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Slave labor in East Africa was drawn from the Zanj, Bantu
peoples that lived along the East African coast.[4][10]
The Zanj were for centuries shipped as slaves by Arab
traders to all the countries bordering the Indian Ocean.
The Umayyad and Abbasid caliphs recruited many Zanj
slaves as soldiers and, as early as 696, we learn of
slave revolts of the Zanj against their Arab enslavers in
Iraq (see Zanj Rebellion). Ancient Chinese texts also
mention ambassadors from Java presenting the Chinese
emperor with two Seng Chi (Zanj) slaves as gifts, and
Seng Chi slaves reaching China from the Hindu kingdom of Srivijaya in Java.[11] The Zanj Rebellion, a series of uprisings that took place between 869 and 883
AD near the city of Basra (also known as Basara), situated in present-day Iraq, is believed to have involved enslaved Zanj that had originally been captured from the
African Great Lakes region and areas further south in
East Africa.[12] It grew to involve over 500,000 slaves and
free men who were imported from across the Muslim empire and claimed over tens of thousands of lives in lower
Iraq.[13] The Zanj who were taken as slaves to the Middle
East were often used in strenuous agricultural work.[14]
As the plantation economy boomed and the Arabs became richer, agriculture and other manual labor work was
thought to be demeaning. The resulting labor shortage led
to an increased slave market.
The trade of slaves across the Sahara and across the Indian Ocean also has a long history, beginning with the
control of sea routes by Arab and Swahili traders on the
Swahili Coast during the ninth century (see Sultanate of
Zanzibar). These traders captured Bantu peoples (Zanj)
from the interior in present-day Kenya, Mozambique and
Tanzania and brought them to the littoral.[3][4] There, the
slaves gradually assimilated in the rural areas, particularly
on the Unguja and Pemba islands.[5] The captives were
sold throughout the Middle East. This trade accelerated
as superior ships led to more trade and greater demand
for labour on plantations in the region. Eventually, tens of
thousands of captives were being taken every year.[5][6][7]
1
2.1
for plantation labor, these captured Zanj slaves were slave trade continued in one form or another. Historishipped to the Arabian peninsula and the Near East, cal accounts and references to slave-owning nobility in
among other areas.[39]
Arabia, Yemen and elsewhere are frequent into the early
1920s.[40]
2.1
Some descendants of African slaves brought to the Middle East during the slave-trade still live there today, and
2.2
are aware of their African origins. Some men were cas- Livingstone wrote in a letter to the editor of the New York
trated to be eunuchs in domestic service.[64][65]
Herald:
The North African slave markets traded also in European
slaves. The European slaves were acquired by Barbary
pirates in slave raids on ships and by raids on coastal
towns from Italy to Spain, Portugal, France, England, the
Netherlands, and as far aeld as Iceland. Men, women,
and children were captured, to such a devastating extent
that vast numbers of sea coast towns were abandoned.
Ohio State University history Professor Robert Davis describes the white slave trade as minimized by most modern historians in his book Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary
Coast and Italy, 1500-1800 (Palgrave Macmillan). Davis
estimates that 1 million to 1.25 million White Christian
Europeans were enslaved in North Africa, from the beginning of the 16th century to the middle of the 18th, by
slave traders from Tunis, Algiers, and Tripoli alone (these
numbers do not include the European people which were
enslaved by Morocco and by other raiders and traders
of the Mediterranean Sea coast),[66] and roughly 700
Americans were held captive in this region as slaves between 1785 and 1815.[67] 16th- and 17th-century customs
statistics suggest that Istanbuls additional slave import
from the Black Sea may have totaled around 2.5 million
from 1450 to 1700.[68] In the 1800s, the slave trade from
Africa to the Islamic countries picked up signicantly.
When the European slave trade ended around the 1850s,
the slave trade to the east picked up signicantly only to
be ended with European colonization of Africa around
1900.[69]
Heinrich Barth, (18211865), Travels and Discoveries in North and Central Africa (1857)
Ibn Khaldun (died in 1406), historian and philosopher from North Africa. Sometimes considered as
the historian of Arab, Berber and Persian societies.
He is the author of Muqaddimah orHistorical Prolegomena and History of the Berbers.
2.3
3.2
7
)"in Islamic law. If slaves agree to that and they
would like the money they earn to be counted toward their
emancipation, then this has to be written in the form of a
contract between the slave and the master. This is called
(mukataba) in Islamic jurisprudence which is
only, by consensus, a recommendation,[84] and accepting
a request for a mukataba from slaves is thus not obligatory for masters.[85] Although the owner did not have to
comply with it, was considered praiseworthy to do so[86]
The framework of Islamic civilization was a welldeveloped network of towns and oasis trading centers
with the market (souq, bazaar) at its heart. These towns
were inter-connected by a system of roads crossing semiarid regions or deserts. The routes were traveled by convoys, and slaves formed part of this caravan trac.
In contrast to the Atlantic slave trade, where the malefemale ratio was 2:1 or 3:1, the Arab slave trade instead usually had a higher female-to-male ratio. This suggests a general preference for female slaves. Concubinage
and reproduction served as incentives for importing female slaves (often Caucasian), though many were also imported mainly for performing household tasks.[87]
From the Islamic literature, manifestations of racial discrimination followed within the Islamic world.[1] For example, an Arab poet in the 7th century wrote: The
blacks do not earn their pay by good deeds, and are not
of good repute; The children of a stinking Nubian black
- God put no light in their complexions!"[88]
3.1
See also: Muslim world, Muslim conquests, Islamic Ethnic prejudices developed among Arabs for at least two
economics in the world and Islamic views on slavery
reasons: 1) their extensive conquests and slave trade;[1]
and 2) the inuence of Aristotle's idea of nal causes
[89]
A reThe islamic law allowed slavery but prohibited slavery in- which argues that slaves are slaves by nature.
nement
of
Aristotles
view
was
put
forward
by
Muslim
volving other pre-existing Muslims; as a result, the main
partictarget for slavery were the people who lived in the frontier philosophers such as Al-Farabi and Avicenna, [1]
ularly
in
regards
to
Turkic
and
black
peoples;
and
[83]
areas of Islam in Africa.
The conquests of the Arab
the
inuence
of
ideas
from
the
early
mediaeval
Geonic
armies and the expansion of the Islamic state that followed have always resulted in the capture of war prison- academies regarding divisions among mankind between
ers who were subsequently set free or turned into slaves the three sons of Noah. However, ethnic prejudice among
or Raqeeq ( )and servants rather than taken as pris- some elite Arabs was not limited to darker-skinned peooners as was the Islamic tradition in wars. Once taken ple, but was also directed towards fairer-skinned ruddy
while
as slaves, they had to be dealt with in accordance with people (including Persians, Turks and Europeans),
[90]
The
Arabs
referred
to
themselves
as
swarthy
people.
the Islamic law which was the law of the Islamic state,
Arab
identity
itself
did
not
exist
until
modconcept
of
an
especially during the Umayyad and Abbasid eras. Ac[91]
cording to that law, slaves were allowed to earn their ern times. According to Arnold J. Toynbee: The exliving if they opted for that, otherwise it is the owners tinction of race consciousness as between Muslims is one
(master) duty to provide for that. They also could not of the outstanding achievements of Islam and in the cona crying need for
be forced to earn money for their masters unless with temporary world there is, as it happens,[92]
the
propagation
of
this
Islamic
virtue.
an agreement between the slave and the master. This
concept is called
(mukhrajah) (Lane: And
He made an agreement with him, namely, his slave
that he (the latter) should pay him a certain impost at
the expiration of every month; the slave being left at
liberty to work: in which case the slave is termed
the [black] slave is sated, he fornicates, when he is hun- In the 8th century, Africa was dominated by Arabgry, he steals.[93]
Berbers in the north: Islam moved southwards along the
Nile and along the desert trails.
The Sahara was thinly populated. Nevertheless,
since antiquity there had been cities living on a trade
in salt, gold, slaves, cloth, and on agriculture enabled
by irrigation: Tiaret, Oualata, Sijilmasa, Zaouila,
and others.
In the Middle Ages, the general Arabic term bild
as-sdn (Land of the Blacks) was used for the
vast Sudan region (an expression denoting West and
Central Africa[97] ), or sometimes extending from
the coast of West Africa to Western Sudan.[98] ). It
provided a pool of manual labour for North and Saharan Africa. This region was dominated by certain
states and people: the Ghana Empire, the Empire
of Mali, the Kanem-Bornu Empire, the Fulani and
Hausa.
3.3
In April 1998, Elikia Mbokolo, wrote in Le Monde diplomatique. The African continent was bled of its human resources via all possible routes. Across the Sahara,
through the Red Sea, from the Indian Ocean ports and
across the Atlantic. At least ten centuries of slavery for
the benet of the Muslim countries (from the ninth to the
nineteenth). He continues: Four million slaves exported
via the Red Sea, another four million through the Swahili
ports of the Indian Ocean, perhaps as many as nine million along the trans-Saharan caravan route, and eleven to
twenty million (depending on the author) across the Atlantic Ocean[96]
4.2
Routes
4
4.1
9
the Mediterranean region were predominantly of European origin from the 7th to 15th centuries.[103] The Barbary pirates continued to capture slaves from Europe and,
to an extent, North America, from the 16th to 19th centuries.
Slaves were also brought into the Arab world via Central
Asia, mainly of Turkic or Tartar origin. Many of these
slaves later went on to serve in the armies forming an elite
rank.
At sea, Barbary pirates joined in this trac when
they could capture people by boarding ships or by
incursions into coastal areas, mainly in Southern Europe as well as other European coasts.
Nubia and Ethiopia were also exporting regions:
in the 15th century, Ethiopians sold slaves from
western borderland areas (usually just outside the
realm of the Emperor of Ethiopia) or Ennarea,[104]
which often ended up in India, where they worked
on ships or as soldiers. They eventually rebelled and
took power (dynasty of the Habshi Kings in Bengal
1487-1493).
The Sudan region and Saharan Africa formed another export area, but it is impossible to estimate
the scale, since there is a lack of sources with gures.
Finally, the slave trac aected eastern Africa, but
the distance and local hostility slowed down this section of the Oriental trade.
4.2 Routes
According to professor Ibrahima Baba Kak there were
four main slavery routes to the Arab world, from east to
west of Africa, from the Maghreb to the Sudan, from
Tripolitania to central Sudan and from Egypt to the Middle East.[105] Caravan trails, set up in the 9th century,
went past the oasis of the Sahara; travel was dicult and
uncomfortable for reasons of climate and distance. Since
Roman times, long convoys had transported slaves as well
as all sorts of products to be used for barter. To protect
against attacks from desert nomads, slaves were used as
an escort. Any who slowed down the progress of the caravan were killed.
Photograph of a slave boy in Zanzibar. 'An Arab masters punishment for a slight oence. ' c. 1890.
Historians know less about the sea routes. From the evidence of illustrated documents, and travellers tales, it
seems that people travelled on dhows or jalbas, Arab
ships which were used as transport in the Red Sea. Crossing the Indian Ocean required better organisation and
more resources than overland transport. Ships coming
from Zanzibar made stops on Socotra or at Aden before heading to the Persian Gulf or to India. Slaves
were sold as far away as India, or even China: there
was a colony of Arab merchants in Canton. Serge Bil
10
cites a 12th-century text which tells us that most wellto-do families in Canton had black slaves whom they regarded as savages and demons because of their physical appearance. Although Chinese slave traders bought
slaves (Seng Chi i.e. the Zanj [11] ) from Arab intermediaries and stocked up directly in coastal areas of
present-day Somalia, the local Somalisreferred to as
Baribah and Barbaroi (Berbers) by medieval Arab and
ancient Greek geographers, respectively (see Periplus of
the Erythraean Sea),[10][106][107] and no strangers to capturing, owning and trading slaves themselves[108] were
not among them:[109]
One important commodity being transported by the Arab dhows to Somalia was
slaves from other parts of East Africa. During
the nineteenth century, the East African slave
trade grew enormously due to demands by
Arabs, Portuguese, and French. Slave traders
and raiders moved throughout eastern and
central Africa to meet the rising demand for
enslaved men, women, and children. Somalia
did not supply slaves -- as part of the Islamic
world Somalis were at least nominally protected by the religious tenet that free Muslims
cannot be enslaved -- but Arab dhows loaded
with human cargo continually visited Somali
ports.
Catherine Lowe Besteman, Unraveling
Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of
Slavery[110]
13th-century slave market in Yemen
4.3
Barter
11
In Cairo, transactions involving eunuchs and concubines
happened in private houses. Prices varied according to
the slaves quality. Thomas Smee, the commander of
the British research ship Ternate, visited such a market
in Zanzibar in 1811 and gave a detailed description:
'The show' commences about four o'clock
in the afternoon. The slaves, set o to the
best advantage by having their skins cleaned
and burnished with cocoa-nut oil, their faces
painted with red and white stripes and the
hands, noses, ears and feet ornamented with
a profusion of bracelets of gold and silver and
jewels, are ranged in a line, commencing with
the youngest, and increasing to the rear according to their size and age. At the head of this le,
which is composed of all sexes and ages from 6
to 60, walks the person who owns them; behind
and at each side, two or three of his domestic
slaves, armed with swords and spears, serve as
guard.
Thus ordered the procession begins, and
passes through the market-place and the principle streets... when any of them strikes a spectators fancy the line immediately stops, and
a process of examination ensues, which, for
minuteness, is unequalled in any cattle market
in Europe. The intending purchaser having ascertained there is no defect in the faculties of
speech, hearing, etc., that there is no disease
present, next proceeds to examine the person;
the mouth and the teeth are rst inspected and
afterwards every part of the body in succession, not even excepting the breasts, etc., of
the girls, many of whom I have seen handled
in the most indecent manner in the public market by their purchasers; indeed there is every
reasons to believe that the slave-dealers almost
universally force the young girls to submit to
their lust previous to their being disposed of.
From such scenes one turns away with pity and
indignation.[112]
4.5
A recent topic
6 See also
Slavery in 21st century Islamism
Slavery in modern Africa
Slavery in antiquity
Black orientalism
7 References
This article was initially translated from the featured French wiki article "Traite musulmane" on
19 May 2006.
[1] Bernard Lewis (2003), From Race and Slavery in the
Middle East: An Historical Enquiry", in Kevin Reilly,
Stephen Kaufman, Angela Bodino, Racism: A Global
Reader, M.E. Sharpe, pp. 528, ISBN 0-7656-1060-4
[2] Dmitrij Mishin (1998). The Saqaliba slaves in the Aghlabid state (PDF). Budapest: Central European University. Retrieved 14 May 2015.
[3] Ochieng, William Robert (1975). Eastern Kenya and Its
Invaders. East African Literature Bureau. p. 76. Retrieved 15 May 2015.
[4] Bethwell A. Ogot, Zamani: A Survey of East African History, (East African Publishing House: 1974), p.104
[5] Lodhi, Abdulaziz (2000). Oriental inuences in Swahili: a
study in language and culture contacts. Acta Universitatis
Gothoburgensis. p. 17. ISBN 9173463779.
[6] John Donnelly Fage and William Tordo (December
2001). A History of Africa (4 ed.). Budapest: Routledge.
p. 258. ISBN 978-0415252485.
[7] Edward R. Tannenbaum, Guilford Dudley (1973). A
History of World Civilizations. Wiley. p. 615. ISBN
0471844802.
[8] Refugee Reports, November 2002, Volume 23, Number
8
[9] Gwyn Campbell, The Structure of Slavery in Indian Ocean
Africa and Asia, 1 edition, (Routledge: 2003), p.ix
12
REFERENCES
[32] Murray Gordon, Slavery in the Arab World, New Amsterdam Press, New York, 1989. Originally published in
French by Editions Robert Laont, S.A. Paris, 1987, page
28.
[33] Battutas Trip: Journey to West Africa (1351 - 1353)
[34] Susi O'Neill. The blood of a nation of Slaves in Stone
Town. www.pilotguides.com. Globe Trekker. Retrieved
29 April 2015.
[35] Kevin Mwachiro (30 March 2007). BBC Remembering
East African slave raids. Nairobi: BBC. Retrieved 29
April 2015.[
[36] Know about Islamic Slavery in Africa
[37] The Forgotten Holocaust: The Eastern Slave Trade.
Archived from the original on 2009-10-25.
[38] Irfan Shahid, Byzantium and the Arabs in the Sixth
Century, Dumbarton Oaks, 2002, p. 364 documents;
Ghassanid Arabs seizing and selling 20,000 Jewish
Samaritans as slaves in the year 529, before the rise of
Islam.
[39] Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies, Volumes
21-22. 1991. p. 87. Retrieved 17 January 2015.
[40] Mintz, S. Digital History Slavery, Facts & Myths
[41] Slave Trade. Jewish Encyclopedia
[42] Darjusz Koodziejczyk, as reported by Mikhail Kizilov
(2007). Slaves, Money Lenders, and Prisoner Guards:
The Jews and the Trade in Slaves and Captivesin the
Crimean Khanate. The Journal of Jewish Studies. p. 2.
[43] Jay Sapulding. Medieval Christian Nubia and the Islamic World: A Reconsideration of the Baqt Treaty, International Journal of African Historical Studies XXVIII,
3 (1995)
[44] Fischer W. Alan (1978) The sale of slaves in the Ottoman
Empire: Markets and state taxes on slave sales, some preliminary considerations. Bogazici Universitesi Dergisi,
Beseri Bilimler - Humanities, vol. 6, pp. 150-151.
[48] Osmanl mparatorluu'nda Klelik at the Wayback Machine (archived February 21, 2006)
13
[69] Manning, Patrick (1990). Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades. London:
Cambridge.
[76] Stanley Henry M., How I Found Livingstone; travels, adventures, and discoveries in Central Africa, including an
account of four months residence with Dr. Livingstone.
(1871)
14
8 FURTHER READING
[106] Mohamed Diriye Abdullahi, Culture and Customs of Somalia, (Greenwood Press: 2001), p.13
Money of the Slave Trade. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521541107. Retrieved 29 April
2015.
8 Further reading
Edward A. Alpers, The East African Slave Trade
(Berkeley 1967)
Ibn Khaldun, The Muqaddimah, trans. F. Rosenthal, ed. N. J. Dawood (Princeton 1967)
Murray Gordon, Slavery in the Arab World (New
York 1989)
Habeeb Akande, Illuminating the Darkness: Blacks
and North Africans in Islam (Ta Ha 2012)
Bernard Lewis, Race and Slavery in the Middle East
(OUP 1990)
Patrick Manning, Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades (Cambridge 1990)
Paul E. Lovejoy, Transformations in Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa (Cambridge 2000)
15
Allan G. B. Fisher, Slavery and Muslim Society in
Africa, ed. C. Hurst (London 1970, 2nd edition
2001)
The African Diaspora in the Mediterranean Lands
of Islam (Princeton Series on the Middle East) Eve
Troutt Powell (Editor), John O. Hunwick (Editor)
(Princeton 2001)
Ronald Segal, Islams Black Slaves (Atlantic Books,
London 2002)
Robert C. Davis, Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters:
White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary
Coast, and Italy, 1500-1800 (Palgrave Macmillan,
London 2003) ISBN 978-1-4039-4551-8
Doudou Dine (2001). From Chains to Bonds: The
Slave Trade Revisited. Berghahn Books. ISBN
1571812652. Retrieved 26 May 2015.
External links
Robert Davis. British Slaves on the Barbary
Coast. BBC. Retrieved 29 April 2015.
Slavery in Islam. BBC. Retrieved 29 April 2015.
Encyclopdia Britannicas Guide to Black History. www.britannica.com. Encyclopdia Britannica. Retrieved 29 April 2015.
iAbolish.ORG! American Anti-Slavery Group
(AASG) - particular focus on North African slaves
16
10
10
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10.2
Images
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/5/57/Egyptian_Slavemaster_and_
10.3
Content license
17
Original publication: UK
Immediate source: http://thecivilisingmission.com/2010/08/27/the-arab-slave-trade-in-east-africa/ Original artist:
Unknown
(Life time: 1900s)
File:Flag_of_the_Arab_League.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2b/Flag_of_the_Arab_League.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Flad
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