Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Chris
Carr
Monday
26th
November
2012
with
thanks
to
Patrick Brown
Transfer
Func*on
Series
systems
and
feedback
Characterisa*on
Digi*sa*on
Digital
Signals
Aliasing
Feedback
Fourier
Bandwidth considera*ons
Noise
Design
Considera*ons
Measurement
Range
Resolu*on
Frequency
Response
Noise
Calibrated
accuracy
Stability
(over
*me
and
temperature)
Mass,
power,
telemetry
Reliability
Thermal
and
mechanical
stresses
Radia*on
Cost
Schedule
Poli*cs!
7
Condi*oning
Electronics
Boosts
the
signal
(amplica*on)
Removes
unwanted
signals
(ltering)
Bolton: Mechatronics
10
High Zin
volts
Low Zout
Filtering,
Amplica*on
High Zin
volts
Low Zout
High Zin
Low Zout
X(s)
L{x(t)}
G(s) =
=
Y (s)
L{y(t)}
Integral
Laplace
Transform
Z 1
L{f (t)} = F (s) =
f (t)e
s=
+ j!
st
dt
X(s)
= G1 (s)G2 (s)G3 (s)
Y (s)
X(s)
G(s)
=
Y (s)
1 + G(s)H(s)
Bolton: Mechatronics
13
x(t) = L
{G(s) Y (s)}
14
dx
d2 x
dn x
a0 x + a1
+ a 2 2 . . . a n n = b0 y
dt
dt
dt
y(t)
is
the
input
(forcing
func-on)
x(t)
is
the
output
(response
func-on)
15
Zero-order
System
a 0 x = b0 y
No
*me-dependence
Output
responds
instantly
to
input
b0
a0
16
First-order
System
dx
a0 x + a1
= b0 y
dt
dx
b0
= 0 ! Ks =
dt
a0
Examples:
First-order
lter
(e.g.
RC),
many
sensors
(e.g.
any
temperature
sensor),
many
instruments
(e.g.
magnetometer)
17
Second-order
System
dx
d2 x
a0 x + a1
+ a 2 2 = b0 y
dt
dt
Sta*c response
dx
b0
= 0 ! Ks =
dt
a0
Natural
frequency
!0 =
Damping
ra*o
a0
a2
a1
= p
2 a0 a2
Examples:
2nd
order
lter,
many
mechanical,
electrical
and
mechatronic
systems
18
19
Linear
0 cos(0 + 0 )
Time Invariant
2. Superposi*on
0 cos(0 + 0 )
+
1 cos(1 + 1 )
+
System
Linear
Time
Invariant
System
0 cos(0 + 0 )
+
1 cos(1 + 1 )
+
System
Characterisa*on
Conclude
that
we
may
fully
characterise
a
system
by
measuring
its
1. Transient
Response
(typically
step-input
y(t)=u(t))
2. Sta-c
Response
(a`er
transients
decayed,
typically
for
large
t)
3. Frequency
Response
(response
to
sinusoidal
input
swept
over
some
range
of
input
frequencies)
21
22
Bandwidth ~20Hz
23
Sta*c
Response:
Devia*on
from
the
ideal
Oset
Hysteresis
Non-Linearity
24
Quan*fy
Sta*c
Sensi*vity
Linearity
Zero
oset
Hysteresis
Calibra*on
Hierarchy
Primary
Standard
Interna*onally
Recognised
Secondary
Standard
Other
Na*onal
Ter*ary
Standard
Ter*ary
Standard
Other
Na*onal
26
28
29
Calibra*on
Principle
Compare
against
reference
measurement
with
other
input
factors
controlled
/
constant
Cover
parameter
space
Control
external
factors
such
as
temperature
30
Calibra*on
Principle
Helmholtz
coils
null
Earths
eld
and
apply
test
B
Temperature-controlled
Box
houses
Magnetometer
under
test
Reference
magnetometer
mounted
outside
box
31
32
Electronic
Digi*ser
1.
2.
33
Quan*sa*on
Sampling
quan*ses
*me
into
a
set
of
discrete
values
Want
regularly
spaced
samples
(sampling
*me
Ts)
Variability
or
noise
on
Ts
is
known
as
jiPer
Stable
clock
signal
(e.g.
square-wave)
will
ensure
regular,
low-jiver
sampling
Digi-sa-on
quan*ses
the
con*nuous
analogue
quan*ty
(usually
a
voltage)
as
a
discrete
number
Introduces
an
error
to
the
digi*sed
signal
Quan-sa-on
Error
34
Nyquist
Theorem
A
signal
can
only
be
properly
sampled
if
it
has
frequency
components
below
half
the
sample
rate
Wagon-Wheel
Eect
This
is
Aliasing
36
Aliasing
37
Frequency-domain
Characteris*cs
of
the
Digi*sed
Signal
Fs (!)
!s
1
1 X
F (! + n!s ) (5.3)
Ts n= 1
2
= 2fs
Ts
Avoid
Aliasing
High
design
priority
An*-alias
lter
Filters
the
analogue
signal
Removes
frequencies
higher
than
the
Nyquist
limit
39
Feedback
Many
sensors
are
non-linear
over
the
input
range
we
need
However
approximately
linear
over
a
limited
range
We
can
use
Nega*ve
Feedback
to
operate
the
sensor
only
in
the
linear
regime
Will
see
how
this
is
applied
to
Magnetometers
using
magne-c
feedback
Approximately
linear
range
40
41
42
for BA
The
Gain
of
the
system
is
reduced
1 + BA
B
This
is
also
called
Closed
Loop
Opera-on
Behaviour
of
the
Feedback
path
becomes
dominant
1
43
44
Discussion
ques*on:
f(t)
2
1.5
4.5
7.5
46
Answer
A
mathema*cally
perfect
voltage
output
is
not
possible
Bandwidth
roughly
cost
We
will
always
lose
some
frequencies
and
corrupt
the
signal
Engineering:
The
Art
of
Compromise
Noise
Is
usually
the
limi*ng
factor
in
our
measurement
ability
Comes
from
We
will
consider
1. Thermal
Noise
2. Shot
Noise
3. Flicker
Noise
(1/f)
48
Sensor
electronics
Thermal noise
Shot noise
Extrinsic Noise
Measurement
noise
Quan*sa*on
noise
Flicker
or
1/
noise
Sensor
Pickup
Environmental
Interference
e.g.
magne*c
sources
Electronic
Interference
Conduc*ve
pickup
through
power/signal
wires
Radia*ve
pickup
by
Magne*c
eld
(induc*ve)
or
Electric
Field
(capaci*ve)
49
Power
Spectrum
Flat
(white)
for
thermal,
shot
1/
(pink)
for
icker
50
Thermal Noise
VNRM S =
4RkB T B
51
Shot
Noise
Sta*s*cal
uctua*on
in
number
of
charge
carriers
crossing
a
poten*al
barrier
INRM S =
2eIB
52
Flicker
or
1/
noise
A
fundamental
property
of
measurement
Ubiquitous
Source
generally
unknown
Technology
dependent
1
Power /
f
Z f2
1
fh
Pf 1 . . . f 2 = k
df = k ln
f
fl
f1
53
54
Accommoda*on
Mechanical
Stresses
Thermal
Stresses
Radia*on
Reliability/Redundancy
55
Radia*on
hard
Hi-Rel
Dual-redundant
bus
architecture
Fault-tolerant
by
design
12-years
con*nuous
opera*on
(4
instruments)
No
degrada*on
56
Instrument
Accommoda*on
on
the
Satellite
Pla|orm
Sensor
Boom-mounted
Removed
from
magne*c
sources
on
the
pla|orm
But
thermally
challenging
and
exposed
to
radia*on
Electronics
Box
Pla|orm-mounted
Benign
thermal/radia*on
environment
57
58
Mechanical
Stress
Test
design
for
Sta*c
load
10s
g
Random
load
General
strength
test
Sinusoidal
load
Search
for
resonances
Acous*c
load
Exhaust
reec*on
from
pad
Shock
test
Stage
separa*on,
especially
upper-stage
pyro-separa*on
from
satellite
Thermal Stress
60
Radia*on
Electron,
proton
and
heavy-ion
eects
+ +
+ +
High-energy
par*cles
cause
a basic
cell to
- Minority can
carrier
lifetime
isstorage
degraded
++
p-substrate
change
state
- Reduces
ofabipolar
Transient
eects
sgain
uch
s
(SEU)transistors
+
Also affects optical detectors and some types of light-emitting diodes
memory
bit-ips
Effects become important for proton fluences above 10 p/cm
Mobility and carrier concentration are also affected
Latch-up
Only important for high fluences
Note the longer path length for strikes at angle
Catastrophic
g
ate
r
upture
Particles Producing Displacement Damage
Incident
particle
Protons
(all energies)
3. Displacement
D
amage
Electrons with energies above 150 keV
10
+-
-+
Electron-hole pairs
from ionization in gate oxide
VG
37
Crystal
lajce
corrup*on
Neutrons
(from on-board power sources)
Op*cs
and
optoelectronics
specially
vulnerable
61
Johnstone/NASA-JPL
22
Reliability
Hi-Rel
or
established
reliability
components
Highest
level
of
fabrica*on
scru*ny
and
tes*ng
Burn-in
to
avoid
infant
mortality
Special
processes
for
reliability
and
radia*on-hardness
Circuit
design
prac*ce
to
mi*gate
single-point
failures
Formal
methodologies:
Worst-case
analysis
De-ra*ng
Failure
Modes
Eects
and
Cri*cality
Analysis
(FMECA)
62
Redundancy
Cluster
FGM
Instrument
Block
Diagram
FGM
OUTBOARD
SENSOR
FGM
INBOARD
SENSOR
FGM-OB
ELECTRONICS
FGM-IB
ELECTRONICS
DUAL
MULTIPLEXER
& ADC
DPU-2
DUAL
POWER
MANAGEMENT
UNIT
PRIME REDUNDANT
NASA/GSFC
bus #1
INTERFACE
#2
INTERFACE
#1
COMMAND &
DATA
INTERFACE
(REDUNDANT)
POWER
INTERFACES
IWF GRAZ
DPU-1
bus #2
INTERNAL
POWER
DISTRIBUTION
DUAL
POWER
SUPPLY
UNIT
MSA
TU-BS
INTEREXPERIMENT
LINK
ICSTM
COMMAND &
DATA
INTERFACE
(PRIME)
63
Magnetoresis*ve
magnetometers
Calibra*on
and
magne*c
cleanliness
64
Instrument
Analogue
Digital
Spacecraft
65
Range (T)
SQUID
10-14 10
No Cryostat needed
Optically Pumped
Fluxgate
Nuclear Precession
10-11 10-2
Yes - |B|
Hall Effect
10-3 10-2
No
Search Coil
10-12 106
66
Huggard 1970
67
Vector Mode
Light from a He lamp, 1.08um
Directed into a He absorption cell
He cell atoms are in meta-stable state by RF discharge
Presence of ambient field causes Zeeman splitting
Emergent radiation is measured by IR detector
The measured absorption depends on efficiency of the
optical pumping which is a function of the magnetic field
Helmholtz coils around cell apply rotating sweep fields
Signal modulated by rotating sweep fields applied by
surrounding Helmholtz coils
Output is a sinusoid whose magnitude and phase give the
size and direction of the field
Scalar mode
AC field applied.
Absorption greatest when AC frequency = Larmor
frequency.
Larmor frequency related to |B| by fundamental constants
Result is a very accurate measure of absolute field
Smith 1975
68
Induction Magnetometers
Faraday
induc*on
law
Vi =
d / dt
=
d(BA) / dt
= d(NA o r (t)H (t)) / dt
Since B = o rH
Expanded
Search
Coil
MGMs
Rota*ng
coil
MGMs
69
Fluxgate
MGMs
Search-Coil Magnetometer
Core
of
high
magne*c
permeability
wound
with
coil
3
orthogonal
axes
Bandwidth
100mHz
to
100s
kHz
(typical)
70
71
Fluxgate Magnetometer
First
developed
by
by
Aschenbrenner
and
Goubau
[1936]
Ripka
/ Sensors and
Actuators
A1
P.Rapid
development
during
40s
and
50s
for
military
and
geophysical
applica*ons
Fluxgate
signal
in
Vind
is
second
harmonic
of
the
excita*on
frequency
Iexc
Ripka (2003)
72
Ring-core Fluxgate
Operating Principle
Soft permeable core driven around hysteresis
loop at frequency f0
Field-proportional voltage at 2f0 induced in
sense winding
Output signal rectified, integrated and used to
drive magnetic feedback
Sensor operates as a null-detector
Closed-loop operation improves linearity
Advantages
Low noise <10pT/ Hz @1Hz
Wide dynamic range
Mature technology and robust
Relatively inexpensive
Disadvantages
Sensor mass
Power ~ 1W
Calibration drift with time and temperature
Offset, gain, angles
73
CASE A
C1
H
HD
C2
Drive (f0)
CASE B
HD
Vi
2f0
Measured 2f
Reference 2f
75
(Magnes 1999)
Measured signal
Feedback signal
77
Two conclusions
Measurement range only set by feedback circuit
Output noise is dominated by input amplifier and sensor noise only
(Very low noise analogue pre-amps available)
78
A digital fluxgate
control loop
ADC
48/96kHz
(AD1835)
Field
Correlation
(ADSP-21262)
Integrator
DAC
6kHz
(AD1835)
Drive
winding
f (12kHz)
Drive
circuitry
48kHz
Serial link to
PC 22Hz
79
OBrien
(2007)
Replace
+
with
80
Fluxgate Noise
1/f
dominant
Calculate
RMS
noise
in
any
band
fLfH
NRM S =
sZ
fH
P (f )df =
fL
P (1) ln
fH
fL
pT
N SD 5 p
Hz
Ripka (2003)
Fig. 3. Noise of Billingsley Magnetics fluxgate sensor. The sensor core
is 17 mm diameter amorphous ring (from [32]).
81
Quantization Noise
Use
oversampling
plus
digital
ltering
to
reduce
Quan*sa*on
Noise
Quan*sa*on
noise
should
be
matched
to
intrinsic
sensor
noise
82
83
Anisotropic Magnetoresistance
Barber Poles
Max sensitivity & linearity
at M v H 45o
Conductive strips for
linear operation
AMR Sensors
Thin film solid state devices
Implemented as Wheatstone
bridge
Mass <1g, Ceramic package
R = R + R cos 2 ((H ))
0
0
Philips
84
Integrated coils
Offset coils
Planar coil parallel to Hard (sensitive)
axis
Permits magnetic feedback
Used in closed loop back off measured
field
Improves linearity and variation of
gain with temperature
Suppresses Barkhausen noise
85
Vo = H y
RFB
ACOIL
86
Fluxgate vs AMR
DSP
(20mV/div)
AMR
(20mV/div)
Calibra*on
Each
instrument
3
sensors
Oset
Gain
2
angles
12
parameters
to
nd
All
measured
pre-launch
Evolu*on
in
10
can
be
inferred
from
in-ight
data
BS1 G1 cos1
BS 2 = G2 cos 2
B G cos
3
S 3 3
G1 sin 1 cos 1
G2 sin 2 cos 2
G3 sin 3 cos 3
88
G1 sin 1 sin 1 Bx O1
G2 sin 1 sin 2 By + O2
G3 sin 1 sin 3 Bz O3
Calibra*on
Team:
Leah-nani
Alconcel,
Patrick
Brown
(TM),
Peter
Fox,
Chris
Carr
(PI),
Tim
Oddy,
Barry
Whiteside
91
92
Mod.dip. field
Obs. field
93
94