Elo Rating System

24/09/2015
EloratingsystemWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Eloratingsystem
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
TheEloratingsystemisamethodforcalculatingtherelativeskill
levelsofplayersincompetitorversuscompetitorgamessuchas
chess.ItisnamedafteritscreatorArpadElo,aHungarianborn
Americanphysicsprofessor.
TheElosystemwasoriginallyinventedasanimprovedchessrating
systembutisalsousedasaratingsystemformultiplayer
competitioninanumberofvideogames,[1]associationfootball,
gridironfootball,basketball,[2]MajorLeagueBaseball,competitive
programming,Magic:TheGathering,esports,andothergames.
Thedifferenceintheratingsbetweentwoplayersservesasa
predictoroftheoutcomeofamatch.Twoplayerswithequalratings
whoplayagainsteachotherareexpectedtoscoreanequalnumber
ofwins.Aplayerwhoseratingis100pointsgreaterthantheir
opponent'sisexpectedtoscore64%ifthedifferenceis200points,
thentheexpectedscoreforthestrongerplayeris76%.
ArpadElo,theinventoroftheElo
ratingsystem
Aplayer'sEloratingisrepresentedbyanumberwhichincreasesordecreasesbasedupontheoutcomeof
gamesbetweenratedplayers.Aftereverygame,thewinningplayertakespointsfromthelosingone.The
differencebetweentheratingsofthewinnerandloserdeterminesthetotalnumberofpointsgainedorlost
afteragame.Inaseriesofgamesbetweenahighratedplayerandalowratedplayer,thehighratedplayer
isexpectedtoscoremorewins.Ifthehighratedplayerwins,thenonlyafewratingpointswillbetaken
fromthelowratedplayer.However,ifthelowerratedplayerscoresanupsetwin,manyratingpointswill
betransferred.Thelowerratedplayerwillalsogainafewpointsfromthehigherratedplayerintheevent
ofadraw.Thismeansthatthisratingsystemisselfcorrecting.Aplayerwhoseratingistoolowshould,in
thelongrun,dobetterthantheratingsystempredicts,andthusgainratingpointsuntiltheratingreflects
theirtrueplayingstrength.
Contents
1History
1.1ImplementingElo'sscheme
2Differentratingssystems
2.1FIDEratings
2.1.1Performancerating
2.1.2FIDEtournamentcategories
2.2Liveratings
2.3UnitedStatesChessFederationratings
2.3.1TheKfactorusedbytheUSCF
2.3.2Ratingfloors
2.4Ratingsofcomputers
3Theory
3.1Mathematicaldetails
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elo_rating_system
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3.1Mathematicaldetails
3.2Mathematicalissues
3.2.1Mostaccuratedistributionmodel
3.2.2MostaccurateKfactor
4Practicalissues
4.1Gameactivityversusprotectingone'srating
4.2Selectivepairing
4.3Ratingsinflationanddeflation
4.3.1Combattingdeflation
5Useoutsideofchess
5.1Useoutsideofgaming
6Referencesinthemedia
7References
8Furtherreading
9Externallinks
History
ArpadElowasamasterlevelchessplayerandanactiveparticipantintheUnitedStatesChessFederation
(USCF)fromitsfoundingin1939.[3]TheUSCFusedanumericalratingssystem,devisedbyKenneth
Harkness,toallowmemberstotracktheirindividualprogressintermsotherthantournamentwinsand
losses.TheHarknesssystemwasreasonablyfair,butinsomecircumstancesgaverisetoratingswhich
manyobserversconsideredinaccurate.OnbehalfoftheUSCF,Elodevisedanewsystemwithamore
soundstatisticalbasis.
Elo'ssystemreplacedearliersystemsofcompetitiverewardswithasystembasedonstatisticalestimation.
Ratingsystemsformanysportsawardpointsinaccordancewithsubjectiveevaluationsofthe'greatness'of
certainachievements.Forexample,winninganimportantgolftournamentmightbeworthanarbitrarily
chosenfivetimesasmanypointsaswinningalessertournament.
Astatisticalendeavor,bycontrast,usesamodelthatrelatesthegameresultstounderlyingvariables
representingtheabilityofeachplayer.
Elo'scentralassumptionwasthatthechessperformanceofeachplayerineachgameisanormally
distributedrandomvariable.Althoughaplayermightperformsignificantlybetterorworsefromonegame
tothenext,Eloassumedthatthemeanvalueoftheperformancesofanygivenplayerchangesonlyslowly
overtime.Elothoughtofaplayer'strueskillasthemeanofthatplayer'sperformancerandomvariable.
Afurtherassumptionisnecessary,becausechessperformanceintheabovesenseisstillnotmeasurable.
Onecannotlookatasequenceofmovesandsay,"Thatperformanceis2039."Performancecanonlybe
inferredfromwins,drawsandlosses.Therefore,ifaplayerwinsagame,heisassumedtohaveperformed
atahigherlevelthanhisopponentforthatgame.Converselyifheloses,heisassumedtohaveperformed
atalowerlevel.Ifthegameisadraw,thetwoplayersareassumedtohaveperformedatnearlythesame
level.
Elodidnotspecifyexactlyhowclosetwoperformancesoughttobetoresultinadrawasopposedtoawin
orloss.Andwhilehethoughtitislikelythateachplayermighthaveadifferentstandarddeviationtohis
performance,hemadeasimplifyingassumptiontothecontrary.
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Tosimplifycomputationevenfurther,Eloproposedastraightforwardmethodofestimatingthevariablesin
hismodel(i.e.thetrueskillofeachplayer).Onecouldcalculaterelativelyeasily,fromtables,howmany
gamesaplayerwouldbeexpectedtowinbasedonacomparisonofhisratingtotheratingsofhis
opponents.Ifaplayerwonmoregamesthanexpected,hisratingwouldbeadjustedupward,whileifhe
wonfewerthanexpectedhisratingwouldbeadjusteddownward.Moreover,thatadjustmentwastobein
exactlinearproportiontothenumberofwinsbywhichtheplayerhadexceededorfallenshortofhis
expectednumber.
Fromamodernperspective,Elo'ssimplifyingassumptionsarenotnecessarybecausecomputingpoweris
inexpensiveandwidelyavailable.Moreover,evenwithinthesimplifiedmodel,moreefficientestimation
techniquesarewellknown.Severalpeople,mostnotablyMarkGlickman,haveproposedusingmore
sophisticatedstatisticalmachinerytoestimatethesamevariables.Ontheotherhand,thecomputational
simplicityoftheElosystemhasproventobeoneofitsgreatestassets.Withtheaidofapocketcalculator,
aninformedchesscompetitorcancalculatetowithinonepointwhathisnextofficiallypublishedratingwill
be,whichhelpspromoteaperceptionthattheratingsarefair.
ImplementingElo'sscheme
TheUSCFimplementedElo'ssuggestionsin1960,[4]andthesystemquicklygainedrecognitionasbeing
bothmorefairandaccuratethantheHarknessratingsystem.Elo'ssystemwasadoptedbytheWorldChess
Federation(FIDE)in1970.ElodescribedhisworkinsomedetailinthebookTheRatingofChessplayers,
PastandPresent,publishedin1978.
Subsequentstatisticaltestshavesuggestedthatchessperformanceisalmostcertainlynotdistributedasa
normaldistribution,asweakerplayershavegreaterwinningchancesthanElo'smodelpredicts."Whatisthe
elosystem"(http://tellyousomething.com/index.php/2015/07/08/whatistheelosystem/).Therefore,the
USCFandsomechesssitesuseaformulabasedonthelogisticdistribution.Significantstatisticalanomalies
havealsobeenfoundwhenusingthelogisticdistributioninchess.[5]FIDEcontinuestousetherating
differencetableasproposedbyElo.ThetableiscalculatedwithExpectation0,andstandarddeviation2000
/7.
Thenormalandlogisticdistributionpointsare,inaway,arbitrarypointsinaspectrumofdistributions
whichwouldworkwell.Inpractice,bothofthesedistributionsworkverywellforanumberofdifferent
games.
Differentratingssystems
Thephrase"Elorating"isoftenusedtomeanaplayer'schessratingascalculatedbyFIDE.However,this
usageisconfusingandmisleading,becauseElo'sgeneralideashavebeenadoptedbymanyorganizations,
includingtheUSCF(beforeFIDE),theInternetChessClub(ICC),FreeInternetChessServer(FICS),
Yahoo!Games,andthenowdefunctProfessionalChessAssociation(PCA).Eachorganizationhasa
uniqueimplementation,andnoneofthemfollowsElo'soriginalsuggestionsprecisely.Itwouldbemore
accuratetorefertoalloftheaboveratingsasEloratings,andnoneofthemastheElorating.
Insteadonemayrefertotheorganizationgrantingtherating,e.g."AsofAugust2002,GregoryKaidanov
hadaFIDEratingof2638andaUSCFratingof2742."ItshouldbenotedthattheEloratingsofthese
variousorganizationsarenotalwaysdirectlycomparable.Forexample,someonewithaFIDEratingof
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2500willgenerallyhaveaUSCFratingnear2600andanICCratingintherangeof2500to3100.On
FICS,thecommand"tellsurveybotratingsfideestimate"givesaFIDEratingestimatebasedontheuser's
FICSrating.
FIDEratings
Seealso:FIDEWorldRankings
Fortopplayers,themostimportantratingistheirFIDErating.SinceJuly2012,FIDEissuesaratingslist
onceeverymonth.
ThefollowinganalysisoftheJuly2015FIDEratinglistgivesaroughimpressionofwhatagivenFIDE
ratingmeans:
5323playershadanactiveratingintherange2200to2299,whichisusuallyassociatedwiththe
CandidateMastertitle.
2869playershadanactiveratingintherange2300to2399,whichisusuallyassociatedwiththe
FIDEMastertitle.
1420playershadanactiveratingbetween2400and2499,mostofwhomhadeithertheInternational
MasterortheInternationalGrandmastertitle.
542playershadanactiveratingbetween2500and2599,mostofwhomhadtheInternational
Grandmastertitle.
187playershadanactiveratingbetween2600and2699,allofwhomhadtheInternational
Grandmastertitle.
40playershadanactiveratingbetween2700and2799.
4activeplayershadaratingover2800:MagnusCarlsen,VeselinTopalov,ViswanathanAnand,and
HikaruNakamura.
November2011markedthefirsttimefiveplayershadaratingof2800orhigher.ThehighesteverFIDE
ratingwas2882,whichMagnusCarlsenhadontheMay2014list.Alistofthehighestratedplayerseveris
atComparisonoftopchessplayersthroughouthistory.
Performancerating
Performanceratingisahypotheticalratingthatwouldresultfromthegamesofasingleeventonly.Some
chessorganizationsusethe"algorithmof400"tocalculateperformancerating.Accordingtothisalgorithm,
performanceratingforaneventiscalculatedbytaking(1)theratingofeachplayerbeatenandadding400,
(2)theratingofeachplayerlosttoandsubtracting400,(3)theratingofeachplayerdrawn,and(4)
summingthesefiguresanddividingbythenumberofgamesplayed.
Example:2Wins,2Losses
Thiscanbeexpressedbythefollowingformula:
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Example:IfyoubeataplayerwithanEloratingof1000,
IfyoubeattwoplayerswithEloratingsof1000,
Ifyoudraw,
Thisisasimplification,becauseitdoesn'ttakeaccountofKfactors(thisfactoris
explainedfurtherbelow),butitoffersaneasywaytogetanestimateofPR(performance
rating).
1.00
+800
0.99
+677
0.9
+366
0.8
+240
0.7
+149
0.6
+72
0.5
0.4
72
0.3
149
0.2
240
0.1
366
0.01
677
0.00
800
FIDE,however,calculatesperformanceratingbymeansoftheformula:Opponents'RatingAverage+
RatingDifference.RatingDifference isbasedonaplayer'stournamentpercentagescore ,whichis
thenusedasthekeyinalookuptablewhere issimplythenumberofpointsscoreddividedbythenumber
ofgamesplayed.Notethat,incaseofaperfectornoscore is800.Thefulltablecanbefoundinthe
FIDEhandbook,B.PermanentCommissions1.0.Requirementsforthetitlesdesignatedin0.31,1.48
(https://www.fide.com/component/handbook/?id=174&view=article)online.Asimplifiedversionofthis
tableisontheright.
FIDEtournamentcategories
FIDEclassifiestournamentsintocategoriesaccordingtotheaverageratingoftheplayers.Eachcategoryis
25ratingpointswide.Category1isforanaverageratingof2251to2275,category2is2276to2300,etc.
Forwomen'stournaments,thecategoriesare200ratingpointslower,soaCategory1isanaverageratingof
2051to2075,etc.[6]Thehighestratedtournamenthasbeencategory23,withanaveragefrom2801to
2825.Thetopcategoriesareinthetable.
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Category
Averagerating
Minimum Maximum
14
2576
2600
15
2601
2625
16
2626
2650
17
2651
2675
18
2676
2700
19
2701
2725
20
2726
2750
21
2751
2775
22
2776
2800
23
2801
2825
Liveratings
FIDEupdatesitsratingslistatthebeginningofeachmonth.Incontrast,theunofficial"Liveratings"
calculatethechangeinplayers'ratingsaftereverygame.TheseLiveratingsarebasedonthepreviously
publishedFIDEratings,soaplayer'sLiveratingisintendedtocorrespondtowhattheFIDEratingwould
beifFIDEweretoissueanewlistthatday.
AlthoughLiveratingsareunofficial,interestaroseinLiveratingsinAugust/September2008whenfive
differentplayerstookthe"Live"No.1ranking.[7]
Theunofficialliveratingsofplayersover2700werepublishedandmaintainedbyHansArildRundeatthe
LiveRatingwebsite(http://chess.liverating.org)untilAugust2011.Anotherwebsitewww.2700chess.com
(http://www.2700chess.com)hasbeenmaintainedsinceMay2011byArtiomTsepotan,whichcoversthe
top100playersaswellasthetop50femaleplayers.
Currently,theNo.1spotinboththeofficialFIDEratinglistandtheliveratinglististakenbyMagnus
Carlsen.
UnitedStatesChessFederationratings
TheUnitedStatesChessFederation(USCF)usesitsownclassificationofplayers:[8]
2400andabove:SeniorMaster
22002399:NationalMaster
22002399plus300gamesabove2200:OriginalLifeMaster[9]
20002199:Expert
18001999:ClassA
16001799:ClassB
14001599:ClassC
12001399:ClassD
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10001199:ClassE
800999:ClassF
600799:ClassG
400599:ClassH
200399:ClassI
0199:ClassJ
Ingeneral,abeginnerisaround800,amidlevelplayerisaround1600,andaprofessional,around2400.In
2007,themedianratingofallUSCFmemberswas657.[10]
TheKfactorusedbytheUSCF
TheKfactor,intheUSCFratingsystem,canbeestimatedbydividing800bytheeffectivenumberof
gamesaplayer'sratingisbasedon(Ne)plusthenumberofgamestheplayercompletedinatournament
(m).[11]
Ratingfloors
TheUSCFmaintainsanabsoluteratingfloorof100forallratings.Thus,nomembercanhavearating
below100,nomattertheirperformanceatUSCFsanctionedevents.However,playerscanhavehigher
individualabsoluteratingfloors,calculatedusingthefollowingformula:
where
isthenumberofratedgameswon,
isthenumberofratedgamesdrawn,and
numberofeventsinwhichtheplayercompletedthreeormoreratedgames.
isthe
Higherratingfloorsexistforexperiencedplayerswhohaveachievedsignificantratings.Suchhigherrating
floorsexist,startingatratingsof1200in100pointincrementsupto2100(1200,1300,1400,...,2100).A
player'sratingflooriscalculatedbytakingtheirpeakestablishedrating,subtracting200points,andthen
roundingdowntothenearestratingfloor.Forexample,aplayerwhohasreachedapeakratingof1464
wouldhavearatingfloorof1464200=1264,whichwouldberoundeddownto1200.Underthis
scheme,onlyClassCplayersandabovearecapableofhavingahigherratingfloorthantheirabsolute
playerrating.Allotherplayerswouldhaveafloorofatmost150.
Therearetwowaystoachievehigherratingfloorsotherthanunderthestandardschemepresentedabove.If
aplayerhasachievedtheratingofOriginalLifeMaster,theirratingfloorissetat2200.Theachievementof
thistitleisuniqueinthatnootherrecognizedUSCFtitlewillresultinanewfloor.Forplayerswithratings
below2000,winningacashprizeof$2,000ormoreraisesthatplayer'sratingfloortotheclosest100point
levelthatwouldhavedisqualifiedtheplayerforparticipationinthetournament.Forexample,ifaplayer
won$4,000ina1750andundertournament,theplayerwouldnowhavearatingfloorof1800.
Ratingsofcomputers
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Since200506,humancomputerchessmatcheshavedemonstratedthatchesscomputersarecapableof
defeatingeventhestrongesthumanplayers(DeepBlueversusGarryKasparov).However,ratingsof
computersaredifficulttoquantify.Therehavebeentoofewgamesundertournamentconditionstogive
computersorsoftwareenginesanaccuraterating.[12]Also,forchessengines,theratingisdependentonthe
machineaprogramrunson.
Forsomeratingsestimates,seehere.
Theory
Mathematicaldetails
Performanceisn'tmeasuredabsolutelyitisinferredfromwins,losses,anddrawsagainstotherplayers.
Players'ratingdependontheratingsoftheiropponents,andtheresultsscoredagainstthem.Thedifference
inratingbetweentwoplayersdeterminesanestimatefortheexpectedscorebetweenthem.Boththe
averageandthespreadofratingscanbearbitrarilychosen.Elosuggestedscalingratingssothata
differenceof200ratingpointsinchesswouldmeanthatthestrongerplayerhasanexpectedscore(which
basicallyisanexpectedaveragescore)ofapproximately0.75,andtheUSCFinitiallyaimedforanaverage
clubplayertohavearatingof1500.
Aplayer'sexpectedscoreishisprobabilityofwinningplushalfhisprobabilityofdrawing.Thusan
expectedscoreof0.75couldrepresenta75%chanceofwinning,25%chanceoflosing,and0%chanceof
drawing.Ontheotherextremeitcouldrepresenta50%chanceofwinning,0%chanceoflosing,and50%
chanceofdrawing.Theprobabilityofdrawing,asopposedtohavingadecisiveresult,isnotspecifiedin
theElosystem.Insteadadrawisconsideredhalfawinandhalfaloss.
IfPlayerAhasaratingof
andPlayerBaratingof
fortheexpectedscoreofPlayerAis
,theexactformula(usingthelogisticcurve)[13]
SimilarlytheexpectedscoreforPlayerBis
Thiscouldalsobeexpressedby
and
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where
and
.Notethatinthelattercase,thesamedenominatorapplies
tobothexpressions.Thismeansthatbystudyingonlythenumerators,wefindoutthattheexpectedscore
forplayerAis
timesgreaterthantheexpectedscoreforplayerB.Itthenfollowsthatforeach
400ratingpointsofadvantageovertheopponent,theexpectedscoreismagnifiedtentimesincomparison
totheopponent'sexpectedscore.
Alsonotethat
.Inpractice,sincethetruestrengthofeachplayerisunknown,theexpected
scoresarecalculatedusingtheplayer'scurrentratings.
Whenaplayer'sactualtournamentscoresexceedhisexpectedscores,theElosystemtakesthisasevidence
thatplayer'sratingistoolow,andneedstobeadjustedupward.Similarlywhenaplayer'sactualtournament
scoresfallshortofhisexpectedscores,thatplayer'sratingisadjusteddownward.Elo'soriginalsuggestion,
whichisstillwidelyused,wasasimplelinearadjustmentproportionaltotheamountbywhichaplayer
overperformedorunderperformedhisexpectedscore.Themaximumpossibleadjustmentpergame,called
theKfactor,wassetatK=16formastersandK=32forweakerplayers.
SupposingPlayerAwasexpectedtoscore
updatinghisratingis
pointsbutactuallyscored
points.Theformulafor
Thisupdatecanbeperformedaftereachgameoreachtournament,orafteranysuitableratingperiod.An
examplemayhelpclarify.SupposePlayerAhasaratingof1613,andplaysinafiveroundtournament.He
orshelosestoaplayerrated1609,drawswithaplayerrated1477,defeatsaplayerrated1388,defeatsa
playerrated1586,andlosestoaplayerrated1720.Theplayer'sactualscoreis(0+0.5+1+1+0)=2.5.
Theexpectedscore,calculatedaccordingtotheformulaabove,was(0.506+0.686+0.785+0.539+
0.351)=2.867.Thereforetheplayer'snewratingis(1613+32(2.52.867))=1601,assumingthataK
factorof32isused.
Notethatwhiletwowins,twolosses,andonedrawmayseemlikeaparscore,itisworsethanexpectedfor
PlayerAbecausehisorheropponentswerelowerratedonaverage.ThereforePlayerAisslightly
penalized.IfPlayerAhadscoredtwowins,oneloss,andtwodraws,foratotalscoreofthreepoints,that
wouldhavebeenslightlybetterthanexpected,andtheplayer'snewratingwouldhavebeen(1613+32(3
2.867))=1617.
ThisupdatingprocedureisatthecoreoftheratingsusedbyFIDE,USCF,Yahoo!Games,theInternet
ChessClub(ICC)andtheFreeInternetChessServer(FICS).However,eachorganizationhastakena
differentroutetodealwiththeuncertaintyinherentintheratings,particularlytheratingsofnewcomers,
andtodealwiththeproblemofratingsinflation/deflation.Newplayersareassignedprovisionalratings,
whichareadjustedmoredrasticallythanestablishedratings.
Theprinciplesusedintheseratingsystemscanbeusedforratingothercompetitionsforinstance,
internationalfootballmatches.
Eloratingshavealsobeenappliedtogameswithoutthepossibilityofdraws,andtogamesinwhichthe
resultcanalsohaveaquantity(small/bigmargin)inadditiontothequality(win/loss).SeeGoratingwith
Eloformore.
Seealso:Hubbertcurve
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Mathematicalissues
TherearethreemainmathematicalconcernsrelatingtotheoriginalworkofElo,namelythecorrectcurve,
thecorrectKfactor,andtheprovisionalperiodcrudecalculations.A2012studyledbyateamofSwedish
psychologistsatLundUniversityhasspawnedargumentsfortheinclusionofafourthconcern,albeit
theoreticalintangibles.[14]
Mostaccuratedistributionmodel
ThefirstmathematicalconcernaddressedbytheUSCFwastheuseofthenormaldistribution.Theyfound
thatthisdidnotaccuratelyrepresenttheactualresultsachieved,particularlybythelowerratedplayers.
Insteadtheyswitchedtoalogisticdistributionmodel,whichtheUSCFfoundprovidedabetterfitforthe
actualresultsachieved.FIDEstillusesthenormaldistributionasthebasisforratingcalculationsas
suggestedbyElohimself.[15]
MostaccurateKfactor
Thesecondmajorconcernisthecorrect"Kfactor"used.ThechessstatisticianJeffSonasbelievesthatthe
originalK=10value(forplayersratedabove2400)isinaccurateinElo'swork.IftheKfactorcoefficientis
settoolarge,therewillbetoomuchsensitivitytojustafew,recentevents,intermsofalargenumberof
pointsexchangedineachgame.ToolowaKvalue,andthesensitivitywillbeminimal,andthesystemwill
notrespondquicklyenoughtochangesinaplayer'sactuallevelofperformance.
Elo'soriginalKfactorestimationwasmadewithoutthebenefitofhugedatabasesandstatisticalevidence.
SonasindicatesthataKfactorof24(forplayersratedabove2400)maybemoreaccuratebothasa
predictivetooloffutureperformance,andalsomoresensitivetoperformance.[16]
CertainInternetchesssitesseemtoavoidathreelevelKfactorstaggeringbasedonratingrange.For
exampletheICCseemstoadoptaglobalK=32exceptwhenplayingagainstprovisionallyratedplayers.
TheUSCF(whichmakesuseofalogisticdistributionasopposedtoanormaldistribution)hasstaggered
theKfactoraccordingtothreemainratingrangesof:
Playersbelow2100:Kfactorof32used
Playersbetween2100and2400:Kfactorof24used
Playersabove2400:Kfactorof16used.
FIDEusesthefollowingranges:[17]
K=40,foraplayernewtotheratinglistuntilthecompletionofeventswithatotalof30gamesand
forallplayersuntiltheir18thbirthday,aslongastheirratingremainsunder2300.
K=20,forplayerswitharatingalwaysunder2400.
K=10,forplayerswithanypublishedratingofatleast2400andatleast30gamesplayedin
previousevents.Thereafteritremainspermanentlyat10.
FIDEusedthefollowingrangesbeforeJuly2014:[18]
K=30(was25),foraplayernewtotheratinglistuntilthecompletionofeventswithatotalof30
games.[19]
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K=15,forplayerswitharatingalwaysunder2400.
K=10,forplayerswithanypublishedratingofatleast2400andatleast30gamesplayedin
previousevents.Thereafteritremainspermanentlyat10.
ThegradationoftheKfactorreducesratingschangesatthetopendoftheratingspectrum,reducingthe
possibilityforrapidratingsinflationordeflationforthosewithalowKfactor.Thismightintheoryapply
equallytoanonlinechesssiteorovertheboardplayers,sinceitismoredifficultforplayerstogetmuch
higherratingswhentheirKfactorisreduced.Whenplayingonline,itmaysimplybetheselectionofhighly
ratedopponentsthatenables2800+playerstofurtherincreasetheirrating,[20]sinceagrandmasteronthe
ICCplayingsitecanplayastringofdifferentopponentswhoareallratedover2100.Inovertheboard
events,itwouldonlybeinveryhighlevelallplayalleventsthataplayerwouldbeabletoengagethat
numberof2700+opponents,whileinanormalopenSwisspairedchesstournament,frequentlytherewould
bemanyopponentsratedlessthan2500,reducingtheratingsgainspossiblefromasinglecontest.
Practicalissues
Gameactivityversusprotectingone'srating
Insomecasestheratingsystemcandiscouragegameactivityforplayerswhowishtoprotecttheir
rating.[21]Inordertodiscourageplayersfromsittingonahighrating,arecentproposalbyBritish
GrandmasterJohnNunnforchoosingqualifierstothechessworldchampionshipincludedanactivity
bonus,tobecombinedwiththerating.[22]
Beyondthechessworld,concernsoverplayersavoidingcompetitiveplaytoprotecttheirratingscaused
WizardsoftheCoasttoabandontheElosystemforMagic:theGatheringtournamentsinfavourofa
systemoftheirowndevisingcalled"PlaneswalkerPoints".[23][24]
Selectivepairing
Amoresubtleissueisrelatedtopairing.Whenplayerscanchoosetheirownopponents,theycanchoose
opponentswithminimalriskoflosing,andmaximumrewardforwinning.Suchaluxuryofbeingableto
handpickyouropponentsisnotpresentinOvertheBoardElotypecalculations,andthereforethismay
accountstronglyfortheratingsontheICCusingElowhicharewellover2800.
Particularexamplesof2800+ratedplayerschoosingopponentswithminimalriskandmaximumpossibility
ofratinggaininclude:choosingcomputersthattheyknowtheycanbeatwithacertainstrategychoosing
opponentsthattheythinkareoverratedoravoidingplayingstrongplayerswhoareratedseveralhundred
pointsbelowthem,butmayholdchesstitlessuchasIMorGM.Inthecategoryofchoosingoverrated
opponents,newentrantstotheratingsystemwhohaveplayedfewerthan50gamesareintheorya
convenienttargetastheymaybeoverratedintheirprovisionalrating.TheICCcompensatesforthisissue
byassigningalowerKfactortotheestablishedplayeriftheydowinagainstanewratingentrant.TheK
factorisactuallyafunctionofthenumberofratedgamesplayedbythenewentrant.
Therefore,Eloratingsonlinestillprovideausefulmechanismforprovidingaratingbasedonthe
opponent'srating.Itsoverallcredibility,however,needstobeseeninthecontextofatleasttheabovetwo
majorissuesdescribedengineabuse,andselectivepairingofopponents.
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TheICChasalsorecentlyintroduced"autopairing"ratingswhicharebasedonrandompairings,butwith
eachwininarowensuringastatisticallymuchharderopponentwhohasalsowonxgamesinarow.With
potentiallyhundredsofplayersinvolved,thiscreatessomeofthechallengesofamajorlargeSwissevent
whichisbeingfiercelycontested,withroundwinnersmeetingroundwinners.Thisapproachtopairing
certainlymaximizestheratingriskofthehigherratedparticipants,whomayfaceverystiffoppositionfrom
playersbelow3000,forexample.Thisisaseparateratinginitself,andisunder"1minute"and"5minute"
ratingcategories.Maximumratingsachievedover2500areexceptionallyrare.
Ratingsinflationanddeflation
Anincreaseordecreaseintheaverageratingoverallplayersintheratingsystemisoftenreferredtoas
ratinginflationorratingdeflationrespectively.Forexample,ifthereisinflation,amodernratingof2500
meanslessthanahistoricalratingof2500,whilethereverseistrueifthereisdeflation.Usingratingsto
compareplayersbetweendifferenterasismademoredifficultwheninflationanddeflationispresent.(See
alsoComparisonoftopchessplayersthroughouthistory.)
Itiscommonlybelievedthat,atleastatthetoplevel,modernratingsareinflated.ForinstanceNigelShort
saidinSeptember2009,"TherecentChessBasearticleonratinginflationbyJeffSonaswouldsuggestthat
myratinginthelate1980swouldbeapproximatelyequivalentto2750intoday'smuchdebauched
currency".[25](Short'shighestratinginthe1980swas2665inJuly1988,whichwasequaltothirdinthe
world.Whenhemadethiscomment,2665wouldhaverankedhim65th,while2750wouldhaveranked
himequal10th.IntheSeptember2012FIDEratinglist,2665wouldhaverankedhimequal86th,while
2750wouldhaverankedhim13th.)
Ithasbeensuggestedthatanoverallincreaseinratingsreflectsgreaterskill.Theadventofstrongchess
computersallowsasomewhatobjectiveevaluationoftheabsoluteplayingskillofpastchessmasters,based
ontheirrecordedgames,butthisisalsoameasureofhowcomputerliketheplayers'movesare,notmerely
ameasureofhowstronglytheyhaveplayed.[26]
Thenumberofpeoplewithratingsover2700hasincreased.Around1979therewasonlyoneactiveplayer
(AnatolyKarpov)witharatingthishigh.In1992ViswanathanAnandwasonlythe8thplayerinchess
historytoreachthe2700markatthatpointoftime.[27]Thisincreasedto15playersby1994.33playershad
a2700+ratingin2009and44asofSeptember2012.Thecurrentbenchmarkforeliteplayersliesbeyond
2800.
Onepossiblecauseforthisinflationwastheratingfloor,whichforalongtimewasat2200,andifaplayer
droppedbelowthistheywerestrickenfromtheratinglist.Asaconsequence,playersataskillleveljust
belowthefloorwouldonlybeontheratinglistiftheywereoverrated,andthiswouldcausethemtofeed
pointsintotheratingpool.[26]InJuly2000theaverageratingofthetop100was2644.ByJuly2012ithad
increasedto2703.[27]
InapureElosystem,eachgameendsinanequaltransactionofratingpoints.IfthewinnergainsNrating
points,theloserwilldropbyNratingpoints.Thispreventspointsfromenteringorleavingthesystemwhen
gamesareplayedandrated.However,playerstendtoenterthesystemasnoviceswithalowratingand
retirefromthesystemasexperiencedplayerswithahighrating.Therefore,inthelongrunasystemwith
strictlyequaltransactionstendstoresultinratingdeflation.[28]
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In1995,theUSCFacknowledgedthatseveralyoungscholasticplayerswereimprovingfasterthanwhatthe
ratingsystemwasabletotrack.Asaresult,establishedplayerswithstableratingsstartedtoloserating
pointstotheyoungandunderratedplayers.Severaloftheolderestablishedplayerswerefrustratedover
whattheyconsideredanunfairratingdecline,andsomeevenquitchessoverit.[29]
Combattingdeflation
Becauseofthesignificantdifferenceintimingofwheninflationanddeflationoccur,andinordertocombat
deflation,mostimplementationsofEloratingshaveamechanismforinjectingpointsintothesystemin
ordertomaintainrelativeratingsovertime.FIDEhastwoinflationarymechanisms.First,performances
belowa"ratingsfloor"arenottracked,soaplayerwithtrueskillbelowthefloorcanonlybeunratedor
overrated,nevercorrectlyrated.Second,establishedandhigherratedplayershavealowerKfactor.New
playershaveaK=30,whichdropstoK=15after30playedgames,andtoK=10whentheplayerreaches
2400.[30]
ThecurrentsystemintheUnitedStatesincludesabonuspointschemewhichfeedsratingpointsintothe
systeminordertotrackimprovingplayers,anddifferentKvaluesfordifferentplayers.[29]Somemethods,
usedinNorwayforexample,differentiatebetweenjuniorsandseniors,andusealargerKfactorforthe
youngplayers,evenboostingtheratingprogressby100%forwhentheyscorewellabovetheirpredicted
performance.[31]
RatingfloorsintheUSAworkbyguaranteeingthataplayerwillneverdropbelowacertainlimit.Thisalso
combatsdeflation,butthechairmanoftheUSCFRatingsCommitteehasbeencriticalofthismethod
becauseitdoesnotfeedtheextrapointstotheimprovingplayers.Apossiblemotivefortheseratingfloors
istocombatsandbagging,i.e.deliberateloweringofratingstobeeligibleforlowerratingclasssections
andprizes.[29]
Useoutsideofchess
AmericancollegefootballusedtheElomethodasaportionofitsBowlChampionshipSeriesratingsystems
from1998to2013,afterwhichtheBCSwasreplacedbytheCollegeFootballPlayoff.JeffSagarinofUSA
TodaypublishesteamrankingsformostAmericansports,includingElosystemratingsforcollegefootball.
TheoperatorsoftheBCSusedhisEloratingsaspartofaformulatodeterminetheannualparticipantsin
theBCSNationalChampionshipGame.Theuseofratingsystemswaseffectivelyscrappedwiththe
creationoftheCollegeFootballPlayoffin2014participantsintheCFPanditsassociatedbowlgameswill
bechosenbyaselectioncommittee.
NationalScrabbleorganizationscomputenormallydistributedEloratingsexceptintheUnitedKingdom,
whereadifferentsystemisused.TheNorthAmericanScrabblePlayersAssociationhasthelargestrated
populationofactivemembers,numberingabout2,000asofearly2011.LexulousalsousestheElosystem.
ThepopularFirstInternetBackgammonServercalculatesratingsbasedonamodifiedElosystem.New
playersareassignedaratingof1500,withthebesthumansandbotsratingover2000.Thesameformula
hasbeenadoptedbyseveralotherbackgammonsites,suchasPlay65,DailyGammon,GoldTokenand
VogClub.VogClubsetsanewplayer'sratingat1600.
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TheEuropeanGoFederationadoptedanElobasedratingsysteminitiallypioneeredbytheCzechGo
Federation.TheGroshin'sScoreanElobasedgame.
Inothersports,individualsmaintainrankingsbasedontheEloalgorithm.Theseareusuallyunofficial,not
endorsedbythesport'sgoverningbody.TheWorldFootballEloRatingsranknationalteamsinmen's
football.In2006,EloratingswereadaptedforMajorLeagueBaseballteamsbyNateSilverofBaseball
Prospectus.[32]Basedonthisadaptation,BaseballProspectusalsomakesElobasedMonteCarlo
simulationsoftheoddsofwhetherteamswillmaketheplayoffs.[33]GlennO'Brienpublishesrankings
usingseveralratingsystems,includingvariantsoftheEloratingsystem.[34]OneofthefewElobased
rankingsendorsedbyasport'sgoverningbodyistheFIFAWomen'sWorldRankings,basedonasimplified
versionoftheEloalgorithm,whichFIFAusesasitsofficialrankingsystemfornationalteamsinwomen's
football.
In2015,NateSilverandReubenFischerBaumproducedEloratingsforeveryNationalBasketball
Associationteamandseasonthroughthe2014season.[35]
Sportsreference.comusestheEloratingsystemtoratethebestprofessionalplayersinbasketball,football,
baseball(battersandpitchersratedseparately),andhockey(goaliesandskatersratedseparately).In2014
FiveThirtyEightcreatedElobasedratingsandwinprojectionsfortheAmericanprofessionalNational
FootballLeague.[36]
TheEnglishKorfballAssociationratedteamsbasedonEloratings,todeterminehandicapsfortheircup
competitionforthe2011/12season.
Elohockey.comusestheEloratingsystemtoranknationalicehockeyteams.[37]
Rugbyleagueratings.comusestheEloratingsystemtorankinternationalandclubrugbyleagueteams.
VariousonlinegamesuseEloratingsforplayerversusplayerrankings.Since2005,GoldenTeeLivehas
ratedplayersbasedontheElosystem.Newplayersstartat2100,withtopplayersratingover3000.[38]In
GuildWars,EloratingsareusedtorecordguildratinggainedandlostthroughGuildversusGuildbattles,
whicharetwoteamfights.TheinitialKvaluewas30,butwaschangedto5inJanuary2007,thenchanged
to15inJuly2009.[39]WorldofWarcraftformerlyusedtheEloRatingsystemwhenteamingupand
comparingArenaplayers,butnowusesasystemsimilartoMicrosoft'sTrueSkill.[40]TheMOBAgame
LeagueofLegendsusedanEloratingsystempriortothesecondseasonofcompetitiveplay.[41]Thegame
PuzzlePiratesusestheEloratingsystemtodeterminethestandingsinthevariouspuzzles.Roblox
introducedtheEloratingin2010.[42]ThebrowsergameQuidditchManagerusestheEloratingtomeasure
ateam'sperformance.[43]AnotherrecentgametostartusingtheEloratingsystemisAirMech,usingElo[44]
ratingsfor1v1,2v2,and3v3random/teamMatchmaking.QuakeLiveusesanEloratingsystemthrough
QLranks.com(http://www.qlranks.com/),whichscansplayers'profilesaftereachgameandupdatesthe
websiteaccordingly.
DespitequestionsoftheappropriatenessofusingtheElosystemtorategamesinwhichluckisafactor,
tradingcardgamemanufacturersoftenuseEloratingsfortheirorganizedplayefforts.TheDCI(formerly
Duelists'ConvocationInternational)usedEloratingsfortournamentsofMagic:TheGatheringandother
WizardsoftheCoastgames.However,theDCIabandonedthissystemin2012infavourofanew
cumulativesystemof"PlaneswalkerPoints",chieflybecauseoftheabovenotedconcernthatElo
14/19
24/09/2015
encourageshighlyratedplayerstoavoidplayingto"protecttheirrating".[23][24]PokmonUSAusestheElo
systemtorankitsTCGorganizedplaycompetitors.[45]Prizesforthetopplayersinvariousregionsincluded
holidaysandworldchampionshipsinvitesuntilthe20112012season,whereawardswerebasedona
systemofChampionshipPoints,theirrationalebeingthesameastheDCI'sforMagic:TheGathering.
Similarly,Decipher,Inc.usedtheElosystemforitsrankedgamessuchasStarTrekCustomizableCard
GameandStarWarsCustomizableCardGame.
Moreover,onlinejudgesitesarealsousingEloratingsystemoritsderivatives.Forexample,TopCoderis
usingamodifiedversionbasedonnormaldistribution,[46]whileCodeforcesisusinganotherversionbased
onlogisticdistribution.[47][48][49]
Useoutsideofgaming
TheEloratingsystemhasbeenusedinacrowdsourcingapplicationfordeterminingbestquality
photographs.AcompanycalledBrilliantArchascreatedthe"Keep/Toss"game.Twophotographsare
presentedandworkersinAmazon'sMechanicalTurksimplyselectwhichphotographtheybelieveisthe
betterphotograph.ThreevotesarecastforeachphotographandanEloscoreisdeterminedforall
photographs.Thephotographswithascoreaboveacertainthresholdarethenselectedforfurther
processing.Theresultshavebeenwellreceived.
ParentscanusetheEloratingsystemtoselectagivennamefortheirbaby.IntheBabyNameGame,
playersselecttheirpreferrednamefromtwooptions.Resultsarethencollatedtodeterminethename'sElo
scoreandultimatewinningname.Thisprocesshasbeenfoundtoreducethecomplexityofselectingababy
name.[50]
Additionally,theEloratingsystemhasbeenusedinsoftbiometrics.[51]Softbiometricsconcernsthe
identificationofindividualsusinghumandescriptions.Comparativedescriptionswereutilizedalongside
theEloratingsystemtoproviderobustanddiscriminative'relativemeasurements',permittingaccurate
identification.
TheEloratingsystemhasalsobeenusedinbiologyforassessingmaledominancehierarchies.[52]
Referencesinthemedia
TheEloratingsystemwasfeaturedprominentlyinTheSocialNetworkduringthealgorithmscenewhere
MarkZuckerbergreleasedFacemash.InthesceneEduardoSaverinwritesmathematicalformulasforthe
EloratingsystemonZuckerberg'sdormitoryroomwindow.Behindthescenes,themovieclaims,theElo
systemisemployedtorankgirlsbytheirattractiveness.Theequationsdrivingthealgorithmareshown
briefly,writtenonthewindow.[53]
References
1. Wood,Ben."EnemydownusesEloinitsCounterstrike:SourceMultilplayerLadders"
(http://www.enemydown.eu/news/502).TWNAGroup.
2. NateSilverandReubenFischerBaum,"HowWeCalculateNBAEloRatings,"FiveThirtyEight.com,May21,
2015(http://fivethirtyeight.com/features/howwecalculatenbaeloratings/).
15/19
24/09/2015
3. Redman,Tim."RememberingRichard,PartII"(http://www.uschess.org/ratings/RedmanremembersRichard.pdf)
(PDF).UnitedStatesChessFederation.
4. "AbouttheUSCF"(http://www.uschess.org/about/about.php).UnitedStatesChessFederation.Retrieved
20081110.
5. "DeloitteChessRatingCompetition"(http://blog.kaggle.com/2011/04/24/thedeloittefidechesscompetitionplay
byplay/).
6. FIDEHandbook,SectionB.0.0(http://www.fide.com/component/handbook/?id=57&view=article),FIDEwebsite
7. AnandlostNo.1toMorozevich(Chessbase,August242008(http://www.chessbase.com/newsdetail.asp?
newsid=4860)),thenregainedit,thenCarlsentookNo.1(Chessbase,September52008
(http://www.chessbase.com/newsdetail.asp?newsid=4892)),thenIvanchuk(Chessbase,September112008
(http://www.chessbase.com/newsdetail.asp?newsid=4901)),andfinallyTopalov(Chessbase,September132008
(http://www.chessbase.com/newsdetail.asp?newsid=4908))
8. USChessFederation(http://archive.uschess.org/ratings/ratedist.php)
9. USCFGlossaryQuote:"aplayerwhocompetesinover
300gameswitharatingover2200"
(http://main.uschess.org/content/view/7327#Master)
fromTheUnitedStatesChessFederation
10. USCFRatingsDistribution2008
(http://www.eddins.net/steve/chess/2008/06/06/131)
GraphsofprobabilitiesandEloratingchanges(for
K=16and32)ofexpectedoutcome(solidcurve)
andunexpectedoutcome(dottedcurve)vsinitial
ratingdifferenceForexample,playerAstartswith
a1400ratingandBwith1800inatournament
usingK=32(browncurves).Thebluedashdot
linedenotestheinitialratingdifferenceof400
(18001400).TheprobabilityofBwinning,the
expectedoutcome,is0.91(intersectionofblack
solidcurveandblueline)ifthishappens,A's
ratingdecreasesby3(intersectionofbrownsolid
curveandblueline)to1397andB'sincreasesby
thesameamountto1803.Conversely,the
probabilityofAwinning,theunexpectedoutcome,
is0.09(intersectionofblackdottedcurveandblue
line)ifthishappens,A'sratingincreasesby29
(intersectionofbrowndottedcurveandblueline)
to1429andB'sdecreasesbythesameamountto
1771.
16/19
24/09/2015
11. "ApproximatingFormulasfortheUSCFRating
System"(http://math.bu.edu/people/mg/ratings/approx/approx.html),UnitedStatesChessFederation,Mark
Glickman,DepartmentofMathematicsandStatisticsatBostonUniversity,22February2001
12. Forinstance,seethecommentsatChessBase.comChessNewsAdamsvsHydra:Man0.5Machine5.5
(http://www.chessbase.com/newsdetail.asp?newsid=2476)
13. Elo,ArpadE(2008)."8.4LogisticProbabilityasaRatingBasis".TheRatingofChessplayers,Past&Present.
BronxNY10453:ISHIPressInternational.ISBN9780923891275.
14. LundUniversitySocialCognition:TheoreticalintangiblesoftheELOsystemstudy,2012
http://www.psy.lu.se/o.o.i.s/15545
15. DanielRoss(20071216)."ArpadEloandtheEloRatingSystem"(http://www.chessbase.com/newsdetail.asp?
newsid=4326).Chessbasearticle.Retrieved20120219.
16. AkeySonasarticleisJeffSonas:TheSonasRatingFormulaBetterthanElo?
(http://www.chessbase.com/newsdetail.asp?newsid=562)
17. "FIDEOnline.FIDERatingRegulationseffectivefrom1July2014"(http://www.fide.com/fide/handbook.html?
id=172&view=article).Fide.com.20140701.Retrieved20140701.
18. "FIDEOnline.FIDERatingRegulationsvalidfrom1July2013till1July2014"
(http://www.fide.com/fide/handbook.html?id=161&view=article).Fide.com.20130701.Retrieved20140701.
19. "FIDEOnline.ChangestoRatingRegulationsnewsrelease"(http://www.fide.com/component/content/article/1
fidenews/5421changestoratingregulations.html).Fide.com.20110721.Retrieved20120219.
20. "ICCHelp:kfactor"(http://www.chessclub.com/help/kfactor).Chessclub.com.20021018.Retrieved
20120219.
21. AParent'sGuidetoChess(http://www.chesscafe.com/text/skittles176.pdf)Skittles,DonHeisman,
Chesscafe.com,August4,2002
22. "ChessNewsTheNunnPlanfortheWorldChessChampionship"(http://www.chessbase.com/newsdetail.asp?
newsid=2440).ChessBase.com.Retrieved20120219.
23. "IntroducingPlaneswalkerPoints"(http://www.wizards.com/Magic/Magazine/Article.aspx?
x=mtg/daily/feature/159b).September6,2011.RetrievedSeptember9,2011.
24. "GettingtothePoints"(http://www.wizards.com/Magic/Magazine/Article.aspx?x=mtg/daily/twtw/159).
September9,2011.RetrievedSeptember9,2011.
25. NigelShortonbeingnumberoneinBritainagain(http://www.chessbase.com/newsdetail.asp?newsid=5736),
Chessbase,4September2009
26. Sonas,Jeff(July27,2009)."RatingInflationItsCausesandPossibleCures"
(http://www.chessbase.com/newsdetail.asp?newsid=5608).ChessBase.Retrieved20090823.
27. "ViswanathanAnand"(http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessplayer?pid=12088).Chessgames.com.
28. Bergersen,PerA."ELOSYSTEMET"(http://www.sjakk.no/nsf/elosystem_main.html)(inNorwegian).
NorwegianChessFederation.Retrieved21October2013.
29. AconversationwithMarkGlickman[1](http://www.glicko.net/ratings/clarticle.pdf),PublishedinChessLife
October2006issue
30. "FIDEHandbook8.0.TheworkingoftheFIDERatingSystem"(http://www.fide.com/fide/handbook?
id=73&view=article).FIDE.Retrieved20090823.
31. [2](http://www.sjakk.no/nsf/elosystem_index.html)Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20131205025157/http://www.sjakk.no/nsf/elosystem_index.html)December5,2013
attheWaybackMachine
32. NateSilver,"WeAreElo?"June28,2006.[3](http://baseballprospectus.com/article.php?articleid=5247)
33. "PostseasonOdds,ELOversion"(http://www.baseballprospectus.com/statistics/ps_oddselo.php).
Baseballprospectus.com.Retrieved20120219.
34. GlennO'Brien'sratingspage(http://www.glennobrien.net/ratings.html)
35. "HowWeCalculateNBAEloRatings,"FiveThirtyEight,May21,2015.[4]
(http://fivethirtyeight.com/features/howwecalculatenbaeloratings/).AlsoseeReubenFischerBaumandNate
Silver,"TheCompleteHistoryoftheNBA,"FiveThirtyEight,May21,2015.[5]
(http://fivethirtyeight.com/interactives/thecompletehistoryofeverynbateambyelo/#bulls)
17/19
24/09/2015
36. NateSilver,"IntroducingNFLEloRatings,"September4,2014(http://fivethirtyeight.com/datalab/introducing
nfleloratings),andNeilPaine,"NFLEloRatingsAreBack,"FiveThirtyEight,September10,2015
(http://fivethirtyeight.com/datalab/nfleloratingsareback/).
37. "EloHockey.com"(http://elohockey.com/).Retrieved20140617.
38. "GoldenTeeFanPlayerRatingPage"(http://www.goldenteefan.com/statistics/playerratinghandicap/).Retrieved
20131231.
39. "Guildladder"(http://wiki.guildwars.com/wiki/Guild_ladder).Wiki.guildwars.com.Retrieved20120219.
40. "WorldofWarcraftEurope>TheArena"(http://www.woweurope.com/en/info/basics/arena/index.html).Wow
europe.com.20111214.Retrieved20120219.
41. "Matchmaking|LoLLeagueofLegends"(http://na.leagueoflegends.com/learn/gameplay/matchmaking).
Na.leagueoflegends.com.20100706.Retrieved20120219.
42. "ROBLOXContests"(http://blog.roblox.com/?p=2032).February9,2010.Retrieved9February2010.
43. "QuidditchManagerHelpandRules"(http://beta.quidditchmanager.com/help.php).QuidditchManager.com.
20120825.Retrieved20131020.
44. "AirMechdeveloperexplainswhytheyuseElo"(https://www.carbongames.com/forums/viewtopic.php?
p=83043#p83043).RetrievedJanuary15,2015.
45. "Play!PokmonGlossary:Elo"(http://www.pokemon.com/us/playpokemon/about/tournamentsglossary/#elo).
RetrievedJanuary15,2015.
46. "AlgorithmCompetitionRatingSystem"
(http://apps.topcoder.com/wiki/display/tc/Algorithm+Competition+Rating+System).December23,2009.
RetrievedSeptember16,2011.
47. "FAQ:Whataretheratingandthedivisions?"(http://www.codeforces.com/help).RetrievedSeptember16,2011.
48. "RatingDistribution"(http://www.codeforces.com/blog/entry/870).RetrievedSeptember16,2011.
49. "Regardingrating:Part2"(http://www.codeforces.com/blog/entry/893).RetrievedSeptember16,2011.
50. BabyNameGame(http://www.monkie.biz).
51. "UsingComparativeHumanDescriptionsforSoftBiometrics"
(http://eprints.soton.ac.uk/272922/1/IJCB%20(3).pdf),D.A.ReidandM.S.Nixon,InternationalJoint
ConferenceonBiometrics(IJCB),2011
52. Prschmannetal.(2010)."Malereproductivesuccessanditsbehaviouralcorrelatesinapolygynousmammal,the
Galpagossealion(Zalophuswollebaeki)"(http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365
294X.2010.04665.x/abstract).MolecularEcology19.doi:10.1111/j.1365294X.2010.04665.x
(https://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365294X.2010.04665.x).
53. Screenplayfor"TheSocialNetwork,"SonyPictures
(http://flash.sonypictures.com/video/movies/thesocialnetwork/awards/thesocialnetwork_screenplay.pdf),p.16
Furtherreading
Elo,Arpad(1978).TheRatingofChessplayers,PastandPresent.Arco.ISBN0668047216.
Harkness,Kenneth(1967).OfficialChessHandbook.McKay.
Externallinks
GoBase.org:IntroductiontotheEloRatingSystem(http://gobase.org/rating/elo.html)
MarkGlickman'sresearchpage,withanumberoflinkstotechnicalpapersonchessratingsystems
(http://www.glicko.net/research.html)
MultiplayerEloCalculator(http://elo.divergentinformatics.com)
ELORatingimplementationintheDprogramminglanguage(https://github.com/Extrawurst/elo
ratingd)
Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elo_rating_system&oldid=681655821"
18/19
24/09/2015
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