PROJECT TRAINING REPORT

ON
SERVICE PROVIDER NETWORK

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The internship opportunity I had with company name was a great chance for learning and
professional development. Therefore, I consider myself as a very lucky individual as I was
provided with an opportunity to be a part of it. I am also grateful for having a chance to meet so
many wonderful people and professionals who led me though this internship period.
Bearing in mind I am using this opportunity to express my deepest gratitude and special thanks
to Mr. xyz who in spite of being extraordinarily busy with his duties, took time out to hear, guide
and keep me on the correct path and allowing me to carry out my project at their esteemed
organization and extending during the training.
I express my deepest thanks to him for taking part in useful decision & giving necessary advices
and guidance and arranged all facilities to make it easier. I choose this moment to acknowledge
his contribution gratefully.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contents
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.................................................................................................. 2
CERTIFICATE................................................................................................................ 3
INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKING................................................................................6
Definition:-................................................................................................................. 6
Requirement of Networking......................................................................................... 7
TYPES OF NETWORKS.................................................................................................. 8
LAN (Local Area Network)............................................................................................. 8
WAN (Wide Area Network)............................................................................................. 9
NETWORKING DEVICES.............................................................................................. 10
Network Interface Card................................................................................................ 10
Hub......................................................................................................................... 10
Switch..................................................................................................................... 11
Bridge..................................................................................................................... 11
Router..................................................................................................................... 11
Comparison between Hub, Bridge, Switch & Router............................................................12
OSI NETWORK MODEL................................................................................................ 13
Application Layer....................................................................................................... 13
Presentation Layer...................................................................................................... 14
Session Layer............................................................................................................ 14
Transport Layer.......................................................................................................... 14
Network Layer........................................................................................................... 14
Data Link Layer......................................................................................................... 15
Logical Link Control................................................................................................ 15
Physical Layer........................................................................................................... 15
TCP/IP........................................................................................................................ 16
The Process/Application layer........................................................................................ 17
Host to Host layer Protocols.......................................................................................... 18
Internet Layer Protocols............................................................................................... 18
3

Network access layer................................................................................................... 19

NETWORKING MODELS-TERMINOLOGIES....................................................................20
IP ADDRESSING.......................................................................................................... 21
PRIVATE IP.............................................................................................................. 22
IP ACCESS LIST....................................................................................................... 22
MASKING............................................................................................................... 23
SUBNETTING.......................................................................................................... 23
CLASSLESS INTER-DOMAIN ROUTING (CIDR)............................................................24
IP TRAFFIC OVERVIEW............................................................................................... 25
Broadcast................................................................................................................. 25
Unicast.................................................................................................................... 26
Multicast.................................................................................................................. 27
VIRTUAL LAN............................................................................................................ 29
ROUTING................................................................................................................... 30
Static Routing:........................................................................................................... 31
Default Routing:......................................................................................................... 31
Dynamic Routing:....................................................................................................... 31
ROUTING PROTOCOLS................................................................................................ 32
Distance vector:......................................................................................................... 32
Link State:................................................................................................................ 32
Hybrid:.................................................................................................................... 32
BORDER GATEWAY PROTOCOL................................................................................... 33
BGP Peers (Neighbours)............................................................................................... 34
BGP (Best Path determination)....................................................................................... 34
OSPF.......................................................................................................................... 35
SPF Calculation......................................................................................................... 36
IS-IS Fundamentals........................................................................................................ 37
The IS-IS Hierarchy.................................................................................................... 38
IS-IS vs. OSPF........................................................................................................... 39
RIP............................................................................................................................ 40
RIP Timers................................................................................................................ 40
Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS)............................................................................... 41
LSR and LER............................................................................................................ 42
4

Label-Switched Paths (LSPs)......................................................................................... 42

CISCO THREE LAYER HIERARCHIAL MODEL................................................................43
Distribution layer:....................................................................................................... 44
Access Layer:............................................................................................................ 44
Core Layer:............................................................................................................... 44

INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKING
Definition:5

A network is a system that transmits any combination of voice, video and/or data between users.
A network can be defined by its geographical dimensions and by which the users PC access it.
A network consists of a:

The network operating system (Windows NT/2000TM/XP) on the users PC (client) and
server.
The cables connecting all network devices (users PC, server, peripherals, etc.).
All supporting network components (hubs, routers and switches, etc.).

Network computer devices that originate, route and terminate the data are called network
nodes. Nodes can include such as personal computers, phones, servers as well as networking
hardware. Two such devices are said to be networked together when one device is able to
exchange information with the other device, whether or not they have a direct connection to each
other.

Requirement of Networking
Resource Sharing
To make all programs, equipment, and especially data available to anyone on the network
without regard to the physical location of the resource and the user.
High Reliability
As all files could be replicated on two or three machines, so if one of them is unavailable (due to
hardware failure), the other copies could be used.
Scalability
It is the ability to increase system performance gradually as the workload grows just by adding
more processors. A computer network can provide a powerful communication medium along
widely separated employees. The use of networks to enhance human-to-human communication
will probably prove more important than technical goals such as improved reliability.
These are the requirement with respect to companies but computer networking is required even
in the normal day to day life as we have to access the internet to get information about what all
new happening in the world, to have communication with people staying far away using the e
mail service.

TYPES OF NETWORKS

LAN (Local Area Network)

These are privately owned networks within a single building or campus of up to a few a kilometers in
size.
LANs are distinguished from other networks by three characteristics:
1) Their size.
2) Their transmission technology.
3) Their topology.
LANs are restricted in size, which means that the worst-case transmission time is bounded and known in
advance.
LANs often use a transmission technology consisting of a single cable to which all the machines are
attached.
LANs run at speeds of 10 to 100 Mbps, have low delays, and make very few errors.

WAN (Wide Area Network)

It is a Computer network that spans a relatively large geographical area, often a country or continent.
Typically a WAN consists of two or more Local Area Network.
Computers connected to WAN are often connected through public networks such as telephone systems.
They can also be connected through leased lines or satellites. The largest WAN in existence is Internet.
WANs run at speed of maximum 2 to 10 Mbps.

WAN SETUP
For most WANs, the long distance bandwidth is relatively slow: on the order of kilobits per second (kbps)
as opposed to megabits per second (Mbps) for local-area networks (LANs). For example, an Ethernet
LAN has a 10 Mbps bandwidth; a WAN using part or all of a T1 carrier has a bandwidth of 1.544 Mbps .
Three types of approaches are used to connect WANs:
1) Circuit switching, which provides a fixed connection (at least for the duration of a call or session), so
that each packet takes the same path. Examples of this approach include ISDN, Switched 56, and
Switched T1.
2) Packet switching, which establishes connections during the transmission process so that different
packets from the same transmission may take different routes and may arrive out of sequence at the
destination. Examples of this approach are X.25, frame relay, and ATM.
3) Leased lines, which can provide a dedicated connection for private use

NETWORKING DEVICES
Networking devices do various kinds of jobs like transferring the data to signals, providing
connectivity to different network devices, transferring the data in form of packets or frames form
one device to other. These are the central connections for all the network equipments and handle
a data type known as frame or packet. Actually frames/ packet contain data and the destination
address of where it is going. When a frame is received, it is amplified and then transmitted on to
port of destination PC. But different networking components do this job in diff form at diff
layers.

Network Interface Card

A Network Interface Card (NIC) is a circuit board that plugs into both clients and servers and
controls the exchange of data between them (A specific software driver must be installed
depending on the maker of the NIC. A physical transmission medium, such as twisted pair or
coaxial cable interconnects all network interface cards to network hubs or switches. Ethernet and
Token Ring are common network interface cards. Todays cards supports 10baseT and 100baseT
with automatic recognition.

Hub
When the need for interconnecting more than 2 devices together then a device known as hub
comes to picture. Basically hub is a layer one device. i.e it operates on the physical layer of the
OSI model. It is designed to do broadcasting i.e. when it gets any frame it broadcasts it to every
port irrespective that whether it is destined for that port or not. Hub has no way of distinguishing
which port a frame should be sent. Broadcasting results in lot of traffic on the network which
lead to poor network response. If two PC simultaneously transmit there data packets and both are
connected to a HUB, then collision will occur, so we can say, it creates a single collision domain.
On the other hand all PCs connected to a hub will get a same message so a single broadcast
domain will be created.
A 100/1000 Mbps hub must share its bandwidth with each and every one of its ports. So when
only one PC is broadcasting, it will have access to the max available bandwidth. If, however,
multiple PCs are broadcasting, then that bandwidth will need to be divided between all of these
systems, which will degrade the performance. They are usually Half - Duplex in nature.

Switch
Hubs are capable of joining more than two PC but having some demerits like if two PC would want to
communicate at a time then there would be a collision and the both PC would have to send the data once
again. This shortcoming of Hub is overcome by Switch. Switches are intelligent devices which work on
the Layer2 of the OSI model. Basically a switch keeps a record of MAC addresses of all the devices
connected to it. Using this information, it builds a MAC address table. So when a frame is received, it
knows exactly which port to send it to, which increases the network response time.
The switch supports broadcast. Hence we can call switches create single broadcast domain and multiple
collision domains.
A 100/1000Mbps switch will allocate a full 100/1000 Mbps to each of its ports. So regardless of the no of
PCs transmitting user will always have access to max amt of bandwidth. They are usually Full-Duplex in
nature.

Bridge
Bridge is another device like switch which also operates basing on the MAC address. But the Basic
difference between the bridge and the switch is that bridge works on software bases, but the switch works
on hardware basic. The Switch works on ASICs (Application Specific Integrated Circuits)

Router
Switch and the Hub can only interconnect devices in a single LAN. For interconnecting two
LAN or two or more different networks anther device known as router is used. Its main job is to
route (sends) packets to other networks and to do the routing (establishing paths between
networks) it uses the IP address. A router is typically connected to at least two networks,
commonly two LANs or WANs or a LAN and its ISPs network. Routers are located at
gateways, the places where two or more networks connect. Routers to determine the best path for
forwarding the packet are using forwarding tables. It is a layer 3 device i.e. it operates at network
layer of OSI model. The working principle of the router is totally different from a switch. Router
makes a table known as routing table, which contains all the IP address in the network, the
information for IP address router obtains directly ( all configured IP address on it ) or indirectly
( from neighbor routers ). When a packet is received it compares the destination IP address of the
packet with the available IP addresses in its Routing table. If the IP address is not available in the
routing table then it simply discard the packet instead of flooding in all the ports like a switch.
(Detailed Information about router in chap )

10

Comparison between Hub, Bridge, Switch & Router

Feature

Hub

Bridge

Switch

Number of broadcast
domains

Segmen
t

Number of collision
domains

1 per bridge
port

Forwards LAN
broadcasts?

Yes

Yes

No

Yes; can be
optimized for
less forwarding

No

1
1 per switch
port

Router
1 per
router
interface
1 per
router
interface

Forwards LAN
multicasts

N/A

Yes

OSI layer used when

making forwarding
decision

N/A

Layer 2

Layer 2

Layer 3

Store-andforward

Store-andforward, cutthrough,
Fragment Free

Storeandforward

Internal processing
variants

N/A

Frame/packet
fragmentation
allowed?

N/A

No

No

Yes

Multiple concurrent
equal-cost paths to
same destination
allowed?

N/A

No

No

Yes

OSI NETWORK MODEL

11

The OSI model describes how information makes its way from application programs through a network
medium to another application program in other computer. It divides one big problem in to seven smaller
problems. Each problem is addressed by one of the seven layers of the OSI model.

Application Layer

Used for applications specifically written to run over the network

Allows access to network services that support applications;
Directly represents the services that directly support user applications
Handles network access, flow control and error recovery
Example apps are file transfer, e-mail, Net BIOS-based applications

12

Presentation Layer

Translates from application to network format and vice-versa

All different formats from all sources are made into a common uniform format that the rest of the
OSI model can understand
Responsible for protocol conversion, character conversion, data encryption / decryption,
expanding graphics commands, data compression
Sets standards for different systems to provide seamless communication from multiple protocol
stacks
Not always implemented in a network protocol

Session Layer

Establishes, maintains and ends sessions across the network

Responsible for name recognition (identification) so only the designated parties can participate in
the session
Provides synchronization services by planning check points in the data stream => if session fails,
only data after the most recent checkpoint need be transmitted
Manages who can transmit data at a certain time and for how long
Examples are interactive login and file transfer connections, the session would connect and reconnect if there was an interruption; recognize names in sessions and register names in history

Transport Layer

Additional connection below the session layer

Manages the flow control of data between parties across the network
Divides streams of data into chunks or packets; the transport layer of the receiving computer
reassembles the message from packets
"Train" is a good analogy => the data is divided into identical units
Provides error-checking to guarantee error-free data delivery, with on losses or duplications
Provides acknowledgment of successful transmissions; requests retransmission if some packets
dont arrive error-free
Provides flow control and error-handling
TCP, ARP, RARP;

Network Layer

Translates logical network address and names to their physical address (e.g. computer name ==>
MAC address)
Responsible for addressing and determining routes for sending
Managing network problems such as packet switching, data congestion and routing
If router cant send data frame as large as the source computer sends, the network layer
compensates by breaking the data into smaller units. At the receiving end, the network layer
reassembles the data
IP; ARP; RARP, ICMP; RIP; OSFP;

13

Data Link Layer

Turns packets into raw bits 100101 and at the receiving end turns bits into packets.
Handles data frames between the Network and Physical layers
The receiving end packages raw data from the Physical layer into data frames for delivery to the
Network layer
Responsible for error-free transfer of frames to other computer via the Physical Layer
This layer defines the methods used to transmit and receive data on the network. It consists of the
wiring, the devices use to connect the NIC to the wiring, the signaling involved to transmit /
receive data and the ability to detect signaling errors on the network media

Logical Link Control

Error correction and flow control

Manages link control and defines SAPs

Physical Layer

Transmits raw bit stream over physical cable

Defines cables, cards, and physical aspects
Defines NIC attachments to hardware, how cable is attached to NIC.

One of the greatest functions of OSI specifications is to assist in data transfer between disseparate hosts.
For example that they enable us to transfer data between UNIX host and a PC or a MAC. The
OSI is not a physical model though rather it is a set of guidelines that application developers can
used to create and implement applications that run on network. It also provides a framework for
creating and implementing networking standards devices and inter-networking schemes.
The OSI has seven different layers divided into two groups. The top three layers define how the
applications within end stations will communicate with each other and with others. The bottom
four layers define how data is transmitted end to end. It allows multiple-vendor development
through standardization of network components. It prevents changes in one layer from affecting
other layers so it does not hamper development.
It encourages industry standardization by defining what functions occur at each layer of model. It
allows various types of network hardware and software to communicate.

14

TCP/IP
Transmission Control Protocol takes large block of information from an application and breaks
them into segments. It numbers and sequences each segment so that destinations TCP stack can
put the segment back into the order the application intended. The TCP/IP model was created by
Department of Defense(DoD) to ensure and preserve data integrity.
The model consists of four instead of seven layers:

Process/Application layer
Host to Host layer
Internet layer
Network access layer

A vast array of protocols combine at TCP/IP models Process/Application to integrate the various
activities and duties. The process/application layer defines protocols for node to node application
communication and also controls user-interface specifications.
15

The Host to Host layer parallels the functions of the OSIs transport layer, defining protocols for
setting up the level of transmission service for application. It tackles issues such as creating
reliable end to end communication and ensures the error free delivery of data. It handles packet
sequencing and maintains data integrity.
The Internet layer includes the logical transmission of packets over entire network. It takes care
of addressing of hosts by giving them an IP address and it handles routing of packets among
multiple networks.
At the bottom Network access layer monitors data exchange between the host and the network.
The equivalent of the data link and physical layer of the OSI model, the Network access layer
oversees hardware addressing and defines protocols for physical transmission of data.

The Process/Application layer

It includes following protocols:
Telnet
It allows a user on a remote client machine called Telnet client to access resources of other
machine, the Telnet Server.

16

File Transfer protocol:

It is a protocol that actually let us transfer files between any two machines.
Network File System:
It is a jewel of a protocol specializing in file sharing. It allows two different types of file systems
to interoperate.
Simple Mail transfer Protocol:
This protocol is used for delivering of messages to destination in e-mail.
X-window:
It is designed for client/server operations. X window defines a protocol for writing client/server
applications based on graphical user interface.

Host to Host layer Protocols

The purpose of this to shield the upper layer applications from the complexities of the network. It
covers two protocols:
Transmission Control Protocol:
It is a transport protocol used for delivering of messages from one process to other. It takes large
block of information from an application and breaks them into segments. It numbers and
sequences each segment so that destination TCPs stack can put the segments back into the order
the application intended. After these segments are sent, TCP waits for an acknowledgement of
receiving ends TCP virtual circuit session retransmitting those that are not acknowledged.
User Datagram Protocol:
UDP is also a transport protocol used for delivering of messages from one process to other and
add port address.UDP does not sequence the segments and does not care in which order the
segments arrive at the destination. But after that UDP sends the segments off and forgets about
them. Due to this it is an unreliable protocol.
It does a fabulous job of transporting information that does not require reliable delivery and it
does so using far fewer network resources.

Internet Layer Protocols

Internet Protocol:
IP is essentially the internet layer. IP looks at each packets address. Then using a routing table it
decides where packet is to be sent next choosing the best path.IP receives segments from host to
host layer and fragments them into datagrams.IP receives segments from Host to Host layer and
17

fragments them into datagrams if necessary IP then reassembles datagrams back into datagrams
on the receiving side. Each datagram is assigned the IP address of the sender and of recipient.
Each router (layer3 device) that receives a datagram makes routing decisions based on the
packets destination IP address.
Internet Control Message Protocol
ICMP works at network layer and is used by IP for many different devices. ICMP is a
management protocol and messaging service provider for IP.ICMP packets are encapsulated
within IP datagrams.
They can provide hosts with information about network problems.
Address Resolution Protocol:
It finds the hardware address of a host from a known IP address. When IP has datagram to send
in it must inform Network access protocol such as Ethernet or Token Ring of destination
hardware address on local network.
Reverse Address Resolution Protocol
RARP is the reverse of ARP. It finds the IP address knowing its physical address by sending out
a packet includes its MAC address and a request for the IP address assigned to that MAC
address. A designated machine called RARP server responds with the answer and the identity
crisis is over. RARP uses information it does know about the machines MAC address to learn its
IP address and complete the machines ID portrait.
Proxy Address Resolution Protocol:
On a network your hosts cant have more than one default gateway configured. What if the
default gateway happens to go down? The host wont just start sending to another router
automatically. But proxy Arp can actually help machines on a subnet reach remote subnets
without configuring routing or even a default gateway.

Network access layer

At the bottom Network access layer monitors data exchange between the host and the network.
The equivalent of the data link and physical layer of the OSI model, the Network access layer
oversees hardware addressing and defines protocols for physical transmission of data.

18

NETWORKING MODELS-TERMINOLOGIES
Collision Domain- It is the group of PCs in which collision will occur when two PC will
transmit data simultaneously.
Broadcast Domain- It is the group of PCs those will receive same broadcast message.
CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/ Collision Detection)- In this protocol when a PC
wants to transmit any packet it sense the carrier i.e. the path ,if no other PC is using the carrier
then only it sends. If two PCs start sending data simultaneously collision will occur. Both PCs
will wait for some random time and then initiate the same process.
MAC (Media Access Control): The IEEE 802.3 (Ethernet) and 802.5 (Token Ring) are the MAC
sub layers of these two LAN data-link protocols.
Burned-in address: The 6-byte address assigned by the vendor making the card. It is usually
burned in to a ROM or EEPROM on the LAN card and begins with a 3-byte organizationally
unique identifier (OUI) assigned by the IEEE.
Locally administered address: Through configuration, an address that is used instead of the
burned-in address.
Unicast address: Fancy term for a MAC that represents a single LAN interface.

19

IP ADDRESSING
Every machine on the internet has a unique identifying number, called an IP address. A typical IP
address looks like this:
216.27.61.45
IP ADDRESS is a 32-bit number, usually written in dotted decimal form that uniquely identifies an
interface of some computer. This 32-bit number is divided into 4 octets each separated by a decimal. Out
so many values certain values are restricted for use as typical IP address. For example, the IP address
0.0.0.0 is reserved for the default network and the address 255.255.255.255is used for broadcast.
Each IP address is split into 2 sections:
1) Network address
2) Host address
Individual IP address in same network all have a different value in the host part of address, but they have
identical value in network part, just as in town there are different street address but same ZIP code.
There are five IP classes:
Class A This class is for very large networks, such as a major international company. IP addresses with
a first octet from 1 to 126 are part of this class. The other three octets are each used to identify each host.
Loopback- The IP address 127.0.0.1 is used as the loopback address. This means that it is used by the
host computer to send a message back to itself. It is commonly used for troubleshooting and network
testing.
Class B- Class B is used for medium-sized networks. A good example is a large college campus. IP
addresses with a first octet from 128 to191 are part of this class. Class B addresses also includes the
second octet as part of the Net identifier. The other two octets are used to identify each host.
Class C- Class C addresses are commonly used for small to mid-size business. IP addresses with a first
octet from192 to 223 are part of this class. Class C addresses also include the second and third octets as
part of Net identifier. The last octet is used to identify each host.
Class D- It is used for multicast. It has first bit value of 1, second bit value of 1, third bit value of 1 and
fourth bit value of 0. The other 28 bits are used to identify the group of computers the multicast messages
is intended for.

20

Class E- It is used for experimental purpose only. Reserved for future.

PRIVATE IP
It is not necessary that every time we make a network we are connected to some ISP (Internet Service
Provider). So in that case we require some private IP also which can be used in indigenous networks .In
each class a range of IP addresses have been defined for this purpose
CLASS A

10.0.0.1 to 10.255.255.244

CLASS B

172.16.0.1 to 172.34.255.254

CLASS C

192.168.0.0/16

IP ACCESS LIST
IP access lists cause a router to discard some packets based on criteria defined by the network engineer.
The goal of these filters is to prevent unwanted traffic in the networkwhether to prevent hackers from
penetrating the network, or just to prevent employees from using systems that they should not be using.
Key features of access lists:
Packets can be filtered as they enter an interface, before the routing decision.

Packets can be filtered before they exit an interface, after the routing decision.
Deny is the term used in Cisco IOS software to imply that the packet will be filtered.
Permit is the term used in Cisco IOS software to imply that the packet will not be filtered.
The filtering logic is configured in the access list.
At the end of every access list is an implied deny all traffic statement. Therefore, if a packet does not
match any of your access list statements, it is blocked.
Access lists have two major steps in their logic: matching and action. Matching logic examines each
packet and determines whether it matches the access-list statement. As soon as an access-list statement is
matched, there are two actions to choose from: deny and permit. Deny means to discard the packet, and
permit implies that the packet should continue on its way.

21

MASKING
Computers use a mask to define size of network and host part of an address. Mask is a 32-bit number
written in dotted decimal form. It provides us the network address when we perform a Boolean AND of
mask with the IP address. It also defines number of host bits in an address.

Class of
address

Size of
network
Part of
address,
in bits

Size of
Host
Part of
address,
in bits

Default
Mask for
Each Class
of Network

24

255.0.0.0

16

16

255.255.0.0

24

255.255.255
.0

SUBNETTING
Basically it is a process of subdividing networks into smaller subnets.
In case we have 2-3 small networks but we cant buy IP address for each and every network. So here we
use the basic concept of SUBNETTING i.e using one public IP address we will give them IP address and
make them independent networks. For this we take some bits of host address and use them for network
address so we have different independent networks.
Advantages of Subnetting are:

Reduced Network Traffic: We all appreciate less traffic. Networks are no different. With
routers most traffic stay on local network; only packets destined for other networks will
pass through routers. Router create broadcast domain. The more broadcast domains one
create, the smaller the broadcast domains and less network traffic on each network
segment.
Optimized Network Performance: This is a result of reduced Network Traffic
Simplified management: It is easier to identify and isolate network problems in a group
of smaller connected networks than within one gigantic network.
Facilitated spanning of large geographical distances: Because WAN links are
considerably slower and more expensive than LAN links, a single large network that
22

spans long distances can create problems in every area previously listed. Connecting
multiple smaller networks makes the system more efficient.

To create Subnets follow these steps:

1) Determine the number of required network IDs:

One for each subnet

One for each wide area network connection

2) Determine the number of required host IDs per subnet

One for each TCP/IP host

One for each router interface

3) Based on above requirements create the following:

One subnet mask for entire network

A unique subnet ID for each physical segment
A range of host ID for each subnet

CLASSLESS INTER-DOMAIN ROUTING (CIDR)

It is basically the method that internet service providers use to allocate a number of addresses to
a company, a home-a customer. They provide addresses in a certain block size.
When we receive a block of address from ISP it will look like: 192.168.10.32/28.This is telling
what our subnet mask is. The slash notation (/) means how many bits are turned
on(1s).Obviously the maximum could be /32 because a byte is 8 bits and there are 4 bytes in an
IP address(4*8=32).The largest subnet mask available can only be a /30 because one has to keep
at least 2 bits for host bits.
Example:
Subnet mask

CIDR Value

255.240.0.0

/12

255.255.128.0

/17

255.255.255.128

/25

255.255.255.252

/30

23

IP TRAFFIC OVERVIEW
IP multicasting is an extension of the standard IP protocol and is described in Host Extensions
for IP Multicasting. IP multicasting is the transmission of an IP datagram to a group identified
by a single IP destination address. A multicast datagram is delivered to all members of its
destination host group using User Datagram Protocol (UDP). Membership in these groups is
unrestrictedhosts can be members of multiple groups, and they may join or leave at any time.
IP multicast datagrams are handled by multicast routers. A host transmits an IP multicast
datagram as a local network multicast that reaches a multicast router. The router examines the
packet and begins to provide the host with the requested multicast traffic. If the router is not
receiving the requested multicast traffic, it will pass the request to other multicast routers.
IP traffic can travel the network in one of the ways:

Broadcast
Unicast
Multicast

Broadcast
In its simplest form, broadcast traffic consists of packets that reach every point of the network. In
a typical network, broadcasts are stopped at the router. You can set the router to forward
broadcasts, but doing so is not very efficientit creates a lot of traffic on the network and slows
the end users machines. Every host on the network must process the packet to see if it is
destined for that host. Data broadcasts are typically small frames used in the local networkso,
the performance effect is negligible, unless there is a broadcast storm.
In a broadcast storm, an incorrect packet is broadcast on the network. This causes most hosts to
res-pond with incorrect answers, which in turn causes even more hosts to respond again. This
process continues until the network can no longer carry any other traffic. A broadcast storm can
also occur when there is more than one path through the network, allowing broadcasts to circle
the network until there are so many that the network comes to a stop.
Multimedia broadcasts, in contrast, can be huge packets. Processing these types of broadcasts
can quickly use up all the available bandwidth on the network and bring the end station to a
crawlparticularly if you are in a shared 10BaseT environment.

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Broadcast traffic flow.

Unicast
In Unicast, a single packet is sent from the source to the destination. It is a onetoone
relationship: For every packet that reaches the destination, one packet was sent by the source.
This process is fine if the source is having different conversations with only a few hosts. Now,
imagine that same source talking to hundreds of hosts on the same conversationeach identical
packet must be generated by the source and must travel on the network.
Audio and video transmissions are so large that a highbandwidth link is consumed very quickly.
A 100Mbps link can support about 60 to 70 fullscreen, fullmotion video streams if each
stream uses approximately
1.5Mbps of servertoclient bandwidth. You will need gigabitpersecond (Gbps) links between
the server and the network in order to provide one audio/video broadcast to a couple hundred
hosts. Unicast multimedia applications do not scale very well.

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Unicast traffic flow.

Multicast
Multicast is a combination of broadcast and Unicast. It sends one copy of the packet to many
hosts that requested it, thereby using less bandwidth. It also saves bandwidth by not sending the
packet to the portion of the network whose hosts didnt request the transmission. Multicast
accomplishes this task by transmitting to an identified group, called a multicast group, rather
than to an individual host. Each interface/host can be a member of multiple multicast groups. The
membership is dynamic; a host can leave and join any time it wants. The traffic is also not
limited by any boundary; it can reach the farthest point of the Internet.

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Multicast traffic flow.

The characteristics of multicast enable it to take three different forms:
OnetomanyOnetomany is the most common form of multicast traffic. Examples include
database updates, live concerts, news, music/audio broadcasts, announcements, lectures, and
many more.
ManytooneManytoone multicasts are less common; they include data collection,
auctions, and polling.
ManytomanyManytomany multicasts are rare, but they are gaining popularity as
programmers begin to utilize multicast in some imaginative ways. Chat groups, multimedia
conferencing, concurrent processing, interactive music sessions, and collaboration are examples
of manytomany multicasts. But dont forget the rising star (and my favorite): interactive
multiplayer games.

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VIRTUAL LAN
VLANs (Virtual LAN) are used to segment the network into smaller broadcast domains or
segments. The primary reason to segment your network is to relieve network congestion and
increase bandwidth. Segmentation is often necessary to satisfy the bandwidth requirements of a
new application or a type of information the network needs to be able to support, such as
multimedia or graphical design applications. Other times, you may need to segment the network
due to the increased traffic on the segment or subnet.
Be careful not to over segment. Placing each port in an individual VLAN is like placing a router
to stop broadcasts between each individual VLAN. Routers are like bug poisonthey kill
broadcasts dead. Broadcasts cant escape through routers and they cant escape a VLAN, either.
Each VLAN becomes its own individual broadcast domain. When a network node or workstation
sends out an advertisement or broadcast to the other nodes on a segment, only the nodes assigned
to the VLAN to which the node sending the broadcast is assigned will receive that broadcast.
Another definition of a VLAN is a logical grouping of network users and resources connected
administratively to defined ports on a switch. By creating VLANs, you are able to create smaller
broadcast domains within a switch by assigning different ports on the switch to different sub
networks. Ports assigned to a VLAN are treated like their own subnet or broadcast domain. As a
result, frames broadcast are only switched between ports in the same VLAN at Layer 2.
Using virtual LANs, youre no longer confined to physical locations. VLANs can be organized
by location, function, department, or even the application or protocol used, regardless of where
the resources or users are located. In a flat network topology, your broadcast domain consists of
all the interfaces in your segment or subnet. If no devicessuch as switches or routersdivide
your network, you have only one broadcast domain. On some switches, an almost limitless
number of broadcast domains or VLANs can be configured.

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ROUTING
The term routing is used for taking a packet from one device and sending it through the network
to another device on a different network. Routers dont really care about the hosts-they only care
about networks and the best path to each network. The logical network address of the destination
host is used to get packets to a network through routed network and then hardware address of the
host is used to deliver the packet from a router to correct destination host.
If your network has no routers then it should be apparent that you are not routing. Routers route
traffic to all the networks in your internetwork. To be able to route packets a router must know
the following:

Destination address
Neighbor routers from which it can learn about remote networks
Possible routes to all remote networks.
The best route to each remote network
How to maintain and verify routing information.

The router learns about remote networks from neighbor routers or from an administrator. The
router then builds a routing table that describes how to find the remote networks.
There are three types of routing:
1) Static Routing
2) Default routing
3) Dynamic Routing
If your network has no routers then it should be apparent that you are not routing. Routers route
traffic to all networks in your internetwork. To be able to route packets, a router must know, at a
minimum, the following:

Destination address
Neighbor routers from which it can learn about remote networks
Possible routes to all remote networks
The best route to each remote network
How to maintain and verify routing information

The router learns about remote networks from neighbor routers or from an administrator. The
router then builds a routing table that describes how to find remote networks. If a network is
directly connected, then router already knows how to get to it.

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Static Routing:
Static Routing occurs when you manually add routes in each routers routing table. There are
pros and cons to static routing but that is true for all routing process.
Static routing has following benefits:

There is no overhead on the router CPU which means one could possibly buy a cheaper
router than one would use if one is using dynamic routing.
It adds security because the administrator can choose to allow routing access to certain
networks only.
There is no bandwidth usage between routers which means we can save money on WAN
links.

Disadvantages are:

The administrator must really understand the internetwork and how each router is
connected in order to configure routes correctly.
It is not feasible in large networks because maintaining it would be a full time job in
itself.

Default Routing:
We use default routing to send packets with a remote destination network not in the routing table
to the next hop router. One should use default routing on stub networks-those with only one exit
path out of the network.
A default route of a computer that is participating in computer networking is the packet
forwarding rule taking effect when no other route can be determined for a given Internet
Protocol(IP) destination address. All packets for destinations not established in routing table are
sent via default route.

Dynamic Routing:
Dynamic Routing is when protocols are used to find networks and update routing tables on
routers. True, this is easier than static or default routing but it will cost you in terms of router
CPU processes and bandwidth on network links. A routing protocol defines the set of rules used
by a router when it communicates routing information between neighbor routers.

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ROUTING PROTOCOLS
There are three classes of routing protocols:

Distance vector:
They find the best path to a remote network by judging distance. Each time packet goes through
a router thats called a hop. The route with least number of hops to the network is determined to
be the best route. The vector indicates the direction to the remote network.RIP is a distance
vector routing protocol. They send the direct routing table to directly connected neighbors.

Link State:
In link state protocol also called shortest path first protocol, the routers each create three separate
tables. One of these tables keeps track of directly attached neighbors, one determines the
topology of entire internetwork, and one is used as the routing table. Link state routers know
more about the internetwork than any distance vector routing protocol. OSPF is a routing
protocol that is completely link state. Link state protocol send updates containing state of their
links to all other routers on the network.

Hybrid:
Hybrid protocols use aspects of both distance vector and link state. Example-EIGRP
There is no set way of configuring routing protocols for use with every business. This is
something we really have to do on case by case basis.

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BORDER GATEWAY PROTOCOL

BGP is a standardized exterior gateway protocol (EGP), as opposed to RIP, OSPF, and EIGRP
which are interior gateway protocols (IGPs). BGP Version 4 (BGPv4) is the current standard
deployment.
BGP is considered a Path Vector routing protocol. BGP was not built to route within an
Autonomous System (AS), but rather to route between ASs. BGP maintains a separate routing
table based on shortest AS Path and various other attributes, as opposed to IGP metrics like
distance or cost.
BGP is the routing protocol of choice on the Internet. Essentially, the Internet is a collection of
interconnected Autonomous Systems.
BGP Autonomous Systems are assigned an Autonomous System Number (ASN), which is a 16bit number ranging from 1 - 65535. A specific subset of this range, 64512 - 65535, has been
reserved for private (or internal) use.

BGP should be used under the following circumstances:

Multiple connections exist to external ASs (such as the Internet) via different providers.
Multiple connections exist to external ASs through the same provider, but connect via a
separate CO or routing policy.
The existing routing equipment can handle the additional demands.
BGPs true benefit is in controlling how traffic enters the local AS, rather than how traffic exits
it.

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BGP Peers (Neighbours)

For BGP to function, BGP routers (called speakers) must form neighbor relationships (called
peers).
There are two types of BGP neighbor relationships:
iBGP Peers - BGP neighbors within the same autonomous system.
eBGP Peers - BGP neighbors connecting separate autonomous systems.

BGP (Best Path determination)

If BGP contains multiple routes to the same destination, it compares the routes in pairs, starting
with the newest entries (listed higher in the routing table), and working towards the oldest entries
(listed lower in the table).
BGP determines the best path by successively comparing the attributes of each route pair. The
attributes are compared in a specific order:
Weight - Which route has the highest weight?
Local Preference - Which route has the highest local preference?
Locally Originated - Did the local router originate this route? In other words, is the next hop
to the destination 0.0.0.0?
AS-Path - Which route has the shortest AS-Path?
Origin Code - Where did the route originate? The following origin codes are listed in order of
preference:
o IGP (originated from an interior gateway protocol) o EGP (originated from an exterior
gateway protocol) o ? (Unknown origin)
MED - Which path has the lowest MED?
BGP Route Type - Is this an eBGP or iBGP route? (eBGP routes are preferred)
Age - Which route is the oldest? (oldest is preferred)
Router ID - Which route originated from the router with the lowest BGP router ID?
Peer IP Address - Which route originated from the router with the lowest IP?

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OSPF
Open shortest Path First is an open standard routing protocol that has been implemented by a
wide variety of network venders including Cisco. It is efficient for large networks. OSPF is first
link state routing protocol.
OSPF works by Dijkstra algorithm. First a shortest path tree is constructed and then routing table
is populated with resulting best paths. OSPF converges quickly and it supports multiple equal
cost routes to the same destination. It does support both IP and IPv6 routed protocols.
OSPF provides the following features:

Consists of areas and autonomous systems

Minimizes routing update traffic
Allows scalability
Supports VLSM/CIDR
Has unlimited hop count
Allows multi-vendor deployment

OSPF is supposed to be designed in a hierarchical fashion, which basically means that you can
separate larger internetwork into smaller internetworks called areas. This is the best design for
OSPF.
The following are reasons for creating OSPF in a hierarchical design:

To decrease routing overhead

To speed up convergence
To confine network instability to single areas of the network

Some of OSPF terms are:

Link: It is a network or route interface assigned to any given network.
Router ID: It is an IP address used to identify the router.
Neighbor: They are two or more routers that have an interface on common network such as two
routers connected on a point to point serial link.
Adjacency: It is a relationship between two OSPF routers that permits the direct exchange of
route updates.
Hello Protocol: The OSPF hello protocol provides dynamic neighbor discovery and maintain
neighbor relationships.

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Neighborship database: It is a list of all OSPF routers for which hello packets have been seen.
Topological database: It contains information from all of Link State advertisement packets that
have been received for an area. The router uses information from topology database as input into
Dijkstra algorithm that computes shortest path to every network.
Link Sate advertisement: A LSA is an OSPF data packet containing link state and routing
information that is shared among OSPF routers. An OSPF router will exchange LSA packets
only with routers to which it has established adjacencies.

SPF Calculation
Within an area each router calculates shortest path to every network in that same area. This
calculation is based upon the information collected in topology database and an algorithm called
shortest path first. Picture each router in an area constructing a tree-much like a family treewhere router is root and all other networks are arranged along branches and leaves. This is the
shortest path tree used by router to insert routes into the routing table.
OSPF uses a metric referred to as cost. A cost is associated with every outgoing interface
included in an SPF tree. The cost of the entire path is sum of costs of outgoing interfaces along
the path.

35

IS-IS Fundamentals

IS-IS (Intermediate System -to- Intermediate System) is a standardized link-state protocol that
was developed to be the definitive routing protocol for the OSI (Open Systems Interconnect)
Model, which was developed by ISO (International Standards Organization). IS-IS shares many
similarities to OSPF. Though it was designed as an interior gateway protocol (IGP), IS-IS is
predominantly used by ISPs, due to its scalability.
IS-IS adheres to the following Link State characteristics:
IS-IS allows for a hierarchical network design using Areas.
IS-IS will form neighbor relationships with adjacent routers of the same IS-IS type.
Instead of advertising the distance to connected networks, IS-IS advertises the status of
directly connected links in the form of Link-State Packets (LSPs). IS-IS will only send out
updates when there is a change to one of its links, and will only send the change in the update.
IS-IS uses the Dijkstra Shortest Path First algorithm to determine the shortest path.
IS-IS is a classless protocol, and thus supports VLSMs.
Other characteristics of IS-IS includes:
IS-IS was originally developed to route the ISO address space, and thus is not limited to IP
routing.
IS-IS routes have an administrative distance is 115.
IS-IS uses an arbitrary cost for its metric.IS-IS additionally has three optional metrics: delay,
expense, and error. Cisco does not support these optional metrics.
IS-IS has no hop-count limit.
The IS-IS process builds and maintains three separate tables:
A neighbor table - contains a list of all neighboring routers.
A topology table - contains a list of all possible routes to all known networks within an area.
A routing table - contains the best route for each known network.
IS-IS is only available on enterprise versions of the Cisco IOS.

36

The IS-IS Hierarchy

IS-IS defines three types of IS-IS routers:

Level-1 Router - contained within a single area, with a topology table limited to only its local
area (called the Level-1 Database)
Level-2 Router - a backbone router that routes between areas, and builds a Level-2 Database.
Level-1-2 Router - similar to an area border router. Interfaces between a local area and the
backbone area, and builds both a Level-1 and a Level-2 database.
Each type of IS-IS router will form only specific adjacencies:
Level-1 routers form Level-1 adjacencies with other Level-1 routers and Level-1-2 routers.
Level-2 routers form Level-2 adjacencies with other Level-2 routers and Level-1-2 routers.
Level-1-2 routers form both Level-1 and Level-2 adjacencies with other Level-1-2 routers.
Level-1 routers will never form adjacencies with Level-2 routers.
The IS-IS backbone consists of multiple contiguous Level-2 routers, each of which can exist in a
separate area. If a Level-1 router has a packet destined for a remote area, it forwards it to the
nearest Level-1-2 router. Level-1-2 routers set an Attach (ATT) bit in their Level-1 LSPs,
informing other Level-1 routers that they are attached to another area.
Level-2 routers share Level-2 LSPs, and will build a Level-2 topology table, which contains a
list of reachable areas across the IS-IS domain.
Level-1-2 routers will share both Level-1 and Level-2 LSPs with its appropriate adjacencies.
Level-1-2 routers maintain separate Level-1 and Level-2 topology tables.

37

IS-IS vs. OSPF

IS-IS is often compared and contrasted to OSPF. Both protocols share several similarities,
including:
Both are Link-State routing protocols.
Both use the Dijkstra algorithm to determine the shortest path.
Both are classless and support VLSMs.
Both use a cost metric.
Both use areas to minimize the size of topology and routing tables.
Both elect a designated router on broadcast links to contain link-state update traffic.
Despite these similarities, there are a multitude of crucial differences between IS-IS and OSPF,
including:
OSPF supports only IP, IS-IS supports both IP and CLNS.
IS-IS does not require IP connectivity between routers to share routing information. Updates
are sent via CLNS instead of IP.
In OSPF, interfaces belong to areas. In IS-IS, the entire router belongs to an area.
An IS-IS router belongs to only one Level-2 area, which results in less LSP traffic. IS-IS is
thus more efficient and scalable than OSPF, and supports more routers per area.
There is no Area 0 backbone area for IS-IS. The IS-IS backbone is a contiguous group of
Level 1-2 and Level 2 routers.
IS-IS does not elect a backup DIS. Additionally, DIS election is preemptive.
On broadcast networks, even with an elected DIS, IS-IS routers still form adjacencies with all
other routers. In OSPF, routers will only form adjacencies with the DR and BDR on broadcast
links.
IS-IS uses an arbitrary cost metric. OSPFs cost metric is based on the bandwidth of the link.
IS-IS provides far more granular control of link-state and SPF timers than OSPF.

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RIP
Routing Information Protocol(RIP) is a true distance vector routing protocol.RIP sends the
complete routing table out to all active interfaces every 30 seconds.RIP only uses hop count to
determine the best way to a remote network but it has maximum allowable hop count of 15 by
default meaning that 16 is deemed unreachable.RIP works well in small networks.
It is not efficient on large networks with slow WAN links or on networks with a large number of
routers installed.
RIP version 1 uses only classful routing, which means that all devices in network must use the
same subnet mask. This is because RIP version 1 does not send updates with subnet mask
information in tow.RIP version 2 provides something called prefix routing and does send subnet
mask information with route updates. This is called classless routing.

RIP Timers
RIP uses four different kinds of timers to regulate its performance:
1) Route update timer
Sets the interval between periodic routing updates in which router sends a complete copy of its
routing table out to all neighbours.
2) Router invalid timer
Determines the length of time that must elapse before a router determines that a route become
invalid.
3) Hold down timer
This sets the amount of time during which routing information is suppressed. Router will enter
into hold down state when an update packet is received that indicated the route is unreachable.
This continues either until an update packet is received with a better metric or until the hold
down timer expires. The default is 180 seconds.
4) Route flush timer
Sets the time between a route becoming invalid and its removal from the routing table(240
seconds) .Before it is removed from the table the router notify its neighbor of that routes
impending demise. The value of the route invalid timer must be less than that of route flush
timer.

39

Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS)

Multiprotocol label switching (MPLS) is a versatile solution to address the problems faced by
present-day networksspeed, scalability, quality-of-service (QoS) management, and traffic
engineering. MPLS has emerged as an elegant solution to meet the bandwidth-management and
service requirements for next-generation Internet protocol (IP)-based backbone networks. MPLS
addresses issues related to scalability and routing (based on QoS and service quality metrics) and
can exist over existing asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) and frame-relay networks.
MPLS is an Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)-specified framework that provides for the
efficient designation, routing, forwarding, and switching of traffic flows through the network.
MPLS performs the following functions:
specifies mechanisms to manage traffic flows of various granularities, such as flows between
different hardware, machines, or even flows between different applications
Remains independent of the Layer-2 and Layer-3 protocols
Provides a means to map IP addresses to simple, fixed-length labels used by different packetforwarding and packet-switching technologies
Interfaces to existing routing protocols such as resource reservation protocol (RSVP) and open
shortest path first (OSPF)
Supports the IP, ATM, and frame-relay Layer-2 protocols
In MPLS, data transmission occurs on label-switched paths (LSPs). LSPs are a sequence of
labels at each and every node along the path from the source to the destination. LSPs are
established either prior to data transmission (control-driven) or upon detection of a certain flow
of data (data-driven). The labels, which are underlying protocol-specific identifiers, are
distributed using label distribution protocol (LDP) or RSVP or piggybacked on routing protocols
like border gateway protocol (BGP) and OSPF. Each data packet encapsulates and carries the
labels during their journey from source to destination. High-speed switching of data is possible
because the fixed-length labels are inserted at the very beginning of the packet or cell and can be
used by hardware to switch packets quickly between links.

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LSR and LER

The devices that participate in the MPLS protocol mechanisms can be classified into label edge
routers (LERs) and label switching routers (LSRs).An LSR is a high-speed router device in the
core of an MPLS network that participates in the establishment of LSPs using the appropriate
label signaling protocol and high-speed switching of the data traffic based on the established
paths. An LER is a device that operates at the edge of the access network and MPLS network.
LERs support multiple ports connected to dissimilar networks (such as frame relay, ATM, and
Ethernet) and forwards this traffic on to the MPLS network after establishing LSPs, using the
label signaling protocol at the ingress and distributing the traffic back to the access networks at
the egress. The LER plays a very important role in the assignment and removal of labels, as
traffic enters or exits an MPLS network.

Label-Switched Paths (LSPs)

A collection of MPLS-enabled devices represents an MPLS domain. Within an MPLS domain, a
path is set up for a given packet to travel based on an FEC. The LSP is set up prior to data
transmission. MPLS provides the following two options to set up an LSP.
Hop-by-Hop routingEach LSR independently selects the next hop for a given FEC. This
methodology is similar to that currently used in IP networks. The LSR uses any available routing
protocols, such as OSPF, ATM private network-to-network interface (PNNI), etc.
Explicit routingExplicit routing is similar to source routing. The ingress LSR (i.e., the LSR
where the data flow to the network first starts) specifies the list of nodes through which the ERLSP traverses. The path specified could be non-optimal, as well. Along the path, the resources
may be reserved to ensure QoS to the data traffic. This eases traffic engineering throughout the
network, and differentiated services can be provided using flows based on policies or network
management methods. The LSP setup for an FEC is unidirectional in nature. The return traffic
must take another LSP.
MPLS addresses today's network backbone requirements effectively by providing a standardsbased solution that accomplishes the following:
o MPLS enhances and simplifies packet forwarding through routers using Layer-2 switching
paradigms.
o Improves packet-forwarding performance in the network.
o MPLS increases network performance because it enables routing by witching at wire line
speeds and supports network scalability
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CISCO THREE LAYER HIERARCHIAL MODEL

Hierarchy has many benefits in network design. When used properly it makes network more
predictable. It helps us define which areas should perform certain functions.
Large networks can be extremely complicated with multiple protocols, detailed configurations
and diverse technologies. Hierarchy helps us summarize a collection of details into an
understandable model. The Cisco hierarchical model can help one design, implement and
maintain a scalable, cost-effective hierarchical network. Cisco defines three layers of hierarchy
as shown with specific functions:

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Following are the three layers:

The Core layer: Backbone

The Distribution layer: Routing
The Access layer: Switching

Distribution layer:
It is sometimes referred to as the workgroup layer and is the communication point between
access layer and the core. The primary functions of distribution layer are to provide routing
filtering and WAN access and to determine how packets can access the core. The distribution
layer must find the fastest way that network that network service requests are handled.
There are several actions that are generally should be done at distribution layer:

Routing
Implementing security and network policies
Redistributing between routing protocols, including static routing
Implementing tools, packet filtering and queuing
Defining broadcast and multicast domains
Routing between VLAN and other workgroup support functions

Access Layer:
The access layer controls user and workgroup access to internetwork resources. The access layer
is sometimes referred to as desktop layer. Some of its functions are:

Creation of separate collision domains

Continued use of access control and policies
Workgroup connectivity into distribution layer

Core Layer:
It is literally the core of the network. At the top of the hierarchy the core layer is responsible for
transporting large amount of traffic both reliably and quickly. The only purpose of networks
core layer is to switch traffic as soon as possible. The traffic transported across the core is
common to the majority of users. If there is a failure in core every single user can be affected.
Therefore fault tolerance at this layer is an issue. The core is likely to see large volumes of
traffic, so speed and latency are driving issue here.

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44