Scientific Methodology

and the MIT

S

cience is a practice of gaining knowledge of nature. In order to do so, a

series of methods are designed to gather,

analyze, and interpret the information
about nature. These methods have not
always been the same through time. Even
in modern days, different practices are
found in different disciplines by different
scientists. Although it may be difficult to
have all of those who practice science to
agree on one single method based on
which scientific knowledge is obtained,
there are still a few common characteristics in their methods that are generally
agreed on by those who are in the prac-

Objectives
1. To introduce and use a scientific method.
2. To introduce and practice using simple statistics.
3. To learn how to write scientific reports.

tice. In this lab you are going to learn a

few techniques used by many scientists
who follow them to learn about nature.

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Scientific Methodology and the MIT

Emergence of Scientific Methodology

Modern methodology to pursue science was established
in the seventeenth century in Western Europe. About
four hundred years ago a new experimental method
of investigation into the natural world emerged. The
major players in this revolutionary change in thinking
and practice included Francis Bacon (15611626) and
Ren Descartes (15961650). Since then much of the
scientific methodology has been modified. Today there
are two important emphases in practicing science:
(1) the hypothetico-deductive approach and (2) the
falsificationist procedure.
The hypothetico-deductive approach (Figures1
and 2): The hypothetico-deductive approach is a
series of steps that, as long as none of the steps
is flawed, leads to a robust conclusion about a
particular problem. It begins with observations of
events or patterns, followed by suggestions for
the general causes and nature of the observed
events and patterns. However, without further
testing of the model, inaccuracies would render the
suggestions unreliable. Consequently, after the initial
observations of and reasoning about the general
nature of observed phenomena, a scientific method
demands that a hypothetico-deductive approach
be employed. The hypothetico-deductive approach,

proposed by Karl Popper (19021994), an influential

science philosopher, requires a specific hypothesis
(H1), i.e., a prediction of an effect or a difference, to
be constructed to explain a particular aspect of the
observed phenomenon. Furthermore, this hypothesis
must be tested, either by carrying out appropriate
experiments or making specific observations. Only
after the results of these experiments have been
measured and tested statistically can we determine
whether the hypothesis (prediction) was or was
not supported by the data and, therefore, deduce
something about the phenomenon.
If the hypothesis was supported, something
positive is now known about that phenomenon and
other aspects can be examined by constructing and
testing other hypotheses. If the hypothesis was refuted,
something else is known about that phenomenon,
albeit something negative. At the same time other
hypotheses should also be constructed and tested. As
you can see, via the hypothetico-deductive approach,
it is possible to go on learning about things forever.
Consequently, there is always the possibility that a
new hypothesis and test will show a previous piece
of knowledge to be false. This self-correcting
mechanism is an important aspect of the scientific
method.

Start
Observations
Patterns in space or time

Models
Explanations or theories

Hypothesis H 1
Prediction based on model

H0 Null Hypothesis
Retain H 0

Logical opposite to H1

Refute hypothesis
and model

Experiment

Reject H 0
Support hypothesis
and model

Critical test of H0

Interpretation

Figure 1

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A scientific method that incorporates the hypothetico-deductive approach and falsificationist procedure.

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Start
Observatio ns
Excessive exposure to
UV light causes skin cancer.

Model
Five mice for control;
Five mice for experimental group.

Hypothesis (H 1 )

Excessive exposure to UV light for a

period of one month causes skin cancer.

Retain H 0

There is no difference in
incidence of skin cancer
between mice exposed
to UV light and mice
that are not.

Null Hypothesis (H 0 )

Excessive exposure to UV light for

a period of one month will have no
adverse effects on the skin.

Reject H 0

Excessive exposure
to UV light may cause
skin cancer.

Experiment
Experimental mice exposed to UV
light 20 minutes each day for one month.
Control mice received no exposure.

Interpretation
After one month, biopsy of the
skin of both groups of mice.

Figure 2

An example of the hypothetico-deductive approach and falsificationist procedure.

The falsificationist procedure: The falsificationist

procedure is a simple way of increasing the power of
conclusions deduced using the hypothetico-deductive
approach. It merely involves taking the prediction
(hypothesis) of an effect (H1 above) and creating a
null hypothesis. For the purpose of this course, we will
state that a null hypothesis (H0) predicts no effect or
no difference between two or more tested samples.
The reason for doing this is that hypotheses can be
disproved much more easily than they can be proved.
For example, early Europeans have long been
familiar with white swans. As an observer of nature,
a European before the late seventeenth century could
easily conclude that all swans are white. Making a
generalization based on one or more observations
is called an inductive generalization. Even with
many additional observations that agree with the
generalization, one still cannot be sure that future
observation would also be in agreement with it.
Thus, inductive generalizations are constantly open
to revision. This is also the reason why a hypothesis is
difficult, if not impossible, to prove.
In 1697, a Dutch explorer named Willem de
Vlamingh first reported to the Western world about a
most astounding black swan he had seen in Australia.

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This report disproved the prior conclusion Europeans

may have made that all swans were white.
By observing one single black swan, an observer
had disproved forever the hypothesis that all swans
are white. Thus, while it takes all the possible
measurements (and generally many more than is
feasible) to support a hypothesis, it takes only one
contrary result to disprove a hypothesis.
Let us consider an experiment that illustrates
the application of the scientific method. There are
not many locales to live in as exciting as Southern
California. Tourists and residents alike have the benefit
of being two hours from the mountains, desert, or
beaches. However, residents know the precautions that
must be taken when carrying on everyday activities in
the sun-soaked regionthe application of sunscreen,
for example. Although most activities are enjoyable
under the sun, prolonged exposure to ultraviolet light
can carry out damaging effects. The incidence of skin
cancer is higher in individuals exposed to a greater
degree of UV light. But, is an excessive exposure to UV
light a direct cause of skin cancer?
Ten mice will be used to carry out this experiment
(Figure 2); five will act as the experimental group
(excessive exposure to UV light for one month), and

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Scientific Methodology and the MIT

five will act as the control (no exposure to UV light).

The alternative/experimental hypothesis will be that
excessive exposure to UV light for a period of one
month causes skin cancer. Thus, the null hypothesis we
will test is: excessive exposure to UV light for a period
of one month will have no adverse effects on the skin.
Five mice will be exposed to UV light for
20minutes each day for one month. The five other
mice will receive no such exposure. Behavioral and
physical observations should be recorded during the
experimental timeframe. At the end of one month, skin
biopsies are taken from mice in each of the two groups.
The experimental results are recorded and analyzed.
If, after using statistical analysis, there is no difference
between the incidences of skin cancer between the two
groups of mice, the null hypothesis is retained, and a
new experiment is formulated from new observations
and hypotheses to explain the phenomena.
However, if the statistical analysis warrants the
rejection of the null hypothesis, then we cannot rule
out that the only factor contributing to skin cancer in
the mice is the 20 minutes of UV light exposure every
day for one month. It will be necessary to investigate
other possible factors that could lead to skin cancer.
Thus, the scientific method shall be revisited to modify
experiments and explore other possibilities that cause
skin cancer.

Statistics
As stated previously, it is almost never feasible to make
all of the possible measurements that might prove a
hypothesis. In addition, in natural populations, there
often is considerable variation (consider the human
species). So, it often is possible for a hypothesis to be
true for most, say, >95% of the population, although
it is not true for a few individuals. Consequently,
we can rarely say categorically that a hypothesis is
true, although sufficient supporting evidence can be
amassed that a hypothesis very likely is true. But how
likely is very likely?
Quantitatively, the likelihood that a hypothesis is
true is calculated as the probability that the hypothesis
represents accurately all the possible data to which it is
applicable. The probability is calculated using statistics.
Statistics, as we commonly know, are divided into two
types: descriptive and inferential statistics. Descriptive
statistics (e.g., mean and standard deviation) describe
the pattern (i.e., distribution) of measurements and
might be used to see whether observed groups of
measurements (i.e., samples) are the same as expected.
Inferential statistics, in contrast (e.g., t-test), are used
to assess whether two samples are coming from the
same population. Brief descriptions are provided below
to help you to understand these statistics. However,
for LS23L, you are not required to remember the
equations.

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Definitions
Several definitions will help you to understand how
statistics are calculated, how they relate to your
measurements, and what they really mean.
Population: the entire collection of measurements on
which the researcher intends to draw conclusions, e.g.,
adult weight of human population in South America, or
height of eucalyptus trees in Los Angeles County.
Sample: the set of measurements (X1, X2, X3, Xi)
actually made (e.g., sampling daily dietary calories of
one thousand individuals from each capital of a South
American country; or sampling height of fifty eucalyptus
trees in each LA neighborhood).

Descriptive Statistics
There are a few terms in statistics commonly used to
describe the set of measurements in order to show
their characteristics. These terms, called parameters,
can show the central tendency or can be described
as a measure of dispersion. However, due to the fact
that it is impossible to obtain all the measurements
of one particular variable, the parameter is usually
not available. As a result, an estimate of a parameter
is produced to serve as a description of these
measurements. An estimate of a parameter is called
a statistic. The following explains three statistics
that measure the central tendency and one statistic
that describes the level of dispersion of a set of
measurements. We are going to incorporate these
statistics into the lab report.

1. Mean
One of the statistics that measures the central tendency
of a variable is mean. Mean is more commonly known
as the arithmetic average. The mean of a sample
is calculated as the sum of all measurements in the
sample divided by the sample size (n).
Mean = X = (X1 + X2 + X3 + ... Xi)/n = a Xi/n

2. Median
The second parameter to measure the central tendency
is the median. Median is the measurement located at
the middle of the ordered set of data. In other words,
there are just as many observations larger than the
median as there are smaller. If the sample size is odd,
the median is the middle measurement of the ordered
series. If the sample size is even, the median is the
average between the two middle measurements. For
example,

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Series A: 1.5, 3.7, 3.9, 4.5, 6.3, 7.1, 8.0, 8.8, 9.4
Series B: 1.5, 3.7, 3.9, 4.5, 6.3, 7.1, 8.0, 8.8, 9.4, 10.5

The median for Series A is 6.3 and the median for

Series B is (6.3 + 7.1) 2 = 6.7

3. Mode

The mode is defined as the measurement of relatively

great concentrations in a set of data. For example,
Series C: 3, 4, 4, 4, 4, 5, 5, 6, 8, 9.
Series D: 4, 5, 6, 6, 6, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 10, 10, 10, 10, 11, 12.
In Series C, data concentrate at the value 4, thus the
mode is 4. In Series D there are two modes (hence
bimodal): 6 and 10, respectively. For a symmetrical
unimodal distribution, the mean, median, and mode
are the same value. But for symmetrical bimodal
distribution, the modes will be different from either
the mean or the median.

4. Standard Deviation
The standard deviation is a measure of variation
around the mean. Any measurement that is not
equal to the mean is deviated from the mean. The
size of the deviation is calculated as (Xi X). The
standard deviation (s) is calculated using the sum of all
deviations measured (see the equation that follows).
If all measurements are the same as the mean, the
standard deviation of the sample is zero. However,
measurements usually are variable and therefore the
standard deviation is greater than zero.

s5

2
a (Xi 2 X )

n21

When comparing one variable between

two populations, the distribution can be either
concentrated around the mean or showing a wide
spread; the wider the spread, the higher the standard
deviation.
When we compare any two samples with
symmetrical unimodal distribution, the two samples
can have the same mean and standard deviation. If so,
we can say that the two samples are from the same
population. Most often populations are different;
therefore, samples collected from them will show
differences in either mean or standard deviation or
both. The following figure shows three scenarios
(Figure 3). When two samples have the same standard
deviation but different means, their distribution will
show the same shape but located at different positions
on the x-axis. When two samples share the same mean
but different standard deviations, the value where

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Figure 3 Comparison of one variable in three

populations. Populations A and B have the same standard
deviation but a different mean, while populations B and C
have the same mean but a different standard deviation. On
the other hand, populations A and C are different in both
mean and standard deviation.

most of the data is concentrated is the same, but the

spread patterns are different. And finally, two samples
can be different in both standard deviation and mean.

Inferential Statistics
So far we have only discussed a few statistics to
describe a group of data. However, the essence of a
statistical analysis is to answer a question objectively
by conducting a statistical test. A statistical test is
made between two or more sets of samples in order
to compare, for example, if they are from the same
population. In this lab we are only going to explore
one of the commonly used statistical tests. You are
not expected to become an expert on statistics, since
it takes much more than one course to master this
discipline. The purpose of this lab is to introduce you
to these objective methods modern scientists use to
answer their questions.

t-Test
Quite often a scientific study relies on a comparison
between two or more sample groups. In order to talk
about differences (or lack of differences) between
these groups in a meaningful way, it is necessary to
have a measurement that all scientists recognize and
understandthis is where statistical tests come in
handy. Many statistical tests have been developed to
allow scientists to calculate the significance of the
differences they see in their data. In this experiment,
we will be using the t-test, a very useful tool that
determines the difference between two samples by
comparing their means while taking into account
their variances. (You may also see it referred to as
the Students t-test. This does not signify a t-test
with training wheels. It is the real t-test, published
originally by an author who used the pseudonym
Student.) In order to determine the t-value, it is
necessary first to calculate several of the descriptive

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Scientific Methodology and the MIT

statistics mentioned earlier, including the mean,

standard deviation, and standard error for each of the
sample groups being compared. The calculation for
the t-value is shown below. Basically, the top of the
equation is the difference between the means of the
two sample groups, while the bottom of the equation
is the standard error, which is a measure of variability
(see Appendix B for a detailed example of a t-test
calculation like the one that will be used in this lab).

t5

0 X12X2 0

X1 2 X2

Luckily for you, there are now many computer

programs which calculate the necessary descriptive
statistics and the t-value. You will not be required to
do the calculations by hand for this experiment. As you
can see from the equation, the outcome of the t-test
is the t-value. However, the t-value tells us nothing
in and of itself. How do we determine whether our
sample groups are different using this number? This
question brings us to the probability value, commonly
known as the p-value.
In statistics the difference between sample groups
has to be significant before we can reject the null
hypothesis. But what is considered significant? In order
to establish a standard, there has to be a criterion
above and beyond which the differences are so great
that we have to reject the null hypothesis. This criterion
has been conventionally set at a p-value of 0.05, which
is called the significance level. The p-value gives the
probability that you are making a mistake in accepting
the experimental hypothesistherefore, a p-value of
0.05 tells us that we are only 5% likely to have made a
mistake by rejecting the null hypothesis. That is, we are
95% certain that accepting the experimental hypothesis
is correct. Although p-values are generally stated as
decimals, it is easier to think about them in terms of
percentages. For example, a p-value of 0.09 can also be
expressed as a 9% probability, meaning that there is a
9% chance that your sample groups are not significantly
different. A p-value of 0.9 would tell you that there is
a 90% likelihood of your two sample groups having no
differences. Obviously, there is a great deal of difference
between a 9% chance and a 90% chance; however,
neither one makes the conventional 5% cutoff, so
neither one would be considered statistically significant.
To apply this concept to our exercise today, you
will first formulate a hypothesis and a null hypothesis.
Once you select the applicable parameters in the Web
interface, the t-test values (NOT the p-values) will be
automatically calculated. In order to find your p-value
from this number, you will have to use Table 3. If your
p-value is greater than 5% (0.05), you will retain the
null hypothesis and conclude that the two groups are
not significantly different. If, however, the p-value is

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less than 5%, you will conclude that the two samples
are significantly different.

Laboratory Exercise
In your laboratory exercise today, you will have a
chance to apply some of the scientific and statistical
concepts you have just read about while participating
in an actual ongoing research project. You will
be expected to follow the hypothetico-deductive
approach by formulating your own hypothesis and
null hypothesis. Using the t-test, you will then be able
to determine whether or not your sample groups are
significantly different from each other. Today you are
participating in real research and contributing actual
data for possible future publication.
The current project proposes to assess cognitive
functioning of undergraduate students through
sophisticated computerized measures developed
by a neuropsychologist. The Memory Interference
Test (MIT) is a computer program that uses either
visual or auditory cues to test the subjects memory.
In addition, a demographic survey asks questions
about the subjects mental and physical states at the
time of the test, along with information about his or
her age, education level, and background. Subjects
can choose not to answer any questions that make
them uncomfortable, and all data remain completely
anonymous. Responses will be sent automatically and
electronically to an aggregated databasespecific
scores and background data will not be available
to anyone. For research purposes, demographic
information about a subgroup will be accessible only
if that group is larger than 50. This restriction protects
students anonymity, while ensuring good research
design with an adequate group size.
The MIT has several cognitive measures. The
picture memory tests (pictures, faces, designs and
Kanji) flash images onto the screen, while the word
memorytest flashes written words. In the auditory
test, the subject wears headphones and listens to lists
of words with no visual cues. Each version of the MIT
consists of four memory tests and a reaction time
test: Tests 1,2, and3are identical. Each presents a
target list of twenty items and then a recognition
list of fifty items. The recognition list consists of the
twenty target items randomly interspersed among
thirty additional items (referred to as distracters). The
subject identifies which items he recognizes from the
previously presented target list. Test 4 presents an
additional recognition list of sixty items, consisting of
ten items from each of the target lists of Tests 1, 2, and
3, together with thirty distracters. The subject is asked
to identify which of the items in the recognition list
appeared in the three previously presented target lists.
Test 5 is a test of reaction times only, independent of
any memory effects. It presents a group of fifty items,

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consisting of twenty squares and thirty circles. The
subject is required to identify which items are squares
and which are circles, and the computer records his or
her reaction time on each identification. Regardless of
which type of test is taken the subject is exposed to the
same three lists of items in the same order. In addition
to recording right and wrong answers, the program
measures reaction time. The computerized test takes
approximately fifteen minutes to complete, and an
additional five minutes to fill out the demographic
survey.
Please keep in mind that the MIT is not a measure
of intelligence or education. It simply tests the subjects
memory at a particular point in time. Results can
vary widely, depending on many factors including
sleep, stress, time of day, etc. This variability is one
of the most interesting aspects of the test, and it is
what allows students to formulate and test research
hypotheses.
Once you have had the option of taking the MIT,
you can begin to think about a factor you would like
to test. For example, do males perform differently
from females? Take a look at the many demographic
variables provided in the short-key legend to get an
idea of what you might like to test. Think about a
factor in which you are genuinely curiousyou will be
expected to write an individual lab report on this topic,
and it is much easier to write about something that
interests you.

MIT Manual
This manual will guide you through the Web interface
on how to perform a t-test on the aggregated
database. First, we want to define the data one can
retrieve from the aggregated database. In terms of
test performance, one can compare two different
parameters: 1. Number of correct responses, which is
a measure of how accurately a subject remembered
the items, and 2. Average response time, a measure of
how fast on average a subject responded to the correct
items. You can choose two different parameters on the
Web site and the Web site will give you the statistics

and calculate the t-test. Once you have the t-test value,
you will obtain the probability value (p-value) from the
table provided at the end of this section.

The Web Interface

(http://ls23l.lscore.ucla.edu/MIT)
The Web interface has several raised interactive
windows, a static parameter window (which displays
the current settings to the right), and an additional
hidden dynamic window, which can display five
different demographic choices and is controlled by
the yellow window labeled Select Demographic List
(Figure 4). Images of the different dynamic windows
are supplied at the end of this section (Table 1).
If the Include All button is active, then the
calculations are performed on all data for each test
type, not using any filters from the demographic lists.
This can be useful to compare the different test types,
as will be described next.

How to Compare Different Test Types

One might be interested in investigating whether the
reaction times differ between the different test types,
i.e., do we remember pictures more often than words?
How fast is auditory memory compared to reading
memory? For this example, you would formulate a
hypothesis: Subjects remember pictures correctly
more often than they remember words, or Subjects
correctly identify pictures more quickly than they
correctly identify words. You would also formulate
a corresponding null hypothesis: Subjects remember
pictures and words equally well, or Subjects identify
pictures and words at the same rate. If you wanted
to compare all data from the picture versus the word
memory test, you would select those two test types in
the far left window. Picture is the default setting, so
all you would have to do is select word for the second
set (1). In order to compare test types, you must make
sure that the Include All button (2) is active in the
Select Demographic List window. When this button is
active, the data from all subjects who took the picture
and word tests are included in your analysis (Figure 5).

Figure 4

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Figure 5
The results of comparing all data from the
picture test (PMIT) versus all data from the word test
(WMIT) are shown in Figure 5 (note that the database
is constantly growing as data are collected, and the
numbers shown here are not current). The Web
interface will give you two graphs: On the left are the
statistics for the # of Correct Responses and on the
right you see the statistics for the Average Response
Time. The respective t-test values are displayed in the
graph on top of the individual statistics. Remember,
these are NOT your p-values. You will need to follow
the instructions given later in order to determine your
p-values. However, the chart below the graphs does
give an indication of whether the results are significant.
The degrees of freedom (abbreviated here as dof)
have been calculated (the calculation will be explained
later on), and a range of t-values are shown. As you
can see, in order for the results to be significant at the
5% level (highlighted pink), the t-value must be at least
1.962. Unlike p-values, t-values are more significant as
they get larger. Keeping that in mind, do you think that
the results shown in Figure5 are significant? Would you
accept or reject your null hypothesis?

How to Retrieve Demographic

Selected Data
There are five different demographic data lists
(numbered 04) which can be displayed and selected.
Table 2 contains a summary of all the different options
and the lists in which you will find them. These five

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choices are controlled by the yellow window labeled

Select Demographic List (1). When you click on one
of the five choices several different sub-windows appear
below the current window. Once you have used the
legend in Table 2 to choose your parameter of interest,
select your two variables (2). You can compare only the
variables that are listed under the same parameter, and
the order in which they are chosen does not impact your
results. It makes no difference which variable is chosen
as Set 1 and which is chosen as Set 2. Due to the
fact that this project is ongoing, some of the parameters
may not have two variables shownremember that a
variable is shown only if it has at least 50 samples. Once
you have selected your two variables, click the labeled
parameter button (3) to display the data (Figure 6).

How to Retrieve the t-Test Values

In this example, we compare the performance between
subjects who took the picture MIT in the morning
(n = 1322) and subjects who took the picture MIT in
the afternoon (n = 1151). If you look below the results,
you can see that the start parameter window is
highlighted yellow to indicate our current selection.
As indicated in the short-key legend provided in
Table2, start indicates the time of day the test
was taken. Again, there are two different measures
shown: the number of correct responses averages
137.0 for the morning test subjects versus 137.1 for the
afternoon test subjects. The average response time for
the morning test subjects is 0.84 second, versus 0.82
seconds for the afternoon test subjects (Figure 7).

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It looks as though test subjects perform slightly
better and faster in the afternoon. But how significant
is this difference statistically? We can make another
estimate based on the critical t-values table, but in

scientific publications it is common to express the

difference with a specific p-value. To find the p-value
using the t-value, we can use the table in Figure 8
(partial tablesee Table 3 at end for full table).

Figure 6

Figure 7

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Scientific Methodology and the MIT

Figure 8

Critical values for students t-distribution.

To find your p-value (probability value), determine

your degrees of freedom by calculating (n1 1) +
(n2 1), where n1 and n2 are the numbers of samples
in data sets 1 and 2, respectively. Looking across the
row that corresponds with your degrees of freedom,
find the column with the t-value that is closest to your
calculated t-value. As shown here, when your values fall
between those shown on the chart, you can estimate
the range of the p-value. The p-value is listed at the top
of the column. The smaller the p-value, the greater the
difference between the two data sets being compared.
In the current example we have 2471 degrees of
freedom ((1322 1) + (1151 1)) and a t-test value of
0.220 and 2.636 for the number correct and the response
time, respectively. From the table we obtain p-values of
greater than 40% and 01%, respectively. Based on this
information, do we accept or reject our null hypothesis?
In addition to the t-test value, you will also see an
effect size value on the results page. Effect size is a
measure of the magnitude of the difference between
the sample groups. Researchers who are considering
treatment options for patients must pay close attention
to effect size and not just statistical significance.
Even very small differences can be highly statistically
significant with large sample sizes, but choosing to
medicate a patient for a very small gain might not be
the best choice. This information is provided because
the MIT is an ongoing research project, but you are not
required to discuss the effect size in your report.

The Aggregated Database

In Table 1, please find some examples of the different
sub-windows as displayed on the Web interface. If the
sample size (n) is lower than 50 the data will not be
available for testing. However, keep in mind that this is
a dynamic database and the available data will change
throughout the week.
Table 2 contains some of the parameters available
for analysis. Because the database is constantly
growing, you will probably see far more options
during your lab than are presented here. Please think
about the factors on the list that you find particularly
interesting when you formulate your hypothesis.

03_pfl61305_Lab A_001-014.indd 10

Writing Scientific Reports

The conventional scientific report follows a standard
structure. It is composed of four principal sections:
(i) introduction, (ii) materials and methods, (iii) results,
and (iv) discussion, which represent steps in the
scientific method (Figure 1) as follows: (i) observations,
models, and hypotheses, (ii) experimental design,
(iii) experimental results, and (iv) interpretation and
evaluation of hypotheses. As such, this structure,
although it may be modified in various ways, is the
most widely used format.
The strength of this format, like the strength
of a scientific method, is that it: (i) addresses a
specific question [in the form of a null hypothesis],
(ii) provides detailed information regarding how the
question was addressed so that the validity of the
methods and, therefore, the results can be assessed,
and it (iii) dissociates the results from (iv) the authors
interpretations of the results. Thus, the scientific
report can be critiqued at several levels. Is the question
valid? Are the methods appropriate to address the
question? Are the results reliable given the methods?
Is the hypothesis supported or refuted, and are the
interpretations justifiable given the results and the
context in which the hypothesis was originally posed?
These are questions that you should keep in mind
when writing your reports. To write a report, or any
other format of writing, The Elements of Style by
W. Strunk & E.B. White is a useful, concise guide. It is
available in bookshops and online at http://www
.bartleby.com/141/. The next paragraph explains how
exactly to write a report for this lab exercise.

The Laboratory Report

for Scientific Methodology
(Refer to Appendix A for an example.)
Each student will complete a three- to four-page
individual scientific report, including the sections
described below, plus one page of figures (your screen
capture). The first page should be the LS Core Labs
Cover Letter. Please download this document from the
Lab A section of CCLE, fill it out completely and then

10/29/14 9:53 AM

Scientific Methodology and the MIT

11

Table 1

Example of a Demographic Sub-Window.

Table 2

Short-Key Legend

Demographic List #

Short Label

Question

date

Weekday test was taken

durtn

Time it took to take test

handset

Left or right hand used in test

start

Time of day test was taken

wait

Time in between images shown

continued

03_pfl61305_Lab A_001-014.indd 11

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12

Scientific Methodology and the MIT

Table 2

Short-Key Legend (Continued)

Demographic List #

Short Label

Question

sex

Gender

age

What is your age?

race

Race

ethn

Ethnic group

ed

Education COMPLETED

country

Country of birth

lang_1

First language

lang_2

Primary language use

lang_n

Fluent in how many languages?

lang_m

Primary language spoken by mother

lang_f

Primary language spoken by father

local

What country do you live in right now?

localy

How many years have you lived here?

area

What best describes your area?

uspart

If you live in the US, which area?

firstMIT

Is this your first time performing the URI-UCLA Memory Interference Test?

trial

How many times have you taken the MIT?

lastMIT

When was the last time you took the MIT?

ed_sped

Have you ever received special education services?

loc

Have you ever had loss of consciousness?

loc_dur

If yes, duration (indicate worst)

loc_inc

Cause for loss of consciousness

handness

Dominant hand

hand_hx

Do you have family history of left-handedness?

handuse

Hand used for test

cafe_frq

Current coffee use frequency

cafe_vol

How many cups of coffee per day?

tea_frq

Current tea use frequency

tea_vol

How many cups of tea per day?

soda_frq

Current caffeinated soda use frequency

soda_vol

How many caffeinated sodas per day?

tobc_frq

Current tobacco use frequency

tobc_vol

How many packs of cigarettes per day?

etoh_frq

Current alcohol use frequency

etoh_vol

How many drinks per day?

continued

03_pfl61305_Lab A_001-014.indd 12

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Scientific Methodology and the MIT

13

Table 2

Short-Key Legend (Continued)

Demographic List #

Short Label

Question

cafe_hrs

How many hours ago did you have coffee?

tea_hrs

How many hours ago did you have tea?

soda_hrs

How many hours ago did you have caffeinated soda?

tobc_hrs

How many hours ago did you have nicotine?

etoh_hrs

How many hours ago did you have alcohol?

eat_hrs

How many hours ago did you eat last?

wake_hrs

How many hours ago did you get up today?

sleep_hrs

How many hours did you sleep last night?

state

What would best describe your state?

pain

What would best describe your pain level? (10 = worst)

mental

How do you feel mentally right now?

physcl

How do you feel physically right now?

emotnl

How do you feel emotionally right now?

love

How much are you in love right now?

spirit

How spiritual are you?

Table 3
p-value in %

Critical values for students t-distribution

40%

20%

10%

8%

6%

5%

4%

2%

1%

0%

0.4

0.2

0.1

0.08

0.06

0.05

0.04

0.02

0.01

0.001

90

0.846

1.291

1.662

1.771

1.905

1.987

2.084

2.368

2.632

3.402

100

0.845

1.290

1.660

1.769

1.902

1.984

2.081

2.364

2.626

3.390

110

0,845

1.290

1.659

1.767

1.900

1.982

2.078

2.361

2.621

3.380

120

0.845

1.289

1.658

1.766

1.899

1.980

2.076

2.358

2.617

3.373

130

0.845

1.289

1.657

1.764

1.897

1.978

2.074

2.355

2.614

3.367

140

0.844

1.288

1.656

1.763

1.896

1.977

2.073

2.353

2.611

3.362

150

0.844

1.288

1.655

1.763

1.895

1.976

2.072

2.351

2.608

3.357

160

0.844

1.287

1.654

1.762

1.894

1.975

2.071

2.350

2.606

3.353

170

0.844

1.287

1.653

1.762

1.893

1.974

2.070

2.348

2.604

3.349

180

0.844

1.286

1.653

1.761

1.893

1.973

2.069

2.347

2.603

3.345

190

0.843

1.286

1.653

1.761

1.892

1.973

2.068

2.346

2.602

3.342

200

0.843

1.286

1.653

1.760

1.892

1.972

2.067

2.345

2.601

3.340

300

0.842

1.285

1.650

1.757

1.889

1.969

2.064

2.339

2.592

3.325

400

0.842

1.284

1.649

1.755

1.887

1.967

2.061

2.336

2.588

3.315

500

0.842

1.283

1.648

1.754

1.885

1.965

2.059

2.334

2.586

3.310

1000

0.842

1.282

1.646

1.752

1.883

1.962

2.056

2.330

2.581

3.300

0.842

1.282

1.645

1.751

1.881

1.960

2.054

2.326

2.576

3.291

p-value
degrees
of freedom

03_pfl61305_Lab A_001-014.indd 13

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14

Scientific Methodology and the MIT

type your report in the same document. The report

should be double-spaced, with regular 1-inch margins
and typewritten in 12-point Times New Roman font.
Include your name, student ID, course title, section
number, TAs name, title of the laboratory, and the
date. The report is due in section one week following
the lab period and it must also be uploaded to Turnltln
by the start time of your lab section. The entire report
must be written in the third person and it should
include the following sections:

Title
Short, concise, and relevant.

Introduction
First, briefly explain the rationale of the study. As
part of your background information, please find an
interesting original research paper about memory or
the variable you are looking at and properly cite it. As
UCLA students, you have campus wide access to the
PubMed database (http://www.pubmedcentral.nih
.gov/) which makes this type of search fairly simple. For
more information on how to incorporate citations in
your report, see the scientific writing lecture posted on
the LS23L CCLE site. You should also attach a copy of
the abstract of the cited article to the hard copy of your
report only. Then state what your null hypothesis is for

03_pfl61305_Lab A_001-014.indd 14

the experiment, for the purpose of statistics. You should

also state your alternative (experimental) hypothesis.

Materials and Methods

A few sentences describing the sampling method of
the MIT (i.e., who the subjects are, how the data are
collected) and what types of statistical measures you
used (do not include any numbers, just mention which
statistical measures were calculated).

Results
Describe the mean, median, and standard deviation
of each group. Attach the screen capture of your data
from the database and refer to the figure in your text.
Make sure to give your calculated p-values. Do not
include any discussion of the results in this section; just
report the data in paragraph form.

Discussion
Was the null hypothesis supported or refuted?
Therefore, was the alternative (experimental)
hypothesis refuted or supported? This conclusion
must be related to the statistical test. What realworld conclusions can you draw from your results? If
applicable, discuss possible sources of error and what
you could do to strengthen your experiments. What
type of further research would be useful/interesting?

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