TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS

I. Dynamic Response and Dynamic Error

Instruments seldom respond instantaneously to changes in the measured
variables; rather they show some delay in response. The response
generally starts quickly and then becomes gradual in reaching a steadystate value. The time lapse when a system is exposed to a change until
the system starts to response is the lag time (or dead time). There are
several factors that influence the speed of response of a temperature
sensor such as:
The mass of the shield of the temperature sensor.
The insulating air space between the sensor and the protecting well
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 The velocity of the moving medium being measured.

The type of medium being measured.
When the temperature sensor (or any other sensor/instrument) is exposed
to a step change in the environment of which it is sensing the
temperature, the temperature readout of the sensor is lower than the
actual temperature. This difference is known as the dynamic error of the
sensor as shown in Figure1 and 2 below (for first-order response
instrument).

120.0
Step change (ideal T response)

Temperature (C)

100.0
80.0
actual T response
60.0

dynamic errror
dynamic
error

40.0
20.0
T-dynamic
0.0
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

Time (sec.)

Figure 1: Temperature response to a step change

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1.2

Normalized dynamic error (Xt/Xo)

Dynamic error
1
0.8
0.6

Xt/Xo = 0.368

0.4
0.2
0
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

time constant = 0.25 s.

0.8

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

Time (sec.)

Figure 2: Dynamic errors

As an example shown in Figures 1 and 2, a temperature sensor is in an

environment at temperature T1 of 20oC. The temperature of the
environment is assumed to have a surge in temperature to T2 of 100oC
(ideal step change). Therefore the initial (maximum) dynamic error Xo =
(T2-T1) = (100- 20) = 80oC. The dynamic error of the temperature
reading is defined as:
Xt = T2 -Td
Where Td is the actual temperature response (or temperature reading) of
the temperature sensor at a given time t after it was exposed to the step
change in temperature.

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As shown in Figure 2 the dynamic error of the temperature sensor shows

an exponential decay trend. Therefore, the rate of change of the dynamic
error can be written as:
dX
= k X
dt

(1)

Integration of Equation (1) for time t = 0 to some time t gives:

X
ln t = k t
Xo

(2)

Xt

= e kt
Xo

(3)

When t is equal to the time constant tc of the sensor, which is defined as

tc=1/k, then:
Xt

= e 1 = 0.368
Xo

(4)

Therefore, as indicated by Equation (4), when the elapsed time is equal

to the time constant, the response of the sensor has covered 63.2% of the
step change in the temperature as shown below. At t = tc:
Td = T2 Xtc = T2 0.368 Xo
Td = T2 0.368(T2-T1)
Td T1 = T2 0.368T2 + 0.368T1 T1
(Td T1) = 0.632 (T2 T1)

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(Td T1) is 63.2% of the overall step change (T2 T1).

A first-order-response instrument shows a quick response initially, the

response then slows down considerably to the point of achieving a
steady-state measurement. The bare-wire thermocouple usually exhibits
a first-order response to a step change in temperature of the environment
it is in. From the energy balance for the sensor and the surrounding, the
first-order temperature response can be described by the following
differential equation:

dT
+ T = TF
dt

(5)

where is the time constant of the temperature sensor, T is the dynamic

temperature of the sensor, TF is the step change of temperature and t is
time.

T = T0 + (TF T0 ) (1 exp( t / ))

However, for a shielded temperature sensor with a low thermal

conductivity shield, the temperature response could exhibit a secondorder temperature response as described by:
W

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d2 T
dT
(
)
S
+
+
+ T = TF

W
S
dt
d t2

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(6)

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where W and S are the time constant of the sensor itself and the shield
of the sensor, respectively. The ratio of (W + S)/(2(W . S)) is known
as the damping ratio. For a large damping ratio (greater than 1.0) the
profile is similar to that of the first order system). On the other hand for
smaller damping ratio, the profile is oscillating.

exp( t / s ) w exp( t / w )

T = T0 + (TF T0 )1 + s

w
s

II. Temperature Measurements

1. Thermometer
Common liquid used:
Alcohol: for temperature range from 50 200oC
Xylene: for temperature range from -40 to 400oC
Hg: for temperature range from -37 to 350oC (Hg freezes at -37.8oC)
Cautions:
Do not immerse the whole stem of the thermometer in the
environment where the temperature is measured. Only place the bulb
of the thermometer in the environment so to avoid error due to
different thermal expansion coefficients of liquid and glass.
Allow the liquid level in the thermometer stabilized before taking the
temperature reading.

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 Precision of liquid filled thermometer is of the smallest division on

the scale. Highly accurate Hg thermometer from NIST (National
Institute of Standards and Testing) could measure to 0.05oC

2. Resistance temperature detector (RTD)

RTD is basically an electrical wire, typically Pt, Ag, Ni, Cu .etc.., which
is used to sense the temperature change based on the principle of the
temperature dependency of the wire resistance as shown below:
R = R1 [1 + (T T1 )]

(7)

Where R and R1 is the resistances of the wire at T and T1, respectively

and the linear temperature coefficient of the wire resistance, which is
defined as below:
=

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( R2 R1)
R1 (T2 T1 )

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(8)

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Where R2 is the wire resistance at T2.

However, the relationship between the wire resistance and temperature

is usually non-linear. The relationship can then be expressed as:

R = Ro 1 + aT + bT 2

(9)

Where Ro is the wire resistance at the reference temperature of zero oC.

An RTD sensor can be integrated into a Wheatstone bridge circuit to

convert the RTD resistance change with temperature to a voltage output.
The voltage output can be calibrated to give readings of temperature.

a) No lead wire

1. At the calibrated temperature:

Ro

Rx

Vs

Rx = R0
Va = Ro/(Ro+Ro)Vs = Vs/2

Ro

Ro

Vb = Ro/(Ro+Ro)Vs = Vs/2
Vab = Va Vb = 0

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2. At some other temperature:

Rx = Ro +R
Va = Ro/(Ro+Ro)Vs = Vs/2
Vb = Ro/(Ro+Rx)Vs = Ro/(Ro + Ro + R)Vs = Ro/( 2Ro + R)Vs
Vab= Vs/2 - Ro/( 2Ro + R)Vs = Vs[1/2 Ro/(2Ro + R)]
Vab= Vs[(2Ro + R-2Ro)/(2(2Ro+ R))]= Vs[(R/Ro)/(2(2+ R/Ro))]
Vab =

R / R o
VS

4 1 + R / 2R o

Since R << Ro, R/2Ro << 1, Vab can be simplified as:

Vab =

VS R

4 Ro

(10)

b) With lead wire

(in Experimental Methods for Engineers, J. Holman)

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1. At the calibrated temperature:

RL
Ro

Rx

Vs

(RL + Rx) = Ro
Va = Ro/(Ro+Ro)Vs = Vs/2

Ro

Ro

Vb = Ro/(Ro+Ro)Vs = Vs/2
Vab = Va Vb = 0

b) At some other temperature:

(RL + Rx) = Ro +Rx+ RL for the RTD wire and the lead wire
Va = Ro/(Ro+Ro)Vs = Vs/2
Vb = Ro/(Ro + Ro + Rx+ RL)Vs
Vab= Vs/2 - Ro/(2 Ro + Rx+ RL)Vs
Vab= Vs[(2Ro + Rx+ RL -2Ro)/(2(2Ro+ Rx+ RL))]
Vab = (Vs/4) [((Rx+ RL )/Ro)/ (1+ Rx/ 2Ro + RL/ 2Ro)]

Since Rx and RL << Ro, Rx/2Ro << 1 and RL/2Ro << 1, the
equation for Vab can be simplified as:
Vab =

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VS (Rx + R L )

4
Ro

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(11)

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RL is not known, not calibrated and uncontrollable since it is exposed

to the outside environment that is subject to sporadic changes. This is a
source of error in the temperature measurement by RTD.
c) Lead wire compensation

(in Experimental Methods for Engineers, J. Holman)

1. At the calibrated temperature:

RL

Rx (RL + Rx) = Ro, (RL + RD) = Ro

Ro
Vs

Va = Ro/(Ro+Ro)Vs = Vs/2
Ro

RL

Vab = Va Vb = 0

RD

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Vb = Ro/(Ro+Ro)Vs = Vs/2

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b) At some other temperature:

(RL + Rx) = Ro +Rx+ RL for the RTD wire and the lead wire
(RL + RD) = Ro + RL for the dummy wire

Va = Ro/(Ro+Ro)Vs = Vs/2
Vb = (Ro+RL) /[(Ro+RL) + (Ro + Rx+ RL)]Vs

Vab= Vs/2 - (Ro+RL)/(2 Ro + Rx+ 2RL)Vs

Vab= Vs[(2Ro + Rx+ 2RL -2Ro- 2RL)/(2(2Ro+ Rx+ 2RL))]
Vab = (Vs/4) [Rx / (Ro + Rx / 2 + RL)]
Vab = (Vs/4) [Rx/Ro / (1 + Rx / 2Ro + RL/Ro)]

Since Rx and RL << Ro, Rx/2Ro << 1 and RL/Ro << 1, the
equation for Vab can be simplified as:
Vab =

VS Rx

4 Ro

(12)

Equation (12) has the same form as that of Equation (10) where the
uncertain RL is eliminated.

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3. Thermistors

Thermistors are semiconductor sensors whose resistances decrease with

temperature, such as: FeO, NiO, MnO The relationship of the
thermistor resistance and temperature can be written as below:
R = Ro e

1 1

T To

(13)

where Ro is the resistance of the thermistor at the ref. temperature To.

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Generally thermistors are more sensitive than RTD. They can have a
precision of 0.01oC as compared with 0.1oC for RTD. In addition,
the error due to lead wire is insignificant since the resistance of the
thermistor is very high compared to that of the lead wire. However, the
suitable temperature range for thermistors is narrower, from -100 to
400oC while RTD can cover from -100 to 1000 oC.

4. Thermocouple
A thermocouple consists of two dissimilar metal wires twisted together
to form a junction that can act as a temperature sensor. For example
copper wire and constantan wire (55% copper plus 45% nickel).

Seebeck effect:
The use of a thermocouple as a temperature sensor is based on the
principle of the Seebeck effect. The Seebeck effect states that an emf is
generated in the thermocouple when the junction is heated or cooled.
Junction

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copper

Constantan

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VAB is finite when the junction is at a temperature different from that at

the terminals A and B.

Law of intermediate metals:

Junction

copper

A
iron

Constantan

When another metal (iron) is added to the thermocouple circuit as shown

in the above sketch, two more junctions are formed at points A and B.
As long as the junctions at A and B are kept at the same temperature, the
emf generated by the main junction isnt altered; i.e. the temperature
reading doesnt change.

Law of intermediate temperatures

hot junction

copper

cold junction

E
constantan

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For the same thermocouple, i.e. the same two dissimilar metal junctions,
the emf generated at different temperatures are additive:
E3 = E1 + E2
Where E1 is the emf for the cold junction at 0oC and the hot junction at
50 oC, E2 is the emf for the cold junction at 50oC and hot junction at 100
o

C, E3 is the emf for the cold junction at 0oC and hot junction at 100 oC.

Precautions for use of T/C:

Extension wire should have similar properties as those of the T/C
otherwise the two junctions of the extension wires and the T/C wires
should be kept at the same temperature.
Extension wire should be thick (having a low resistance) so to
minimize the error associated with the wire heating since the wire
resistance R = .L/S where is the resistivity of the wire, L is the
length and S is the cross-sectional area of the wire.

5. Correction for temperature measurement under high-velocity

For temperature measurements of a flow at high speed, usually gas flow,
the effect of the stagnation point at the tip of the temperature sensor on

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the reading could be significant. At the stagnation point, the stagnation

temperature, Ts, is:
u2
TS = T +
2 C p gc

(14)

Where T is the temperature of the bulk gas, u is the velocity of gas the
flow, Cp is the specific heat of the gas.

The temperature registered by the sensor (the measured temperature) is

usually different than the stagnation temperature due to the effect of the
shield intruding in the flow path. The measured temperature is called the
recovery temperature. It is strongly dependent on the configuration of
the sensor and the shield. The relative difference between the measured
temperature by the sensor, Tr, and the stagnation temperature, TS, is
known as the recovery factor, r:

r=

Tr T
Ts T

(15)

7. Temperature measurements by radiation

The temperature of an object can be determined from the total thermal
radiation emitted from the object. For an ideal body, the total energy
emitted is proportional to the fourth power of the temperature.

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However, most practical objects are non-ideal bodies and a correction

must be made to obtain the true temperature of the target. This
correction is done by the emissivity of the non-ideal body as below:
E = T4

(16)

Where E is the energy emitted by the object at the temperature T (in K

or oR), is the emissivity of the object ( 1.0) and is the StefanBoltzmann constant
= 1.74x10-9 BTU/(h.ft2.oR4) or 5.669x10-8 W/(m2.K4)
When an object is an ideal body, the emissivity is equal to 1.0, and
Equation (16) is then known as the Stefan-Boltzmann equation.

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7.1. Optical Pyrometer

The optical pyrometer is simply a photometer that matches the energy
emitted from a reference source with the incoming one from the target
source. As an example in the laboratory of this course, the target source
is an incandescent lamp whose tungsten filament temperature can be
varied by adjusting the current through it (by adjusting a knob on the
optical pyrometer). When the brightness of the reference filament in the
optical pyrometer matches the brightness of the target filament being
measured, the image of the reference filament blends into the colour of
the background of the viewing field in the optical pyrometer. At this
point, the intensity of the energy emitted from the target is equal to that
emitted from the reference and hence the temperature of the target (light
bulb) can be read from the display on a digital readout.

2. Total Radiation Pyrometer

The total radiation pyrometer is the most commonly used pyrometer for
continuous non-contacting measurement of temperature. Radiation (both
infrared and visible) passes through a lens and is then concentrated on a
heat-sensing element, which produces an electric signal. This sensing
element or detector may be a thermopile, a thin thermistor flake, or a

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resistance thermometer. Thermopiles are the most commonly used.

Ambient temperature compensation may be required since the body of
the pyrometer is heated by the target radiation and the thermopile is
sensitive to the body heat.

The current (or voltage) produced by the sensing detector is sent to a

potentiometer or a millivoltmeter where the current can be read. The
total radiation pyrometer can be used to measure low temperature.
However, temperatures measured are also subject to errors:

if the source is not an ideal body: Error = (1 - 1/4)

if the optical system gets dirty and adsorbs too much radiation,
If part of the radiant energy is absorbed before it reaches the
instruments, such as absorption by smoke and dust. Gases such as
carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, and water vapour absorb infrared
radiation.

The emissivity of a material (usually written or e) is the relative ability

of its surface to emit energy by radiation. It is the ratio of energy
radiated by a particular material to energy radiated by a black body at

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the same temperature. A true black body would have an = 1 while any
real object would have < 1. Emissivity is a dimensionless quantity.
In general, the duller and blacker a material is, the closer its emissivity is
to 1. The more reflective a material is, the lower its emissivity. Highly
polished silver has an emissivity of about 0.02.[1]

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