ME 408 WEBSITE MODAL ANALYSIS : THEORY AND EXPERIMENT

1) BACKGROUND
Modal analysis is the process of extracting the dynamics characteristics of a vibrating system from
experimental transfer functions. The dynamic characteristics of interest are the mode shapes and the
modal parameters. A mode shape is the characteristic deformation shape defined by relative amplitudes
of the extreme positions of vibration of a system at a single natural frequency. The modal parameters are
the natural frequencies, damping ratios, and modal masses associated with each of the mode shapes. The
mode shape is a global property of an elastic system. That is the mode shape is associated with a specific
natural frequency and damping ratio which can be extracted from almost any system transfer function.
A transfer function is a measure of the response of a system to a given input. In vibration analysis, the
input is usually a force and the response measured is usually a motion, either displacement, velocity, or
acceleration. In order to obtain a transfer function, a known force is applied at one point and the
acceleration, for example, is measured at another point. The transfer function can then be obtained by
taking the ratio of the two measurements. Six different transfer functions can be defined depending on
the type of response measured. The six types are listed below.
x
compliance
F
F
apparent stiffness
x
x
mobility
F
F
impedance
x
x
inertan ce
F

F
apparent mass
x
x displacement
x velocity

x accleration
F force

When the input and response are measured at the same point, the transfer function is called a driving point
transfer function. When the input and response are measured at different points, a spatial transfer
function is obtained.
In modal analysis the transfer functions are usually obtained using a digital test system. The input and
response measurements are digitized and then processed using fast Fourier transform techniques. The
transfer function is calculated and stored as a finite number of data points. If any one of the six transfer
functions listed above is obtained in this manner, any of the other transfer functions can be obtained
through mathematical manipulation of the existing transfer function. Once the transfer functions are
obtained, a modal analysis can be performed.
There are basically two levels of sophistication available in modal analysis. In the first level, only the
natural frequencies and mode shapes are obtained. From this information, pictures of how the system is
vibrating at its different natural frequencies can be determined and animated for better visualization.
For the second level of sophistication, in addition to the natural frequencies and mode shapes, the modal
damping ratios and modal masses are also obtained. When all of these parameters have been obtained, a
complete mathematical model of the system can be defined. The mathematical model may then be used
in computer simulations to predict the response of the system when it is modified. A designer can now
evaluate different design modifications without building prototypes.

In order to understand how mode shapes and modal parameters can be obtained from transfer functions, it
is necessary to consider a specific transfer function. Well begin with a single degree of freedom system.
The system differential equation is obtained using Newtons law: Sum of the forces acting on the mass is
equal to the mass times its acceleration.

f(t)

Kx Cx f Mx

x(t)

or

Cx Kx f
Mx

Because the transfer function is defined in the frequency domain, a sinusoidal forcing function of the
form f(t) = Fejt and a solution of the form x(t) = Xeit will be assumed where i = 1 . The velocity
and acceleration are obtained through differentiation.
x iXe it

x 2 Xe it

By substituting in the assumed values and dividing out the time varying term (e it), the following equation
is obtained.
2 mX icX kX F

The equation can be solved for

X
( j)
F

X
(transfer function).
F

1K
1

2
j
2
n
n

where:
n

k / m natural frequency ( rad / sec)

c / 2 km damping ratio

frequency ( rad / sec)

This equation can also be represented as a magnitude and a phase angle.

X
1K

2
F

2
2
1 2

n
n

1/ 2

tan 1

2 / n
2
1 2
n

If the magnitude and phase are plotted as a function of frequency, a bode plot is obtained. The bode plot
for this system is shown below for a small nonzero damping value.

Scan or reproduce Figure 2

The transfer function can also be separated into real and imaginary parts.

X
( j)
F

1
2
1 2
K
n
2

2n

2 / n K
2

If the imaginary part of the transfer function is plotted as a function of the real part, a polar plot (argand
plot) is obtained. This plot has the form of a circle.

Scan or reproduce Figure 3

If the real and imaginary parts are plotted as functions of frequency the coincident and quadrature
responses are obtained, respectively.

Scan or reproduce Figure 4

All of these plots are important in modal analysis and will be used to demonstrate various methods for
calculating natural frequencies, damping ratios, masses, and mode shapes. The methods for extracting
these parameters will be discussed with reference to the two levels of sophistication mentioned earlier.
For the first level of sophistication, the parameters of interest are the natural frequencies and the mode
shapes. For a single degree of freedom system there is only one natural frequency and the mode shape for
this natural frequency can be viewed as the amplitude of the transfer function at the natural frequency.

The natural frequency can be approximated using either the coincident response or the bode plot. For the
coincident response, the natural frequency occurs at the frequency where the real part is zero. (See Figure
3). Using the bode plot, the natural frequency can be obtained by determining the peak frequency and
recalling that for a compliance transfer function:
p n 1 2 2
p Peak frequency
damping ratio

If the damping ratio is small ( 0.1 ), the peak frequency and the natural frequency can be
approximated as equal. The damping ratio can be obtained, if desired, by using three different methods.

1)
2)

| F | 0
X
2 n
F

2 n

(For methods 1 and 2 see Figure 2)

3)

a b 1

2 a b 2 1

(For method 3 see Figure 4)

The amplitude at the natural frequency is obtained from the quadrature response by measuring the height
of the peak. (See Figure 4)
For the second level of sophistication, all of the modal parameters must be obtained. Because these
parameters are used in the formulation of a mathematical model of the system, the accuracy of the
estimations is very important. For this type of analysis, the designer must use a modal analysis computer
program. The modal analysis program uses more sophisticated mathematical techniques for parameter
estimation so that, when used properly, more accurate results are obtained. For obtaining natural
frequencies and damping ratios, most computer programs use a least squares curve fitting routine to curve
fit the transfer function. A solution of the form
X
j
F

A
2
1 i 2

n
2n

is assumed and the parameters are varied using an iterative approach until a good fit is obtained. The
values of A, n, and are then known. For a single degree of freedom system A=1/k. The mass can then
be obtained using the definition of the natural frequency.

n k m
m k 2n

1
A2n

As was mentioned earlier, the amplitude can be obtained from the quadrature response, but it can also be
obtained from the polar plot. In the real and imaginary coordinate system, as the frequency increases
(from zero to infinity for a single degree of freedom system), the transfer function maps out a circle. The
diameter of this circle is the same as the peak amplitude of the quadrature response. With a modal
analysis program the amplitude can be determined with greater accuracy by using a circular least squares
curve fitting routine to curve fit the circle in the polar plot. A solution of the form
(x + a)2 + (y + b)2 = r2
is assumed. The parameters are varied until a good fit is obtained. The diameter can then be calculated.
The analysis of a single degree of freedom system can be extended to the analysis of a multi-degree of
freedom system. For a linear system, the multi-degree of freedom transfer function can be represented as
the sum of single degree of freedom transfer functions. (See Figure 5) The multi-degree of freedom
transfer function can be represented in equation form as

H jk

xj
Fk

m
r 1

kr rj
2

2i r nr nr

where:
Xj = response at any point j
Fk = force at any point k
r = mode shape number
n = number of modes
kr mode shape coefficient (amplitude)
rj mode shape coefficient

measured at point K for the rth mode

This equation shows that the transfer function can be represented mathematically if the mode shapes,
modal masses, natural frequencies, and damping ratios are known.
If light damping and widely spaced peaks occur in the transfer function (se Figure 6), the simple
parameter estimation techniques can be used for the level one modal analysis. If the peaks are closely
spaced or if heavy damping exist (see Figure 7), the more sophisticated techniques for parameter
estimation should be used. If a complete mathematical model is desired, the more sophisticated
techniques must be used.
Scan or reproduce Figure 5, 6, 7

To perform a modal analysis of a multi-degree of freedom system, the designer must first obtain a set of
system transfer functions. The number and location of the test points depends on the particular system
being analyzed.
Once the transfer functions have been obtained, the modal parameters can be estimated using the
appropriate methods. Because the natural frequencies and damping ratios are global properties, they will
be the same for all of the transfer functions. Therefore, these parameters could be estimated from any one
of the system transfer functions.
Having obtained the parameters of interest, the mode shapes can now be calculated. Figure 8 shows how
the mode shapes, of a simple beam, could be obtained using the quadrature response. The mode shapes
for the simple beam are shown in Figure 9. The same mode shapes would have been obtained using the
circle fitting technique.
The points where the mode shapes cross the horizontal axis are called nodes. These are points where there
is no motion. If one of the test points is at a node for one of the modes, the peak for that mode will not
show up in the transfer function. Therefore, when estimating natural frequencies and damping ratios, a
transfer function should be selected in which all the modes are present.
The points where the displacement is the largest are called antinodes. Once the modal parameters and the
mode shapes have been determined, the dynamic characteristics of the system can be completely defined.
This information could then be used to improve the system or to simply correct an existing problem.
Either way, modal analysis provides the designer with a powerful tool for the dynamic analysis and
design of mechanical systems.
Scan or reproduce Figure 8, 9
2) THE SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM
Euler-Bernoulli Thin Beam Theory
A simply supported beam driven by a line force f(t) located at x = x s.
v(x,t)
f(t)
, A, E, Iz

x
xs

System Equation from Newtons Law.

A

2v
4v

x , t f t x x s
x
,
t

EI
z
t 2
x 4

To get the transfer function, assume that f(t) is harmonic with frequency such that f(t) = Fejt where j =
1 . The response v(x,t) will have the following form:

v x, t V x e jt

nx jt
e
L

sin

n 1

mx
where m = 1, , integrate over x from 0 to L, and
L

If we multiply the equation of motion by sin

replace m with n we get the following.

Vn

F sin nx s L

1
Kn

2 j n
2
n
n

for n = 1,

Thus, if the beam transverse displacement is measured at x r, then its response will be:

V x r ,

F x s ,

n 1

1
nx s
n x r
sin
sin

Kn L
L

1 2 2 j n

n
n

Modal Analysis
We define the above ratio as the frequency response function H rs() = V(xr,)/ F(xs,).
Property of reciprocity: Hrs() = Hsr().
Fixed response approach. A sensor is kept fixed at xr and the excitation point is moved from points x1, ,
xs, , xN. By reciprocity we have values for Hrs() for r = 1, , N and s = 1, , N.
Description of experiment
Schematic and procedure Under Construction
Results
Tabulated results and animated modes with audio accompaniment Under Construction
3) THE SIMPLY SUPPORTED RECTANGULAR PLATE
Euler-Bernoulli Thin Plate Theory
A simply supported plate driven by a point force f(t) located at (x, y) = (x s, ys).

System Equation from Newtons Law.

2v
4v

x , t f t x x s
x
,
t

EI
z
t 2
x 4

To get the transfer function, assume that f(t) is harmonic with frequency such that f(t) = Fejt where j =
1 . The response v(x, y, t) will have the following form:
v x , y, t V x , y e jt

mn

m 1 n 1

mx
ny jt
sin
e
L
L

sin

px

qy

sin
If we multiply the equation of motion by sin
L y where p, q = 1, , integrate over x
Lx

from 0 to Lx and over y from 0 to Ly, and replace p and q with m and n we get the following.

Vmn

1 F sin mx s L x sin ny s L y
K mn

for m = 1, and n = 1,
2

1 2 2 j mn

mn
mn

Thus, if the beam transverse displacement is measured at x r, then its response will be:

V x r ,

F x s ,

n 1

1
nx s
n x r
sin
sin

Kn L
L

1 2 2 j n

n
n

Experimental Modal Analysis

We define the above ratio as the frequency response function H rs() = V(xr,)/ F(xs,).
Property of reciprocity: Hrs() = Hsr().
Fixed response approach. A sensor is kept fixed at xr and the excitation point is moved from points x1, ,
xs, , xN. By reciprocity we have values for Hrs() for r = 1, , N and s = 1, , N.
Description of experiment
- schematic and procedure
Results
- tabulated results and animated modes with audio accompaniment.
4) SOUNDBOARD OF A HARP

Orthotropic Thin Plate Theory

The soundboard of a harp must meet conflicting design requirements. It must be highly flexible in order
to convert vibratory energy in the strings to radiated sound energy. Yet, it must maintain its strength and
static position over time under significant tension loads from the numerous taught strings. To meet these
conflicting needs, harp soundboards are made by combining specific woods in a complex laminate
structure. A traditional grand concert harp soundboard is an orthotropic plate structure manufactured from
sitka spruce panels glued side by side, and covered with a sitka veneer. The thickness of the laminate
construction varies along both its height and width.
Unlike the preceding beam and plate examples, the vibration response of such a complicated construction
cannot be calculated using simple equations and a paper and pencil. Rather, for precise predictions of the
response, one could attempt a computational finite element analysis.
Computational Finite Element Analysis
Explanation and results.
Experimental Modal Analysis
While an analytical prediction of the vibration behavior of the harp soundboard is difficult, an
experimental modal analysis is nearly as simple as the case of the simply supported plate.
For this case though, well introduce a different approach and a new type of vibration sensor. Instead of
using a fixed response approach, well use a fixed excitation approach. And, instead of using a
contact accelerometer to sense the motion, well use a noncontacting laser Doppler vibrometer.
An excitation point is chosen
5) HARP SOUNDBOARD IN SITU
When the harp soundboard is considered now as part of the entire harp structure, the analysis becomes
more complex. There are more than 40 taught strings pulling up along a center line of the soundboard
and the board is fastened around its entire edge to the barrel of the sound chamber.
Experimental Modal Analysis
While an analytical prediction of the vibration behavior of the harp soundboard is difficult, an
experimental modal analysis is nearly as simple as the case of the simply supported plate.
For this case though, well introduce a different approach and a new type of vibration sensor. Instead of
using a fixed response approach, well use a fixed excitation approach. And, instead of using a
contact accelerometer to sense the motion, well use a noncontacting laser Doppler vibrometer.
An excitation point is chosen
6) GUITAR SOUNDBOARD IN SITU
UNDER CONSTRUCTION