Antenna Selection and Specification Made Easy

By Joseph H. Reisert
This paper will help you answer important questions about antenna selection
before you talk to a supplier. After reading this paper, you should be able to better
determine the most important parameters you need to know for your antenna
selection criteria.
Introduction
An antenna is one of the most critical junctures in any RF communications system.
It's performance determines the quality and the continuity of your data flow in both
directions. Unfortunately, selection of the antenna is often deferred to the latter
phases of a program and the quality of the selection is usually driven by price
instead of value (quality, performance and price). Worse yet, the actual
performance of the antenna in the system is seldom verified until after the system
is installed, if at all.
It is important there be a level of common understanding between the system
designer, the system integrator, the user and the antenna supplier regarding the
required antenna performance. The joint goal of this team is to maximize the
performance of the total system while minimizing cost.
This paper outlines the major questions regarding antenna parameter which should
be answered prior to talking with an antenna supplier or making a final antenna
selection. The reader w ill be provided with a list of useful guidelines and aides to
help select the proper antenna for their application. This paper is not intended to be
a theoretical treatment of antenna design. Instead it will focus on the basic
elements of "specmanship" and how to determine the true "value" of an antenna.
The antenna is one of the most important components in any RF communication
system. If the antenna is used for both reception and transmission, the usual case, a
1 dB increase in performance represents a 2 dB system improvement, 1 dB on
receive and 1 dB on transmit. This dual path makes the antenna performance a key
element in the overall system and should not be understated.
The system engineer should be as familiar with the major attributes of the antenna
as with the other components of the system. To make it easier to specify the right
antenna for your application while taking full advantage of the expertise of your
antenna supplier, here is a list of the Top Ten Questions you should have answered

before you make a final antenna selection.

The Top Ten Antenna Questions are:
What is the operating frequency range of the system?
How much gain is required?
What kind of radiation pattern is desired?
What is the maximum allowable VSWR?
What polarization is required?
What type of connector interface is required?
How much power will the antenna have to handle?
Where will the antenna be mounted?
Is a radome required?
What is the lifetime of the antenna?
What is the operating frequency range of the system?
Before you can specify an antenna, you first must know the approximate center
frequency and the bandwidth over which it must operate. These two parameters
will help define whether the antenna is available off-the-shelf from the designer or
if a customized design is required. Most often, frequency is dictated by the
application and the allocations available.
Frequency, to some extent, also dictates the size of the antenna; the lower the
frequency, the larger the physical size. For example, a VHF half-wave dipole will
be about three times the size of a UHF dipole. Size is particularly important when
planning an installation where adequate space must be available on a tower or
other location.
How much gain is required?
Antenna performance is primarily established by its gain. Gain must always be
measured against a known reference. Unfortunately, there are many "so-called"
gain references. Choosing the wrong reference could cost you up to 2.0 dB in
performance.
Most commercial antenna suppliers specify gain in dBd (gain over a half-wave
dipole). The half-wave dipole is one of the simplest and most efficient antennas. It
is relatively easy to construct and has a very predictable radiation pattern similar to
that of a donut. This is why most commercial antenna suppliers reference gain to a
half-wave dipole.

Another reference, especially at microwave frequencies, is dBi. This term refers to

gain over an isotropic radiator, a theoretical antenna that radiates equally well in all
directions (such as the Sun). If an antenna is specified in dBi gain, it will appear to
have approximately 2.15 dB higher gain than dBd. This may be a nifty way to
impress the customer but it does not mean that you get more gain if dBi is the
reference.
Beware if the supplier only quotes antenna gain in just "dB". What is the
reference? For instance, some mobile antennas are specified in dB gain over a
quarter wave whip which is about 0.6 dB less gain than a dipole.
Furthermore, gain influences the type and size of an antenna. The higher the gain,
the larger the antenna. Table 1 shows some of the common communication
antennas and the approximate gain ranges to expect.
Table 1: Common Communication Antenna types.
Type
Dipole
Omni
Gain Omni
Mobile Whips
Corner Reflector
Log Periodic
Horn
Helix
Microstrip-Patch
Yagi
Panel
Parabolic Dish

Typical Gain Range (dBd)

0
0
3 to 12
-0.6 to +5.5
4 to 10
3 to 8
5 to 12
5 to 15
3 to 15
3 to 20
5 to 20
10 to 30

As a rule of thumb, doubling the gain (a 3.0 dB increase) will increase the size of
an antenna by a factor of 2-3. Properly combining two identical antennas will also
increase the gain up to about 3.0 dB over that of a single antenna.
To increase the gain of a 6 foot high unity gain Omni by 3 dB, the antenna will
height will have to be increased to 12 to 18 feet tall!! Likewise, a Yagi antenna
with a 4 foot long boom will have to increase to 8 to 12 feet along with additional

elements! Table 2 can be used as a guide to assist in the selection of a Yagi

antenna.
Table 2. A properly designed Yagi antenna increases in gain as the length of the
boom is increased along with additional elements. This table will give some rough
guidelines as to the gain, boom length and number of elements required.
To increase the gain of a 6 foot high unity gain Omni by 3 dB, the antenna will
height will have to be increased to 12 to 18 feet tall!! Likewise, a Yagi antenna
with a 4 foot long boom will have to increase to 8 to 12 feet along with additional
elements! Table 2 can be used as a guide to assist in the selection of a Yagi
antenna.
Table 2. A properly designed Yagi antenna increases in gain as the length of the
boom is increased along with additional elements. This table will give some rough
guidelines as to the gain, boom length and number of elements required.
Gain Range (dBd) Boom Length (in wavelengths)* Number of Elements
3.0-4.5
0.1-0.25
2
4.5-6.5
0.15-0.35
3
6.0-7.5
0.3-0.5
4
7.0-8.5
0.5-0.8
5
8.5-10.0
0.8-1.2
6
9.0-10.5
1.2-1.5
7
10.0-11.0
1.5-2.0
8
11.0-12.0
2.0-2.5
9-10
12.0-13.0
2.5-3.5
11-13
13.0-14.0
3.5-4.5
14-18
* Wavelength (in inches) = 11803/F (MHZ). At 900 MHZ, 1.0
Wavelength=13.114"
Furthermore, increasing gain will decrease your beam width so you have to answer
the next question.
What kind of radiation pattern is desired?
This is the first major delineator of antenna selection. The only way to increase

gain is to concentrate power in a narrower beam width. The narrower the beam
width, the greater the gain of the antenna.
A good conceptual example of this concentration is the vertical omnidirectional
antenna. It is often used for line-of-sight communications with mobile stations
spread out in various directions usually restricted to the horizon. We don't have to
warm the clouds, do we! If greater performance is required, the antenna gain can
be increased by using a collinear type of Omni that decreases the vertical beam
width and hence concentrates more power on the horizon where it will be most
beneficial. Figure 1 shows the typical radiation pattern of a gain Omni antenna.
Figure 1. Typical radiation pattern of a gain Omni antenna. ~ Click images to
enlarge

E-Plane

H-Plane

Likewise, panel antennas are used to optimize a sector (typically 90 to 120 degrees
in azimuth) with a narrow elevation beam width. Yagis, parabolic dishes and patch
arrays are usually designed for high gain and hence have narrow beam widths in
both the azimuth and elevation plane. A typical high gain Yagi antenna pattern is
shown in Figure 2. The gain can be further increased (and the beamwidth
narrowed) by mounting multiple identical antennas in an array and properly
spacing the antennas to account for phasing.
Figure 1. Typical radiation pattern of a gain Omni antenna. ~ Click images to
enlarge

E-Plane

H-Plane

What is the maximum allowable VSWR?

VSWR (voltage-standing-wave-ratio) represents the degree with which an antenna
is "matched" to the system impedance. Most modern antennas do not require any
tuning for o optimum performance. VSWR is one of the easiest parameters to
measure and VSWR meters are becoming very popular antenna installation tools.
Most modern antennas, receivers and transmitters are designed for peak
performance when operating into a 50 Ohm transmission line. If the VSWR is too
high, the transmitter power may be reduced as well as the strength of the received
signal.
The typical commercial standard for maximum allowable VSWR across the entire
bandwidth of a system is 1.5:1. This means that the antenna impedance must be
somewhere between 37.5 and 75 Ohms. You should specify the maximum VSWR
and the operating frequency bandwidth when specifying your antenna. A VSWR of
2:1 or greater usually is considered unacceptable (or for receiving purposes only)
since it increases losses in the transmission line. Incidentally, decreasing the
VSWR below 1.5:1 will often be expensive and will have little noticeable
performance improvement.
What polarization is required?
Most communication systems use vertical, horizontal or elliptical (RHC-right hand
circular or LHC-left hand circular) polarization, with vertical dominating
commercial VHF/UHF applications. In some instances, the selection is determined
by the installation site, with the antenna oriented to provide the best performance.
If this is anticipated, your antenna should provide mounting for either polarization.
Selecting the proper polarization for the system can enhance the overall
performance by minimizing the interference from adjoining systems. For example,
by installing you system orthogonal to other systems in the area, you can provide

up to 20 dB of isolation. This will result in up to a 99% power reduction of the

interfering system! Elliptical polarization can sometimes decrease fading.
Many systems are challenged because they must interface with handheld
transmitters. These units move around a room or warehouse, with the antenna often
pointing many degrees off-axis. To accommodate these applications, the fixed
antennas often use circular or elliptical polarization with a hemispherically shaped
pattern trading off high gain for reasonable gain in all directions.
What type of connector interface is required?
This can be more fun than selecting coax. Here are a couple of rules of thumb. If
you are operating below 300 MHZ, a UHF connector will generally be satisfactory
although it is difficult to waterproof. Above 300 MHZ, the UHF connector induces
VSWR mismatches. Type "N", TNC and BNC connectors are preferred at higher
frequencies because they maintain a good VSWR. These connectors are low loss
and can handle moderate power (250 Watts) up to 1 GHz.
If high power and/or low intermodulation distortion is required, especially where
multiple antenna systems are operating in close proximity, the new large 7-16 DIN
connector may be required. If small size and low power operation from 1-10 GHz
is anticipated, the SMA connector may be preferred.
Regardless of the quality or type of the connector, the potential exists to introduce
noise, signal loss and lower reliability through every connector break in the trans
mission line. An antenna with an integral jumper or "pigtail" which extends from
the antenna to the feedline on the mast may be preferred. An antenna with its
connector mounted right on the antenna feed point may be cheaper to buy, but add
in the cost of a "jumper" cable, the signal losses, increased maintenance and you
may have to reevaluate the "value" of a low cost antenna.
How much power will the antenna have to handle?
Generally speaking, this is not an important antenna parameter, especially in
receive-only or low-power (less than 50 Watts) transmitter applications. The
power-handling capability of an antenna is usually a function of the connector type
and the transmission line (if it is an integral part of the antenna).
You should specify the "average" power that will reach the antenna. If your
transmitter is emitting pulse or peak power, it is important to inform the antenna
supplier the peak power level.

Where will the antenna be mounted?

While this question is easily answered, the real impact comes when assessing the
total environment and whether the antenna will perform and survive once installed.
Furthermore, don't underestimate the impact of local zoning ordinances and
regulations on installing antennas.
The next question is how will the antenna be mounted? If the antenna is attached to
a tower or mast, what is the diameter of the pipe or mast? Will the antenna be rear
or center mounted?
For an exterior mount, the integral strength of the design must be considered such
as its ability to withstand wind, ice, heat/cold and other extremes. You should also
assess the ability of the major components such as the feed, the radome and
connectors to withstand stress. The materials and hardware used in the construction
of the antenna are also important. Outside mounted antennas should use durable
materials such as aluminium with stainless steel hardware. Additionally, has the
antenna been designed to properly operate with 1/2" of radial ice encrusting on it,
or will it stop working until the ice melts?
The inside of buildings can also be torturous. Will a desk top antenna survive
constant handling and having books and coffee cups dropped on it? Must the
antenna be mounted to a wall or a ceiling? Will the antenna have t! o be disguised?
Will a wall mount be used as a target? As wireless applications continue to grow,
the locations for antennas will multiply and challenge the ingenuity of the designer.
Is a radome required?
Radomes serve two purposes, to protect and to hide the antenna. Increasingly, the
visual impact of an antenna is being considered when making a choice. Does the
antenna blend into its surroundings or is it a sore thumb? Radomes can be colored
and shaped to improve aesthetics. This has proven very effective indoors as well as
for outdoor applications.
Panel antennas are usually enclosed within a radome to protect the elements and/or
any printed circuit boards. Yagi antennas equipped with radomes usually are more
of a detriment than a value. The wind load on the antenna is significantly increased
and protection offered to the antenna itself can often be offset with proper design
of the feed system and the directors.
Dishes and vertical omnis all benefit from proper placement to disguise them as
well! as selecting an appropriate color (such as Earth tones!) for either the radome
or the exterior coating.

What is the lifetime of the antenna?

Simply put, a cheap antenna will last long enough to win the job and lose the
customer while a good antenna will be warranted to meet performance
specifications. The quality of the mechanical design, the individual elements of the
antenna and the final product will serve the needs of the customer in the
environment specified.
Finally, you define the quality of the product you will use or you will ship to an
end-user. A good antenna will satisfy the customer, the maintenance crew and the
bottom line. The quality of the antenna will match the quality of the relationship
between you and the one who pays the bills.
Summary
As pointed out at the beginning of this paper, antenna specifications deserve more
emphasis earlier in the system design phase, rather than as an afterthought. Make
sure that the requirements of the installation meet the performance specifications of
the manufacturer and provides value to the application.

Antenna Polarization
By Joseph H. Reisert
Antenna polarization is a very important consideration when choosing
and installing an antenna. Most communications systems use either
vertical, horizontal or circular polarization. Knowing the difference
between polarizations and how to maximize their benefit is very
important to the antenna user.
A Polarization Review
An antenna is a transducer that converts radio frequency electric current
to electromagnetic waves that are then radiated into space. The electric
field or "E" plane determines the polarization or orientation of the radio
wave. In general, most antennas radiate either linear or circular
polarization.
A linear polarized antenna radiates wholly in one plane containing the
direction of propagation. In a circular polarized antenna, the plane of
polarization rotates in a circle making one complete revolution during

one period of the wave. If the rotation is clockwise looking in the

direction of propagation, the sense is called right-hand-circular (RHC).
If the rotation is counterclockwise, the sense is called left-hand-circular
(LHC).
An antenna is said to be vertically polarized (linear) when its electric
field is perpendicular to the Earth's surface. An example of a vertical
antenna is a broadcast tower for AM radio or the "whip" antenna on an
automobile.
Horizontally polarized (linear) antennas have their electric field parallel
to the Earth's surface. Television transmissions in the USA use
horizontal polarization.
A circular polarized wave radiates energy in both the horizontal and
vertical planes and all planes in between. The difference, if any, between
the maximum and the minimum peaks as the antenna is rotated through
all angles, is called the axial ratio or ellipticity and is usually specified in
decibels (dB). If the axial ratio is near 0 dB, the antenna is said to be
circular polarized. If the axial ratio is greater than 1-2 dB, the
polarization is often referred to as elliptical.
Important Considerations
Polarization is an important design consideration. The polarization of
each antenna in a system should be properly aligned. Maximum signal
strength between stations occurs when both stations are using identical
polarization.
When choosing an antenna, it is an important consideration as to
whether the polarization is linear or elliptical. If the polarization is
linear, is it vertical or horizontal? If circular, is it RHC or LHC?
On line-of-sight (LOS) paths, it is most important that the polarization of
the antennas at both ends of the path use the same polarization. In a
linearly polarized system, a misalignment of polarization of 45 degrees
will degrade the signal up to 3 dB and if misaligned 90 degrees the

attenuation can be 20 dB or more. Likewise, in a circular polarized

system, both antennas must have the same sense. If not, an additional
loss of 20 dB or more will be incurred.
Also note that linearly polarized antennas will work with circularly
polarized antennas and vice versa. However, there will be up to a 3 dB
loss in signal strength. In weak signal situations, this loss of signal may
impair communications.
Cross polarization is another consideration. It happens when unwanted
radiation is present from a polarization which is different from the
polarization in which the antenna was intended to radiate. For example,
a vertical antenna may radiate some horizontal polarization and vice
versa. However, this is seldom a problem unless there is noise or strong
signals nearby.
Typical Applications
Vertical polarization is most often used when it is desired to radiate a
radio signal in all directions such as widely distributed mobile units.
Vertical polarization also works well in the suburbs or out in the country,
especially where hills are present. As a result, nowadays most two-way
Earth to Earth communications in the frequency range above 30 MHz
use vertical polarization.
Horizontal polarization is used to broadcast television in the USA. Some
say that horizontal polarization was originally chosen because there was
an advantage to not have TV reception interfered with by vertically
polarized stations such as mobile radio. Also, man made radio noise is
predominantly vertically polarized and the use of horizontal polarization
would provide some discrimination against interference from noise.
In the early days of FM radio in the 88-108 MHz spectrum, the radio
stations broadcasted horizontal polarization. However, in the 1960's, FM
radios became popular in automobiles which used vertical polarized
receiving whip antennas. As a result, the FCC modified Part 73 of the
rules and regulations to allow FM stations to broadcast RHC or elliptical

polarization to improve reception to vertical receiving antennas as long

as the horizontal component was dominant.
Circular polarization is most often use on satellite communications. This
is particularly desired since the polarization of a linear polarized radio
wave may be rotated as the signal passes through any anomalies (such as
Faraday rotation) in the ionosphere. Furthermore, due to the position of
the Earth with respect to the satellite, geometric differences may vary
especially if the satellite appears to move with respect to the fixed Earth
bound station. Circular polarization will keep the signal constant
regardless of these anomalies.
What is Available
As stated earlier, for best performance, it is desirable to use an antenna
with the same polarization on both ends of a communications path. If a
system is already in place, all that is required is to find out what
polarization is presently being used and match it.
Most base station antenna providers will supply either vertical or
horizontal polarized antennas. They are the most economical types.
Furthermore, vertically polarized antennas seem to be the most popular
for two way communications, as stated above, while horizontal
polarization is most predominant in broadcast communications such as
TV and FM.
Circularly polarized antennas are normally more costly than linear
polarized types since true circular polarization is difficult to attain. An
example of a true circularly polarized antenna is the helix.
However, the most common circularly polarized antenna uses crossed
Yagis for "near circular" or elliptical polarization. Elliptical polarization
can be generated by placing two identical linear polarized Yagis at right
angles (90 degree phase differential) to each other and then feeding them
with equal power and a phasing network. A well made antenna of this
type will have a typical axial ratio of +/-1 to 3 dB. In special

applications, crossed Yagi antennas can be configured to accept either

RHC or LHC by a selection relay.
Other Considerations
If your antenna is to be located on an existing tower or building with
other antennas in the vicinity, try to separate the antennas as far as
possible from each other. In the UHF range, increasing separation even a
few extra feet may significantly improve performance from problems
such as desensitization.
When setting up your own exclusive communications link, it may be
wise to first test the link with vertical and then horizontal polarization to
see which yields the best performance (if any). If there are any
reflections in the area, especially from structures or towers, one
polarization may outperform the other. Furthermore, if there are other
RF signals in an area, using a polarization opposite the predominant high
level signals will give some isolation as discussed earlier.
On another note, when radio waves strike a smooth reflective surface,
they may incur a 180 degree phase shift, a phenomenon known as
specular or mirror image reflection. The reflected signal may then
destructively or constructively affect the direct LOS signal. Circular
polarization has been used to an advantage in these situations since the
reflected wave would have a different sense than the direct wave and
block the fading from these reflections.
Diversity Reception
Even if the polarizations are matched, other factors may affect the
strength of the signal. The most common are long and short term fading.
Long term fading results from changes in the weather (such as
barometric pressure or precipitation) or when a mobile station moves
behind hills or buildings. Short term fading is often referred to as
"multipath" fading since it results from reflected signals interfering with
the LOS signal.

Some of these fading phenomenon can be decreased by the use of

diversity reception. This type of system usually employs dual antennas
and receivers with some kind of "voting" system to choose the busiest
signal. However, for best results, the antennas should be at least 20
wavelengths apart so that the signals are no longer correlated. This
would be 20-25 feet at 880 MHz, quite a structural problem.
Nowadays we are inundated with mobile radios and cellular telephones.
The polarization on handheld units is often random depending on how
they are held by the user. This has led to new studies which have found
that polarization diversity can be an advantage. The most important
break through in this area is that the antennas at the base station do not
have to be separated physically as described above. They can be
collocated as long as they are orthogonal and well isolated from each
other. Only time will tell if these systems are truly cost effective.