway, and this was supported by the reduction of invasion by introduction of thrombin receptor
antisense cDNA (126). The latter authors did, however,
not evaluate the effect of added thrombin on invasion. In
others experiments, activation of PAR1 with thrombin or
with the peptide agonist SFLLRN inhibited chemotaxis of
mammary cancer cell lines MDAMB231 through an Gi/PI
3-kinase-dependent pathway (195). In recent experiments, thrombin or its peptide agonist inhibited invasion
of human colon cancer cells into collagen type I (128).
PAR1 is coupled to the pertussis toxin-sensitive Go/i
proteins, activating a negative invasion pathway (Fig. 11)
as evidenced by tranfection with activated Go/i subunits.
In contrast, G subunits are on the positive signaling
pathway of various stimulators of invasion.
CANCER INVASION
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Invasion has broadened its scope from cellular pathology to molecular cell biology and cellular microbiology. Although it is the cause of cancer malignancy, invasion is not cancer cell specific because it occurs in many
other pathological and also in normal situations. What
makes cancer cell invasion the hallmark of tumor malignancy? Progression from noninvasive lesions toward invasive carcinomas can be observed in tumors such as
colon cancers emerging in polyps and in cancer of the
uterine cervix. Many cancers display no preinvasive stage
and suggest an almost synchronic start of aberrant growth
and invasion. One hypothesis is that the acquisition of
invasive potential is accompanied by switching on of a
whole program, implicating occupation of new tissue territories, ectopic survival, and clonal growth in the new
territories. Understanding of this program in more detail
may lead to a more refined grading and staging of tumors
and a tailor-made therapy.
More than 100 genes have been identified as tumorpromoter or tumor-suppressor genes, and the products of
these genes belong to various protein superfamilies, such
as cytokines, cell surface receptors, signal transducers,
and transcription factors. Several genetic changes are
needed for full tumor development, and their nature and
order may vary even within a single type of cancer. RNA
and protein microarrays demonstrate bewildering spectra
of differences between normal tissue and noninvasive or
invasive cancers derived therefrom. New algorithms are
needed to translate these arrays into individual tumor
phenotypes that are molecularly, biologically, and clinically relevant. There is no convincing evidence to further
support the idea that oncogenes and tumor-suppressor
genes are implicated in growth disturbance and that they
differ from genes promoting or suppressing differentiation, invasion, or ectopic survival. Phenotypic changes
relevant for acquisition of invasion may be the consequence of changes in different genes, and a single gene
may be implicated in several tumor progression-associated phenotypes, which even may have opposite effects
on invasion. Metastasis is based on a multistep process of
invasion and, as a consequence, only invasive cancer do
metastasize. Conversely, invasive tumors largely differ in
metastatic ability. The number of candidate metastasis
genes that are capable to specifically change the metastatic phenotype of invasive tumors is limited. What
makes an invasive cancer metastatic still remains an open
question. Comparison of microorganisms, embryonic
cells, normal adult cells like leukocytes, and cancer cells
suggests the following hypothesis. Invasion is an evolutionary conserved mechanism of cell-cell interaction; in
adults, invasion is subject to tissue restrictions, compared
with embryonic organisms, and these restrictions seem to
be disturbed during tumor progression.
365
366
20.
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Physiological Reviews provides state of the art coverage of timely issues in the physiological and biomedical sciences. It is
published quarterly in January, April, July, and October by the American Physiological Society, 9650 Rockville Pike, Bethesda
MD 20814-3991. Copyright 2003 by the American Physiological Society. ISSN: 0031-9333, ESSN: 1522-1210. Visit our
website at http://www.the-aps.org/.
Physiological Reviews provides state of the art coverage of timely issues in the physiological and biomedical sciences. It is
published quarterly in January, April, July, and October by the American Physiological Society, 9650 Rockville Pike, Bethesda
MD 20814-3991. Copyright 2003 by the American Physiological Society. ISSN: 0031-9333, ESSN: 1522-1210. Visit our
website at http://www.the-aps.org/.