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Unit 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Unit 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Unit 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Unit 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Unit 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Unit 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Unit 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Unit 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Unit 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Unit 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Unit 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Unit 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Audio transcript
UNIT 1
Track 1
Unit 1. Page 14
Which type of cell nutrition?
Study the diagrams and text on cell nutrition. Listen
and say: autotrophic nutrition, heterotrophic nutrition,
or both.
This type of nutrition is characteristic of cells
which feed on organic matter produced by other
living beings.
This type of nutrition is characteristic of cells
which make their own organic matter from
inorganic matter.
This type of nutrition takes place in plants.
This type of nutrition takes place in animals,
fungi and many bacteria.
In this type of nutrition, cells use oxygen to
produce energy, carbon dioxide and water.
In this type of nutrition, as a result of catabolism,
carbon dioxide is produced and released
outside.
In this type of nutrition, using energy from
catabolism and simple molecules, complex
organic molecules are produced.
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Cells.
Cells are the structural and functional units of all
living organisms.
They have three basic structures: the cell
membrane, the cytoplasm, and the nucleus with
genetic material.
According to their genetic material, cells can be
prokaryotic or eukaryotic.
There are plant and animal cells.
Cellular nutrition.
Cellular metabolism includes two types of metabolic
reactions: catabolism and anabolism.
Depending on the type of nutrients, cellular nutrition
can be:
Autotrophic. This is characteristic of cells which
make their own organic matter from inorganic
matter, using an energy source, mainly sunlight.
Heterotrophic. This is characteristic of cells
which feed on organic matter produced by other
living beings.
Cellular respiration.
Cellular respiration describes the metabolic reactions
to obtain energy from specific organic molecules.
Cellular division.
Cellular division is the process by which a cell divides
into two cells, called daughter cells.
Track 2
Unit 1. What should you know?
The basis of life
Vital functions.
The nutrition function is the process in which
living beings obtain the matter and the energy
necessary for life.
The interaction function is the process in which
living beings relate with their surrounding
environment.
The reproduction function is the process
by which new, individual living beings are
produced.
Organic and inorganic biomolecules.
Biomolecules are the building blocks of life.
Organic biomolecules.
They include: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and
nucleic acids.
Inorganic biomolecules.
These are water, and mineral salts.
UNIT 2
Track 3
Unit 2. Page 23
Which type of nutrition?
Study the drawing of the zebra.
Listen and identify the parts of the digestive system in
vertebrates. Say: small intestine, large intestine, anus,
oesophagus, mouth, or stomach.
This is where food is moved from the mouth
to the stomach.
This is where absorption of nutrients and
digestion takes place.
This is where egestion takes place.
This is where gastric digestion takes place.
This is where food is chewed and mixed
with saliva.
This is where undigested food is transformed
into faeces.
K ESSENTIAL NATURAL SCIENCE 2 K PHOTOCOPIABLE MATERIAL 2008 Richmond Publishing / Santillana Educacin, S.L. K
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Track 4
Nutrition
Digestion.
Digestion takes place in the digestive system.
There are four stages:
Ingestion, which is the intake of food into the
body.
Digestion, which is the transformation of food
into nutrients.
Absorption, which is the passage of nutrients
into the blood.
Egestion, which is the elimination of undigested
and waste products.
Respiration.
Respiration takes place in the respiratory system.
There are four types of respiration:
Cutaneous, when gas exchange occurs through
the skin.
Branchial, when gas exchange occurs through
the gills.
Tracheal, when gas exchange occurs through
the tracheae.
Pulmonary, when gas exchange occurs in the
lungs.
Circulation.
Circulation is carried out by the circulatory system.
There are several types of circulatory systems.
They are:
Open. In this system, the circulating fluid flows
through the body cavity, and bathes the internal
organs directly.
Closed. In this system, the blood always
circulates inside blood vessels.
There are two types of closed circulatory system:
In a simple circulatory system, the blood only
passes through the heart once.
In a double circulatory system, thee blood
passes through the heart twice.
Excretion.
Excretion involves the collection and expulsion of
waste products produced by cellular activity.
Excretion is carried out by the Malpighian tubules in
insects, and the excretory system in vertebrates.
Plant nutrition.
Plant nutrition consists of the following processes:
Absorption. This is the movement of water and
mineral salts, that is, raw sap, from the ground
to the interior of the roots.
Transport of the raw sap. The raw sap goes from

the roots to the green parts of the plant, through
the xylem vessels.
Exchange of gases. This occurs in the leaves
by means of the stomata.
Photosynthesis. This occurs in the chloroplasts
of the green parts of the plant.
Transport of elaborated sap. The elaborated sap
goes from the green parts of the plants through
the phloem vessels.
UNIT 3
Track 5
Unit 3. Page 34
Which sense organ?
Look at the table, listen and identify the sense organs.
This organ detects light.
This organ detects chemical substances
dissolved in air or water.
This organ detects pressure, pain and
temperature.
This organ is covered in tiny taste buds.
This organ detects chemical substances
dissolved in water.
This organ can distinguish a wide range of
sounds.
Track 6
Interaction and coordination
Animal coordination and interaction.
Stimuli.
Stimuli are all the information which a living being
receives. They provoke a response. Stimuli are
received through interaction.
Receptors.
Receptors are structures which detect external
and internal stimuli.
In animals, they are found in the sense organs.
In plants, they are found in the cells.
The nervous system.
The nervous system regulates and coordinates
the bodys activities and functions. It consists
of the central nervous system, made up of the brain
and the spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous
system made up of the nerves.
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The nervous system produces responses which
are sent to the responsive organs, called
effectors.
Nerves carry nervous impulses from the nerve
centres to all other parts of the body.
Less-developed animals have a simpler nervous
system.
Effectors.
Effectors are organs which produce a response. There
are two types of response to stimuli:
Motor. The response is movement. It is carried
out by the motor system.
Endocrine. The response is the release of
hormones. It is carried out by glands.
Plant coordination and interaction.
There are two types of response to external stimuli:
Tropism.
This refers to permanent responses which produce
changes in the direction of the plants growth. There
are several types of tropism:
Geotropism. The response is provoked by gravity.
Phototropism. The response is provoked by light.
Hydrotropism. The response is provoked by water.
Thigmotropism. The response is provoked by
contact.
Nastic movements.
Nastic movements are temporary responses
of particular parts of the plant.
UNIT 4
Track 7
Unit 4. Page 47
Which type of fertilisation?
Look at the diagrams of external and internal
fertilisation. Then listen and say true or false.
External fertilisation takes place in deer.
Internal fertilisation is the fusion of the male and
female gametes inside the female body.
Both internal and external fertilisation require the
union of a spermatozoon and an ovum.
In internal fertilisation, the female releases many
unfertilised eggs.
When the nuclei of an ovum and a spermatozoon
unite, they form a zygote.
Internal fertilisation involves a male copulating
organ.
Track 8
Reproduction
Reproduction in animals.
Asexual reproduction.
There are two main types of asexual reproduction in
animals:
Fragmentation, which is the division of the
progenitors body in various fragments, creating
new individuals.
Gemmation, which is when small buds appear
on the body of the progenitor. These buds can
separate from the parent, or can remain joined,
and form a colony.
Sexual reproduction.
Sexual reproduction requires two members of the
opposite sex, a male and a female. They have different
reproductive organs, called gonads.
The male gonads are the testicles, where
spermatozoa are produced.
The female gonads are the ovaries, where ova
are produced.
Fertilisation is the union of an ovum and a
spermatozoid, or spermatozoon to form a zygote.
During the embryonic development, the zygote
develops until it becomes a completely formed animal.
Reproduction in plants.
Asexual reproduction.
There are two main types of asexual reproduction in
plants:
Vegetative reproduction, occurs when plants
create new individuals from a particular organ,
mainly the stem. This occurs through stolons,
bulbs, stem tubers, and rhizomes.
Spores formation, which is when a cell from an
individual divides repeatedly, and various
daughter cells, called spores, are formed. These
individual cells alone create new plants.
Sexual reproduction.
Sexual reproduction in plants with seeds has various
stages:
Pollination. Pollen is transported from the
stamens to the pistil.
Fertilisation. The male and the female gametes
fuse to form the zygote inside the ovary. The
zygote grows into an embryo. The ripened ovule
becomes the seed which contains the embryo.
The formation of the fruit. The fruit originates
from the ripened ovary. Its function is to disperse
and protect the seed.
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UNIT 5
Track 1
Unit 5. Page 62
Can you identify the biotic relations?
Look at the texts on biotic relations. Listen and identify
the type of relation:
This is a relationship in which one species,
a parasite, lives at the expense of another
species, the host.
This is a relationship between two or more
species for mutual benefit.
This is a relationship in which related individuals
live together.
This is the relationship in which an individual,
the predator, kills and eats another living being,
the prey.
Groups of individuals which live together for
some time, for example, migrating birds, have
this type of relationship.
This relationship is when groups of individuals
are organised in a hierarchy.
This relationship is between two living beings
where one benefits, but the other is not
affected.
This relationship is one in which related
individuals live together to procreate and protect
their young.
This is a form of commensalism where one
organism uses another organism for housing.
Track 10
The structure of ecosystems
The components of an ecosystem.
An ecosystem includes the biocenosis, the biotope,
and the biotic and abiotic relationships established
between them.
The biocenosis is all the living beings which inhabit
a natural area, and the relationship between them.
The biotope is the physical environment of the
ecosystem and its characteristics.
Habitat or ecological niche.
The habitat is the physical environment where
individuals of a particular species live, and are
adapted.
The ecological niche is the function which a
particular species has within an ecosystem.
Trophic levels in an ecosystem.

A trophic level includes all of the organisms which
obtain the matter and energy they need in the same
way. The trophic levels are:
Producers. These are autotrophic organisms that
make their own organic matter from inorganic
matter.
Consumers. These are heterotrophic organisms
which feed off organic material which has
already been produced.
There are three types of consumers:
Primary consumers, called herbivores.
Secondary consumers. These are carnivores and
some omnivores.
Tertiary consumers. These are some carnivores
and some omnivores.
Decomposers. These are heterotrophic
organisms which transform organic matter back
into inorganic matter.
In ecosystems, energy has a unidirectional flow. Matter
has a cyclical flow.
Trophic dynamics.
Food chains, or food webs, are used to represent the
relationships among organisms in an ecosystem.
The trophic structure of an ecosystem can also be
represented graphically by trophic pyramids. There are
three types: number pyramids, biomass pyramids and
energy pyramids.
Relationships among organisms can be intraspecific
or interspecific.
Intraspecific relationships are interactions among
individuals of the same species.
Interspecific relationships are relationships
among individuals of different species.
UNIT 6
Track 11
Unit 6. Page 71
Which zone in a marine ecosystem?
Look at the diagram of a marine ecosystem. Listen and
choose the correct answer.
This is the part of the open sea which is a long
way from the coast.
Is this the pelagic zone or the neritic zone?
This is the area between tide marks.
Is this the intertidal zone or the abyssal plain?
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This is the deepest part of a marine ecosystem.
Is this the intertidal zone or the abyssal plain?
The sea floor is covered with seaweed and is very
rich in life.
Is this the pelagic zone or the neritic zone?
This area is affected by the movement of the waves.
It is submerged at high tide and exposed at low
tide. Is this the neritic zone or the intertidal zone?
There are not many sources of food, and very
little light reaches here.
Is this the pelagic zone or the abyssal plain?
Track 12
Ecosystems
Terrestrial ecosystems.
The factors that most influence the distribution of living
beings are: temperature, light, and humidity.
According to the climatic zone, the major terrestrial
ecosystems are:
The Frigid Zone. This includes: the Tundra,
which has a very cold climate and scant
precipitation; and the Taiga, which has abundant
precipitation in the form of snow.
The Temperate Zone. This includes: deciduous
forest, which has abundant rainfall throughout
the year; and Mediterranean forest, which has
irregular rainfall.
The Torrid Zone. This includes: grassland, which
has constant high temperatures; desert, which
has a very dry climate; and rainforest, which has
abundant rainfall and high temperatures.
Aquatic ecosystems.
The factors that most influence the distribution of living
beings are: light; temperature; pressure; salinity; and
oxygen.
The main aquatic ecosystems are:
Marine ecosystems.
Freshwater ecosystems. These are divided into:
lentic ecosystems, which consist of standing or
still water, such as pools, ponds and lakes; and
lotic ecosystems, which consist of running water,
such as streams and rivers.
UNIT 7
Track 13
Unit 7. Page 80.
How much do you know about meteorology?
Listen to these definitions about aspects of
meteorology, then say if they are true or false.
Meteorology is the science which studies the
atmosphere and its phenomena, including
weather and climate.
True or false?
Isobars are lines which connect points of equal
rainfall.
True or false?
Pressure is measured in isobars.
True or false?
Snow is a type of precipitation which consists
of irregular balls of ice.
True or false?
Low pressure areas are called anticyclones.
True or false?
Clouds originate in low pressure areas, on
mountain slopes, or near the ground.
True or false?
Winds form because air tends to move from high
pressure areas to low pressure areas.
True or false?
Air rises in a low pressure area, cools, and forms
clouds.
True or false?
Track 14
Energy from the Sun
Effects.
Energy from the Sun affects the activity in the
atmosphere and hydrosphere, and many other
processes on the surface of the Earth.
Energy from the Sun combined with gravity, is
responsible for the geological agents that shape
the Earth.
The Earth warms unequally as a result of its spherical
shape and the filtering effect of the atmosphere.
The unequal warming of the Earth creates atmospheric
and oceanic currents.
Atmospheric phenomena.
Local atmospheric phenomena occur within a few
kilometres of the surface of the Earth.
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These phenomena include: the formation of thermals,
storms, sea breezes, land breezes, valley breezes, and
thermal inversion.
Meteorology is the science which deals with the
atmosphere and its phenomena, including weather,
and climate.
Global atmospheric phenomena include the formation
of low pressure areas, called depressions, high
pressure areas, called anticyclones, winds, clouds,
and precipitation.
Uses of solar energy.
Solar energy can be used to produce heat with solar
water heaters, and to produce electricity with
photovoltaic panels.
Risks of solar energy.
CFC gases destroy the ozone in the ozonosphere.
Ozone is important because it filters harmful ultraviolet
light before it reaches the Earths surface.
Carbon dioxide and other gases produce the
greenhouse effect.
However, the recent increase of these gases
in the atmosphere causes global warming, that is,
an increase in global temperatures.
UNIT 8
Track 15
Unit 8. Page 92
What happens in each part of a river?
Look carefully at the illustration of the river. Listen and
say upper course, middle course, or, lower course.
Rivers flow slowly in this part.
This is the part where you can find deep bends
called meanders.
In this part, rivers flow fast. Erosion and
transportation are the dominant processes.
In this part, deposition is dominant, so the valley
flattens out.
In this part, the velocity of the water decreases.
Transportation is dominant.
Valleys are steep and narrow here.
Track 16
External dynamics of the Earth
Weathering.
There are three types of weathering:
Mechanical weathering, which breaks rocks by
physical forces.
Chemical weathering, which decomposes rocks

by chemical reactions.
Biological weathering, which breaks down rocks
by the action of living things.
Erosion, transportation and deposition.
Erosion moves weathered pieces of rocks to a
different place.
Transportation moves eroded rock material along
surfaces or in suspension.
Deposition deposits moving rock materials. This
occurs when there is a decrease in energy in the
transportation process.
Shaping of the landscape.
Wind may erode, transport and deposit rock
materials to change the landscape. Wind is only
an effective agent in places where it is strong,
usually in dry regions with scarce vegetation.
Glaciers are masses of moving ice. They cut
U-shaped valleys known as glacial valleys.
Rivers also carry out erosion, transportation
and deposition, which change the landscape.
The dominant process depends on the velocity
of the water.
Rainwater is a very effective agent for eroding
and shaping relief features in areas with dry
climates and torrential rain.
Groundwater causes the dissolution of limestone
rock, and forms karst landscapes.
Ocean waves, tides, and currents shape coastal
landscapes.
Formation of sedimentary rocks.
Sedimentary rock is formed from sediments by
the following processes: sedimentation; compaction;
and cementation.
UNIT 9
Track 17
Unit 9. Page 102
How much do you know about earthquakes?
Listen and identify the definitions: earthquake,
Richter Scale, tsunami, seismic wave, hypocentre,
epicentre.
The origin of an earthquake, from where the
seismic waves travel, is called the
This scale, numbered from 1-10, reflects the
amount of energy released at the hypocentre
of an earthquake.
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Energy released during an earthquake can cause
this huge wave, which floods coastal areas.
This is a violent trembling of the Earths crust
which lasts a short time and varies in intensity.
Energy from an earthquake travels spherically
outward in these sort of waves.
This is the point on the surface of the Earth,
directly above the hypocentre.
Track 18
Internal dynamics of the Earth
Internal dynamics is the study of phenomena caused
by the internal energy of our planet.
Earthquakes. An earthquake is a violent trembling of
the Earths crust which lasts a short time and varies
in intensity.
Volcanic eruptions. Magma is expelled to the exterior
through a volcano. When magma erupts through the
Earths surface, it is called lava.
Measures to control catastrophic damage.
Prediction. This includes studying the probability
of damage by earthquakes and volcanoes.
Preparedness. This includes the safety measures
adopted to minimize damages in the event
of a disaster.
Rocks.
Igneous rocks are formed by the cooling and solidifying
of magma. There are two types of igneous rock:
Volcanic or extrusive igneous rocks. These are
formed when lava cools and solidifies quickly,
at the Earths surface.
Plutonic or intrusive igneous rocks. These are
formed when magma cools and solidifies slowly,
within the Earth.
Metamorphic rocks. These are formed from the
transformation of other rocks due to increases
in temperature or pressure, or both at the same
time.
UNIT 10
Track 19
Unit 10. Page 111
How much do you know about energy?
Listen to these statements about energy. Then say true
or false.
Energy is a physical quantity which produces
a change or an effect.
Energy is measured in kelvins.

Chemical energy is contained in electromagnetic
waves.
Thermal energy is energy released in the form
of heat.
One type of energy can be transformed into
another type of energy.
Electromagnetic energy travels through a wire
circuit.
Electromagnetic energy is energy stored
in electromagnetic waves or radiation.
Electrical energy is produced by the flow
of electric charge.
Energy is measured in joules in the International
System.
Track 20
Energy
Energy is the ability to do work. It is a physical quantity
which produces a change or effect.
There are different types of energy: mechanical;
electrical; chemical; thermal; nuclear,
and electromagnetic.
Energy can change from one type to another.
Non-renewable energy sources.
Non-renewable energy sources are used up faster than
they can be replenished. One day they will run out.
Non-renewable energy sources include coal, oil,
natural gas and uranium.
Fossil fuels were formed by the remains of
microorganisms, plants and animals buried millions
of years ago. They were transformed by the effects
of heat, pressure and bacteria, over time.
Coal. Coal is used to generate electricity, heat,
and to make steel.
Oil. Oil is used to generate electricity. It is also
used to produce automobile fuel and many
chemical products.
Natural gas. Natural gas is used to generate
electricity and heat.
Uranium. Uranium is used in nuclear power
stations to produce electricity and heat.
Renewable energy sources.
These energy sources are replenished continuously,
and naturally. There are several types of renewable
energy sources: solar, eolic, hydroelectric, geothermal,
biomass, and tidal.
Solar energy uses sunlight to produce heat
and electricity.
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Eolic energy uses wind to produce electricity.
Hydroelectric energy uses moving water
to produce electricity
Biomass energy comes from organic material
from plants and animals.
Geothermal energy uses heat stored beneath
the Earths surface.
Tidal energy is produced by tidal movement.
UNIT 11
Track 21
Unit 11. Page 126
How does heat transfer?
Listen to these statements about the way heat
transfers. Then choose the correct answer, a. or b.
Heat transfers by conduction, convection and
radiation.
Which heat transfer can be transmitted through
space?
a. Radiation, or b. Convection?
Conduction occurs in solids. Heat is transferred
by direct contact.
In which direction does the heat flow?
a. Heat flows from the cooler substance to the
warmer one, or b. Heat flows from the warmer
substance to the cooler one?
Conductors are substances which allow heat to
move through them easily.
Which of these materials is a good conductor?
a. Metal, or b. Cork?
Insulators do not allow heat to move through
them easily.
Which of these materials is a good insulator?
a. Iron, or b. Plastic?
In convection, heat is transferred by the
movement of currents.
Which statement is correct.
a. Convection only occurs in solids,
b. Convection only occurs in liquids and gases.
Radiation is the transfer of heat by
electromagnetic waves.
Which statement is correct:
a. Radiation is the fastest form of heat transfer,
b. Radiation is the slowest form of heat transfer.
Track 22
Heat and Temperature
Heat.
Heat is the amount of thermal energy that is
transferred from one body or system to another, due to
a difference in temperature.
Measurement. In the International System, heat is
measured in joules. Calories are also used. 1 joule is
equivalent to 0.24 calories.
The main effects of heat are:
Expansion. This is the increase in volume that
occurs when a system gains heat. Particles move
faster, and occupy more space. In general, gases
expand more than liquids, and liquids expand
more than solids.
Contraction. This is the decrease in volume that
occurs when a system loses heat. Particles move
more slowly, and occupy less space.
Changes of state.
Heat changes can be:
Endothermic, when they are produced by heat
absorption.
Or exothermic, when they are produced by heat
loss.
Transfer of heat.
Heat transfers by:
Conduction. This is the transfer of heat in most
solids.
Convection. This is the transfer of heat in liquids
and gases.
Radiation. This is the transfer of heat by
electromagnetic waves. No contact is necessary
between the source and the heated substance.
Temperature.
Temperature is the amount of heat in a system.
Measurement. A thermometer is an instrument which
measures the temperature of a system quantitatively.
Temperature is measured in three scales:
The Celsius scale. This is the most common
scale. The freezing point of water is 0 Celcius,
and the boiling point is 100 Celcius.
The Fahrenheit scale. This scale was used in
English-speaking countries. Today, it is only used
in a few countries for non-scientific purposes.
The freezing point of water is 32 Fahrenheit,
and the boiling point is 212 Fahrenheit.
The Kelvin or absolute scale. This scale is used
by scientists. The freezing point of water is 273
kelvin and the boiling point is 373 kelvin. The
International System uses the Kelvin scale.
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UNIT 12
Track 23
Unit 12. Page 132
How much do you know about light?
Listen to these statements about the property of light.
Then say if they are true or false.
Light travels in waves and does not require a medium.
True or false?
The speed of light is 300,000 metres per second.
True or false?
Reflected light is light which hits a surface,
bounces off and begins to travel in a different
direction.
True or false?
Now, look at the diagram of how light is
reflected. The reflected ray hits the surface.
True or false?
The angle of incidence is the same as the angle
of reflection.
True or false?
Reflections are more noticeable when the
surface is rough.
True or false?
Track 24
Light and sound
Light.
Light is a form of energy. Light allows us to see the
colours and shapes of objects. Depending on how light
travels through them, objects can be transparent,
translucent or opaque.
A lens is a glass or plastic disc with one or two curved

faces. There are two kinds of lenses:
Converging lenses, which concentrate the rays
of light.
Diverging lenses, which disperse the rays of light.
Sound.
Sound is a form of mechanical energy produced by the
vibration of an object.
The properties of sound.
Sound needs a material medium to be able to
travel.
Sound cannot travel in a vacuum.
The speed of sound depends on the medium.
In air, the speed of sound is 340 metres per
second.
The qualities of sound.
Intensity. Intensity depends on the amplitude
of the sound waves.
Pitch. Pitch depends on the frequency of the
sound waves
Tone. Tone allows us to identify the source
of a sound which has the same frequency
and intensity.
Reflection.
Sound is reflected when a sound wave meets
an obstacle. The sound wave bounces off,
and changes direction.
The reflection of sound causes two phenomena:
echoes, and reverberation.
The properties of light.

Light travels in a straight line.
The speed of light depends on the medium.
In a vacuum and in the air, the speed of light is
approximately the same, that is, 300,000 km
per second.
Reflection.
Light is reflected when a ray of light, called the
incident ray, hits a surface, then changes direction.
When the incident ray changes direction, it is called
the reflected ray.
Refraction.
Light is refracted when it passes from one medium
to another with a different density.
10

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Trophic levels in an ecosystem.

Chemical weathering, which decomposes rocks

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A lens is a glass or plastic disc with one or two curved

The properties of light.

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