1.

ABSTRACT

The experiment is done by using Film and Dropwise Condensation Unit. The experiment is
divided into 4 part which the objective is to demonstrate the filmwise and dropwise
condensation, to determine the filmwise heat flux and surface heat transfer coefficient at constant
pressure, to determine the dropwise heat flux and surface heat transfer coefficient at constant
pressure and to demonstrate the effect of air on heat transfer coefficient of condensation. The
data obtained is tabulated and is calculated based on the formula. Then, the graph of heat flux
against temperature difference and the graph of surface heat transfer coefficient against
temperature differences is plotted for both filmwise and dropwise condensation.

2.0

INTRODUCTION
Dropwise condensation realizes heat transfer coefficients which are about one order of

magnitude higher than those for filmwise condensation. The dropwise condensation process with
its highly unsteady nature, where around a million coalescences can occur in one second on a
square centimetre of the condensing surface, cannot be modelled in detail. The excellent
agreement between theoretical results and heat-transfer measurements justifies the assumption of
a steady heat transfer rate for a drop of given size and a steady distribution of drop sizes.The
suggested approach is based on the energy and mass balances for steam and coolant flow rate
with the assumption of a constant drop size distribution and drop growth rate during a particular
interval.
For dropwise condensation, by specially treating the condensing surface the contact angle
can be changed & the surface become non-wettable .As the stream condenses, a large number
of generally spherical beads cover the surface. As the condensation proceeds, the bead become
larger, coalesces, and then strike downwards over the surface. The moving bead gathers the
entire static bead along its downward in its trail. The bear surface offers very little resistance to
the transfer of heat and very high heat fluxes therefore possible. Unfortunately, due to the nature
of the material used in the construction of condensing heat exchangers, filmwise condensation is
normal, although many bare metal surfaces are non-wettable this not is true of the oxide film
which quickly covers the bare material.
For filmwise condensation, unless specially treated, most materials are wettable as
condensation occurs a film condensate spreads over the surface. The thickness of the film
1

depends upon a numbers of factors, for example, the rate of condensation, the viscosity of the
condensate and whether the surface is horizontal or vertical. Fresh vapor condenses on to the
outside of the film and heat is transferred by conduction through the film to the metal surface
beneath. As the film thickness it flows downward and drips from the low points leaving the film
intact & at an equilibrium thickness. The film of liquid is barrier to transfer of the heat and its
resistance accounts for most of the difference between the effectiveness of filmwise and
dropwise condensation.

3.0

OBJECTIVES
1. To demonstrate the filmwise and dropwise condensation.
2. To determine the filmwise heat flux and surface heat transfer coefficient at constant
pressure.
3. To determine the dropwise heat flux and surface heat transfer coefficient at constant
pressure.
4. To demonstrate the effect of air on heat transfer coefficient of condensation.

4.0

THEORY
Condensation of a vapor to a liquid and vaporization of a liquid to a vapor both involve a

change of phase of a fluid with large heat-transfer coefficients. Condensation occurs when a
saturated vapor such as steam comes in contact with a solid whose surface temperature is below
the saturation temperature, to form a liquid such as water. Normally, when a vapor condenses on
a surface such as a vertical or horizontal tube or other surface, a film of condensate is formed on
the surface and flows over the surface by the action of gravity. It is this film of liquid between
the surface and the vapor that forms the main resistance to heat-transfer. This is called filmwise
condensation.
Another type of condensation, dropwise condensation, can occur, where small drops are
formed on the surface. These drops grow and coalesce, and the liquid flows from the surface.
During this condensation, large areas of tube are devoid of any liquid and are exposed directly to

the vapor. Very high rates of heat-transfer occur on these bare areas. The average heat transfer
coefficient for dropwise condensation is five to 10 times larger than the filmwise coefficients.
Dropwise condensation can be promoted by making the surface non-wetting (via coating).
However, dropwise condensation is difficult to maintain in industrial applications due to
oxidation, fouling and degradation of coating, and eventually film condensation occurs.
Therefore, condenser designs are often based on the assumption of filmwise condensation.
Film-type condensation on a vertical wall or tube can be analyzed analytically by
assuming laminar flow of the condensate film down the wall. The film thickness is zero at the
top of the wall or tube and increases in thickness as it flows downward because of condensation.
Nusselt assumed that the heat-transfer from the condensing vapor at Tsat, through this liquid film,
and to the wall at Tw was by conduction. Equating this heat-transfer by conduction to that from
condensation of the vapor, a final expression can be obtained for the average heat-transfer
coefficient over the whole surfaces.
During experiment, vapor at Tsat is condensing on a wall whose temperature is Tw. The
condensate is flowing downward in laminar flow. Assuming unit thickness, the mass of the
element with liquid density is (-y) (dx1) l. The downward force on this element is the
gravitational force minus the buoyancy force, or (-y)(dx)(l-) g, where is the density of
the saturated vapor. This force is balanced by the viscous-shear force at the plane y of l (dv/dy)
(dx1). Equating these forces, forms Equation 1;
d
dx
dy

y dx l g l

Integrating and using the boundary condition that = 0 at y = 0, the Equation 2;

g l
y y 2 / 2

The mass flow rate of film condensate at any point x for unit depth is;
Equation 3;

m ldy l

g l
y y 2 / 2 dy
l

Integrating Equation 3 to be Equation 4;

l g l 3
m
3 l

At the wall, for area (dx1) m2, the rate of heat transfer is as follows if a linear
temperature distribution is assumed in the liquid between the wall and the vapor, Equation 5;

q x k l dx 1

dT
dy

k l dx
y 0

Tsat Tw

In a dx distance, the rate of heat transfer is qx. Also, in this dx distance, the increase in mass from
condensation is dm. Using Equation 4;
Equation 6;

l g l 3
l g l 2d
dm d

3 l
l

Making a heat balance for dx distance, the mass flow rate dm times the latent heat h fg
must equal the qx from Equation 5 to form Equation 7;
hfg

l g l 2d
T T
k l dx sat w
l

Integrating, with = 0 at s = 0 and = at x = x, Equation 8;

4 l k l x Tsat Tw

ghfg l l

1/ 4

Using the local heat-transfer coefficient hx at x, a heat balance gives, Equation 9;

h x dx 1Tsat Tw k l dx 1

Tsat Tw

This gives, Equation 10;

hx

kl

Combining Equation 8 and 10;

1/ 4

l l gh fg k l 3

hx

4 l x Tsat Tw

By integrating over the total length L, the average value of h is obtained as follows, Equation 11;
1 L
4
h x dx h x L

0
L
3

Equation 12;

l l ghfg k l 3

h 0.943

l LTsat Tw

1/ 4

However, for laminar flow, experimental data are about 20% above Equation 12. Hence,
the final recommended expression for vertical surfaces in laminar flow is shown as Equation 13;

N Nu

l l ghfg L3
hL

1.13

kl

T
l l

1/ 4

where l is the density of liquid in kg/m 3 and that of the vapor, g is 9.8066 m/s 2, L is the
vertical height of the surface or tube in m, l is the viscosity of liquid in Pas, k l is the liquid
thermal conductivity in W/mK, T = Tsat-Tw in K, and hfg is the latent heat of condensation in
J/kg at Tsat. All physical properties of the liquid except hfg are evaluated at the film temperature Tf
= (Tsat + Tw)/2. For long vertical surfaces the flow at the bottom can be turbulent. The Reynolds
number is defined as;
Equation 14 (Vertical Tube, diameter, D);
NRe

4m
4

D l l

N Re

4 m 4

W l
l

Equation 15 (Vertical Plate, width, W);

where m is the total kg mass/s of condensate at tube or plate bottom and = m/D or m/W. The
NRe should be below 1800 for Eq. (4.2-13) to hold. The reader should note that some references
define NRe as /. Then this NRe should be below 450.
For turbulent flow for NRe 1800;
g l L3
hL

0.0077
2
kl

N Nu

1/ 3

NRe 0.4

Solution of this equation is by trial and error, since a value of N Re must first be assumed in order
to calculate h.

5.0

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL

1
6

7
3
8
4
9

10

FILMWISE AND DROPWISE CONDENSATION UNIT

1

Pressure Relief Valve

Pressure Transmitter

Indicators

Separator

Flowmeter

Dropwise Condenser

Filmwise Condenser

Coiled-Heater

Discharge Valve

10

Vacuum Ejector

6.0

PROCEDURE

6.1

General Start-up Procedures

1.
2.
3.
4.

The main switch is ensured in the off position.

The power regulator knob is turned fully anti-clockwise to set the power to minimum.
Valve V1 to V6 is checked to ensure its closed.
The chamber is filled with distilled water until the water level stays between the heater
and baffle plates. Always make sure that the heater is fully immersed in the water
throughout the experiment. Water could be filled into the chamber through the drain valve

with the vent valve, V4 opened. Then, vent valve, V4, is closed.
5. The water flow rate is adjusted to the condenser by controlling the control valve
according to the experimental procedure.
6. The main switch and the heater switch is turned on. The heater power is set by rotating
the power regulator clockwise to increase the heating power.
7. The water temperature reading is observed; as it should increase when the water starts to
heat-up.
8. The water is heated up to boiling point until the pressure reaches 1.02 1.10 bar. Valve
V1 is opened immediately and follow by valve V5 for 1 minute to vacuum out the air
inside the condenser. Then, both valves V1 and V5 are closed.
9. The system is left to stabilize. Then, all relevant measurements for experimental purposes
are taken. The adjustment is made if required.
6.2

General Shut-down Procedures

1. The voltage control knob is turned to 0 Volt position by turning the knob fully anticlockwise. The cooling water is kept flowing for at least 5 minutes through the
condensers to cold them down.

2. The main switch and power supply is switched off. Then, the power supply cable is
unplugged.
3. The water supply is closed and the cooling water connection tubes are disconnected if
necessary. Otherwise, leave the connection tubes for next experiment.
4. The water inside the chamber is discharged using the discharge valve.
6.3

Experiment 1: Demonstration of Filmwise and Dropwise Condensation

Procedure:
The basic procedure is followed as written in section 6.1. The equipment is ensured to connect to
the service unit.

6.4

Experiment 2: The Filmwise Heat Flux and Surface Heat Transfer Coefficient
Determination at Constant Pressure

Procedure:
1. Cooling water is circulated through the filmwise condenser starting with a minimum
value of 0.1 LPM.
2. The heater power is adjusted to obtain the desired pressure at 1.01 bar.
3. When the condition is stabilized, the steam (Tsat) & surface temperature (Tsurf), Tin (T1) &
Tout (T2), and flowrate is recorded.

6.5

Experiment 3: The Dropwise Heat Flux and Surface Heat Transfer Coefficient
Determination at Constant Pressure

Procedure:
1. Cooling water is circulated through the dropwise condenser starting with a minimum
value of 0.4 LPM.
2. The heater power is adjusted to obtain the desired pressure at 1.01 bar.
3. When the condition is stabilized, the steam ((Tsat) & surface temperature (Tsurf), Tin (T3)
& Tout (T4), and flowrate is recorded.

6.6

Experiment 4: The Effect of Air Inside Chamber

Procedure:
1. Cooling water is circulated through the filmwise condenser at the highest flowrate until
the pressure is reduced to below 1 bar.
2. The discharge valve is opened to let an amount of air to enter the chamber. Note: Increase
of 0.01 bar indicates 1% of air is injected.
3. The water flow rate is regulated to the condenser starting with a minimum value of 0.4
LPM.
4. The heater power is adjusted to obtain the desired pressure at 1.01 bar.
5. When the condition is stabilized, the steam (Tsat) & surface temperature (Tsurf), Tin (T3) &
Tout (T4), and flowrate is recorded.
6. Step 1-6 is repeated for dropwise condensation.

10

7.0

RESULT

7.1

Experiment 1: Demonstration of Filmwise and Dropwise Condensation

See Appendices
7.2

Experiment 2: The Filmwise Heat Flux and Surface Heat Transfer Coefficient
Determination at Constant Pressure

Flow

Power,

Tin,

Tout,

Tsat,

Tsurf,

degC

degC

degC

degC

0.10

23.73

32.5

35.9

70.5

38.9

0.20

30.73

32.5

34,7

71.8

0.30

31.40

32.5

34.4

0.40

19.54

32.5

0.50

20.92

0.60

16.74

rate,
LPM

Tsat

Tm,

U,

degC

W/m2

W/m2.K

31.6

36.27

5872.8

161.95

36.4

35.4

38.19

7606.4

199.17

71.6

35.3

36.3

38.35

7772.3

202.67

33.2

71.2

34.0

37.2

38.35

7836.6

125.63

32.4

33.0

71.1

33.7

37.4

38.40

5178.2

134.84

32.4

32.8

71.0

33.6

37.4

38.40

4143.6

107.99

qx

Heater Power (W)

Tsat

Saturation Temperature (K)

Tsurf

Surface Temperature (K)

Heat Flux (W/m2)

Heat Transfer Coefficient (W/m2.K)

Tsurf,
degC

Graph of Heat Flux vs Temperature Differences

11

9000
8000
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0

Graph of Surface Heat Transfer Coefficient vs Temperature Differences

SURFACE HEAT TRANS COEFF VS TEMP DIFF
250
200
150
100
50
0

7.3

Experiment 3: The Dropwise Heat Flux and Surface Heat Transfer Coefficient
12

Determination at Constant Pressure

Flow

Power,

Tin,

Tout,

Tsat,

Tsurf,

degC

degC

degC

degC

0.40

44.67

32.1

33.7

71.2

35.6

0.80

72.54

32.1

33.4

71.7

1.20

92.09

32.1

33.2

71.7

rate,
LPM

Tsat

Tm,

U,

degC

W/m2

W/m2.K

35.6

38.29

11036.9

288.77

35.2

36.5

38.95

17955.4

460.99

34.9

36.8

39.05

22794.6

583.73

Tsurf,
degC

Graph of Heat Flux vs Temperature Differences

HEAT FLUX VS TEMP DIFFERENCES
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
35.6

36.5

36.800000000000004

Graph of Surface Heat Transfer Coefficient vs Temperature Differences

13

SURFACE HEAT TRANS COEFF VS TEMP DIFF

700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
35.6

36.5

36.800000000000004

Graph of Heat Flux vs Temperature Differences

HEAT FLUX VS TEMP DIFF
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0

FILMWISE
CONDENSATION
DROPWISE
CONDENSATION

14

Graph of Surface Heat Transfer Coefficient vs Temperature Differences

700
600
500
400
300
FILMWISE CONDENSATION
DROPWISE CONDENSATION

200
100
0

7.4

Experiment 4: The Effect of Air Inside Chamber

Filmwise Condensation
Flow

Power,

Tin,

Tout,

Tsat,

Tsurf,

degC

degC

degC

degC

0.10

119.3

32.6

49.7

71.0

36.3

0.20

242.5

32.6

50.0

71.5

0.30

365.4

32.5

50.1

0.40

505.4

32.4

0.50

631.2

0.60

761.9

rate,
LPM

Tsat

Tm,

U,

degC

W/m2

W/m2.K

33.4

29.02

29550

1018.26

35.6

35.9

29.35

60025

2095.14

71.7

34.6

37.1

29.53

91183

3087.98

50.5

72.7

34.4

38.3

30.35

125100

4120.55

32.5

50.6

72.5

34.1

38.4

30.05

156228

5189.27

32.5

50.7

72.6

33.8

38.8

30.09

188589

6267.50

Tsurf,
degC

Graph of Effect of Air (6%) Inside Chamber for Filmwise Condensation

15

EFFECT OF AIR (6%) INSIDE CHAMBER FOR FILMWISE CONDENSATION

7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
33.4

35.9

37.1

38.300000000000004

38.4

38.800000000000004

Graph of Comparison with Experiment 2

7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000

WITHOUT THE PRESENCE OF

AIR
WITH THE PRESENCE OF AIR
(6%)

1000
0

Dropwise Condensation
16

Flow

Power,

Tin,

Tout,

Tsat,

Tsurf,

degC

degC

degC

degC

0.40

39.1

32.4

33.8

70.8

35.0

0.80

61.4

32.4

33.5

70.3

1.20

83.7

32.4

33.4

70.1

rate,
LPM

Tsat

Tm,

U,

degC

W/m2

W/m2.K

35.8

37.70

9798.2

256.72

33.3

37.0

37.30

15198

407.45

33.1

37.0

37.20

20717.8

556.93

Tsurf,
degC

Graph of Effect of Air (6%) Inside Chamber for Filmwise Condensation

EFFECT OF AIR (6%) INSIDE CHAMBER FOR FILMWISE CONDENSATION

600
500
400
300
200
100
0
35.800000000000011

37

37

Graph of Comparison with Experiment 3

17

700
600
500
400

WITHOUT THE PRESENCE OF

AIR
WITH THE PRESENCE OF AIR
(6%)

300
200
100
0
35.6

36.5

36.800000000000011

18

8.0

SAMPLE OF CALCULATIONS

Formula Used:
1. Heat remove from the condensation,

2. Log mean temperature difference,

3. Heat flux,

q x =m
CT

T m=

t 1 t 2
t
ln 1
t2

qx
dL+

d
4

4. Heat transfer coefficient,

U=

Tm

Where
Diameter of the condenser, d = 0.0127m
Length of the condenser, L = 0.098m
Specific heat capacity of water, C = 4.186kJ/kg..K
= 3.142
Referring to Each Data:
Volumetric flow rate, Q
Q

= 0.10 LPM
=

0.10 L 1000 g 1 min

min
1L
60 s

= 1.667 g/s

19

Power, qx
T
= mC

qx

= 1.667g/s x 4.186kJ/kg.K x (35.9 32.5)C

= 23.73 W
Log mean temperature difference, Tm

Tm =

t 2 t 1
t
ln 1
t2

( Tsat Tin )(Tsat Tout)

(TsatTin)
ln
(TsatTout )

( 70.532.5 )(70.535.9)
(70.532.5)
ln
(70.535.9)

= 36.27 C

Heat Flux,
qx

dL+

d
4

23.73
=

3.142( 0.0127)2
3.142 x 0.0127 x 0.098+
4

= 5877.80 W/m2
20

Heat transfer coefficient, U

U=

Tm
5877.80
36.27

= 162.06 W/m2.K

9.0

DISCUSSION
Experiment 1 can be discussed by observing the filmwise and dropwise condenser in the

appendices. It is shown that the when a vapor condenses on filmwise condenser on a surface
such as a vertical or horizontal tube or other surface, a film of condensate is formed on the
surface and flows over the surface by the action of gravity. For dropwise condenser, small drops
are formed on the surface. These drops grow and coalesce, and the liquid flows from the surface.
Next, for Experiment 2, it can be discussed by study the data and graph plotted based on
filmwise heat flux against temperature difference and the filmwise surface heat transfer
coefficient against temperature differences. As the flowrate of filmwise increase, both
temperature for Tin and Tout decrease. The same also goes for Tsurf, but not for Tsat, as it increases
as the flowrate increase. The temperature may decrease due to the change of phase of water
droplets from gas to liquid. Based on the graph of heat flux against temperature difference, it
shows the ununiformed shape of data between both variables. The same also goes for the graph
of surface heat transfer coefficient against temperature differences. The value of surface heat
transfer coefficient is obtained from the calculation of data and based on formula. The

21

ununiformed shape of graph may result from the range of Tin and Tout which determined the value
of power obtained.
For Experiment 3, it can be discussed by study the data and graph plotted based on
dropwise heat flux against temperature difference and the dropwise surface heat transfer
coefficient against temperature differences. The data obtained for the dropwise condensation can
only goes as maximum as 1.20 LPM for the flowrate. As the flowrate of dropwise increase,
temperature for Tin is constant and Tout is decrease. The same also goes for Tsurf, but not for Tsat, as
it increases as the flowrate increase. The temperature may decrase due to the change of phase of
water droplets from gas to liquid. Based on the graph of heat flux against temperature difference,
it shows that the graph is increasing uniformly. The same also goes for the graph of surface heat
transfer coefficient against temperature differences. The value of surface heat transfer coefficient
is obtained from the calculation of data and based on formula. The uniform shape of graph may
result from the range of Tin and Tout which determined the value of power obtained.
The comparison between filmwise and dropwise condensation can be made by plotting
the graph for both data. Based on the graph, it can be observed that the value of heat flux and
surface heat transfer coefficient for dropwise condensation is increase as it against the
temperature difference while for filmwise condensation, it is somehow not constant. Comparing
to the theory, the average heat transfer coefficient for dropwise condensation is five to 10 times
larger than the filmwise coefficients. Thus, the comparison for both filmwise and dropwise
condensation still follows the theory.
For Experiment 4, for filmwise condensation, it can be discussed by following
experiment 2, except that this experiment has an addition of effect of air inside the chamber. As
the flowrate of filmwise increase, both temperature for Tin and Tout increase. Compare with the
filmwise condensation without effect of air, the Tsurf shows the decrease in value while Tsat
increase as the flowrate increase.. Based on the graph of surface heat transfer coefficient against
temperature differences, it shows a directly proportional relationship between the variables. The
value of surface heat transfer coefficient is obtained from the calculation of data and based on
formula. The comparison of graph with experiment 2 shows that the filmwise condensation with
the addition of air effect is more stable and increasing. This is due to the addition of air effect

22

which helps to increase the surface heat transfer coefficient. The same also goes for the dropwise
condensation, except that the flowrate can only goes as maximum as 1.20 LPM.

10.0

CONCLUSION
The objective for Experiment 1 is to demonstrate the filmwise and dropwise

condensation. The observation can be made from the picture in the appendices. Based on the
observation and discussion that has been made, it can be concluded that the dropwise and
filmwise characteristic follows the theory. Thus, the objective for this experiment is achived.
For Experiment 2, the objective is to determine the filmwise heat flux and surface heat
transfer coefficient at constant pressure. Based on the graph of heat flux against temperature
difference, it shows the ununiformed shape of data between both variables. The same also goes
for the graph of surface heat transfer coefficient against temperature differences. The
ununiformed shape of graph may result from the range of Tin and Tout which determined the value
of power obtained. For Experiment 3, the objective is to determine the dropwise heat flux and
surface heat transfer coefficient at constant pressure. Based on the graph of heat flux against
temperature difference, it shows that the graph is increasing uniformly. The same also goes for
the graph of surface heat transfer coefficient against temperature differences. The comparison for
both filmwise and dropwise condensation still follows the theory as the average heat transfer

23

coefficient for dropwise condensation is five to 10 times larger than the filmwise coefficients.
Thus, the objective for both experiments is achieved.
Lastly, for Experiment 4, the objective is to demonstrate the effect of air on heat transfer
coefficient of condensation. Based on the graph of surface heat transfer coefficient against
temperature differences, it shows a directly proportional relationship between the variables. The
comparison of graph with experiment 2 and 3 shows that the filmwise as well as dropwise
condensation with the addition of air effect is more stable and increasing. Thus, the objective of
this experiment is achieved as the demonstration of the effect of air inside the chamber is shown.

11.0

RECOMMENDATIONS

1. The voltage control knob should be turn slowly as the power will increase rapidly even
with a small movement of knob.
2. The discharged valve should only be opened in a few second as the air intrudes in much
amount even for a few seconds.
3. Do not touch the chamber while the experiment is on-going as the heat may cause an
injury.
4. The eye must perpendicular to the flowrate reading scale in order to get accurate
readings.

12.0

REFERENCES

1. http://web.iitd.ac.in/~prabal/MEL242/(25)-boiling-1.pdf
2. http://www.solution.com.my/pdf/HE163(A4).pdf
3. http://www.engr.iupui.edu/~mrnalim/me314lab/lab09.htm
24

4. http://www.scribd.com/doc/22992765/Dropwise-and-Fimwise-Condensation-Lab-Report

13.0

APPENDICES

Experiment 1: The demonstration of Filmwise and Dropwise Condensation

25