Fundamental Concepts in Fluid Mechanics

ME 1304 Fluid Mechanics
Syllabus
Module 1
Preliminaries, Concept of continuum, Properties of fluids density pressure viscosity - surface tension capillarity - vapour pressure, Fluid statics, Basic equations of fluid statics, Variation of pressure in a fluid, Manometry - Forces on surfaces and bodies in fluids, Floatation - stability of bodies in fluid - metacentric height
and its measurement, Fluids in rigid body motion, Fluid kinematics -Eulerian and Lagrangian description - local
and material rates - deformation of a fluid element -strain rate-velocity relations, Graphical description of flow
streamlines - path lines - streak lines - stream tube, Fluid dynamics - concept of the control volume -Reynolds
transport equation and its use to formulate fluid mechanics problems, Integral and differential forms of the
continuity - momentum and energy equations, Illustrative examples.
Module II
One dimensional flow through pipes, Non viscous equation for the flow through a stream tube and along a
stream line Eulers equation Bernoullis equation, - Energy equation, Applications of the one dimensional
equations - velocity and flow measuring devices and quasi steady problems, Laminar and turbulent flow
through pipes - Hagen- Poiseuille equation - Darcy-Weisbach equation - pipe friction -Moodys chart - minor
losses in pipes.
Module III
Two dimensional incompressible inviscid flows Vorticity - Vortex tube - Irrotational flow Velocity potential,
Stream function - relation between stream function and potential function in ideal flows -Equation of a
streamline - governing equations, Fundamental flow patterns, Combination of basic patterns - Rankine half
body - Rankine oval - Doublet and flow over a cylinder, Magnus effect and the calculation of lift on bodies.
Module IV
Plane viscous flow past bodies, The boundary layer - Prandtls boundary layer equations, Blasius solution for
the boundary layer over a flat plate, Karmans Momentum Integral equations - Solutions using simple profiles
for the boundary layer on flat plate - calculation of skin friction drag.
References:
1)Shames, I.H., Mechanics of fluids, Mc Graw Hill Book Co.,
2) White, F.M., Fluid Mechanics, 6 th Ed., Tata Mc Graw Hill, New Delhi
3) Cengel, Y.A, Cimbala, John, M., Fluid Mechanics, Fundamentals and Applications, 7th Ed. Tata Mc Graw
Hill, New Delhi,
4) Gupta, V., Gupta, S.K.., Fluid Mechanics and its applications, New Age International, New Delhi,
5) Som, S.K., and Biswas, G., Fluid Mechanics and fluid Machines, 2nd Ed., Tata Mc Graw Hill, New Delhi.
6) Cohen and Kundu - Fluid Mechanics, Elsevier
7) V. Babu, Fundamentals of Incompressible flows, Ane Publishers.
8) Massey, Fluid Mechanics,ELBS
Type of Questions for University Exam
Q 1.Eight short answer questions of 5 marks with two questions from each of the four modules. (8x5 = 4
0 marks)
Q 2. to Q.5 : Two questions A & B of 15 marks from each modules with option to answer either A or B. (
4x15 = 60 marks)
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Fundamental Concepts in Fluid Mechanics

Introduction
Mechanics is the oldest physical science that deals with both stationary and moving bodies under
the influence of forces. The branch of mechanics that deals with bodies at rest is called statics,
while the branch that deals with bodies in motion is called dynamics.
The subcategory fluid mechanics is defined as the science that deals with the behavior of fluids
at rest (fluid statics) or in motion (fluid dynamics), and the interaction of fluids with solids or
other fluids at the boundaries.
Fluid mechanics is also referred to as fluid dynamics by considering fluids at rest as a special case
of motion with zero velocity.
Fluid mechanics itself is also divided into several categories. The study of the motion of fluids
that are practically incompressible (such as liquids, especially water, and gases at low speeds) is
usually referred to as hydrodynamics.
A subcategory of hydrodynamics is hydraulics, which deals with liquid flows in pipes and open
channels.
Gas dynamics deals with the flow of fluids that undergo significant density changes, such as the
flow of gases through nozzles at high speeds.
The category aerodynamics deals with the flow of gases (especially air) over bodies such as
aircraft, rockets, and automobiles at high or low speeds.
Some other specialized categories such as meteorology, oceanography, and hydrology deal with
naturally occurring flows.
What is a fluid?
In everyday life, we recognize three states of matter: solid, liquid and gas. Although different in
many respects, liquids and gases have a common characteristic in which they differ from solids:
they are fluids, lacking the ability of solids to offer a permanent resistance to a deforming force.
A fluid is a substance which deforms continuously under the action of shearing forces, however
small they may be. Conversely, it follows that: If a fluid is at rest, there can be no shearing forces
acting and, therefore, all forces in the fluid must be perpendicular to the planes upon which they
act.
The differences between the behaviours of solids and fluids under an applied force are as follows:
i.
For a solid, the strain is a function of the applied stress, providing that the elastic limit is not
exceeded. For a fluid, the rate of strain is proportional to the applied stress.
ii.
The strain in a solid is independent of the time over which the force is applied and, if the elastic
limit is not exceeded, the deformation disappears when the force is removed. A fluid continues to
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flow as long as the force is applied and will not recover its original form when the force is
removed.
iii.
A further difference between solids and fluids is that a solid has a fixed shape whereas a fluid
owes its shape at any particular time to that of the vessel containing it.
Consider a fluid between two parallel plates, which is subjected to a shear stress due to the
impulsive motion of the upper plate.
No slip condition: no relative motion between fluid and boundary, i.e., fluid in contact with lower
plate is stationary, whereas fluid in contact with upper plate moves at speed U.
Fluid deforms, i.e., undergoes rate of strain due to shear stress

For Newtonian fluid: = rate of strain
=
= coefficient of viscosity
Such behavior is different from solids, which resist shear by static deformation (up to elastic limit
of material)
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Elastic solid: = strain

=G
G = shear modulus
The differences between liquids and gases are as follows
i.
Although liquids and gases both share the common characteristics of fluids, they have many
distinctive characteristics of their own. A liquid is difficult to compress and, for many purposes,
may be regarded as incompressible. A given mass of liquid occupies a fixed volume, irrespective
of the size or shape of its container, and a free surface is formed if the volume of the container is
greater than that of the liquid.
ii.
A gas is comparatively easy to compress. Changes of volume with pressure are large, cannot
normally be neglected and are related to changes of temperature. A given mass of gas has no
fixed volume and will expand continuously unless restrained by a containing vessel. It will
completely fill any vessel in which it is placed and, therefore, does not form a free surface.
Continuum Hypothesis
The concept of a continuum is the basis of classic fluid mechanics. Matter is made up of atoms
that are widely spaced in the gas phase. Yet it is very convenient to disregard the atomic nature of
a substance and view it as a continuous, homogeneous matter with no holes, that is, a continuum.
As a consequence of the continuum, each fluid property is assumed to have a definite value at
every point in space. Thus fluid properties such as density, temperature, velocity, and so on, are
considered to be continuous functions of position and time.
However, under certain circumstances, the continuum hypothesis is inappropriate. Such
circumstances occur when the distance between the molecules or, more correctly, the mean free
path that they travel between collisions with other molecules, , is comparable with some
physical dimension (L) of the container of the flow. Naturally, this most often arises when the
density of the gas is very low (so that the mean free path is large) and when the gas interacts with
solid surfaces with a small-scale structure such as a porous solid or a capillary tube. In such
circumstances, the gas molecules may interact as frequently with the solid surface as they do with
other molecules and one has what is called a transition regime. As the density of the gas is
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reduced further, the collisions of molecules with walls completely dominate the processes and
one reaches the free-molecule or Knudsen regime.
The ratio /L is termed the Knudsen Number, Kn. This is a non-dimensional number which is
utilized to judge whether fluids are continuous or not. Its definition is
Kn =
It describes the degree of departure from continuum. Usually when Kn< 0.01, the concept of
continuum hold good. Beyond this critical range of Knudsen number, the flows are known as slip
flow (0.01 < Kn< 0.1), transition flow (0.1 < Kn< 10) and free-molecule flow (Kn> 10).
In the transition regime, the behaviour is naturally intermediate between the continuum and freemolecule behaviour and is generally described in terms of slip at the walls so that the normal
boundary condition of continuum mechanics, that there is no relative motion between the wall
and the fluid, is abandoned.
In a problem such as rarefied gas flow (e.g. as encountered in flights into the upper reaches of the
atmosphere), we must abandon the concept of a continuum in favor of the microscopic and
statistical points of view. However, for the flow regimes considered in this course Kn is always
less than 0.01 and it is usual to say that the fluid is a continuum.
Properties of Fluids
Density: the density (also known as mass density or specific mass) of a fluid is defined as the
mass per unit volume at a standard temperature and pressure. It is usually denoted by Latin
character (rho). Its unit is Kg/m3. Mass density of water at 4oC is 1000 kg/m3.
Weight Density: (also known as specific weight) is defined as the weight per unit volume at
the standard temperature and pressure; it is usually denoted as . Its unit is N/m3.
Where g gravitational acceleration = 9.81m/s2, of water = 9810 N/m3 at 4oC and 1atm.
T = 4C, of air =12.01 N/m3 at standard atmosphere (T=15C and p =101.33 kPa)
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Specific Volume: It is defined as a volume per unit mass of fluid, it is denoted by v. Its unit is
m3/Kg.
Specific Gravity: It is defined as the ratio of the specific weight of the fluid to the specific
weight of a standard fluid. For liquids the standard fluid is pure water at 4oC, and denoted by
S. For Gasses the standard fluid is air
Example 1: Calculate the Specific weight, specific mass, specific volume and specific gravity of a
liquid having a volume of 6m3 and weight of 44kN.
COMPRESSIBILITY: BEHAVIOR OF FLUIDS AGAINST PRESSURE
For most purposes a liquid may be considered as incompressible. The compressibility of a

liquid is expressed by its bulk modulus of elasticity. The mechanics of compression of a fluid
may be demonstrated by imagining the cylinder and piston of figure below to be perfectly
rigid (inelastic) and to contain a volume of fluid V. Application of a force, F, to piston will
increase the pressure, p, in the fluid and cause the volume decrease dV. The bulk modulus
of elasticity, E, for the volume V of a liquid
Since dV/V is dimensionless, E is expressed in the units of pressure, p. For water at ordinary
temperatures and pressures, E = 2104 kg/cm2.
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For liquids, the changes in pressure occurring in many fluid mechanics problems are not
sufficiently great to cause appreciable changes in specific mass. It is, therefore, usual to
ignore such changes and to treat liquids as incompressible. = Constant
VISCOSITY: BEHAVIOR OF FLUIDS AGAINST SHEAR STRESS
Viscosity is a property of a real fluid (an ideal fluid has no viscosity) which determine its
resistance to shearing stresses. When real fluid motions are observed carefully, two basic
types of motion are seen. The first is a smooth motion in which fluid elements or particles
appear to slide over each other in layers; this motion is called laminar flow. The second
distinct motion that occurs is characterized by a random or chaotic motion of individual
particles; this motion is called turbulent flow.
Now consider the laminar motion of a real fluid along a solid boundary as in Figure below.
Observations show that, while the fluid has a finite velocity, u, at any finite distance from the
boundary, there is no velocity at the boundary. Thus, the velocity increases with increasing
distance from the boundary. These facts are summarized on the velocity profile, which
indicates relative motion between adjacent layers.
When two layer of fluid at the distance of y apart, move one over the other at different
velocities, say u and u+du, the viscosity together with relative velocity causes shear stress
acting between layers. With respect to the distance between these two layers dy, the shear
stress, , this becomes a relation between shear strain rate and velocity gradient
It is evident that a frictional or shearing force must exist between the fluid layers; it may be
expressed as a shearing or frictional stress per unit of contact area. This stress, designated by
, has been found for laminar (non-turbulent) motion to be proportional to the velocity
gradient, du/dy, with a constant of proportionality, , defined as coefficient of viscosity or
dynamic viscosity. Thus,
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All real fluids possess viscosity and therefore exhibit certain frictional phenomena when
motion occurs. Viscosity results fundamentally from cohesion and molecular momentum
exchange between fluid layers and, as flow occurs, these effects appear as tangential or
shearing stresses between the moving layers. This equation is called as Newtons law of
viscosity.
Causes of Viscosity
To understand the causes of viscosity of a fluid, consider the observed effects of temperature
on the viscosity of a gas and a liquid. It has been noted that for gases, viscosity increases with
increasing temperature and for liquids, viscosity decreases with increasing temperature. The
reason for this is that viscosity appears to depend on two phenomena, namely the transfer of
momentum between molecules and the intermolecular (cohesive) forces between molecules
of the fluid.
Consider a fluid consisting of two layers aa and bb as shown below, with the layer aa moving
more rapidly than bb. Some molecules in aa owing to their thermal agitation will migrate to
bb and take with them the momentum they have as a result of the overall velocity of aa.
These molecules on colliding with molecules in the bb layer transfer their momentum
resulting in an overall increase in the velocity of bb. In turn, molecules from bb, also owing
to thermal agitation cross over to layer aa and collide with molecules there. The net effect of
the crossings is that the relative motion between the two layers is reduced: layer aa is slowed
down because of the collision with the slower molecules; layer bb is accelerated because of
collision with faster molecules.
Now use this to explain why it is observed that viscosity of a gas increases with increasing
temperature. With a liquid, transfer of momentum between layers also occurs as molecules
move between the two layers. However, what is different from the gas is the strong
intermolecular forces in the liquid. Relative movement of layers in a liquid modifies these
intermolecular forces, thereby causing a net shear force that resists the relative movement.
The effect of increasing the temperature is to reduce the cohesive forces while
simultaneously increasing the rate of molecular interchange. The net effect of these two in
liquids is a decrease in viscosity.
The dimensions of the (dynamic) viscosity may be determined from dimensional

homogeneity as follows:
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In SI units, N/m2.s or (Pa.s).

Dynamic viscosity may also be expressed in the metric CGS (centimeter-gram-second)
system as g/(cm s), dyne s/cm2 or poise (p) where
1 poise = 1 dyne s/cm2 = 1 g/(cm s) = 0.1 Pa s = 0.1 N s/m2
For practical use the Poise is normally too large and the unit is often divided by 100 - into the
smaller unit centiPoise (cP) - where
1 p = 100 cP
1 cP = 0.01 poise = 0.001 Pascal second = 0.001 N s/m2
Kinematic Viscosity
Kinematic viscosity is the ratio of absolute (or dynamic) viscosity to density. Kinematic
viscosity can be obtained by dividing the absolute viscosity of a fluid with the fluid mass
density.
=/
where = kinematic viscosity (m2/s), = absolute or dynamic viscosity (N s/m2), = density
(kg/m3)
In the SI-system the theoretical unit of kinematic viscosity is m 2/s or Stoke (St) where
1 St (Stokes) = 10-4 m2/s
Since the Stoke is a large unit it is often divided by 100 into the smaller unit Centistoke (cSt)
- where
1 St = 100 cSt
1 cSt (centiStoke) = 10-6 m2/s
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Newtonian vs. Non-Newtonian Fluids
Fluids that follow Newtons viscosity law are commonly known as Newtonian fluids. Other
fluids are classed as non-Newtonian fluids. For non-Newtonian fluids, the relation between
shear stress and shear strain rate is non-linear. The science of Rheology, which broadly is
the study of the deformation and flow of matter, is concerned with plastics, blood,
suspensions, paints, and foods, which flow but whose resistance is not characterized by
Newtons law of viscosity.
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Example 3:
Oil has dynamic viscosity ( = 0.01 Pa.s) filled the space between two concentric cylinders, where
the inner one is movable and the outer is fixed. If the inner and outer cylinders has diameters 15mm
and 15.6mm respectively and the height of both cylinders is 250mm, determine the value of the
torque (T) that necessary to rotate the internal cylinder with 12 rpm?
Example 4:
The velocity distribution for flow over a plate is given by u= 2y - y2 where u is the velocity in m/s at
a distance y meters above the plate surface. Determine the velocity gradient and shear stresses at the
boundary and 15cm from it. Take dynamic viscosity of fluid as 0.9 N.s/m2
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VAPOR PRESSURE AND CAVITATION
All liquids tend to evaporate or vaporize, which they do by projecting molecules into the
space above their surfaces. If this is a confined space, the partial pressure exerted by the
molecules increases until the rate at which molecules reenter the liquid is equal to the rate at
which they leave. For this equilibrium condition, we call the vapor pressure the saturation
pressure.
When the pressure of a liquid falls below the vapor pressure it evaporates, i.e., changes to a
gas. If the pressure drop is due to temperature effects alone, the process is called boiling. If
the pressure drop is due to fluid velocity, the process is called cavitation. Cavitation is
common in regions of high velocity, i.e., low pressure such as on turbine blades and marine
propellers.
Cavitation can cause serious problems, since the flow of liquid can sweep this cloud of
bubbles on into an area of higher pressure where the bubbles will collapse suddenly. If this
should occur in contact with a solid surface, very serious damage can result due to the very
large force with which the liquid hits the surface. Cavitation can affect the performance of
hydraulic machinery such as pumps, turbines and propellers, and the impact of collapsing
bubbles can cause local erosion of metal surfaces.
Vapor pressure of water at 100C =101 kPa
The dimensionless parameter describing flowinduced boiling is called cavitation number:
where, p is ambient pressure, pv is vapor pressure and V is the fluid velocity.

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Surface Tension
Surface tension is a property of liquids which is making what is like a thin tensioned
membrane at the interface between the liquid and another fluid (typically a gas). Surface
tension has dimensions of force per unit length and denoted as, (Sigma), and its unit is
N/m. Dimensional Formula: [MLT-2] / [L] = [MT-2]
At the interface of two immiscible fluids (e.g., a liquid and a gas), forces develop to cause the
surface to behave as if it were a stretched membrane. Molecules in the interior at-tract each
other equally, whereas molecules along the surface are subject to a net force due to the
absence of neigh-bor molecules. The intensity of the molecular attraction per unit length
along any line in the surface is call the surface tension.
Surface tension is the surface force that develops at the interface between two immiscible
liquids or between liquid and gas or at the interface between a liquid and a solid surface.
Because of surface tension, small water droplets, gas bubbles and drops of mercury tend to
maintain spherical shapes.
If a line is imagined drawn in a liquid surface, then the liquid on one side of the line pulls that
on the other side. The magnitude of surface tension is defined as that of the tensile force
acting across and perpendicular to a short, straight element of the line drawn in the surface
divided by the length of that line.
Effects of surface tension: Capillarity
The capillarity phenomenon is due to the rise or depression of the meniscus of the liquid due
to the action of surface tension forces.
Capillary action in small tubes which involve a liquid-gas-solid interface is caused by surface
tension. The fluid is either drawn up the tube or pushed down.
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Contact angle : appears when a liquid interface intersects with a solid surface.
< 90o Wetting, e.g., Water, 0
> 90o, Non-wetting, e.g., Mercury, 130
The forces of attraction binding molecules to one another give rise to cohesion, the tendency
of the liquid to remain as one assemblage of particles rather than to behave as a gas and fill
the entire space within which it is confined.
On the other hand, forces between the molecules of a fluid and the molecules of a solid
boundary give rise to adhesion between the fluid and the boundary.
It is the interplay of these two forces that determine whether the liquid will wet the solid
surface of the container. If the adhesive forces are greater than the cohesive forces, then the
liquid will wet the surface; if vice versa, then the liquid will not.
It is rare that the attraction between molecules of the liquid exactly equals that between
molecules of the liquid and molecules of the solid and so the liquid surface near the boundary
becomes curved.
Weight of fluid column = Surface tension pulling force.
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Expression above calculates the approximate capillary rise in a small tube. The meniscus lifts
a small amount of liquid near the tube walls, as r increases this amount may become
insignificant. Thus, the equation developed overestimates the amount of capillary rise or
depression, particularly for large r.
For r > in ( 7 mm), capillarity is negligible.
Pressure jump across curved interfaces
(d) Bubble
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( R2) p = 2 (2 R)
p = 4 /R
Example 5
Find the pressure inside a water droplet having diameter of 0.5 mm at 20 0 C if the outside pressure is
1.03N/cm 2 and the surface tension of water at that temperature is 0.0736 N/m.
Example 6
Compare the capillary rise of water and mercury in a glass tube of 2 mm diameter at 200 C .Given
that the surface tension of water and mercury at 200 C are 0.0736 N/m and 0.051N/m respectively.
Contact angles of water and mercury are 00 and 1300 respectively.
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Example 7
Find the excess pressure inside a cylindrical jet of water 4 mm diameter than the outside atmosphere?
The surface tension of water is 0.0736 N/m at that temperature.
Example 8
Air is forced through a tube of internal diameter of 1.5 mm immersed at a depth of 1.5 cm in a mineral
oil having specific gravity of 0.85. Calculate the unit surface energy of the oil if the maximum bubble
pressure is 150 N/m2.
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Example 9
Determine the minimum size of a glass tube, which can be used to measure pressure in water
flowing system. The capillary rise in the tube must not exceed 10 mm and surface tension of
water- air - glass interface is 0.001 N/m.
Example 10
The inside diameters of the two arms of a U-tube are 1.0 mm and 1.5 mm respectively. Now if it is
partially filled with water having surface tension of 0.0736 N/m and zero contact angle what will be
the difference in the level of menisci between the two arms.(shown in the figure below)
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Exercise 1
1. A thin film of liquid flows down an inclined channel. The velocity distribution in the flow is
given by
where, h = depth of flow, = angle of inclination of the channel to the horizontal, u = velocity at
a depth h below the free surface, = density of liquid, = dynamic viscosity of the fluid.
Calculate the shear stress: (a) at the bottom of the channel (b) at mid-depth and (c) at the free
surface. The coordinate y is measured from the free surface along its normal
[(a)
, (b)
, (c) 0]
2. Two discs of 250 mm diameter are placed 1.5 mm apart and the gap is filled with an oil. A
power of 500 W is required to rotate the upper disc at 500 rpm while keeping the lower one
stationary. Determine the viscosity of the oil.
[ 0. 71 kg/ms]
3. Eight kilometers below the surface of the ocean the pressure is 100 MPa. Determine the
specific weight of sea water at this depth if the specific weight at the surface is 10 kN/m3 and the
average bulk modulus of elasticity of water is 2.30 GPa. Neglect the variation of g.
[ 10. 44 kN/m3 ]
4. The space between two large flat and parallel walls 20 mm apart is filled with a liquid of
absolute viscosity 0.8 Pas. Within this space a thin flat plate 200 mm 200mm is towed at a
velocity of 200 mm/s at a distance of 5 mm from one wall. The plate and its movement are
parallel to the walls. Assuming a linear velocity distribution between the plate and the walls,
determine the force exerted by the liquid on the plate.
[1. 71 N]
5. What is the approximate capillary rise of water in contact with air (surface tension 0.073
N/m) in a clean glass tube of 5mm in diameter?
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Fluid Statics
Fluid statics concerned with the balance of forces which stabilize fluids at rest.
Fluids at rest cannot resist a shear stress; in other words, when a shear stress is applied
to a fluid at rest, the fluid will not remain at rest, but will move (flow) because of the
shear stress.
The shear force is zero for any fluid element at rest and hence the only surface force on a
fluid element is the normal component.
Pressure may be defined as the normal force thats applied toward the unit area, and
denoted by P. Its units are N/m2 or what is called Pascal, Pa. Dimensions of pressure is
ML-1T-2
When the fluid velocity is zero, called the hydrostatic condition , the pressure variation is
due only to the weight of the fluid.
Pascals Law for Pressure

To prove this, a small wedge-shaped free body element is taken at the point (x,y,z) in a
fluid at rest.
The fluid is at rest, so we know there are no shearing forces, and we know that all force
are acting at right angles to the surfaces .i.e.
ps acts perpendicular to surface ABCD,
px acts perpendicular to surface ABFE and
py acts perpendicular to surface FECD.
And, as the fluid is at rest, in equilibrium, the sum of the forces in any direction is zero.
Summing forces in the x-direction:
px y z - ps s z sin = 0
But from the figure s sin = y
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px y z - ps y z = 0
px = ps
Similarly, summing forces in the y-direction.
1
py x z - ps s z cos - g 2 = 0
The element is small i.e. x , y and z are small, and so
considered negligible.
py x z - ps s z cos =0
is very small and
But from the figure s cos = x
py x z - ps x z=0
py = ps
Thus we have,
px = ps =py
Considering the prismatic element again, ps is the pressure on a plane at any angle q ,
the x, y and z directions could be any orientation. The element is so small that it can be
considered a point so the derived expression px =
point is the same in all directions.
ps =py indicates that pressure at any
Pressure at any point is the same in all directions. This is known as Pascals Law and applies
to fluids at rest
General Equation For Variation Of Pressure In A Static Fluid
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Consider the cylindrical element of fluid in the figure below, inclined at an angle to the
vertical, length s , cross-sectional area A in a static fluid of mass density . The pressure at the
end with height z is p and at the end of height z +z is p +p .
For equilibrium of the element the resultant of forces in any direction is zero.
Resolving
the
forces
in
the
direction
along
the
central
axis
gives
Or in the differential form
If 90 then s is in the x or y directions, (i.e. horizontal),so
Confirming that pressure change in any horizontal plane is zero.

If 0 then s is in the z direction (vertical) so
_
For static fluid, pressure varies only with elevation (depth, head) change within fluid.
Pressure Variation for a Uniform-Density Fluid

The basic equation for pressure variation with elevation can be integrated depending on whether
= constant or = (z), i.e., whether the fluid is incompressible or compressible.
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Pressure Measurements.
Barometer
The simplest application of the hydrostatic formula is the barometer ,which measures
atmospheric pressure. A tube is filled with mercury and inverted while submerged in a
reservoir. This causes a near vacuum in the closed upper end because mercury has an
extremely small vapor pressure at room temperatures (0.16Pa at 20C). Since
atmospheric pressure forces a mercury column to rise a distance hi into the tube, the
upper mercury surface is at zero pressure.
The unit of pressure is the pascal (Pa), but it is also expressed in bars or metres of water
column. In addition, in some cases atmospheric pressure is used. At sea level standard,
1 atm = 760 mm Hg (at 273K) =101325 Pa

There are two methods used to express the pressure: one is based on the perfect vacuum
and the other on the atmospheric pressure. The former is called the absolute pressure and
the latter is called the gauge pressure.
Gauge pressure = Absolute pressure Atmospheric pressure
In gauge pressure, a pressure under one atmospheric pressure is expressed as a negative

pressure.
Most gauges are constructed to indicate the gauge pressure.
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In a static fluid of constant density we have,

In a liquid with a free surface the pressure at any depth z measured from the free surface so that z
= -h (see the figure below)
This gives the pressure
At the surface of fluids we are normally concerned with, the pressure is the atmospheric
pressure, patm . So
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DEPT. MECH. ENGG
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1. Piezometer tube
The simplest manometer is a tube, open at the top, which is attached to a vessel or
a pipe containing liquid at a pressure (higher than atmospheric) to be measured.
This simple device is known as a piezometer tube.
As the tube is open to the atmosphere the pressure measured is relative to
atmospheric so is gauge pressure: PA =gh1 = h1
This method can only be used for liquids (i.e. not for gases) and only when the
liquid height is convenient to measure.
2. U-tube manometer
Using a U-Tube enables the pressure of both liquids and gases to be measured with the
same instrument.
VENKITARAJ K P
DEPT. MECH. ENGG
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The U- tube is connected as in the figure below and filled with a fluid called the
manometric or gauge fluid.
The fluid whose pressure is being measured should have a mass density less than that of
the manometric fluid and the two fluids should not be able to mix readily - that is, they
must be immiscible.
Pressure in a continuous static fluid is the same at any horizontal level so,
pressure at B = pressure at C
pB =pC
For the left hand arm
pressure at B = pressure at A + pressure due to height h of fluid being measured
pB =pA + g h1
For the right hand arm
pressure at C = pressure at D + pressure due to height h of manometric fluid
pC =pD + man g h2
pC =patm + man g h2
As we are measuring gauge pressure we can subtract patm giving
pC = man g h2
pB =pC
pA + g h1 = man g h2
pA = man g h2 g h1
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DEPT. MECH. ENGG
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If the fluid being measured is a gas, the density will probably be very low in comparison to the
density of the manometric fluid i.e. man >> . In this case the term gh1 can be neglected, and
the gauge pressure give by
pA = man g h2
3. Differential manometer
If the U-tube manometer is connected to a pressurized vessel at two points the

pressure difference between these two points can be measured.
If the manometer is arranged as in the figure above, then

Pressure at C = pressure at D
pC =pA + g ha
pD =pB + g (hb h) + mano g h
pC =pD
pA + g ha = pB + g (hb h) + mano g h
pA - pB = g (hb ha) + (mano ) g h
VENKITARAJ K P
DEPT. MECH. ENGG
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Again, if the fluid whose pressure difference is being measured is a gas and man , then the
terms involving can be neglected, so
pA - pB = mano g h
4. Inclined-tube manometer
As shown above, the differential reading is proportional to the pressure

difference. If the pressure difference is very small, the reading may be too small
to be measured with good accuracy. To increase the sensitivity of the differential
reading, one leg of the manometer can be inclined at an angle , and the
differential reading is measured along the inclined tube.
pA - pB = 3 h3 + 2 h2 1 h1
pA - pB = 3 h3 + 2 l sin 1 h1
5. Inverted U-tube manometer
Inverted U-Tube manometer consists of an inverted U - Tube containing a light

liquid. This is used to measure the differences of low pressures between two
points where better accuracy is required. It generally consists of an air cock at top
of manometric fluid type.
Inverted U-tube manometer is used for measuring pressure differences in liquids.

The space above the liquid in the manometer is filled with air which can be
admitted or expelled through the tap on the top, in order to adjust the level of the
liquid in the manometer.
For inverted U - tube manometer the manometric fluid is usually air.
VENKITARAJ K P
DEPT. MECH. ENGG
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Equating the pressure at the level XX'(pressure at the same level in a continuous
body of static fluid is equal)
Pressure at X = pressure at X
pX =p1 - g (h + a)
pX =p2 - g a mano g h
p1 - g (h + a) = p2 - g a mano g h
p1 p2 = ( mano) g h
If the manometric fluid is choosen in such a way that m << then,
p1 p2 = g h
VENKITARAJ K P
DEPT. MECH. ENGG
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6.
Micromanometer
Micro Manometer is is the modified form of a simple manometer whose one limb is made of
larger cross sectional area. It measures very small pressure differences with high precision
Micro-manometer is also known as single column manometers. The construction of a micromanometer is as follows:
a. One limb of manometer is a tank of large cross sectional area as compared to the cross
sectional area of the other limb.
b. This tank acts as a reservoir to hold the manometer fluid.
c.
The cross sectional area of the tank is 100 times greater than that of the other limb.
d. When there is change in the pressure in the pipe, there is negligible change in the level of
fluid in tank. This change can be neglected and pressure can be measured as height of liquid in
the other column.
It is of two types:
i.
Vertical column micro-manometer
ii. Inclined column micro-manometer
Vertical Column Micro-manometer
Initially, when there is no fluid flowing in the pipe the level of manometer liquid is at XX. But
due to liquid pressure in the pipe the level of manometer liquid moves down from XX to YY in
the tank and rises in the right limb to the distance h2 from XX.
Let,
1 = density of liquid for which pressure has to be determined
2 = density of manometer liquid (assume mercury)
S1 = Specific gravity of liquid for which pressure has to be determined
S2 = Specific gravity of manometer liquid
h = Fall in the level of liquid in the tank
A = Area of cross-section of the tank
a = Area of cross-section of the right limb
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DEPT. MECH. ENGG
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h = Pressure head of fluid in the pipe (as head of water)
The rise in the manometer fluid in the right limb will be equal to the fall of level in the tank.
Therefore by mass conservation
hA=a.h2
Pressure in the left limb at YY = p + (h1 + h) g

Pressure in the right limb at YY = (h2 + h) mano g
Pressure at the same level in a continuous body of static fluid is equal)
p + (h1 + h) g = (h2 + h) mano g
Pressure in the pipe,
p = (h2 + h) mano g - (h1 + h) g
p = (h2 + 2 ) g 1 + 2 g
p = 2 1 g +
( )2 g
If the cross sectional area of the tank A is very large compared to cross sectional area of the right
limb then i.e. A >> a, then, Ratio of a/A will be zero and the above equation can be re-written as
p = 2 1
Inclined column Micro-manometer
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DEPT. MECH. ENGG
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Inclined manometers are more sensitive than vertical column manometers. Inclined tube SCM is
used to measure small intensity pressure. It consists of a large reservoir to which an inclined U
tube is connected as shown in fig. For small changes in pressure the reading l in the inclined
tube is more than that of SCM. Knowing the inclination of the tube the pressure intensity at the
gauge point can be determined.
Initially, when there is no fluid flowing in the pipe the level of manometer liquid is at XX. But
due to liquid pressure in the pipe the level of manometer liquid moves down from XX to YY in
the tank and rises in the right limb to the distance h2 from XX.
p = 2 1 g +
( )2 g
2 =
If the cross sectional area of the tank A is very large compared to cross sectional area of the right
limb then i.e. A >> a, then, Ratio of a/A will be zero and the above equation can be re-written as
p = 2 1
Desirable properties of manometric fluids

Commonly used manometric liquids are mercury, water or alcohol. Some of the important and
desirable properties of the manometric liquids are:
High chemical stability
Low viscosity
Low capillary constant
Low coefficient of thermal expansion
Low volatility
Low vapour pressure
VENKITARAJ K P
DEPT. MECH. ENGG
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7. Mechanical Gauges
Pressure gauges are the devices used to measure pressure at a point. They are used
to measure high intensity pressures where accuracy requirement is less.
Pressure gauges are separate for positive pressure measurement and negative
pressure measurement. Negative pressure gauges are called Vacuum gauges.
Mechanical gauge consists of an elastic element which deflects under the action
of applied pressure and this deflection will move a pointer on a graduated dial
leading to the measurement of pressure. Most popular pressure gauge used is
Burdon pressure gauge.
The arrangement consists of a pressure responsive element made up of phosphor
bronze or special steel having elliptical cross section. The element is curved into a
circular arc, one end of the tube is closed and free to move and the other end is
connected to gauge point. The changes in pressure cause change in section
leading to the movement. The movement is transferred to a needle using sector
pinion mechanism. The needle moves over a graduated dial.
VENKITARAJ K P
DEPT. MECH. ENGG
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Example 1.
Determine the pressure at A for the U- tube manometer shown in fig. Also
calculate the absolute pressure at A in kPa.
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DEPT. MECH. ENGG
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Example 2
Find the pressure at the center of the pipe A. Assume a temperature T = 200C
VENKITARAJ K P
DEPT. MECH. ENGG
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Example 3
VENKITARAJ K P
DEPT. MECH. ENGG
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Example 4
An inverted U-tube manometer is shown in the figure. Determine the pressure
difference between the gauge points A and B.
VENKITARAJ K P
DEPT. MECH. ENGG
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Example 5
Water and oil flow in horizontal pipelines. A double U -tube manometer is
connected between the pipelines as shown in the sketch below. Calculate the
pressure difference between the water pipe and the oil pipe. Note that the densities
for water, carbon tetrachloride, air, and oil are 1000kg/m3, 1590kg/m3, 1.23kg/m3
, and 912 kg/m3, respectively. The gravity acceleration is 9.81 m/s2
VENKITARAJ K P
DEPT. MECH. ENGG
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Example 6
Petrol of specify gravity 0.8 flows up through a vertical pipe. A and B are the two
points in the pipe, B being 0.3 m higher than A. Connection are led from A and B
to aUtube containing Mercury. If the pressure difference between A and B is 18
kPa, find the reading of manometer.
VENKITARAJ K P
DEPT. MECH. ENGG
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Exercise 2
1.
A U-tube manometer is connected to a closed tank containing air and water as

shown in Figure 2. At the closed end of the manometer the absolute air
pressure is 140kPa. Determine the reading on the pressure gage for a
differential reading of 1.5-m on the manometer. Express your answer in gage
pressure value. Assume standard atmospheric pressure and neglect the weight
of the air columns in the manometer.
2. A closed cylindrical tank filled with water has a hemispherical dome and is
connected to an inverted piping system as shown in Figure 3. The liquid in the
top part of the piping system has a specific gravity of 0.8, and the remaining
parts of the system are filled with water. If the pressure gage reading at A is 60
kPa, determine: (a) the pressure in pipe B, and (b) the pressure head, in
millimeters of mercury, at the top of the dome (point C).
VENKITARAJ K P
DEPT. MECH. ENGG
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3. A U-tube manometer contains oil, mercury, and water as shown in Figure 4.
For the column heights indicated what is the pressure differential between
pipes A and B?
4. A U-tube manometer is connected to a closed tank as shown in Figure 5. The

air pressure in the tank is 120 Pa and the liquid in the tank is oil ( = 12000
N/m3). The pressure at point A is 20 kPa. Determine: (a) the depth of oil, z,
and (b) the differential reading, h, on the manometer.
VENKITARAJ K P
DEPT. MECH. ENGG
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5. The inverted U-tube manometer of Figure 6 contains oil (SG = 0.9) and water
as shown. The pressure differential between pipes A and B, pA pB, is 5 kPa.
Determine the differential reading, h.
6. A piston having a cross-sectional area of 0.07 m2 is located in a cylinder

containing water as shown in Figure 7. An open U-tube manometer is
connected to the cylinder as shown. For h1 = 60 mm and h = 100 mm, what is
the value of the applied force, P, acting on the piston? The weight of the
piston is negligible.
7. For the inclined-tube manometer of Figure 8, the pressure in pipe A is 8 kPa.

The fluid in both pipes A and B is water, and the gage fluid in the manometer
has a specific gravity of 2.6. What is the pressure in pipe B corresponding to
the differential reading shown?
VENKITARAJ K P
DEPT. MECH. ENGG
Page 42
Answer :
1. 12 kN
2. 66.8 kPa
3. (a) 103.2 kPa
(b) 229 mm
4. -20.7 kPa
5. z = 1.66 m h = 1.37 m
6. 0.46 mm
7. 892.7 N
8. 5508.3 Pa
VENKITARAJ K P
DEPT. MECH. ENGG
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Hydrostatic Forces on Submerged Surfaces and Bodies
Center of gravity: The center of mass also called the center of gravity (CG),
is a point in space or inside the body where the weight of a body acts as if it were
concentrated there.
For a plane figure (a two-dimensional shape) the center of gravity coincides
with the geometric center, also called centroid or barycenter.
A plate exposed to a liquid, such as a gate valve in a dam, the wall of a liquid
storage tank, or the hull of a ship at rest, is subjected to fluid pressure distributed
over its surface.
Hydrostatic Force on a submerged surface or body is the force due to the
pressure exerted on the surface by the fluid at rest.
The calculation of the magnitude, direction, and location of the total forces on
surfaces submerged in a liquid is essential in the design of dams, bulkheads,
gates, ships, and the like.
For a Plane surface submerged in a fluid, the hydrostatic force on the surface is
perpendicular to the surface since there can be no shear in static fluid
The fluid pressure is linearly dependent only to the vertical depth.
On a plane surface, the hydrostatic forces form a system of parallel forces, and
we often need to determine the magnitude of the force and its point of
application, which is called the center of pressure.
1. On a Horizontal surface (e.g. the bottom of a tank)

Pressure at the bottom, p = h (Uniform on the entire plane)
Resultant force on the bottom area of container FR = pA = hA
VENKITARAJ K P
DEPT. MECH. ENGG
Page 44
2. On a Vertical surface (e.g. the side wall of a tank)
3. On an Inclined surface
Consider a plane shown
VENKITARAJ K P
DEPT. MECH. ENGG
Page 45
At surface: p = patm
Angle between free surface & the inclined plane
y axis: Along the surface & x axis: Out of the plane
Along the vertical depth h, the pressure linearly changes & Hydrostatic force
changes
Differential Force acting on the differential area dA of plane,
dF = (Pressure) (Area) = (h) (dA) (Perpendicular to plane)
VENKITARAJ K P
DEPT. MECH. ENGG
Page 46

Then, Magnitude of total resultant force FR
Since all the differential forces that were summed to obtain FR are perpendicular
to the surface, the resultant FR must also be perpendicular to the surface.
The point through which the resultant force acts is called the center of pressure.
VENKITARAJ K P
DEPT. MECH. ENGG
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3. Curved Surface (Nonplanar surface)
- FR: Change in both magnitude and direction
Special method using equilibrium of fluid
Hydrostatic force on curved surface can be analyzed best by resolving
the total pressure force on the surface into its horizontal & vertical
components.
Step 1. Isolate the section of fluid

(Section ABC with a unit perpendicular length)
Step 2. Draw a free-body diagram
F1(F2 ): Pressure force on Horizontal (Vertical) plane
W : Weight of fluid ( Volume)
VENKITARAJ K P
DEPT. MECH. ENGG
Page 53
FH (FV ): Horizontal (Vertical) comp. of reaction force by wall
Example 1
VENKITARAJ K P
DEPT. MECH. ENGG
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Example 2
The gate OA closes an opening 2.1 m deep and 1.6 m wide. What
torque must be applied at O to keep the gate closed?
VENKITARAJ K P
DEPT. MECH. ENGG
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DEPT. MECH. ENGG
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Example3
Determine the total hydrostatic pressure and center of pressure on the 5 m long, 2
m high quadrant gate.
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DEPT. MECH. ENGG
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Fundamental Concepts in Fluid Mechanics

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ME 1304 Fluid Mechanics

ME 1304 Fluid Mechanics