CatchmentSIM Manual

A stand-alone GIS based terrain
analysis system.
Prepared by
Chris Ryan
www.toolkit.net.au/catchmentsim
USER GUIDE
Document History
Date
01/06/2005
Author
Chris Ryan
Revision
1.00
Description of Change
Initial Document
Copyright Notice
CRC for Catchment Hydrology, Australia 2005
Legal Information
To the extend permitted by law, the CRC for Catchment Hydrology (including its employees and
consultants) accepts no responsibility and excludes all liability whatsoever in respect of any persons use or
reliance on this publication or any part of it
CatchmentSIM
CONTENTS
1
Introduction ....................................................10
1.1
The user guide.............................................................................................. 11
1.2
Related documents........................................................................................ 11
1.3
Data requirements ........................................................................................ 11

1.3.1
Input data .................................................................................. 11
1.3.2
Predicted or calculated data......................................................... 12
1.4
Product components...................................................................................... 12
1.5
References and training ................................................................................. 12
Installation......................................................13
2.1
Technical specifications ................................................................................. 13
2.2
Licence agreement ........................................................................................ 13
2.3
Folders ........................................................................................................ 13
2.4
Installation ................................................................................................... 14
2.5
2.4.1
Stand-alone PC .......................................................................... 14
2.4.2
File server/network ...................................................................... 14
2.4.3
Auto-update feature .................................................................... 14
Product Registration ...................................................................................... 14

2.5.1
Uninstalling CatchmentSIM .......................................................... 15
Using CatchmentSIMs Algorithms .................16
3.1
Introduction.................................................................................................. 16
3.2
CatchmentSIM Tutorial .................................................................................. 16
3.3
Setting Up a New Project ............................................................................... 16
3.4
3.3.1
Project Projection ........................................................................ 17
3.3.2
Project Boundaries ...................................................................... 17
Importing GIS Data....................................................................................... 17

3.4.1
Importing Contour & Watercourse Data ........................................ 17
3.4.2
Sampling / Importing a DEM........................................................ 18

ASCIIGRID DEMs ........................................................................ 18
Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) Data............................. 19
3.4.3
3.5
Importing Other Datasets............................................................. 19
Development of a Digital Elevation Model....................................................... 19
CatchmentSIM User Manual

3.5.1
DEM Boundaries and Resolution................................................... 19
3.5.2
DEM Interpolation ....................................................................... 20

Rasterisation of Contour Data ...................................................... 21
Incorporation of Watercourse Data............................................... 22
Interpolation Aids ........................................................................ 24
Head's Up Digitising of Additional Contour Lines ........................... 24
Head's Up Digitising of Additional Watercourses ............................ 24
Interpolation Training Lines (ITLs) .................................................. 25
DEM Interpolation Algorithm ........................................................ 26
Stream Burning ........................................................................... 28
3.6
Hydrologic Conditioning of DEM.................................................................... 29

3.6.1
Filling Algorithm.......................................................................... 29
3.6.2
Priority First Search (PFS) Algorithm ............................................... 30
3.7
Assigning Catchment / Subcatchment Outlets.................................................. 34
3.8
Flow Routing ................................................................................................ 35
3.9
3.8.1
Theory ....................................................................................... 35
3.8.2
Comparison of Flow Routing Methods .......................................... 36
Stream Network Analysis................................................................................ 38

3.9.1
Development of Stream Network .................................................. 38

Quantitative Assessment of SAT Value........................................... 39
3.10
Automated Catchment Break-up .................................................................... 39

3.10.1
Flow Accumulation Jump Analysis................................................. 40
3.10.2
Horton / Strahler Subcatchment Break-up ..................................... 42
3.11
Nodal Network Arrangement ......................................................................... 44
3.12
Urbanisation Tools........................................................................................ 45
3.12.1
Impervious Area Database ........................................................... 45
3.12.2
Modelling of Hydraulic Structures ................................................. 46
3.12.3
Channel Type Hydraulic Controls ................................................. 47
3.12.4
Gutter Type Hydraulic Controls .................................................... 48
3.13
Hydrologic Analysis Tools .............................................................................. 49
3.14
Coupling with 3rd Party Applications................................................................ 50
3.15
Summary...................................................................................................... 52
Program Reference......................................... 54
4.1
Menus and Dialogs....................................................................................... 54

4.1.1
File Menu................................................................................... 54
New Project (Ctrl+N) .................................................................. 55
Project Information ...................................................................... 55
Projection ................................................................................... 56
Design Plane .............................................................................. 57
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iii
Scaling Factors ........................................................................... 58
Open Project (Ctrl+0) ................................................................. 58
Project Options........................................................................... 59
Projection Properties.................................................................... 65
Import Mapping Layer ................................................................. 65
Import Raster Layer...................................................................... 65
Save Project................................................................................ 65
Save Project As ........................................................................... 65
Print........................................................................................... 66
Exit Program (Ctrl+Alt+Q) .......................................................... 66
4.1.2
View Menu ................................................................................. 67

View Attributes (F2)...................................................................... 67
Nodal Link Arrangement Display Properties ................................... 68
Synthetic Stream Network Display Properties .................................. 68
Display of Raster Images.............................................................. 68
Display of DEM........................................................................... 69
Zoom In ..................................................................................... 70
Zoom Out .................................................................................. 70
Pan View .................................................................................... 70
Set Zoom Window....................................................................... 70
Fit View ...................................................................................... 71
Refresh (F1) ................................................................................ 71
4.1.3
Vector GIS Data Menu ................................................................ 72

Import 3D Contours .................................................................... 72
Import Stream / Flow Lines........................................................... 72
Inspect Contour Elevation ............................................................ 73
Draw Contour Line...................................................................... 73
Draw Stream Line........................................................................ 73
Draw Interpolation Training Line................................................... 73
Delete Contour Line .................................................................... 73
Delete Stream Line ...................................................................... 74
Delete Interpolation Training Line ................................................. 74
Remove Database Submenu ........................................................ 74
Remove All Contours................................................................... 74
Remove All Streamlines................................................................ 74
Remove All ITLs........................................................................... 74
Impervious Areas Database.......................................................... 75
Importing Impervious Area Polygons ............................................. 76
Manipulating Impervious Area Polygons ........................................ 76
Deleting Impervious Area Polygons ............................................... 77
Calculating of Subcatchment Impervious Areas .............................. 77
iii

Draw Impervious Areas Polygon ................................................... 77
4.1.4
Digital Elevation Model Menu ...................................................... 78

Setup Digital Elevation Model ...................................................... 78
DEM Extents ............................................................................... 79
DEM Resolution .......................................................................... 79
Develop DEM Submenu............................................................... 79
Interpolate Contour Data............................................................. 80
Interpolate Watercourses ............................................................. 80
Interpolate ITL............................................................................. 80
Interpolate DEM.......................................................................... 81
Stream Burning ........................................................................... 81
Import DEM................................................................................ 82
Assign DEM Elevations by Sampling External DEM Submenu ........... 83
Raster DEM ................................................................................ 83
TIN Dem .................................................................................... 83
Download DEM Data Submenu.................................................... 84
Sample WEB DEM(s) ................................................................... 84
Subdivide DEM ........................................................................... 85
Draw DEM Flats and Pits.............................................................. 86
Remove Flats and Pits Using Filling Algorithm ................................ 86
Apply PFS Flat and Pit Removal Algorithm Submenu ....................... 87
Entire DEM ................................................................................. 87
Individual Pixel............................................................................ 87
3D Visualisation Submenu ........................................................... 87
Entire DEM ................................................................................. 88
Subcatchment ............................................................................. 89
DEM Segment............................................................................. 89
Utilities Submenu ........................................................................ 89
Interpolate Streams Over Existing DEM ......................................... 89
Check Watercourse Data............................................................. 89
Vector Data Set Operations ......................................................... 90
Exclude Data Outside Polygon ..................................................... 90
Delete DEM................................................................................ 90
4.1.5
Runoff Routing Menu................................................................... 91

Draw Pixel Flow Path ................................................................... 91
DEM Wide Flow Processing.......................................................... 91
Reprocess Subcatchment.............................................................. 91
Draw / Edit Vector Streams .......................................................... 92
Draw Raster Stream Pixels ............................................................ 93
Manipulating Hydraulic Controls .................................................. 94
Importing Hydraulic Controls ....................................................... 95
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v
Deleting Hydraulic Controls ......................................................... 95
Draw Hydraulic Control Submenu ................................................ 96
Draw Channel ............................................................................ 96
Draw Gutter ............................................................................... 96
Delete Hydraulic Control ............................................................. 96
View Hydraulic Breaches.............................................................. 97
Inspect Pixel................................................................................ 98
4.1.6
Subcatchments Menu .................................................................. 99

Add Subcatchment ...................................................................... 99
Delete Subcatchment................................................................... 99
Edit Subcatchment Outlet Pixels.................................................. 100
Editing Outlet Pixels Visually....................................................... 100
Import Subcatchment Outlets ..................................................... 101
Breakup Subcatchment .............................................................. 101
Flow Accumulation Analysis ....................................................... 101
Horton Order Analysis ............................................................... 102
View Subcatchment Attributes ..................................................... 103
Subcatchment Manager............................................................. 103
Advanced Submenu .................................................................. 105
Delete All Subcatchments........................................................... 105
Delete All Subcatchments Except Major Outlet ............................. 105
4.1.7
Analysis Menu .......................................................................... 106

Graph Wizard........................................................................... 106
General ................................................................................... 106
Edit Chart Attributes .................................................................. 106
Longitudinal Flow Path Profile..................................................... 107
Cross-Section Chart .................................................................. 108
Pixel (%) vs Downslope Distance ................................................. 109
Drainage Density vs Area Threshold............................................ 110
Bifurcation (Stream Order vs # Streams) ..................................... 111
Cumulative Stream Length vs Stream Order................................. 112
Hypsometric Curve (Area vs Height) ............................................ 113
Stream Order vs Stream Drop .................................................... 114
Threshold Area Comparison ...................................................... 115
Create Animation...................................................................... 117
Stream Area Threshold Animation............................................... 117
Play Animation.......................................................................... 118
Save Animation As AVI .............................................................. 119
4.1.8
Export Menu ............................................................................. 120

Export GIS Data........................................................................ 120
Exporting Individual Data Series ................................................. 121

Changing Projection of Exported Data ........................................ 121
Export Raster DEM .................................................................... 122
Save Display to File ................................................................... 122
Save Display to Clipboard ......................................................... 122
Setup Display Window ............................................................... 123
Result Export Wizard.................................................................. 123
4.1.9
Help Menu ............................................................................... 125

Help ........................................................................................ 125
Tutorials Submenu .................................................................... 125
On-line Description................................................................... 125
Technical Support ..................................................................... 125
Check for New Version .............................................................. 125
Visit Web Page.......................................................................... 125
Feedback ................................................................................. 126
About....................................................................................... 126
View Disclaimer and Licence Agreement...................................... 126
Key Challenges ............................................. 127
5.1
Introduction................................................................................................ 127
5.2
Reprojecting Digital Elevation Models ........................................................... 127
5.3
Hydrologic Conditioning of DEMs ................................................................ 128

5.3.1
PFS Algorithm ........................................................................... 129

Using the PFS Algorithm ............................................................ 130
Advanced Use of PFS Algorithm ................................................. 131
5.3.2
5.4
Achieving a Good Catchment Breakup ......................................................... 133

5.4.1
5.5
5.6
Using a Stream Network to Add Hydrologic Conditioning ............. 131

Lateral Inflow vs Horton Ordering ............................................... 133
Analysis of Subcatchment Hydrologic Properties............................................. 135

5.5.1
Quantitative Analysis of Stream Area Threshold ........................... 135
5.5.2
Analysis of Stream Network Topology ......................................... 137
Quasi-Hydraulic Modelling using Hydraulic Controls ..................................... 139

5.6.1
Channel Type Hydraulic Controls ............................................... 139
5.6.2
Gutter Type Hydraulic Controls .................................................. 141
Case Studies ................................................. 143
6.1
Holland Park Local Stormwater Management Plan ......................................... 143
6.2
vi
6.1.1
Project Methodology ................................................................. 144
6.1.2
CatchmentSIM Contribution ....................................................... 147
Upper Washita Catchment EDNA Comparison .............................................. 148
vii
6.2.1
Introduction .............................................................................. 148
6.2.2
Project Methodology ................................................................. 148
6.2.3
Catchment Delineation Comparison ........................................... 150
6.2.4
Stream Network Comparison ..................................................... 152
6.3
Conclusions ............................................................................................... 153
References ....................................................154
vii
TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 3-1 : Vector to Raster Conversion of All Underlying Cells .......................................................... 21
Figure 3-2 : Selective Vector to Raster Conversion.............................................................................. 21
Figure 3-3 : Stream Processing Sequencing ....................................................................................... 22
Figure 3-4 : CatchmentSIM after Watercourse Integration ................................................................... 23
Figure 3-5 : Adherence of Calculated Flow Paths to Stream Network ................................................... 23
Figure 3-6 : HUD Digitising of Contour Lines..................................................................................... 24
Figure 3-7 : HUD Digitising of Streams ............................................................................................. 25
Figure 3-8 : HUD Digitising of ITLs ................................................................................................... 25
Figure 3-9 : Interpolation of Digital Elevation Model .......................................................................... 26
Figure 3-10 : Flat Cross-Section Discounting Scenario........................................................................ 26
Figure 3-11 : Increasing Resolution of DEM Interpolation.................................................................... 27
Figure 3-12 : Effect of 'Stream Burning' on Flow paths ........................................................................ 28
Figure 3-13 : Interpolation Flat-Spots................................................................................................ 30
Figure 3-14 : Priority First Search Algorithm Methodology ................................................................... 33
Figure 3-15 : Calculation of Flow Direction ....................................................................................... 35
Figure 3-16 : Vector Flow Path......................................................................................................... 36
Figure 3-17 : Path Mapping Capabilities of CatchmentSIM ................................................................. 36
Figure 3-18 : Propagation of D8 Error Downslope ............................................................................. 37
Figure 3-19 : D8 Flow Paths vs CatchmentSIM Algorithm.................................................................... 37
Figure 3-20 : Basin Delineation, D8 Method vs CatchmentSIM............................................................ 38
Figure 3-21 : Strahler's (1957) Revision of Horton Stream Ordering..................................................... 39
Figure 3-22 : Flow Accumulation Jump Break-up Algorithm ................................................................ 41
Figure 3-23 : Horton Catchment Break-up Algorithm ......................................................................... 43
Figure 3-24 : Sample CatchmentSIM Nodal Network Arrangement...................................................... 44
Figure 3-25 : Impervious Areas Database.......................................................................................... 45
Figure 3-26 : Rasterisation of Impervious Area Polygons ..................................................................... 46
Figure 3-27 : Effect of Hard-Coding of Road Crowns on Stream Network............................................. 47
Figure 3-28 : Using a Stream Network as Channel Hydraulic Controls................................................. 48
Figure 3-29 : Hydraulic Representation of Gutters .............................................................................. 49
Figure 3-30 : CatchmentSIM Coupling Methodology.......................................................................... 51
Figure 3-31 : Sample CST Script Generated Report............................................................................ 52
Figure 5-1 : Re-projection of a lat/long DEM into a projected coordinate system................................. 128
Figure 5-2: Interpolate Streams Over Existing DEM Algorithm............................................................ 132
Figure 5-3: Comparison of Horton (top) and Flow Accumulation Analysis (bottom) Breakup
Algorithms .................................................................................................................... 134
Figure 5-4 : CatchmentSIM Charting of Stream Drop Scatter............................................................. 136
Figure 5-5 : CatchmentSIM Charting of SAT vs Students T Value ...................................................... 137
Figure 5-6 : Calculation of Bifurcation Ratio .................................................................................... 138
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Figure 5-7 : SAT vs Bifurcation Relationship for Two Subcatchments ...................................................138
Figure 5-8: Channel Hydraulic Control Flow Paths............................................................................140
Figure 5-9: Subcatchments Mapped with/without Channel HC...........................................................140
Figure 5-10: Perpetual Flow Path Example .......................................................................................141
Figure 5-11: Effect of Gutter HC with Low Tolerance.........................................................................142
Figure 5-12: Effect of Gutter HC with high tolerance.........................................................................142
Figure 6-1 : Holland Park GIS Layers...............................................................................................144
Figure 6-2 : Holland Park CatchmentSIM Results ..............................................................................145
Figure 6-3 : Holland Park Results Superimposed over Aerial Photography ...........................................146
Figure 6-4 : Holland Park City Plan GIS Database ............................................................................147
Figure 6-5 : Upper Washita CatchmentSIM Results ...........................................................................149
Figure 6-6 : Upper Washita 3D CatchmentSIM Catchment and Streams .............................................149
Figure 6-7 : Upper Washita Catchment Delineation Differences .........................................................150
Figure 6-8 : Upper Washita Catchment Delineation Differences (3D)..................................................151
Figure 6-9 : Subcatchment Delineation near Outlets .........................................................................152
Figure 6-10 : Upper Washita Stream Network Comparison over DEM ................................................152
Figure 6-11 : Upper Washita Stream Network Comparison ...............................................................153
ix
1 Introduction
CatchmentSIM is a stand-alone GIS based terrain analysis system designed to help setup and
parameterise hydrologic models. It automatically delineates catchments, calculates their
properties and creates run files for other models (eg., WBNM, RORB, RAFTS, URBS, DRAINS,
HEC-HMS etc).
A brief overview of CatchmentSIM features includes:
Interpolation of a DEM from contour data including drainage enforcement of a

stream network;
Alternatively, DEMs may be imported, sampled or re-projected;
Hydrologic conditioning (removal of flats and pits) using an advanced breaching

algorithm;
Catchment delineation using a more accurate flow routing algorithm than the D8
method adopted in most comparable software applications;
Generation of vector stream networks including Horton / Strahler ordering.
Automated catchment break-up into a networked collection of subcatchments by

either a user designated number of subcatchments or break-up based on Horton /
Strahler basin order designation;
Linking with an impervious areas database to determine impervious proportions for

subcatchments;
Tools to model flow in urban environments including supplementary modelling of

channels and gutter structures;
Calculation of subcatchment parameters including area, slope, shape, impervious

proportion, main stream length / slope, drainage density, bifurcation etc.
Comparative charting of bifurcation relationships, flow path length frequency

distributions, drainage density versus Stream Area Threshold (SAT), hypsometric curve
and geomorphological correctness of calculated stream networks;
A flexible result export macro language enabling creation of text or binary files in any
format. This enables CatchmentSIM to be coupled with any other model with a
published file format or used to generate tabulated results in a standardised report
format.
Macro scripts are currently available for integration with WBNM, RAFTS, RORB,
URBS, DRAINS and HEC-HMS as well as a generic Rich Text File (RTF) report format.
Introduction
1.1
The user guide

This user guide provides comprehensive documentation for CatchmentSIM including
installation, algorithm descriptions, descriptions of all tools and forms as well as advice
relating to key challenges and two case studies. Specifically, Chapter 2 includes instructions
for installiation and registration of CatchmentSIM. Chapter 3 describes the CatchmentSIM
algorithms and how they may be applied to complete a typical CatchmentSIM project.
Chapter 4 describes every function and form within CatchmentSIM in the order they are
described in the menus. Chapter 5 gives some instructions on some key challenges within
CatchmentSIM, such as flat and pit removal from difficult DEMs, analysis of subcatchment
hydrologic properties, DEM re-projection and others. Finally, Chapter 6 includes two case
studies of CatchmentSIM applications.
1.2
Related documents
Other documents that are available for CatchmentSIM include:
1.3
The CatchmentSIM CSTalk Macro Reference Guide: a comprehensive guide to

writing / editing CatchmentSIM macro scripts.
CatchmentSIM Tutorial: This document is included with the CatchmentSIM

executable and guides the user through a CatchmentSIM sample project.
Three (3) technical papers: these papers are available from the Toolkit
website.
Data requirements
1.3.1
Input data
CatchmentSIM is based on raster DEMs which can be created in a number of ways including:
Interpolation from contour and stream alignment vector GIS files;
Importing an external raster DEM;
Sampling or re-projecting an external raster DEM; or,
Sampling an external Triangular Irregular Network (TIN);
Other optional data that may be used in a CatchmentSIM project includes:
Polygon based impervious area database;
Subcatchment outlet GIS files;
GIS files of channel and gutter alignments; and others.
11
1.3.2
Predicted or calculated data
CatchmentSIM can generate:
1.4
Subcatchment boundaries, network arrangements and hydrologic parameters;
Calculated vector stream networks with Strahler / Horton ordering;
Runfiles for a wide range of hydrologic models;
A number of charts of subcatchment hydrologic properties;
GIS files of all derived layers;
Text or binary files in any desired format (using the CSTalk macro language);
3D Visulisations;
Animations of parameter variance; and more.
Product components
CatchmentSIM is distributed as a single InstallShield execuatable.
1.5
References and training

CatchmentSIM is originally based on a PhD by Chris Ryan which may be obtained from the
University of Wollongong. Three papers have also been written on CatchmentSIM which are
available from the Toolkit website.
12
Installation
2 Installation
2.1
Technical specifications
CatchmentSIM requires the following hardware:
Type of machine
Minimum CPU
Minimum memory
Minimum available disk space
Operating system
Intel based PC with CD-ROM drive

Pentium III, 400 MHz. Realistically, you should use a Pentium IV
1.6 GHz or faster for production-level modelling
512 Mb (1 GB recommended)
100 MB
Windows 2000, Windows XP
Product may work on Windows 95, 98 and ME but they are not
explicitly supported.
The person installing the software must have local administrator access on the computer.
CatchmentSIM is a memory intensive program. The memory requirements of the software
and the run of key algorithms increase with the size of the DEM being modelled.
2.2
Licence agreement
A licence agreement is part of the installation procedure. You must acknowledge that you
have read, understood and agree to be bound by the CatchmentSIM software licence
agreement to be able to proceed with the installation.
2.3
Folders
During install, you will have the option to choose the installation directory for CatchmentSIM.
The default option is: C:\Program Files\CatchmentSIM . However, if the local user does not
have administrator privlidges then the software should be installed to an unprotected
13

directory. This is because CatchmentSIM will occasionally modify files in the installation
directory.
2.4
Installation
2.4.1
Stand-alone PC
To install CatchmentSIM on a stand-alone PC, double click on the InstallShield executable

named CatchmentSIMxxx.exe (where xxx is the version number). This will bring up the
InstallShield wizard which will guide you through the installation.
You will be given a number of different installation options. Full installation (typical) installs
all program components (6MB), however you can elect not to install AVI creation software
and CSTalk macro scripts. However, it is recommended that you install the entire application.
2.4.2
File server/network
CatchmentSIM should not be installed on a file server. Project files may be installed on a file
server however the software should reside on the local PC.
2.4.3
Auto-update feature
If your computer is connected to the Internet, it can automatically check for newer versions of
the software on the Toolkit website. This can be done by selecting Help >> Check For New
Version (page 125). You may also be periodically offered an option to check for a later
version.
2.5
Product Registration
CatchmentSIM is currently free software, although each version includes an expiry date (see
Help >> About page 126) and requires registration. Registration is required simply to
keep track of the number of people using the software. There are two options to register
CatchmentSIM as described bellow:
14
Automatic Registration (online access required): Automatic registration simply requires

a user to enter their Toolkit username and password into the dialog boxes and click
Register. CatchmentSIM will then attempt to contact the Toolkit web server and verify
the username/password and software version. If this doesnt work (potentially due to
internet security / firewall setting), please use the Manual Registration.
Manual Registration: This option allows for CatchmentSIM to be registered if the

installation computer is not connected to the internet or Automatic Registration hasnt
worked. Leave the registration screen open, go to the website:
http://www.toolkit.net.au/catchsim/Registration/Registration.htm
and enter the registration id code as shown on the form. Also enter your Toolkit
username and password and press Get Access Code. When the code has been
generated, type it into the Access Code edit boxes and press Ok.
Installation
Following registration, CatchmentSIM will be ready to use. You will not need to register
CatchmentSIM again until a new version is installed.
2.5.1
Uninstalling CatchmentSIM
To uninstall CatchmentSIM, simply go to Control Panel and select Add/Remove Programs.

Select CatchmentSIM from the list and select Remove. You will be guided through the uninstallation process.
It is necessary to uninstall CatchmentSIM prior to installing an updated version.
The CatchmentSIM installation directory may not be completely removed from the computer
during the uninstall. You may wish to manually delete it following uninstall. It is important
that you do uninstall the software prior to deleting the directory to remove file name
associations, icons and start menu options.
15
3 Using
CatchmentSIMs
Algorithms
3.1
Introduction
This chapter outlines the basic sequence of tasks that might be employed in a typical
CatchmentSIM project. The algorithms are described in detail in this chapter because a keen
understanding of their respective approaches, advantages and limitations is fundamental to
applying them successfully. To get help with a specific menu item, form or function, the
Program Reference information in Chapter 4 may be more appropriate. Hyperlinks and page
references are provided for each section which refer to the Program Reference section which
contains specific instructions for using the particular tool.
3.2
CatchmentSIM Tutorial
The best way to come to grips with using CatchmentSIM is to complete the tutorial that is
included with the software. This can be accessed by the Help >> Tutorials >> 1
CatchmentSIM Introduction menu option. The tutorial will basically take the user through the
following steps using a set of sample data.
3.3
Setting Up a New Project

The first stage in development of a CatchmentSIM project is to set the projection and project
boundaries.
16
Using CatchmentSIMs Algorithms
3.3.1
Project Projection
The project projection is selected from a drop down box on the New Project form (refer
page 56). No single projection can be recommended for all applications and the
appropriate projection should be based on many factors including size of the catchment,
geographic alignment of the catchment and objectives of the analysis. Conformal projections
conserve angles while Equal-Area projections conserve areas. For catchment studies, EqualArea projections may be more appropriate. CatchmentSIM includes the Albers Equal Area
Conic projection which can be used to conserve area measurements.
You do not need to work in the same projection as your data. CatchmentSIM supports reprojection of both vector and raster data sources upon importing the data provided the
transformation is supported by CatchmentSIM (You will be advised of an unsupported
projection if you select it). For large projects, you can also work in latitude and longitude.
However, this will disable the length and area calculations since your raster grid will not have
a constant pixel size. To overcome this you can export your subsequent subcatchment
boundaries after processing and analyse them in other GIS software.
3.3.2
Project Boundaries
The project boundaries should be large enough to accommodate the catchment of interest
but should not be excessively large and include a large amount of redundant topography.
The project boundaries are used to trim all data that is imported into the project. This allows
the use of large GIS data sets as input data for a project. For example, after a user sets
appropriate project boundaries which are large enough to contain the catchment under
analysis, they may then assign a very large GIS database as the project source data.
CatchmentSIM will only import and store the digital terrain information that is within the
project boundaries. Contour or stream lines that cross project boundaries are clipped at their
point of intersection. Consequently, the same source database may be used for many
projects without manipulating the data with the parent GIS application. In fact, it is not
necessary to own any commercial GIS software, merely, to have access to the appropriate
database in an accepted format. CatchmentSIM provides all the tools required for basic data
manipulation including addition / deletion of contours and watercourse data.
The File >> New Project menu allows a project to be setup as outlined on page 55.
3.4
Importing GIS Data

The next stage in building a CatchmentSIM project is to import suitable GIS data from a
number of supported data formats. If the DEM is to be interpolated from contour and
watercourse data then this data may be imported as Mid / Mif files (MapInfo Data Exchange
Format) or ArcGIS ShapeFilies. If the DEM is being imported such as a sampled DEM, or a
DEM interpolated in another application, then the DEM may be imported in the common
ARC-INFO ASCII GRID format.
3.4.1
Importing Contour & Watercourse Data
Importing contour data requires GIS files containing line or polyline contours with non-visual
data attached that contains elevation information (Vector GIS Data >> Import 3D Contour
17

Lines page 72). Watercourse data need only be in 2D, that is, non-visual data is not
required (Vector GIS Data >> Import Stream / Flow Lines page 72).
3.4.2
Sampling / Importing a DEM
If the source data for the analysis is in the form of an external DEM, this information can
either be imported (Digital Elevation Model >> Import DEM page 82) or sampled
(reading point elevation from the DEM to populate the elevation of blank pixels in a userdefined DEM). Sampling a DEM allows you to reproject the DEM and change the resolution
whereas importing a DEM preserves the pixel dimensions and projection exactly.
Sampling of external DEMs can either be undertaken by Digital Elevation Model >> Assign
DEM Elevations by Sampling External DEM (page 83) or Digital Elevation Model >>
Download DEM Data (page 84) for an online source.
More information regarding reprojecting DEMs can be found in Section 5.2 (page 127).
ASCIIGRID DEMs
The ASCIIGRID DEM format is a widely accepted raster DEM interchange format. The basic
file format of an ASCII DEM is
ncols
2361
nrows
1824
xllcorner
143.52625873129
yllcorner
-43.808990500013
cellsize
0.0025
NODATA_value -9999
-9999 -9999 -9999 -9999 -9999 -9999 -9999 -9999 -9999 -9999
nrows and ncols are the number of rows and columns, xllcorner and yllcorner are the
minimum x and y corner coordinates, cellsize is the pixels size and NODATA_value is the
code for pixels with no associated elevation. The data is stored by row starting from the most
northward row and progressing west to east. Each row in the file must contain an entire row
of data.
18

Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) Data
The SRTM data set are DEM surveyed by satellite radar photogrammetry. SRTM data is
available for virtually the entire land surface of the world at a resolution of approximately 90
metre cells (soon to be released as 30 metre cells). SRTM data can be ordered from NASA
on DVD or downloaded for free from web based FTP site. CatchmentSIM provides tools for
direct download and sampling of SRTM data (Digital Elevation Model >> Download DEM
Data page 84)
3.4.3
Importing Other Datasets
CatchmentSIM also allows for a wide range of other GIS data sets to be imported and used
in an analysis. These include impervious area polygons (Vector GIS Data >> Impervious
Areas page 75), Hydraulic Controls (Runoff Routing >> Hydraulic Controls page 93) as
well as displaying external vector or raster (image) GIS files.
3.5
Development of a Digital Elevation Model

CatchmentSIM is a terrain analysis package for raster DEMs. Thus, forming a DEM is a
fundamental part of any analysis. The CatchmentSIM DEM can be interpolated from 3D
contour and 2D stream alignment data, imported from an external software package or a
blank DEM can be created in CatchmentSIM and populated based on an external surface
(raster or TIN), called sampling.
In the case of interpolated or sampled DEMs (but not imported), it is first necessary to setup a
black DEM. This is undertaken using the Setup DEM (Digital Elevation Model >> Setup DEM
page 78) form. The first requirements are to setup the DEM boundaries and resolution, as
outlined in the following section.
3.5.1
DEM Boundaries and Resolution
The rectangle defining the external boundary of the DEM can be set by the user to be any
size equal to or smaller than the selected project boundaries, and may have any number or
rows and columns. The software will generate a warning if it determines that the DEM
characteristics are outside of the users computational resources. CatchmentSIM does not
require DEMs to have square pixels and can accommodate rectangular grid pixels. However,
an option is available to ensure that the DEM has square pixels. If this option is selected then
the number of DEM columns will be automatically calculated after the user enters the number
of DEM rows to ensure a square pixel DEM is developed. The user can also elect to form a
DEM based on an explicit pixel size and CatchmentSIM will determine the required number
of rows and columns.
Note:
Although CatchmentSIM supports rectangular pixel DEMs, many other

software packages do not. You should use a square pixel DEM if you
wish to export the DEM to other software packages.
In order to maximise the precision of the analysis within the available computational
resources, the DEM boundaries should be chosen carefully to ensure the smallest possible
DEM that contains the entire catchment is created. The total number of pixels should be
maintained in a reasonable range. For example, a project with 1 million pixels (eg., 1000
19

rows * 1000 columns) requires about 10 -12 MB of hard disk space (for all project files) and
the most computationally intensive algorithm requires about 3 minutes to process (on a
Pentium 2.4 GHz). The computational demands of the software in terms of storage space
and processing time will both increase with the number of pixels in the DEM. However, the
accuracy of any subsequent hydrologic analysis can be related to the grid pixel resolution
(Goonetilleke and Jenkins 1996). As such, the DEM boundaries and number of rows /
columns should be chosen carefully as a balance between desired accuracy and
computational resources.
However, if watercourse data is planned to be incorporated into the model (in a contour /
stream alignment interpolation - recommended if available) it is important to set the project
boundaries so that the next contour line intersection point along the main stream
downstream of the desired catchment outlet is included within the project boundaries. This
ensures that the drainage enforcement algorithm is able to be applied to the entire reach of
the main stream within the catchment.
The DEM precision can also be set in CatchmentSIM (File >> Project Options | Digital
Elevation Model page 59). This refers to the number of significant figures to which
elevation values are recorded. The user may choose between single precision (7-8 significant
digits) and double precision (15-16 significant digits). The use of double precision will double
the hard-disk and memory requirements for the DEM file. Double precision storage of DEM
values may only be necessary in regions with large vertical ranges or values that are
recorded in small increments such as feet. For example, if single precision is being used and
elevation values reach 10,000 then only 2-3 decimal places may be recorded which may be
insufficient to represent very gradual slopes if the horizontal resolution is high.
The following sections apply to DEMs that will be interpolated from contour and stream
alignment data. The next relevant section for DEMs sampled or imported is Hydrologic
Conditioning in Section 3.6, page 29.
3.5.2
DEM Interpolation
The minimum data requirement for interpolation of a DEM is 3D contour data. The accuracy
and fitness for the purpose of such a DEM will be primarily a function of the level of contour
definition of the imported data and required spatial resolution of the model. However, the
DEM quality may be greatly improved by using a vector watercourse layer in conjunction with
the interpolation algorithm. These data layers are utilised by the DEM interpolation algorithm
in a number of sequential steps, namely:
20
Vector to raster conversion of 3D contour lines (Digital Elevation Model >> Develop
DEM >> Interpolate Contour Data page 80);
Incorporation of watercourse GIS layers (optional) (Digital Elevation Model >>

Develop DEM >> Interpolate Watercourses page 80);
Implementation of interpolation aids (optional) (Digital Elevation Model >> Develop

DEM >> Interpolate ITLs page 80);
Interpolation of raster DEM (Digital Elevation Model >> Develop DEM >>
Interpolate DEM page 81); and,
Stream burning (optional) (Digital Elevation Model >> Develop DEM >> Stream
Burning - page 81).

Rasterisation of Contour Data
To incorporate the vector contour data into the DEM it is necessary to convert the contours to
a raster format. The basic principle behind vector to raster conversion is to assign pixels
underlying the line (vector component) the same attribute (elevation) as the line. However,
research has shown that applying the elevation attribute to every pixel underlying the line
does not produce a good raster representation of the vector data. This can be seen in Figure
3-1 which illustrates the raster representation of a sample line.
Figure 3-1 : Vector to Raster Conversion of All Underlying Pixels
It can be seen that assignment of all underlying pixels has converted a zero-width line into a
two pixel wide terrain segment of constant elevation. A cross-section generated perpendicular
to this contour line would yield a flat section at each imported contour line. To overcome this
problem it is generally accepted that only selected pixels underlying the line segment should
have the line attribute applied. CatchmentSIM uses a well accepted and documented
decision structure to determine which pixels will form the raster representation of the line,
which is governed by the following rule.
Should the vector component exit a pixel and traverse two of the pixel's neighbouring eight
pixels then only the pixel containing the longest portion of the line will be applied the vector
attribute.
The example illustrated in Figure 3-1 has been reproduced in Figure 3-2 but with the
improved vector to raster conversion methodology. It can be seen that the new algorithm is a
better solution than that portrayed in Figure 3-1. This is especially relevant in areas of closely
spaced contours.
Figure 3-2 : Selective Vector to Raster Conversion
All contour lines that have been imported into the project should be rasterised into the DEM
prior to incorporation of watercourse data layers.
21

Incorporation of Watercourse Data
GIS layers of watercourse data typically do not have any 3D attributes. That is, elevations of
watercourse polyline vertices are not provided. Furthermore, drainage direction is not usually
provided. Hence, this data must be used in conjunction with the rasterised contour data to be
incorporated into the analysis.
CatchmentSIM interprets watercourse information as paths of DEM pixels along which pixel
elevations should smoothly and consistently decrease (in a downstream direction) between
intersected contour pixels. The algorithm processes each tributary in a downstream direction,
applying the watercourse algorithm between intersected contour lines until a DEM boundary
or previously interpolated watercourse pixel is found. Tributaries are processed in order of
decreasing starting elevation (as a function of local contours) to ensure that main stream
interpolation takes priority over interpolation of minor tributaries. This process is illustrated in
Figure 3-3.
Figure 3-3 : Stream Processing Sequencing
The process is complicated due to the fractal network nature of watercourse alignments and
the tendency of this data to be provided as thousands of partial watercourse segments that
exist between junctions of two or more segments. As stated previously, these line segments
have no 3D attributes and often the individual segments are not large enough to intersect the
necessary two contour lines to allow linear interpolation. CatchmentSIM processes the
watercourse network to create single polylines that travel from each upstream tributary down
to the sink associated with that tributary. This algorithm can process any stream network (with
no limit on the number of segments in a junction) provided connecting stream segments end /
start at the same coordinate pair or within a user designated distance tolerance (set in the
Project Options form page 59). ArcGIS also has the capability to form directional drainage
networks from watercourse GIS layers but it requires the user to identify the sinks associated
with all tributaries. This is not a problem if the network is fully connected and thus only has
one sink. However, in many catchments, particularly in Australia, streams are often
discontinuous with ephemeral streams and channel termination common. This can cause
manual identification of all sinks within a catchment to be a tedious process. Consequently,
the CatchmentSIM algorithm was designed to be fully automated and automatically identifies
all sinks. The algorithm only requires each tributary line segment to cross at least two nonequal contours in order to assign drainage direction.
After incorporating the watercourse integration algorithm the DEM pixels underlying stream
segments where watercourse integration was possible will be assigned an interpolated
elevation as shown in Figure 3-4.
22
Figure 3-4 : CatchmentSIM after Watercourse Integration
The net effect of the watercourse integration algorithm is a more realistic and hydrologically
suitable DEM that preserves a known watercourse network. In most cases, after the
application of the watercourse integration algorithm, interpolation of the DEM and
hydrologic conditioning, calculated flow paths will follow those of the imported GIS
watercourse layer as shown in Figure 3-5.
Figure 3-5 : Adherence of Calculated Flow Paths to Stream Network
23

Note:
It is important to note that the watercourse integration algorithm does

not force flow paths to follow the imported watercourse layer, rather it
acts as a guide to the DEM interpolation mechanism. To ensure 100%
flow path mapping adherence to the watercourse alignments, a stream
burning algorithm can be implemented (see page 28).
Interpolation Aids
The degree to which the DEM is closely representative of the real terrain is a function of the
quantity and quality of the source data from which the DEM was interpolated. Limited source
data may impact on the interpolation algorithm's ability to represent hydrologically important
topographic features such as watershed divides and convergent flow paths. The best solution
for any problematic regions is to import additional contour and watercourse data, however,
this is often not available or economical. For this reason, CatchmentSIM incorporates a
range of tools that can be applied in areas of concern to augment and improve the
automated interpolation process.
Head's Up Digitising of Additional Contour Lines

In addition to importing contours from GIS or survey applications, they can also be manually
digitised within CatchmentSIM (Vector GIS Data >> Draw a Contour Line - 73). This may be
valuable in areas where a large area of terrain falls predominantly between the contour
intervals. An example of this is shown in Figure 3-6, where an additional contour has been
manually digitised to remove a resulting uncertainty in the interpolation surface. As shown,
CatchmentSIM does not require contour lines to be continuous and any amount of additional
data can be digitised at the user's discretion.
Figure 3-6 : HUD Digitising of Contour Lines
Head's Up Digitising of Additional Watercourses

Similarly to contour lines, additional watercourse alignments can be manually digitised within
CatchmentSIM (Vector GIS Data >> Draw Stream Line page 73). These lines will be
incorporated into the DEM in an identical fashion to the watercourse GIS layer. The manually
digitised watercourse alignments can be snapped to the existing watercourse network to
24

ensure the junction resolution algorithm can operate successfully. An example application of
Head's Up Digitising (HUD) of watercourses is shown in Figure 3-7.
Figure 3-7 : HUD Digitising of Streams
Interpolation Training Lines (ITLs)

CatchmentSIM allows Head's Up Digitising (HUD) of Interpolation Training Lines (ITL) to
improve the accuracy of the interpolation mechanism along ridges and other watershed
divides (Vector GIS Data >> Draw Interpolation Training Line page 73). ITLs are usually
unnecessary, however, they may be useful in some regions of low contour definition, for
example, the terrain shown in Figure 3-8. ITLs are incorporated into the pre-interpolation
DEM in a similar manner to watercourse alignments (Digital Elevation Model >> Develop
DEM >> Interpolate ITLs page 80). That is, along these lines elevation values are
interpolated linearly between intersected contour lines prior to interpolation of the remaining
DEM.
Figure 3-8 : HUD Digitising of ITLs
By importing a good coverage of 3D contour lines and 2D watercourse lines, and placement
of some strategic interpolation aids, users are able to quickly create the basis for
interpolation of a hydrologically suited DEM.
25

DEM Interpolation Algorithm
The DEM interpolation (Digital Elevation Model >> Develop DEM >> Interpolate DEM
page 81) phase refers to the calculation and assignment of elevations for all DEM pixels that
remain unassigned following the source data rasterisation and watercourse interpolation
phases.
CatchmentSIM uses an interpolation algorithm based on a distance weighted average of a
series of linear interpolations along a user-designated number of cross-sections taken
through each pixel. For example, the interpolation regime shown in Figure 3-9 exhibits a 16
ray interpolation sequence. The 180 degree arc is divided into 8 increments and
interpolation rays are initiated at the appropriate angles. All rays are paired with a mirror ray
which travels in the opposite direction (ie., + 180 degrees).
Figure 3-9 : Interpolation of Digital Elevation Model
Once an interpolation ray and its corresponding mirror ray both intersect pixels with assigned
elevations, linear interpolation is applied to determine the pixel elevation for that particular
interpolation and mirror ray combination. The final value for the pixel is based on a weighted
average of all the cross-section interpolations. The individual cross-section weights are based
on the inverse of the distance between the located assigned pixels for the cross-section.
During the algorithm development process it was found that flat cross-sections should be
discounted (smaller weights) since they were over-flattening the topography in certain
situations. An example of this can be seen in Figure 3-10.
Figure 3-10 : Flat Cross-Section Discounting Scenario
As illustrated in Figure 3-10, the non-flat cross-sections shown in red have the longest
lengths and would consequently be given the smallest weights. However, due to the apparent
ridge line evidenced by the contours, these cross-sections are more representative of the
26

actual terrain and should be given more dominant weights than the surrounding flat crosssections. These situations are accommodated by giving all flat cross-sections a discounting
factor (FB) in their weight calculation as shown in Equation 4-1.
(Equation 3-1)
WN =
DN * FB
In Equation 4-1, WN is individual cross-section weighting, DN is the distance between the

assigned DEM pixels and FB is the flat cross-section discounting factor which is assigned the
value of 1 except in the case of flat cross-sections where it is set at 10. This value was
determined by empirical evaluation and visual analysis of the generated surface.
The final elevation of the pixel is calculated as shown in Equation 4-2 where WT is the sum of
all individual weights and ZN is the linearly interpolated elevation for each individual crosssection.
(Equation 3-2)
# rays W
Elevation = n =1 n * Z n
WT
CatchmentSIM allows the user to designate the number of interpolation rays (and mirror rays)
that are used to interpolate the pixel elevation. Increasing the number of rays will increase
the accuracy of the interpolated surface as well as the computational demands of the
algorithm. Figure 3-11 illustrates the advantages of increasing the resolution of the DEM
interpolation algorithm.
Figure 3-11 : Increasing Resolution of DEM Interpolation
It can be seen in Figure 3-11 that the 32 ray interpolation algorithm has four non-flat crosssections which will realistically represent the expected ridge line in the area. Ultimately, the
best solution is reached when a cross-section alignment is found that is normal to the
intersected contour lines, thus is approximately equal to local aspect. The 8 ray algorithm
27

almost missed finding a non-flat cross-section, which would have resulted in a calculated
elevation equal to the lower contour value. If there is no linear segment that can be found to
construct a non-flat cross-section then an ITL can be used to correctly represent the ridge
line. It is recommended that users adopt the maximum number of rays that their time
requirements can accommodate. The relationship between number of rays and algorithm run
time is directly linear (ie., twice as many rays will take twice as long). Algorithm run time will
also increase with total grid pixels and sparsity of contour and watercourse data, since the
search rays will need to travel further to find assigned pixels.
Stream Burning
The watercourse interpolation algorithm outlined in Section 3.5.2 (page 20) does not force
flow paths to follow the imported watercourse alignments, rather it simply ensures that pixels
along the watercourse alignments are linearly interpolated between intersected contour lines
prior to interpolation of any surrounding pixels. In most cases, this will ensure the
watercourse alignments are preserved in the drainage network. However, in some areas of
low relief or complex stream paths, it may be found that calculated flow paths depart from
imported watercourse alignments. If this presents a problem then stream burning (Digital
Elevation Model >> Develop DEM >> Stream Burning page 81) can be implemented.
This algorithm will artificially lower pixels that underlie watercourse alignments by a set
increment (set in File >> Project Options | General) to ensure they are represented as flow
paths in the calculated stream network. However, it may slightly bias slope calculations that
are generated later in the analysis.
Figure 3-12 illustrates the effect of application of the stream burning algorithm. It can be
seen that the pre-stream burning flow path (green line) deviates slightly from the imported
watercourse's path (blue line), whereas application of the stream burning algorithm has
'snapped' the flow path to the observed watercourse.
Figure 3-12 : Effect of 'Stream Burning' on Flow paths
Prior to using the stream burning algorithm it is important to determine if it is necessary, as its
use can slightly bias calculated values for some of the topographic indices that are generated
at a later stage, such as average vectored slope. Furthermore, in Figure 3-12 it could be
argued that the pre-stream burning flow path is a better interpretation of the source contours
(ie., steeper descent) compared to the imported watercourse alignment.
28

Note:
3.6
Stream burning can result in improved outputs from the Catchment

Breakup algorithms, Create Animation tools and simplify flat and pit
removal using the PFS algorithm.
Hydrologic Conditioning of DEM

Following interpolation of the DEM, or importing of the DEM from an external application,
flat and pit pixels must be treated to ensure flow connectivity. Flat or pit pixels will cause the
flow routing algorithm to fail, hence these pixels and all pixels that flow into them will not be
accumulated into the subcatchment that they should realistically drain to. Consequently, the
subcatchment delineation will exhibit holes, which will adversely affect the calculation of
subcatchment areas and geo-statistics. Imported DEMs may also exhibit pit or flat pixels for a
variety of reasons depending on the source of the raster data but most will be found in areas
where the topographic relief is small compared with the vertical definition of the sampling
technique.
CatchmentSIM includes two algorithms for removal of flat and pit pixels in a DEM. The first of
these is a filling algorithm which raises the elevation of flat and pit pixels in an iterative
manner until flow processing is possible. The second algorithm for removal of flat and pit
pixels is an advanced breaching algorithm based on Priority First Search (PFS) weighted
graph methodology.
In the case of internally interpolated DEMs it is recommended that the filling algorithm is
initially applied to remove the bulk of the flat and pit pixels and treat the flattened hill crests
that tend to result from the DEM interpolation algorithm. Following this, the PFS algorithm
may be applied to remove the remainder of the flat and pit pixels.
Where a DEM has been imported from an external application, the PFS algorithm may be
applied without prior application of the filling algorithm, particularly if the flat and pit pixels
are in valley areas or situated along expected watercourse alignments.
Hydrologic conditioning of DEMs is a key challenge for undertaking hydrologic terrain
analysis and is further described in Section 5.3 (page 128).
3.6.1
Filling Algorithm
CatchmentSIM's filling algorithm (Digital Elevation Model >> Remove Flat and Pits Using
Filling Algorithm page 86) works by first raising all pit pixels to the elevation of their lowest
neighbouring pixel and then raising the elevation of flat pixels by a set increment in order to
be able to derive a downslope flow direction.
This algorithm is specifically designed to treat drainage anomalies resulting from the
flattening of hill crests within the DEM where contour definition has not been provided at the
crest of a hill. This occurs because all rays of the interpolation algorithm will find the same
contour value, as illustrated in Figure 3-13.
29
Figure 3-13 : Interpolation Flat-Spots
In these situations the iterative process implemented by the filling algorithm ensures that pixel
elevations in large flat areas are raised from the outside in, creating a rounded hill crest that
realistically distributes flow down all sides, with the highest elevation pixel located at the hill
crest centroid.
CatchmentSIM's filling algorithm is good at treating drainage anomalies formed in DEMs
interpolated internally or by other ray based approaches. However, for imported remotelysampled DEMs or stubborn flat or pit pixel arrangements that are unable to be resolved by
the filling algorithm, an advanced Priority First Search (PFS) weighted graphed based
breaching algorithm has been included in CatchmentSIM.
3.6.2
Priority First Search (PFS) Algorithm
The Priority First Search (PFS) algorithm implemented within CatchmentSIM is a breaching
algorithm designed to solve complex arrangements of flat and pit pixels in a DEM. The
algorithm can resolve any flat or pit pixel within a DEM provided a pixel with a lower
elevation exists somewhere within the DEM (subject to minimum downslope gradient criteria).
For each flat or pit pixel, the PFS algorithm searches for a nearby pixel with lower elevation
(outlet pixel) and an optimum drainage path between the two pixels. After finding the outlet
pixel and optimum drainage path, the PFS algorithm will lower the elevation of all pixels
along the optimum drainage path to create a downslope drainage path of consistent
gradient between the original flat or pit pixel and the outlet pixel.
The method used to implement this technique is based on well-documented weighted graph
methodology (Sedgewick, Robert 1988) and has shown promise in hydrologic applications
(Jones, Richard 2002). The algorithm records DEM pixels or 'nodes' in two sets, the priority
tree and the priority queue. As a result, all pixels in the DEM are in one of three states, on the
priority tree, on the priority queue or as yet unseen by the algorithm. Initially, all nondiagonal pixels adjacent to the target flat or pit pixel are added to the priority queue. In turn,
the nodes in the priority queue are examined with reference to a priority function and the
most suitable node in the priority queue is added to the priority tree and removed from the
priority queue. Adjacent pixels to the new node (recently added to the priority tree) are then
added to the priority queue which now consists of the remaining nodes from the previous
iteration and these new nodes. The algorithm continues until a terminating condition is met,
which is triggered when a node in the priority queue satisfies the terminating criteria. In
CatchmentSIM, the terminating criteria requires the node to have a lower elevation than the
starting node and for the resultant downslope gradient between the two points (along the
optimum drainage path) to exceed a user designated minimum gradient threshold.
30

The priority function used to assess nodes in the priority queue has two criteria. Firstly, it
searches for the node representing the smallest net elevation gain from the starting node. If
more than one node has an equal net elevation gain then the node representing the shortest
path from the starting node (along the optimum drainage path) is selected. This methodology
is explained further in the example presented in Figure 3-14.
31
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
Figure 3-14 : Priority First Search Algorithm Methodology
33
One of the important capabilities of the PFS algorithm is that once a node is entered in the
priority queue it is not removed until the algorithm is finished or it is transferred to the priority
tree. This means that the priority tree can grow in any direction and will always find the
optimum drainage path.
The PFS algorithm can be either applied to an individual flat or pit pixel (Digital Elevation
Model >> Apply PFS Flat and Pit Removal Algorithm >> Individual Pixel page 87) by the
user or to all flat or pit pixels remaining in the DEM (Digital Elevation Model >> Apply PFS
Flat and Pit Removal Algorithm >> Entire DEM page 87). If the later is applied then the
flat and pit pixels are processed by the PFS algorithm in order of increasing elevation. This
improves the drainage network in flatter terrain and reduces the necessity for multiple
applications of the PFS algorithm.
There are a number of options that a user can set in CatchmentSIM to dictate the properties
of the PFS Algorithm, these are :
Minimum Gradient The minimum gradient that must be found to exist along the optimum
drainage path for the algorithm to accept the outlet pixel. This parameter is designed to
ensure that significant drainage paths are identified and that gradients are not so low as to
produce flat pixels when DEM pixel elevations are rounded to the precision of the DEM
(single or double, see page 19).
No-data Behaviour This parameter dictates how the algorithm will behave if it encounters
pixels which are on the boundaries of the DEM or have not yet been assigned an elevation
value. The algorithm can either terminate leaving the original flat or pit pixel with its initial
elevation, or continue to search ignoring the no-data or boundary pixel.
PFS Break Size This parameter is used to monitor the size of the priority queue and the
algorithm will terminate if the priority queue reaches this size. This is particularly important if
the no-data behaviour parameter is set to ignore no-data or boundary pixels. In these cases,
the algorithm may search the entire DEM before realising that no pixel meets the terminating
criteria and moving onto the next flat or pit pixel. This can slow the algorithm down to an
impractical extent. To ovoid this slow-down and enable the algorithm to terminate
prematurely, the PFS break size parameter may be used. This parameter should be set large
enough to ensure genuine solutions paths are found but small enough to restrict unwanted
algorithm slow-down.
The PFS algorithm has several important advantages over other common methods. Firstly, it
is robust and will always find a solution provided a pixel satisfying the terminating conditions
exists. Secondly, it does not distinguish between flat and pit pixels resulting in a consistent
approach to both types of drainage anomalies. Thirdly, it tends to create channel networks
and flow distributions that are more representative of reality than competing algorithms such
as the J&D algorithm utilised by ArcGIS and many other software, which tends to create
many parallel flow paths (Martz and Garbrecht 1998; Tribe 1992).
3.7
Assigning Catchment / Subcatchment Outlets

Catchments and subcatchment outlets can be assigned by manually drawing lines on the
screen (Subcatchments >> Add Subcatchment page 99), importing a GIS file of
subcatchment boundaries (Subcatchments >> Import Subcatchment Outlets page 101) or
first mapping a catchment and then using an automated catchment break-up algorithm
(Subcatchments >> Breakup Subcatchment page 101).
Following assignment of a catchment and / or subcatchment boundaries, the flow routing
algorithm can be applied (Runoff Routing >>DEM Wide Flow Processing page 91) to map
subcatchment boundaries. Flow paths from individual pixels can be illustrated using Runoff

Routing >> Draw Pixel Flow Path page 91. The flow routing algorithm is described in the
following sections.
3.8
Flow Routing
Following the interpolation and hydrologic conditioning of the DEM, a flow routing algorithm
(Runoff Routing >>DEM Wide Flow Processing page 91) can be applied to delineate
subcatchment boundaries, determine the subcatchment network relationship and calculate
geophysical subcatchment properties.
3.8.1
Theory
The flow routing algorithm forms the basis of CatchmentSIM and is of vital importance to the
quality of any GIS based hydrologic investigation. Most terrain analysis packages adopt the
D8 method for flow routing. However, CatchmentSIM utilises a modified version of Leas
(1992) method which has a number of advantages over the D8 method.
The modified version of Leas (1992) algorithm calculates a downslope flow angle for each
pixel that can be anywhere in the range of 0-360 degrees. The flow direction angle is
determined as the resultant flow vector from the combination of the steepest non-diagonal
pixel flow vector and the next steepest adjacent non-diagonal vector as outlined in Figure
3-15.
Figure 3-15 : Calculation of Flow Direction
Flow from each pixel is then routed through all downslope pixels until a subcatchment outlet
(or DEM boundary) is reached. The algorithm treats the flow path as a line and records the
entry and exit points of the flow path through all pixels as a vector quantity such as illustrated
in Figure 3-16.
35
Figure 3-16 : Vector Flow Path
As shown above, the described algorithm considers flow as a vector quantity flowing through
a raster DEM. This technique has distinct advantages over more common approaches which
consider flow as a raster quantity. In particular, it allows a greater representation of flow
direction over hill-slopes and has greater sensitivity to flow divergence or convergence. For
example, Figure 3-17 depicts parts of the CatchmentSIM flow paths mapped for 9
neighbouring pixels.
Figure 3-17 : Path Mapping Capabilities of CatchmentSIM
The distribution of flow paths can be seen in the lower right pixel in Figure 3-17 where flow
paths from upstream pixels are distributed between both of this pixel's downslope pixels,
based on where the flow paths entered the pixel. This cannot be accommodated in raster
based flow routing techniques and allows for a more accurate representation of flow
distribution, and calculated drainage-path length / slope statistics. CatchmentSIMs flow
routing algorithm is analysed in more detail the following section.
3.8.2
Comparison of Flow Routing Methods
Since the flow routing algorithm is of vital importance to CatchmentSIMs algorithms it is

worth comparing it to the commonly applied D8 method utilised by most other terrain
analysis packages.
The key disadvantage of the D8 method is it snaps flow to one of eight directions (whereas
CatchmentSIMs flow algorithm can be any angle 0-360). The approximation of drainage
area to 22.5 degree increments might seem like a small loss in accuracy but this error can
propagate over an area of consistent slope as demonstrated in Figure 3-18.
36
Figure 3-18 : Propagation of D8 Error Downslope
This type of error can also be observed in real catchments. For example, the flow paths
generated by the D8 algorithm and the CatchmentSIM algorithm for 6 sample points in a
catchment are compared in Figure 3-19, superimposed over the contours used to interpolate
the DEM.
Figure 3-19 : D8 Flow Paths vs CatchmentSIM Algorithm
It can be seen in Figure 3-19 that significant deviations in the calculated flow paths exist for
several of the sample points. The tendency of the D8 method to snap to cardinal or diagonal
directions due to its limitation of eight potential directions can be clearly seen in the lower left
sample points. In these cases the D8 flow paths are snapping to 45 degree lines since this is
the closest approximation to local slope that the D8 algorithm can generate. The
CatchmentSIM flow paths originating from these sample points can be seen to flow more
perpendicularly to the contours. Consequently, they are more hydrologically accurate.
The effect of the errors associated with the D8 method can be seen to follow through into
subcatchment delineation. The subcatchment boundary delineated from the same outlet
point using the D8 and CatchmentSIM flow routing algorithm can be seen in Figure 3-20.
37
Figure 3-20 : Basin Delineation, D8 Method vs CatchmentSIM
The tendency of the D8 method to snap to diagonal and cardinal directions can again be
seen in Figure 3-20, where the D8 generated boundary is biased towards the 45 angle and
does not correctly identify the ridge line between the stream confluences. As shown in Figure
3-20, the two algorithms converge when they reach more defined ridge lines with stronger
contour curvature. As such, the error introduced by the D8 method will be more pronounced
in the outlet areas of subcatchments. The significant problem with quantifying this error is that
it will be a function of the size of the subcatchment being delineated. This is because the
length of the subcatchment boundary segment that does not follow major ridge lines will
become a larger proportion of the total subcatchment boundary as subcatchment area
decreases. As a result, the proportional error associated with the D8 method will become
more pronounced the higher the discretisation of the catchment. This is an undesirable
attribute of the method because higher catchment discretisation is usually undertaken to
facilitate more accurate hydrologic modelling. Thus, if the D8 method is being applied then
a user may inadvertently be introducing greater errors while attempting to gain greater
accuracy.
3.9
Stream Network Analysis

CatchmentSIM allows for the generation of stream networks which are used to define
relationships between subcatchments and to determine hydrological measures such as
drainage density, average flow length and stream / surface slopes. Stream networks also
form the basis for the automatic catchment break-up algorithms incorporated within
CatchmentSIM.
CatchmentSIM can calculate raster streams (Runoff Routing >> Draw Raster Stream Pixels
page 93) or vector stream networks (Runoff Routing >> Draw Edit Vector Stream page 92)
with Horton / Strahler ordering based on channel head identification and the
aforementioned vector flow routing algorithm.
3.9.1
Development of Stream Network
The first phase of generating a stream network is identifying channel heads, the points at
which accumulated runoff can be considered a stream. Channel heads can be identified in
CatchmentSIM utilising a number of options. These include Stream Area Threshold (SAT) or
combination of SAT with Minimum Source Channel Length (MSCL). CatchmentSIM also
allows for quantitative assessment of the minimum SAT value that can be adopted whilst
preserving the geomorphologic properties of dendritic stream networks (refer page 115).
38

Raster streams simply refer to a collection of the pixels which have a flow accumulation value
(number of upslope pixels) greater than the SAT value.
With regard to vector streams, flow is mapped from each channel head and intersections are
recorded. Following this, Horton / Strahler ordering is calculated in accordance with the
methodology outlined by Strahler (1957) and illustrated in Figure 3-21.
Figure 3-21 : Strahler's (1957) Revision of Horton Stream Ordering
Mapping of vector streams results in a set of connected vector polylines with Horton /
Strahler orders calculated for each line segment. This can be displayed in CatchmentSIM with
differing colours and line styles for each stream order and analysed with a variety of charts
and derived hydrologic parameters (refer page 68).
Quantitative Assessment of SAT Value

CatchmentSIM has the capability to assess the geomorphologic properties of a stream
network and check to ensure it is consistent with observed stream laws as defined by Broscoe
(1959), Horton (1945) and Strahler (1957). If the stream network does not conform to these
laws then the stream network may not have been generated at an appropriate SAT.
CatchmentSIM provides analysis tools to determine the minimum SAT that can be utilised to
generate a geomorphologically suitable stream network (refer page 115). This is an
important step because the stream network may be the basis for subcatchment break-up and
hydrologic analysis.
3.10
Automated Catchment Break-up

Subcatchments can be automatically delineated by CatchmentSIM on the basis of either user
definition or automated assignment of subcatchment outlet pixels. The subcatchments are
then mapped by applying the flow routing algorithm to every pixel in the DEM and assigning
each pixel as an attribute of the subcatchment outlet they first flow through. The program
also calculates distance to subcatchment outlet and flow accumulation values at this time,
and stores them in the hydrologic database.
39

As outlined previously, subcatchments are defined by their outlet pixels. There are a number
of techniques to set the outlet pixels for the subcatchments including:
Direct input of outlet pixel(s) row and column numbers into a dialog box;
Individual selection of pixel(s) by clicking on the screen;
Importing subcatchment outlets from a GIS database; and,
Drawing an outlet line which is then automatically rasterised to derive the

outlet pixel(s).
CatchmentSIM also includes two algorithms designed to automatically break-up a catchment

into its major subcatchments by identification of significant points of lateral inflow
(Subcatchments >> Breakup Subcatchment page 101). The first of these algorithms
requires the user to set a target number of subcatchments and then the catchment is
automatically divided into this many subcatchments, based on the largest jumps in the flow
accumulation matrix. The second algorithm works by identifying all subcatchments formed by
intersections of stream segments in the vector stream network of particular Horton / Strahler
orders. These algorithms can be used to reduce the subjectivity of subcatchment break-up
and greatly increase the speed of the process. The second algorithm is probably the most
objective approach because it neither requires the user to designate the subcatchment outlet
locations nor the actual number of subcatchments. Furthermore, it could be expected that
subcatchments of a similar Horton / Strahler order would have similar hydrologic properties.
These two subcatchment break-up algorithms are described in the following sections as well
as Section 5.4133).
3.10.1
Flow Accumulation Jump Analysis
When using the flow accumulation jump algorithm (Subcatchments >> Breakup
Subcatchment page 101), the user simply designates a target number of subcatchments
and the algorithm will automatically break up the catchment into the correct number of
subcatchments. The algorithm works based on finding the largest jumps in the flow
accumulation grid values between pixels in streams and their downstream neighbour which
indicates lateral inflow of a significant tributary. Figure 3-22 illustrates the subcatchment
break-up achieved by the automated subcatchment break-up algorithm using 3 different
target subcatchment values.
40
Figure 3-22 : Flow Accumulation Jump Break-up Algorithm
3.10.2
Horton / Strahler Subcatchment Break-up
The Horton / Strahler based catchment break-up algorithm (Subcatchments >> Breakup
Subcatchment page 101) requires the user to first generate a vector stream network by
selection of an appropriate SAT value. This can be based on quantitative analysis of SAT
derived networks as outlined in Section 3.9.1 (page 38) or by generation of a stream network
that closely matches an observed stream layer. At this point, a user can select what order
subcatchments to delineate. For example, if a user selects 3rd order subcatchments then
subcatchment outlets will be placed upstream and downstream of all intersections in the
stream network where two or more of the tributaries have an order greater than or equal to
3. As a result, the total number of subcatchments as well as the precise location of
subcatchment outlets will be a function of the hydrologic properties of the vector stream
network. An example of the subcatchment break-up achieved on a sample catchment when
delineating subcatchments of differing Horton / Strahler orders in shown in Figure 3-23.
42
Figure 3-23 : Horton Catchment Break-up Algorithm
43

Utilising the Horton / Strahler ordering approach to catchment break-up provides the
foundations for a standardised approach to lumped hydrologic modelling and reduces the
guesswork involved in designation of the number of subcatchments and location of the
subcatchment outlet points. For example, if a standard SAT is adopted for a specific
geographic region then any lumped hydrologic modelling applied in this area could use
Horton / Strahler based catchment break-up of a particular order to discretise the catchment.
This would remove the subjectivity in selecting the number of subcatchments to use and their
outlet locations, thus offering a more objective approach to catchment discretisation.
3.11
Nodal Network Arrangement

All subcatchments that are delineated are automatically networked by CatchmentSIM to
provide hydrologic connectivity. Labelling can be turned on in the View Attributes form (View
>> View Attributes page 67). This ensures that CatchmentSIM projects are compatible with
downstream hydrologic and hydraulic models which may be coupled with the software. An
example of the subcatchment networking methodology and associated labelling is illustrated
in Figure 3-24.
Figure 3-24 : Sample CatchmentSIM Nodal Network Arrangement
The labelling methodology is designed to identify the significance of the upstream tributary to
the left of the decimal point, and the subcatchment position in the tributary network to the
right of the decimal place. A number of options are available to customise the labelling
approach (File >> Project Options | Subcatchment Labelling page 59). These include
determining the tributary significance based on decreasing maximum stream length rather
than in downstream order of lateral influx and using alphabetic letters instead of integers to
the right of the decimal point.
44
3.12
Urbanisation Tools
CatchmentSIM includes a range of tools designed to accommodate representation of urban
areas in a project. Firstly, CatchmentSIM allows calculation of impervious area proportions
for subcatchments (Vector GIS Data >> Impervious Areas page 75) which is a parameter
required for almost all hydrologic models. Furthermore, CatchmentSIM offers a more
comprehensive method of urban analysis. Realistic modelling of runoff in urban areas
requires consideration of the numerous processes that may be in play during a rainfall event
in an urbanised catchment. These processes may include roof, downpipe, fencing, roads,
footpaths, gutters and piped drainage systems (Goyen and OLoughlin 1999).
CatchmentSIM accommodates individual representation of several of these processes by
modelling individual flow path deviations occurring as a result of urban hydraulic controls
(Runoff Routing >> Hydraulic Controls page 93) such as roads, gutters and channels
networks.
3.12.1
Impervious Area Database
CatchmentSIM provides capability for a database of impervious areas to be maintained

within each project (Vector GIS Data >> Impervious Areas page 75). This database can
be constructed by drawing impervious area polygons on the screen or importing them from
external GIS databases. These polygons can each have a description, percentage impervious
and on / off state. Users can simply turn individual polygon on or off, alter their attributes or
group select and manipulate them based on particular attributes (such as selecting all
polygons labelled as 'Road'). An example of the impervious area database can be seen in
Figure 3-25.
Figure 3-25 : Impervious Areas Database
45

CatchmentSIM can accommodate complex polygons such as concave or convex polygons,
or multi-region (island) polygons. An example of an island polygon can be seen in Figure
3-26 as well as in Figure 3-25 (closest to the 1.06 subcatchment label). CatchmentSIM will
automatically calculate impervious percentages for each subcatchment based on the
impervious area polygons, their individual impervious proportions, and the background
impervious proportion. The background impervious proportion is an impervious proportion
that is applied to all areas outside of the impervious area polygons. This value is designed to
represent sporadic impervious areas such as rocky outcrops etc, it may be set at any value
between 0 and 100%. CatchmentSIM calculates impervious areas by determining which
DEM pixels are within impervious area polygons and tallying their area multiplied by the
impervious proportion assigned to the impervious area polygon. The algorithm
CatchmentSIM utilises to determine if a DEM pixel is within a polygon is based on
constructing a horizontal line in one direction from the centroid of the DEM pixel and
counting the number of intersections with the polygon boundary. An odd number of
intersections indicates that the DEM pixel is within the polygon whereas 0 or an even number
of intersections indicates that the DEM pixel is outside the polygon boundary (or inside an
island).
Figure 3-26 : Rasterisation of Impervious Area Polygons
3.12.2
Modelling of Hydraulic Structures
CatchmentSIM includes a number of tools to help model flow paths in urban environments.
Urban structures have a significant effect on flow paths in urban areas and they are usually
not represented in source GIS data such as DEMs or contour and stream alignments. As
such, they need to be added into a CatchmentSIM project as an addition to the source GIS
data. This can be achieved by one of two approaches. Firstly, the urban structures can be
hard-coded into the DEM by changing the elevations of relevant DEM pixels to cause flow
paths to act in a realistic manner in the vicinity of urban structures. Alternatively, urban
structures can be modelled in CatchmentSIM as supplementary objects that control flow
paths when they intersect the alignment of an urban structure. Modelling urban structures in
this way does not require the DEM pixel elevations to be altered. Furthermore, each
individual urban control can be turned on or off, and flow paths and subcatchment layouts
may be regenerated easily. This is valuable when analysing drainage studies for hydrologic
events of differing magnitudes where particular urban structures may only be relevant for
certain storm magnitudes, or during flood mitigation scenario analysis.
CatchmentSIM accommodates both of these modelling approaches. An example of hardcoding urban structures into the DEM is presented in Figure 3-27, where road crown
alignments were hard-coded into DEM by raising all pixels along the road crowns by 0.5
metres using CatchmentSIM's vector data set operations (Digital Elevation Model >> Vector
Dataset Operations page 90). The PFS algorithm was then applied to remove resultant flat
and pit pixels and breach the road crowns at their points of lowest elevation.
46
Figure 3-27 : Effect of Hard-Coding of Road Crowns on Stream Network
As shown in Figure 3-27, the calculated stream network has been strongly affected by the
hard-coding of urban structures. For more detail on how hard-coding of urban structures can
aid hydrologic modelling, see the Holland Park Local Stormwater Management Plan case
study shown in Section 6.1 (page 143).
Alternatively, urban structures can be modelled separately using CatchmentSIM's hydraulic
control tools. These tools allow representation of channels and gutters in a CatchmentSIM
project that act as overriding flow controls. These hydraulic controls are described in the
following sections.
3.12.3
Channel Type Hydraulic Controls
Channel type hydraulic controls (Runoff Routing >> Hydraulic Controls page 93) are
drawn in CatchmentSIM as a solid line with triangles pointing in the direction of the line
towards the channel outlet
and by one of the following symbols in the
or
. These controls have the effect of forcing
Hydraulic Controls Form
flow paths that intersect with these controls to follow the channel until its outlet point
regardless of whether this involves upstream flow, or flow in a direction that does not
represent the steepest downslope direction at that point in the DEM. These hydraulic controls
should be used when a user wishes to completely override the DEM and force flow to follow
a pre-determined path. Channel type hydraulic controls should be used to represent
drainage channels or urban flow paths that are not represented in the DEM or source
contour data. A stream network can also be imported as channel type hydraulic controls to
force flow to follow an existing stream network as shown in Figure 3-28.
47
Figure 3-28 : Using a Stream Network as Channel Hydraulic Controls
3.12.4
Gutter Type Hydraulic Controls
Gutter type hydraulic controls (Runoff Routing >> Hydraulic Controls page 93) are drawn
in CatchmentSIM as a solid line with triangles pointing at a perpendicular angle to the
direction of the line
and by one of the following symbols in the Hydraulic
Controls form
or
. The triangles point in the direction in which flow is
allowed to pass over the hydraulic control.
When a flow path intersects a gutter type hydraulic control, flow will still follow the DEM
calculated steepest descent within the restrictions imposed on the flow direction by the gutter.
If the flow direction would see the flow path crossing the gutter (against the direction of the
arrows) then it is restricted from doing so. Instead, flow is allowed to travel along the gutter
provided this direction represents a downslope gradient. If neither of the along-gutter
directions are downslope then the flow path is trapped. The gutter processing algorithm will
then search along the gutter in both directions within a specified tolerance for a pixel of
lower elevation. If such a pixel is found within the tolerance then the flow path will be
mapped to this point, and the algorithm is re-applied at the new location. The tolerance may
be in the form of a set number of pixels or a set elevation. The effect of this algorithm is to
simulate ponding at low points behind gutters which would in reality fill the pixel elevation
and allow flow to progress to pixels of higher elevation provided they are lower than the
height of the gutter. The gutter height is simulated in CatchmentSIM by utilising an elevation
tolerance. If a pixel of lower elevation is not found within the specified tolerance then a
hydraulic breach is formed and the flow path is permitted to breach the gutter. This can be
seen in Figure 3-29 where flow paths travel along the gutter until the searching algorithm
fails to find a suitable downslope pixel along the structure and a hydraulic breach occurs.
48
Figure 3-29 : Hydraulic Representation of Gutters
3.13
Hydrologic Analysis Tools

A range of hydrologic analysis tools have been incorporated into CatchmentSIM to aid users
in understanding the differing hydrologic properties of subcatchments within their project.
These tools include parameter calculation and charting capabilities.
CatchmentSIM includes a range of charts to help investigate the hydrologic properties of
subcatchments, these include :
Downslope flow path long-sections;
Cross-section charting;
Downstream flow distance vs proportion of in-stream pixels;
Stream Area Threshold (SAT) vs raster drainage density;
Stream order vs stream numbers (bifurcation);
Cumulative stream length vs stream order;
Relative area vs relative height (hypsometric curve);
Stream order vs channel drop; and,
Stream Area Threshold (SAT) vs stream drop relationship vs bifurcation.
More information and an in-depth description of how these charts can be used to examine
subcatchment hydrologic characteristics is given on page 106.
CatchmentSIM also has the ability to generate animations of parameter variation over a
catchment (Analysis >> Create Animation page 117).
49
3.14
Coupling with 3rd Party Applications

The vast amount of hydrologic and topographic information that can be produced by
automated hydrologic analysis of DEMs is not useful unless it can be transitioned into any
downstream modelling software that a user may wish to apply. This process is called
coupling and is accommodated in CatchmentSIM by a flexible internal result export macro
language. This language is called CSTalk and enables the creation of input files for any
computer software package regardless of its operating system (UNIX, Windows) or file type
(binary or text).
Many coupling scripts are distributed with the CatchmentSIM software and additional scripts
are available on the project website. Some of the 3rd party applications that can be coupled
with CatchmentSIM using the aforementioned macro scripts include:
Runoff Analysis & Flow Training Simulation (RAFTS-XP)
Watershed Bounded Network Model (WBNM)
RORB
URBS
Hydrologic Modeling System (HEC-HMS).
DRAINS
CSTalk scripts can also be written by the user to allow integration with in-house software
applications or 3rd party software applications that do not yet have available CSTalk scripts. A
number of users have developed their own CSTalk scripts and some of these are also
available on the website. These include:
A modified version of the URBS script developed by the Bureau of Meteorology in

Brisbane, Australia. They developed this script to be compatible with in-house
software for rainfall interpolation.
A modified version of the RAFTS-XP scripts developed by Patterson Britton & Partners
in Sydney, Australia. This script was developed to accommodate an alternative type of
subcatchment routing of impervious areas.
The coupling methodology provided by the CSTalk language is illustrated in Figure 3-30. A
manual and reference guide for writing CSTalk scripts is also available.
50
2. User selects appropriate

export macro script based on
preferred hydrologic model.
1. User completes catchment
and subcatchment delineation in
CatchmentSIM.
3. Script automatically generates input

files for hydrologic model based on
project attributes.
Figure 3-30 : CatchmentSIM Coupling Methodology
4. Files can be directly opened by

hydrologic model.
Development of GIS Techniques for Automated Topographic and Hydrologic AnalysisCase Studies and Applications
Since CSTalk scripts can produce files in any format, they are also commonly used to
develop standardised report formats for professional organisations. For example, Patterson
Britton and Partners developed a CSTalk script that automatically generates a Rich Text File
(*.rtf) with the standardised report template shown in Figure 3-31. The data columns that
cannot be read directly from a CatchmentSIM project, such as rainfall loss coefficients are
obtain through a series of script-generated dialog boxes.
Figure 3-31 : Sample CST Script Generated Report
This method of generating standardised reports represents a fully customisable technique to

create tailored reports and analysis which can be replicated over a wide range of projects. It
is much quicker than manual development of such tables which is the normal approach and
also eliminates data entry errors.
CatchmentSIMs coupling language is a simple text language that can be easily mastered by
most users. It allows seamless coupling between CatchmentSIM and any other software
which has a published file format. Software products that do not have published file formats
usually have input file formats that are published. Hence, CatchmentSIM can usually be
coupled with these applications.
3.15
Summary
As outlined in the preceding sections, CatchmentSIM incorporates a range of algorithms for
digital terrain analysis and hydrologic analysis. These include algorithms for the interpolation
of a raster DEM from contour and watercourse alignment data. These include advances on
current implementations of profile based DEM interpolation algorithms by utilising variable

vector search ray frequency and flat cross-section discounting. The watercourse integration
algorithm enables non 3D information to be incorporated into the DEM and ensures that
valley areas are accurately defined within the DEM, which effectively preserves the observed
stream network in the project.
Flat and pit pixels may then be removed from the DEM using an iterative filling algorithm or
an advanced PFS based breaching algorithm. The PFS algorithm is based on the work of
Jones (2002) but has been improved by incorporation of a number of modifications
including elevation prioritised processing and 3 parameters (see page 34) designed to
optimise the speed and accuracy of the algorithm.
CatchmentSIMs flow routing algorithm is based on the research of Lea (1992). However,
important modifications have been made to increase speed and ensure flow paths can no
longer travel towards, or cross into, pixels of higher elevation. The modified version of the
flow routing algorithm accurately models flow paths on hill-slopes and within channels (as
demonstrated in Section 3.8.2, page 36). Furthermore, since multiple flow direction
algorithms switch to the D8 method in stream channels (using the maximum cross grading
area parameter), it is the only algorithm that allows for generation of stream networks that
are not based on the D8 method.
CatchmentSIMs flow routing algorithm has flow-on improvements in many subsequent parts
of an analysis including automated catchment break-up and hydrologic analysis. Due to the
algorithms accurate calculation of flow path length statistics, a number of new charting and
analysis functions may be introduced which are not available using other flow routing
algorithms.
The urban tools incorporated within CatchmentSIM allow for the software to be applied in
regions where the DEM is not entirely representative of the local flow constraints which is
commonly the case in urban areas. These tools enable processing of urbanised catchments
that would otherwise be difficult, if not impossible, for application by such techniques.
The CSTalk macro language provides a simple method for coupling of CatchmentSIM with
any hydrologic or hydraulic computer model. Furthermore, the language provides for the
automatic generation of customised report formats improving quality control and eliminating
data transfer errors. The development of CSTalk scripts for Australian hydrologic models such
as RAFTS-XP, WBNM, RORB, URBS and DRAINS provides the first available GIS coupling
capabilities for many of these programs.
Chapter 4 is a reference guide for every available menu option within CatchmentSIM
documented in the order in which they are listed.
53
4 Program Reference
This Chapter documents every menu item and dialog box within CatchmentSIM. They are
described in the order that they appear in the menus.
4.1
Menus and Dialogs

4.1.1
54
File Menu
Program Reference
New Project (Ctrl+N)
The new project form is used to setup a new CatchmentSIM project. This form requires the
project projection to be set as well as the design plane for the project. The project must also
be assigned a filename and location. Optional text information can also be added at this
stage.
Project information
(optional)
Set project
Filename
Projection
Properties
Set projection (list,

custom or read)
Set design plane

extents
Scaling factors (if

data not in metres)
Project Information
The project information is optional and these fields may be filled to provide information
regarding the project, when it was created and by whom. This information can later be
accessed by CST macro scripts to transfer the information into downstream models.
55

Projection
After selecting the Set Projection button, the projection form will appear allowing selection of
a projection class and sub class for the project. Differing projections conserve different
properties of the data and all introduce some distortion. Selection of an appropriate
projection is an important part of an analysis.
Like most GIS systems, CatchmentSIM supports projections of the earth into Cartesian based
coordinates. CatchmentSIM projects can be undertaken in any projection and custom
projections can be created to suit a particular project minimising distortion for the project.
While CatchmentSIM can be used in any projections, it only supports conversion of data
from one projection to another for a limited number of transformation types, these include:
Mercator;
Transverse Mercator;
Albers Equal Area Conic;
Lambert Conformal Conic; and.
Polyconic
A wide range of datums are supported for each of these transformations.

If you have selected a projection for which CatchmentSIM does not support forward/inverse
conversion, you will be notified. It does not pose a problem to continue to work in such a
projection, however, all input data will need to be in the same projection.
If you do not know the projection of your data, select a Non-Earth projection. However, all
input data will need to be in the same coordinate system.
56
Program Reference
Note:
CatchmentSIM also allows projects to be undertaken in geographic

coordinates (lat/long) however, calculation of areas, lengths and other
parameters is disabled when using lat/long coordinates.
If you wish to create a custom projection for the project, select the Custom Projection button.
This will bring up the Custom Projection form.
The custom projection form allows the selection of a wide range of ellipsoids, projection type
and designation of the required parameters for the selected projection. A custom ellipsoid
can also be defined.
Note:
When exporting data from a project that utilised a custom projection,

you will need to select a standard projection for the data to exported in.
CatchmentSIM will undertake the required conversion.
Design Plane
The design plane needs to be assigned in the New Project form. The design plane is the
easting and northing extents of the project. The design plane can be as large as desired and
may be larger (but not smaller) than the intended DEM. All input data will be clipped to the
extents of the design plane minimising file sizes and processing times. The design plane
extents must be in the same units as the projection before the OK button is pressed.
However, they can be converted from other coordinates using the Convert Projection button.
Simply enter the coordinates of the design plane extents in any coordinates, then click
57

Convert Projection, which will prompt for the source projection of the coordinates and then
for the projection in which to convert the coordinates (this should be the same as the
adopted project projection.
The design plane extents can also be read as the extents of a GIS file. However, use this
function with cautious as some GIS software do not appropriately define the data extents
when creating output GIS files.
Scaling Factors
Scaling factor allow for the use of data that is not in the units of metres. If data is in feet or
other units then enter appropriate scaling factors for the x and y dimensions.
Open Project (Ctrl+0)

The Open Project function opens an existing CatchmentSIM project. Projects created in
previous versions of CatchmentSIM will be converted to the latest version prior to opening.
Note:
58
CatchmentSIM may or may not read projects created in more recent

versions of CatchmentSIM successfully, it is safer to update your
CatchmentSIM version.
Program Reference
Project Options
The Project Options form is composed of 6 tabs containing a range of parameters required
for the CatchmentSIM algorithms. Each tab will be described in succession.
The General tab of the Project Options form includes a number of parameters including:
Basin Identification Length: This integer value controls how CatchmentSIM

determines the downstream subcatchment from a subcatchment outlet. CatchmentSIM
determines the lowest elevation outlet pixel for a subcatchment and maps the
downstream flow path from this point for the Basin Identification Length number of
pixels. At this point, the subcatchment the flow path is located within is determined to
be the downstream subcatchment. This parameter may need to be adjusted higher if
subcatchments with many outlet pixels are defined or lower if the catchment is
discretised into many small subcatchment (of only a small number of pixels each) to
ensure correct network topology.
Stream Burning Depth: This decimal parameter governs how deep stream will be
burnt when the stream burning function is implemented (Digital Elevation Model >>
Develop DEM >> Stream Burning page 81). For more information see
Section 3.5.2, page 28.
Time Out Error Threshold: When using hydraulic controls such as gutters and
channels, circular flow paths can be created which will crash CatchmentSIM if flow
processing is initiated. To identify any problem areas, the Runoff Routing >> Draw
Pixel Flow Path (page 91) tool can be used. This algorithm will inform the user of any
invalid flow circles in the downslope flow path. This parameter is multiplied by
59

#rows+#cols to ensure the parameters scales itself correctly. It shouldnt be
necessary to adjust this parameter.
Stream Intersection Tolerance: When the watercourse interpolation algorithm is applied
(Digital Elevation Model >> Develop DEM >> Interpolate Watercourses page 80)
CatchmentSIM analyses all intersections in the imported stream network to piece together the
stream network and process watercourses in order of decreasing significance. This parameter
defined how close together stream lines need to terminate (in terms of square root of easting
deviation squared plus northing deviation squared) to be considered to join. This parameter
may need to be adjusted up if the stream network has been manually digitised and
intersections have not been snapped. However, setting this parameter too high will cause
false junctions, circular flow paths and may cause errors.
The Flat and Pit Removal tab of the Project Options form includes parameters for
CatchmentSIMs two methods of flat and pit removal, namely the Filling Algorithm and PFS
algorithm. These parameter include:
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Pixel Filling Increment: This parameter indicates the elevation added to flat pixels in
each iteration of the filling algorithm. For more information see Section 3.6.1
(page 29) or Digital Elevation Model >> Remove Flat and Pits Using Filling
Algorithm (page 86).
PFS Minimum Gradient: This parameter governs the minimum gradient that must be
observed over the PFS solution channel before the algorithm will determine that a
solution has been found. This parameter can be adjusted to ensure legitimate PFS
solutions are found and that rounding errors do not cause PFS solution channels to
become flat. For example, if the PFS minimum gradient is too low then a very shallow
slope may be calculated over the PFS channel. After linear interpolation is applied to
Program Reference
determine pixel elevation over the channel, these elevation will be rounded to the
precision of the DEM (single or double). This can cause these pixels to become flat.
More information regarding the PFS algorithm and adjustment of its parameters is
shown in Section 3.6.2 (page 30) and Section 5.3.1 (page 129).
Treatment of Boundaries and Non-Defined Pixels: This parameter instructs the PFS
algorithm what to do if a potential solution channel encounters a DEM boundary or
blank pixel. Either the algorithm will terminate (the pit or flat will remain) or the
algorithm will continue to search ignoring the boundary or blank pixel. The default
option is to terminate the algorithm as ignoring the pixel can slow down the algorithm
considerable and may also find solution channels that are not realistic (ie., in reality
the flow path from the flat or pit pixel may actually flow across the DEM boundary). In
practise, the flat and pit pixel near the boundaries should not be in the catchment of
interest anyway. More information regarding the PFS algorithm and adjustment of its
parameters is shown in Section 3.6.2 (page 30) and Section 5.3.1 (page 129).
PFS Break Size: This parameter has been introduced for speed reasons, once the PFS
algorithm has grown very large looking for a potential solution channel over a wide
area it can slow down considerable. Once the PFS algorithm has grown to the PFS
Break Size the algorithm will terminate. If time is not a constraint this parameter can
be adjusted upward to ensure the PFS algorithm finds even the most complex
solutions.
The Stream Networks tab of the Project Options form contains the following parameters:
Stream Area Threshold: This parameter determines the number of pixels that
must drain to a single pixel before that pixel is considered a channel head
during generation of raster streams (Runoff Routing >> Draw Raster Stream
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Pixels page 93). This parameter will influence the raster drainage density.
However, the stream area threshold for vector stream generation (Runoff
Routing >> Draw / Edit Vector Streams page 92) is requested on activation
of the function and is not dependent on this parameter.
The Subcatchment labelling tab of the Project Options form governs how CatchmentSIM
labels subcatchment in the Nodal Link Arrangement and consists of the following
parameters:
Subcatchment Identifiers: This option governs wether subcatchments will be

labelled in a specific manner or simply with their internal integer code (the
order in which they were defined).
The basic CatchmentSIM labelling system starts by identifying the main stream by flow length
and will number subcatchments along this stream as 1.01, 1.02 etc downwards until the
catchment outlet. Subcatchment 2.01 will be at the head of either the next downstream
lateral inflow tributary or the head of the second longest stream depending on the option
selected in the Downstream Subcatchment Names option.
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Stream Names: This option determines if the subcatchments will be named in

numerals 1.01, 1.02 etc or letters, 1a, 1b etc.
Link Drawing: This options wether links will be draw between subcatchment centroids
and their outlet and then to the downstream subcatchment centroid or simply between
subcatchment centroids and the next downstream subcatchment centroid.
Program Reference
The Hydraulic Structures tab of the Project Options form includes parameters designed to
control the operation of Hydraulic Controls within CatchmentSIM, specifically:
HC Breach Sensitivity: This option governs how hydraulic breaches will be determined.
They can either be derived by a distance measure (pixel number threshold) or an
elevation tolerance. In the case of a distance measure, if a pixel of lower elevation
can not be found along the gutter within the pixel tolerance then a hydraulic breach is
formed and the flow path overtops the gutter. In the case of an elevation tolerance, if
a pixel of lower elevation can not be found along the gutter without gaining more
than the elevation tolerance (over the flow path along the gutter to get to the lower
elevation pixel) then a hydraulic breach is formed and the flow path will overtop the
gutter. This is designed to simulate ponding behind a gutter and eventual
overtopping. More information of Hydraulic Controls and breaches can be found in
Section 3.12.2 (page 46) and Section 5.6 (page 139).
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The Digital Elevation Model tab of the Project Options form contains parameters related to
the DEM created by CatchmentSIM, specifically:
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DEM Precision: The DEM precision parameter governs wether the DEM will be stored
as single or double precision floating point values. Single precision stores 7-8 digits
while double precision stores 15-16 digits. Selecting double precision will increase the
size of the DEM file size by 100% and total project files by around 20% and runtimes
by 20% as well as RAM requirements. Double precision may be required when using
elevation data with several digital on the left side of the decimal point such as
10450.056 ft or very flat DEMs or if you wish to use a low PFS minimum gradient
parameter.
Vector to Raster Conversion: This parameter governs wether all pixel underlying an
imported contour will be assigned the contour elevation or only those identified by the
selective vector to raster conversion algorithm. This algorithm is described in
Section 3.5.2 (page 21). It is generally accepted that selective assignment of
underlying pixels creates more realistic DEMs and thus, this is the default option.
Multiple Contours Option: This option governs what elevation will be assigned to
pixels which underlie multiple contours with differing elevations. The options are
average value (default), max, min or a max/min threshold. The max/min threshold
option is designed to ensure that the extremities in the DEM are represented by
picking the maximum contour elevation if the average value is greater than a
threshold value and the minimum contour elevation in the average value is less than
the threshold.
Program Reference
Projection Properties
The Projection Properties form lists the attributes of the projection defined for the
CatchmentSIM project. The project projection is established based on selection of a specified
projection class and subclass in the New Project form or by using the Custom Projection
form.
Import Mapping Layer

The import mapping layer menu item will add a vector GIS file (eg., ShapeFile, mid/mif to
the display. It is equivalent to selecting the Add button in the Vector Layers portion of the
View Attributes form (see page 65).
Import Raster Layer

The import raster menu item will add a raster image (eg., jpg, bmp aerial photograph) to the
display. It is equivalent to selecting the Add button in the Raster Layers portion of the View
Attributes form (see page 68).
Save Project
The save project menu item will save the project to the previously selected filename. This will
replace the previously saved version. If you wish to retain the previously saved version then
you should use the Save As option to save to a different file name.
Save Project As
The save project as menu item will prompt the user to save the project to a new filename.
65

Print
The print menu option will bring up the Print Preview form which illustrates what the printed
document will look like.
The print preview form allows you to visually select between portrait and landscape model
and access the print manager form in order to change printers, paper sizes etc. This form can
be accessed from the File >> Print menu or the Print Chart button on the Chart Wizard
form.
Exit Program (Ctrl+Alt+Q)

The exit program menu option will quit CatchmentSIM. If project changes have not been
saved you will be prompted to save changes.
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Program Reference
4.1.2
View Menu
View Attributes (F2)

The View Attributes form allows the user to customise the current display by selecting which
layers are displayed, their colours, their display order and other properties (which may be
depended on the layer selected). The top checklist box shows vector (line based) layers
whereas the bottom checklist layer shows raster layers. Raster layers are always displayed
underneath vector layers. The Control Colours tab allows the user to edit colours for various
CatchmentSIM graphics such as flow path mapping and display of flat / pit pixels.
Vector Layers
Change colour of
selected vector
layer
Add vector layer
(eg., ESRI ShpFile,
MID/MIF)
Project information
(optional)
Update display
order (raster always
on bottom)
DEM DEM
Display Dialog
Add raster image
(eg., air photo)
Remove raster
image (eg., air
photo)
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Vector layer will appear in the Vector Layers checklist box once they are available. For
example, contours, streams and impervious areas will appear once they have been imported,
basin outlets will appear once they have been defined (Subcatchments >> Add
Subcatchment page 99), subcatchment boundaries, synthetic stream network will appear
once they have been generated (Runoff Routing >> Draw/Edit Vector Streams page 92)
and subcatchment boundaries will appear once they have been mapped. The Nodal Link
Arrangement will appear when there is more than 1 subcatchment.
The DEM will appear in the Raster Layers checklist box once it has been setup (Digital
Elevation Model >> Setup Digital Elevation Model page 78).
Nodal Link Arrangement Display Properties

The buttons associated with the Vector Layers may change according to the vector layer that
is selected. The Show Labels checkbox will only appear if the Nodal Link Arrangement is
selected. This option controls wether label are displayed in the nodal network or simply lines
(more options regarding the nodal link arrangement can be set in the Project Options Dialog
(see page 59).
Synthetic Stream Network Display Properties

If vector streams have been generated (Runoff Routing >> Draw/Edit Vector Streams
page 92) then the display of the Synthetic Stream Network may be selected in the Vector
Layers and a Properties button will appear. Select this button to edit the display properties for
the Synthetic Stream Network which will generate the following form.
This form allows stream segments of each Horton order to be displayed in a different colour,
width and style (see Section 3.9, page 38).
Display of Raster Images

Raster images may be added to a project from the File >> Import Raster Image (page 65)
menu option or the Add button on the View Attributes Form. These options will prompt you to
select the raster images file and enter geo-referencing information. This information can later
be altered by selecting the Raster Layer in the View Attributes Form and selecting the
Properties button.
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Program Reference
There are two interactive methods for geo-referencing a raster image as well as two
numerical standards for storing the geo-referencing data. At this stage, CatchmentSIM does
not support rotation of images, thus, raster images must be aligned with the north/south,
east/west axis of the adopted projection.
If the image boundary coordinates or pixel size is known then the image may be manually
geo-referenced by typing the information in after selecting the appropriate referencing
standard. If the coordinates of the image boundary are known then the 3 Point Image Corner
Coordinates standard can be used. However, if the bottom left coordinates and pixel size (in
map units) are known then the Bottom Left Coordinates and Pixel Size standard can be used.
If coordinate information is not known, the image may be geo-referenced visually. The Drag
and Drop On Screen button will cause the form to disappear and then the user is requested
to select the diagonal corners of the images location by reference to the displayed map
information. A rectangle will be drawn as the cursor is moved (after input of the first point) to
help visualise the image location. Once the second point has been added, the form will
reappear and the relevant coordinate information is added. At this stage the Move Image By
2 Point Dragging option may be used to fine tune the image location. This option allows the
image to be re-scaled by associating two known points on the image with their real locations.
After clicking the button, the form will disappear. First click a point on the image and then
click its proper location, after repeating this twice, the image will be automatically rescaled,
the form will reappear and coordinate information will have been updated.
Note:
The Drag and Drop On Screen option must be used before the Move
Image By 2 Point Dragging option can be used.
Display of DEM
To customise the display of the DEM, select the Digital Elevation
Model layer and select the Properties button.
There are a number of options regarding how the DEM is displayed.
It may be displayed using a variety of colour gradients and the
maximum/minimum display elevations may be adjusted. The DEM
may also be displayed as a Shaded Relief Diagram.
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Max/min elevation
for DEM Display
Set max/min to
project max/min
Set max/min to max/min

in current window
Shaded relief
parameters
Zoom In
The zoom in menu option will change the cursor to a magnifying glass and allow you to
zoom into a selected portion of the screen. Click with the left mouse button and that location
will become the centre of the next view.
Zoom Out
The zoom in menu option will change the cursor to a magnifying glass and allow you to
zoom out of the current view. Click with the left mouse button and that location will become
the centre of the next view.
Pan View
The pan view menu option allows the screen to be panned without changing the zoom level.
It requires the user to click and hold the left mouse button. The location of the click will move
to the location of the click release in the new view.
Set Zoom Window

The set zoom window menu option allows you to designate a specific rectangle that defines
the extents of the next view. To do this, click twice with the left mouse button to identify to
corners of the view window. After the first click a rectangle should appear with the same
aspect ratio as the current view illustrating the view extents that will be produced if the second
click is recorded with the current mouse position.
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Program Reference
Fit View
The fit view menu option will zoom the current view to display the full extent of the design
plane.
Refresh (F1)
The refresh menu option redraws the current view.
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4.1.3
Vector GIS Data Menu
Import 3D Contours
The import 3D contours menu option allows for the import of a contours GIS files (eg.,
ShapeFile, mid/mif) into the CatchmentSIM contours database. This option should be used if
a DEM is to be interpolated from contours.
Since contour elevation needs to be included, you will be asked to designate the data
column in the GIS file that holds the elevation data relevant to each polyline or line segment.
This data column should be a decimal or integer value.
Import Stream / Flow Lines

The import stream / flow lines menu option allows for the import of a stream alignment file
into the CatchmentSIM streams database. This option should be used if a DEM is to be
interpolated by contour rasterisation and watercourse interpolation or if the Digital Elevation
Model >> Utilities >> Interpolate Streams Over Existing DEM (page 89) algorithm is to be
used (see page 89).
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Program Reference
Since stream alignment GIS files do not usually have elevation tags, you will not be
requested to identify a GIS data column for elevation values as for the import contours
option.
Inspect Contour Elevation

The inspect contour elevation menu option allows you to visually probe the contours
database to determine the elevation tag for a selected contour line. Use the left mouse
button to select a contour line. A dialog box will pop-up indicating the recorded elevation for
contour line. The selected contour line will temporarily be displayed in red.
Draw Contour Line

The draw contour line menu option allows contours to be manually Heads Up Digitised
(HUD) in CatchmentSIM. After selecting this menu option use the left mouse button to place
each vertex and click the right mouse button when youre finished. You will then be prompted
for the contour line elevation. This option can be used to supplement the contours database
to allow for a more accurate DEM interpolation from contours as outlined in Section 3.5.2,
page 24).
Draw Stream Line

The draw stream line menu option allows stream alignments to be manually Heads Up
Digitised (HUD) in CatchmentSIM. After selecting this menu option use the left mouse button
to place each vertex and click the right mouse button when youre finished. This option can
be used to create or supplement the stream alignment database to allow for a more accurate
DEM interpolation using watercourse interpolation as outlined in Section 3.5.2 (page 24).
Manually digitised stream alignments may also be useful to treat imported DEMs using the e
Digital Elevation Model >> Utilities >> Interpolate Streams Over Existing DEM (page 89)
algorithm.
Draw Interpolation Training Line

The draw Interpolation Training Line menu option allows ITLs to be manually digitised in
CatchmentSIM. After selecting this menu option use the left mouse button to place each
vertex and click the right mouse button when youre finished. ITLs are used within
CatchmentSIM to improve the DEM interpolation from contour and watercourses as outlined
in Section 3.5.2 (page 25).
Delete Contour Line

The delete contour line menu option allows a contour line to be deleted from the database.
Use the left mouse button to select the contour line. A dialog box will prompt to confirm
deletion of the nearest contour line which will temporarily be shown in red. If this is the
contour that is wished to be deleted then select yes otherwise select no. If the no option is
selected and there was another contour in the direct vicinity of the mouse click it will be
prompted for deletion and shown in red next.
73

Delete Stream Line
The delete stream line menu option allows a stream line to be deleted from the database.
Use the left mouse button to select the stream line. A dialog box will prompt to confirm
deletion of the nearest stream line which will temporarily be shown in red. If this is the stream
line that is wished to be deleted then select yes otherwise select no. If the no option is
selected and there is another stream line in the direct vicinity of the mouse click it will be
prompted for deletion and shown in red next.
Delete Interpolation Training Line

The delete ITL line menu option allows an ITL line to be deleted from the database. Use the
left mouse button to select the ITL line. A dialog box will prompt to confirm deletion of the
nearest ITL line which will temporarily be shown in red. If this is the ITL line that is wished to
be deleted then select yes otherwise select no. If the no option is selected and there is
another ITL line in the direct vicinity of the mouse click it will be prompted for deletion and
shown in red next.
Remove Database Submenu
Remove All Contours

The remove all contours menu item will delete all contours from the CatchmentSIM project.
Remove All Streamlines

The remove all streamlines menu option will delete all stream lines from the CatchmentSIM
project.
Remove All ITLs

The remove all ITLs menu option will delete all ITLs from the CatchmentSIM project.
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Program Reference
Impervious Areas Database
The Impervious Areas form allows the user to import and manage impervious area polygon
databases from GIS files. These polygons are used to derive impervious area proportion
statistics for the mapped subcatchments.
Turn on / off
individual polygons
Polygon description
Polygon impervious
proportion
Import polygons
from GIS file
Delete currently
selected polygon(s)
Impervious
proportion of areas
not covered by a
polygon.
Multi-select
polygons based on
specific criteria
Edit specific
property of
currently selected
polygon(s)
Filter polygon table
(show all, on, off)
Toggle polygons on/off by

clicking over the map display
75

Importing Impervious Area Polygons
The Import Polygon(s) button will prompt the user to select a GIS file that holds the
impervious area polygons. The impervious areas must be in the form of polygons and can
contain advanced polygon structures such as multi-region polygons. Once a file has been
selected, the user will be prompted to select the columns in the GIS data file that correspond
to the Description and Impervious Area properties in order to populate the fields in the table.
If the GIS file does contain appropriate data columns these should be selected in the
corresponding drop down box. The Polygon Description data columns should be a text
columns whereas the impervious proportion data column should be a decimal or integer
column. If the GIS file does not contain such data columns, the user should select None for
each drop down box. In this case, all polygons will be imported with a blank description and
100% impervious proportion. This can later be altered using the tools described bellow.
Manipulating Impervious Area Polygons

The table shown in the Impervious Area form doesnt indicate the location of each individual
impervious area polygon which can make manipulation of the database difficult. To
overcome this, two features have been implemented. Firstly, when an impervious area
polygon is selected in the table the actual polygon will be highlighted in red in the
background. Secondly, the user can turn the polygons on/off visually by clicking the Toggle
On/Off Over Display button. This option will cause the form to disappear and the
impervious area polygons will be displayed in black and grey. The black polygons are on
while the grey polygons are off. Clicking on a polygon will toggle its on/off status and
hence its colour. When editing is complete, clicking Finished will return to the Impervious
Areas form with updated on/off criteria.
You may wish to group select polygons and apply changes to all of the selected polygons.
This can be done by using the Ctrl and Shift buttons, or group selecting based on matching
impervious proportion or description criteria. For example, to select all polygons with the
description Road click the Description button in the Group Select group box. You will be
prompted to supply the group select description criteria in a text box. After clicking OK all
polygons with Road as the description should be selected. Similarly, polygons can be
selected on the basis of their impervious proportion or all polygons currently displayed (use
the Filter to manipulate which polygons are displayed.
After a group selection has been made, all selected polygons may be manipulated using the
buttons in the Edit Properties group box.
The Filter governs which polygons are listed in the table. This can be useful to make multiselecting easier if using the All Shown button or Ctrl and Shift buttons.
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Program Reference
Deleting Impervious Area Polygons
Impervious area polygons can be deleted by individual or group selection and then clicking
the Delete Polygon(s) button. Deleting polygons should only be used when polygons are to
be permanently deleted, otherwise turning them off may be preferred.
Calculation of Subcatchment Impervious Areas

The impervious areas of each subcatchment are calculated as a result of the impervious area
polygons, the overlapping polygon criteria and the background impervious proportion. The
individual impervious proportions for each polygon are listed in the table and may be
manipulated as described above. The overlapping polygon criteria is shown on the form and
governs what impervious proportion will be applied to DEM pixels that are within multiple
polygons with differing impervious area proportions (use max, min or average). The
background impervious proportion is applied to all DEM pixels that are not within an
impervious area polygon. The methodology for determining if pixels are within polygons is
outlined in Section 3.12.1 (page 45).
Draw Impervious Areas Polygon

This option allows a user to manually draw (HUD) an impervious polygon in the project. After
selecting the menu option use the left mouse button to place polygon vertices and the right
mouse button when complete. You will then be prompted for the description and impervious
proportion properties of the polygon.
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4.1.4
Digital Elevation Model Menu
Setup Digital Elevation Model

The setup Digital Elevation Model (DEM) form allows for the setup of a new DEM filled with
blank data. The DEM boundaries (extents) and resolution need to be assigned. For general
information regarding setup of DEM, please refer to Section 3.5 (page 19).
Use design plane

or new extents for
DEM
New extents
Square or
rectangular DEM
pixels
Define DEM by
number of
rows/columns or
specific pixel size
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Program Reference
DEM Extents
The DEM extents are the easting and northing boundaries of the DEM. They can be assigned
to be equal to the design plane (set in the New Project form) or as a new rectangle that is
fully contained within the design plane using the Design Plane / New Extents radio button. If
new extents are to be used then they can be typed in manually or a rectangle can be
dragged over the map by selecting the Drag Over DEM button.
Note:
If the square grid pixels option is selected the New Extents will
automatically be selected as the max easting will need to be need to be
slightly adjusted to maintain square pixels. The reduction in the DEM
extents of the max easting will be shown under the row edit box.
Similarly, if the Set Cell Size option is selected then adjustments will
need to be made to the max easting and max northing. This will be
displayed under the cell size edit box.
DEM Resolution
The DEM resolution refers to the pixel size of the DEM as well as the number of rows and
columns. The resolution can be defined in 3 ways:
Use 2a) Setting the number of rows and columns (rectangular DEM);
Use 2a) Check the square grid pixels option and set the number or rows (square DEM);
or,
Use 2b) Set the pixel size.
Note:
If you setup a DEM after one has already been created then the original
DEM and all derived data layers will be removed.
Develop DEM Submenu
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Interpolate Contour Data

The interpolate contour data option will undertake a vector to raster conversion of the
contour data that has been imported using the Vector GIS Data >> Import 3D Contours
(page 72) or manually digitised. The vector to raster conversion is undertaken using the
methodology outlined in Section 3.5.2 (page 21) and based on the settings selected in the
Project Options form (File >> Project Options | Digital Elevation Model) as outlined on
page 59.
Interpolate Watercourses
If watercourse alignments have been imported (Vector GIS Data >> Import Stream / Flow
lines page 72) then this data is likely to be 2D. Thus in order to rasterise this information
into the DEM linear interpolation is undertaken between intersected contour lines along each
stream alignment. This algorithm will piece together complete stream alignments from a
network of stream segments and process each in turn from the main stream to last tributary.
The watercourse interpolation algorithm is described in more detail in Section 3.5.2
(page 20).
Interpolate ITL
Interpolation Training Lines (ITL) allow ridge lines and valleys to be better defined in the DEM
prior to DEM interpolation. ITL placement tips and algorithm details are given in
Section 3.5.2 (page 25).
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Program Reference
Interpolate DEM
The DEM interpolation algorithm is a vector ray based approach and is described in Section
3.5.2 (page 26). The algorithm requires the corner DEM pixel elevation to be defined as well
as the resolution of the interpolation technique (number of search rays). CatchmentSIM will
approximate the DEM corner elevation based on nearby contour, watercourse and ITL detail
but these can be over-ridden if required.
DEM corner
elevations
Number of search
rays (8,16,32 or
user defined)
Note:
Increasing the number of search rays will increase the accuracy of the
resulting interpolation but will also increase the algorithm run-time. See
Section 3.5.2 (page 26) for more details.
Note:
The DEM interpolation algorithm will only derive elevations for blank
DEM pixels. Therefore it can be used to fill in missing data in imported
/ sampled DEMs.
Stream Burning
Stream burning will lower the pixel elevation of all pixels underlying an imported stream line
by the increment set in the Project Options form (File >> Project Options |General) as
outlined on page 59. Stream burning (assuming sufficient depth) will force derived flow paths
to follow the imported stream network. For more information, please see Section 3.5.2
(page 28).
81

Note:
If stream burning is carried out after flow processing, then flow

processing should be re-run (Runoff Routing >> DEM Wide Flow
Processing page 91) prior to using automated subcatchment breakup
algorithms (Subcatchments >> Breakup Subcatchment page 101 ).
Import DEM
The Import DEM form should be used if an external DEM is to be used as the base DEM for
CatchmentSIMs analysis. This option does not require a DEM to be setup previously as
apposed to populating a new DEM by sampling an external DEM. After selecting this option
you will be prompted to select the DEM file, be sure to select the appropriate DEM format in
the Filter (ASCII-GRID, SRTM 1/3).
Source DEM
parameters
Import region rows

/ columns
Note:
82
Boundaries of design
plane vs import region
Import region vs design

plane (must be within)
Set import region corners by

clicking within design plane
A DEM can only be imported if it is in the same projection as the

project. Otherwise, the DEM should be sampled (Digital Elevation
Model >> Assign DEM Elevations by Sampling External DEM) to
Program Reference
populate a new DEM that has previously been setup (Digital Elevation
Model >> Setup Digital Elevation Model).
Assign DEM Elevations by Sampling External DEM Submenu
Once a DEM has been setup (Digital Elevation Model >> Setup Digital Elevation Model
page 78) elevation can be assigned by sampling an external raster DEM or Triangular
Irregular Network.
Note:
Only DEM pixels that have no data will be sampled from the external
DEM. This allows for several DEMs to be sampled to complete the
CatchmentSIM DEM. For example, a highly detailed DEM with some
missing data could first be sampled followed by a lower resolution DEM
to fill in the blanks. Alternatively, the blanks can be filled in by using the
interpolate DEM function (Digital Elevation Model >> Develop DEM
>> Interpolate DEM page 81)
Raster DEM
Sampling a raster DEM can be useful because it allows the DEM information to be preserved
while changing the DEM resolution and projection. When this function is selected you may
be asked to provide the projection of the source DEM (unless it is inherent eg., SRTM DEMs
are always in lat/long). If you decline to select the DEM projection when prompted, the DEM
will be assumed to be in the same projection as the project.
Note:
If you have several DEMs that you wish to sample, or a number of

DEMs that cover different regions of the CatchmentSIM DEM, these can
be group selected using Ctrl and Shift buttons or dragging a rectangle
in the Open File dialog box.
TIN Dem
A Triangular Irregular Network (TIN) may be sampled to assign elevations to a
CatchmentSIM DEM. CatchmentSIM supports ASCII-TIN format. You will be asked to define
the projection of the TIN, otherwise it will be assumed to be in the same projections as the
project.
83

Download DEM Data Submenu
Sample WEB DEM(s)

Sample WEB DEM is effectively equivalent to sampling an external DEM except that this
external DEM is automatically downloaded / unzipped / processed from the internet. At the
moment, this is supported for SRTM 1 and SRTM 3 DEMs hosted by NASA web servers.
Select SRTM 1 or 3
(arc second resolution)
List of files that will

be downloaded
Select region
(affects URL)
Verify / amend FTP

/ HTTP location
The URL is displayed in case the source files have been moved by NASA. If this has occurred,
the URL can be manually updated.
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Program Reference
After selecting OK, the appropriate DEMs will be determined and downloaded from the web
server, unzipped and automatically sampled.
Note:
This is a new tool and is dependent on your internet connection,

firewall and security settings, maintenance of the NASA web servers as
well as a third party unzipping tool. Thus, there are a lot of thing that
can go wrong. If the tool doesnt work use the Generate list of required
DEMs button to generate a list of DEMs to download (with URL),
download the DEMs manually, unzip and group sample (Digital
Elevation Model >> Assign DEM Elevations by Sampling External DEM
page 83).
Subdivide DEM
Subdividing the DEM is a unique option to increase the resolution of the DEM in order to
smooth subcatchment boundaries. Subdividing the DEM will increase the number of pixels by
400%. The number DEM pixels will be placed as per the diagram and interpolated from their
surrounding neighbours.
Expand or reduce
DEM boundaries
(see diagram)
New vs old DEM

parameters
Diagram illustrating
new DEM
positioning.
85

Draw DEM Flats and Pits
This function will draw the DEM flat and pit pixels in red and blue respectively by default (or
in accordance with the colours selected in the Control Colours tab of the View Attributes
form.
Note:
This is not a permanent mapping layers and will be removed when the
screen in refreshed.
Remove Flats and Pits Using Filling Algorithm

This tool applies an iterative filling algorithm to first fill pit pixels to the elevation of their
lowest neighbour and then raise all flat pixels by a set Filling Increment. This process is
repeated as many times are required. This algorithm is particularly useful for application after
a DEM has been interpolated using CatchmentSIM to treat flattened hill crests. More
information can be found in Section 3.6.1 (page 29). If flat and pit pixels are from an
external DEM then the PFS algorithm may be a more appropriate algorithm. The PFS
algorithm is also useful to treat the final flat and pits pixels left over from the filling algorithm.
More information regarding removing flat and pit pixels can be found in Section 5.3
(page 128).
Process individual
iteration
Number of flat and pit pixels

remaining after each iteration.
86
Maximum fill applied to

pixels and their location
Start successive
iterations.
Filling
increment
End successive
iterations.
Program Reference
Apply PFS Flat and Pit Removal Algorithm Submenu
The apply PFS Flat and Pit Removal Algorithm submenu contains procedures to apply the PFS
algorithm to the entire DEM or an individual pixel. The PFS algorithm is an advanced leastcost breaching algorithm designed to resolve flat and pit pixels by forming a channel to their
least cost outlet where cost is defined by a hierarchy of least elevation gain and shortest flow
path. The PFS algorithm theory is described in detail in Section 3.6.2 (page 30).
The PFS algorithm will be applied using the parameters defined in the Flat and Pit Removal
pane of the Project Options form (see page 59).
The PFS algorithm can be used in conjunction with the filling algorithm to resolve the flat and
pit pixels within a DEM. This process in described in Section 5.3 (page 128).
Entire DEM
The entire DEM menu option of the PFS algorithm submenu will apply the PFS algorithm to
all flat and pit pixel in the DEM in order from lowest to highest elevation. Pixels are processed
in this order to reduce the length of average solution paths and increase the hydrologic
fitness of the resulting DEM. The solutions paths for those pixels that are successfully treated
by the PFS algorithm are temporally drawn in yellow on the screen. If a pixel is not resolved
by the PFS algorithm then this may be remedied by adjusting the PFS parameters in the
Project Options form (such as., reducing minimum gradient, changing boundary / blank
pixel treatment or increasing DEM precision), see Section 5.3 (page 128) for more
information on treating troublesome DEMs.
Individual Pixel
The individual pixel option of the PFS algorithm submenu will apply the PFS algorithm to an
individual DEM pixel. Simply left mouse click on the pixel to apply the algorithm to a pixel. A
yellow solution path will be drawn if the PFS algorithm was able to find a successful outlet for
the pixel.
3D Visualisation Submenu
The 3D Visualisation submenu includes functions to visualise part or all of the DEM and
generate subcatchment boundaries in 3D.
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Entire DEM
The entire DEM menu option of the 3D Visualisation submenu will generate a 3D image of
the entire DEM. This form has the following controls.
3D Image
Zoom in / out
Directional controls
(pan or rotate)
Pan or rotate toggle
Axis extents
Subcatchment
boundaries
Show subcatchments
/ Exaggerate Z Axis
Resolution of 3D
mesh
The best way to manipulate the 3D visualisation image is to click and drag on the image.
Further options include the ability to display the image as a wire frame drawing, filled
drawing or combined wire frame / filled drawing (as shown is filled) in the dropdown box.
The Options button brings up a small dialog offering further options including a transparency
mode, display of axes and background colour. The operation of the directional controls is
dependent on wether pan mode or rotate model is selected.
The mesh resolution governs the details shown in the image, higher mesh resolutions will use
significantly more memory as the Open GL graphics are memory consumptive. The mesh
resolution is set at a default of the greater of 150x150 or the number of rows and columns
of the DEM segment being visualised. The colouring on the visualisation is the same as the
DEM gradient selected in the DEM View Attributes form and the Shaded Relief colouring can
also be used. The subcatchments checkbox governs wether subcatchments are shown in the
images (this box is only available if you are visualising more than subcatchment) and the
edge height governs how visible thee boundaries are in the image. The Exaggerate Z check
box governs whether the z axis will be stretched to exaggerative the topography of the DEM
since vertical range is often small compared to x and y range over a DEM.
88
Program Reference
Subcatchment
The subcatchment menu option will launch the visualisation window and display only those
DEM pixels within the selected subcatchment. After selecting this menu option,
subcatchments should be cross-hatched as you move the cursor over them. Clicking on one
will launch the visualisation window.
DEM Segment
The DEM Segment menu option will enable you to draw a rectangle on the screen in a
similar fashion to the Set Zoom Window option in order to identify a rectangular section of
the DEM to visualise.
Utilities Submenu
Interpolate Streams Over Existing DEM

The interpolate streams over existing DEM menu option is designed to utilise watercourse
information to aid in the hydrologic treatment of existing DEMs. This algorithm attempts to
ensure that pixel elevations do not flatten or increase in a downstream direction along the
stream alignments. If a section of flat or rising terrain is encountered along a stream
alignment then the algorithm will search for the first lower pixel along the stream alignment
and then apply linear interpolation along the stream segment to assign a downhill slope
across the flat or rising section of the flow network. The algorithm relies on proper
connectivity within the stream alignment network and other factors that are outlined further in
Section 5.3.2 (page 131).
Check Watercourse Data

This algorithm will check the stream alignment database to ensure that no points are
repeated in the polylines which can cause 0 length and division by 0 errors.
89

Vector Data Set Operations
The vector data set operations menu option will allow changes to a DEM to be made based
on vector attributes in a GIS file.
Which vector
shapes to process
Action to perform on
DEM pixels
For example, if certain features such as road crests are not picked up in a course DEM then
they can be manually input into the DEM using the Vector Data Set operations by using the
Pixels on Polyline checkbox and Raise by 2m (for example). The PFS algorithm can then be
run to breach the road alignments at their lowest point to determine road overtopping points
during a flood. For an example of this, please see the case study in Section 6.1 (page 143).
Exclude Data Outside Polygon

The exclude data outside polygon menu option will set all DEM pixels outside the first
polygon in a GIS file to be blank, effectively clipping the analysis to the area within the
polygon. This will speed up all algorithms such as flow processing and flat and pit pixel
removal. It can also be used if you wish to identify an area outside which the original
interpolation or sampled DEM is not valid. This will remove data from these areas to enable
re-sampling from another source or simply so as not to present inaccurate information.
Delete DEM
The delete DEM menu option will remove the DEM from the project. All DEM derived
datasets such as subcatchment boundaries and vector streams will also be removed.
90
Program Reference
4.1.5
Runoff Routing Menu
Draw Pixel Flow Path

The draw pixel flow path menu option will trace the downslope flow path from any pixel and
display it over the current map according to the Control Colours set in the View Attributes
form (default is yellow). This is a temporary display layer and will disappear when the display
is refreshed. If a time-out error occurs the flow path will be illustrated in red and will
terminate and the user will be advised of the problem pixels (usually related to a Hydraulic
Control).
This tool is designed to help visualise how flow will travel over the DEM and to test the
implementation of Hydraulic Controls and pit and flat removal algorithms.
DEM Wide Flow Processing

The DEM wide flow processing menu option will map subcatchments for all defined outlet
locations (Subcatchments >> Add Subcatchment page 99) and display their boundaries.
This algorithm is the most time intensive of the software since it effectively determines the flow
path properties for every pixel in the DEM.
It is only necessary to undertake flow processing in areas of the DEM where the
subcatchment mapping may have changed. Thus, if one subcatchment is being further
discretised (Subcatchments >> Breakup Subcatchment page 101) then it is only necessary
to reprocess flow paths for that subcatchment (Subcatchments >> Reprocess Subcatchment
page 91). Running the DEM wide flow processing option should only be necessary after
defining the major catchment outlet or making wholesale changes to the DEM.
Another way to speed up this algorithm is to clip the DEM to an area only slightly larger than
the catchment of interest. Use the Digital Elevation Model >> Utilities >> Exclude Data
Outside Polygon (page 90) and import a polygon GIS file with which to clip the DEM. This
effectively causes all pixels outside the first polygon in the GIS file to be blank.
Reprocess Subcatchment
The reprocess subcatchment menu option undertakes flow processing for only those DEM
pixels within a certain subcatchment. After selecting this menu option, moving the cursor over
a specific subcatchment should cause it to become hatched in yellow. Clicking with the left
mouse button will initiate flow processing for the subcatchment.
91

Draw / Edit Vector Streams
The draw / edit vector streams menu option is used to map vector streams for a project. This
algorithm should only be used after DEM Wide Flow Processing has been run and at least
one catchment has been mapped. Vector streams are an intersecting network of polyline
segments with Horton ordering as described in Section 3.9.1 (page 38). It is important to
realise the difference between raster stream pixels (Runoff Routing >> Draw Raster Stream
Pixels page 93) and vector streams. The former simply identifies all pixels with a flow
accumulation value greater than a set threshold (Stream Area Threshold See Project
Options) whereas vector streams use a Stream Area Threshold (and optional Minimum
Source Channel Length) to develop a set of potential channel heads and then flow paths are
mapped and intersections recorded to develop a vector stream network.
Once the draw / edit vector steams menu option is selected, the following form will be
generated.
This form prompts the user for the Stream Area Threshold (SAT) and Minimum Source
Channel Length (MSCL) parameters with witch to generate the vector stream network. The
SAT value refers to the number of pixels flow paths that must accumulate in a single pixel
before it will be considered a potential channel head. The MSCL parameter (if used see
checkbox) defines how long a stream segment must be to be considered valid. Thus if many
potential channel heads exist in an area only the highest elevation pixel will be an actual
channel head. No other channel heads will be accepted unless their source channels are
greater than the MSCL before intersecting the vector stream network.
The effect of using the MSCL parameter can be seen bellow. The left figure does not use the
MSCL parameter whereas the right figure has used a MSCL of 100 metres. Both vector
stream networks were generated with the same SAT value. It can be seen that using the
MSCL parameter can reduce the duplication of streams from nearby channel heads. It will
also effect the calculated bifurcation of the stream network.
92
Program Reference
Duplicate streams
removed
The stream network includes derivation of Horton orders for each segment of the stream
network. The network can be coloured based on the derived Horton orders in the View
Attributes form by selecting Properties from the Vector Layers panel when Synthetic Stream
Network is selected (see page 68).
Vector stream networks are also useful for analysis of subcatchment drainage properties as
well as many of CatchmentSIMs charts and calculated subcatchment parameters (refer
page 106).
Draw Raster Stream Pixels

This algorithm simply identifies each pixel as stream or non-stream based on wether the flow
accumulation value (number of upslope pixels) for that pixel is greater than or equal to the
Stream Area Threshold (SAT) set in the Project Options form (refer page 59). Since, the flow
accumulation values are calculated during the Runoff Routing >> DEM Wide Flow
Processing (page 91) algorithm, it is necessary that this process is completed prior to drawing
raster stream pixels.
93

Hydraulic Controls
Hydraulic controls are quasi-hydraulic vector attributes that can override flow paths derived
simply from analysis of the raster DEM. Hydraulic controls are described in Section 3.12.2,
(page 46). The hydraulic controls form governs the import and manipulation of hydraulic
controls within CatchmentSIM.
Hydraulic control table (on/off (checkbox), desc
(text), type (dropdown box))
Import Hydraulic
Controls from GIS
Delete selected
Hydraulic Controls
Group select
Edit property of
selected HC(s)
Filter table
Update background
image with changes
Toggle on/off status

interactively
Toggle Hydraulic Control

type interactively
Manipulating Hydraulic Controls

Hydraulic control act either as a gutter or a channel. Gutters allow flow to pass across the
gutter alignment in only one direction (in the direction of the arrows) unless the gutter has
been breached. Channels do not allow flow to travel across the channel alignment in any
direction and all flow is forced to flow in the channel until it terminates. Both channels and
gutters have A and B type which designate in which direction flow may traverse a gutter and
in which direction a channel must flow.
Both type and on/off status may be toggled interactively over the mapping layers using the
Toggle On/Off Over Display and Toggle Type Over Display. After pressing Toggle On/Off
Over Display the form will disappear and the Hydraulic Controls will appear over the
currently selected mapping layers. Hydraulic Controls in the on state will be black or grey in
the off state. Clicking on the Hydraulic Controls will change their on/off status and their
corresponding status. By clicking Toggle Type Over Display users will be able to click on
Hydraulic Control and toggle between the four types available (Gutter A, Gutter B, Channel
A, Channel B) and the display will update accordingly.
The group select and edit properties panel, and the filter work similarly to the controls on the
Impervious Areas form (refer page 75).
Note:
94
Using Hydraulic Controls requires a bit of experimentation and is

described in detail in Section 5.6 (page 139).
Program Reference
Importing Hydraulic Controls
The Import Hydraulic Control button allows hydraulic controls to be imported from a GIS file
containing line or polyline elements. A data column can be selected to provide the Hydraulic
Control description or if this is not available, it can be set to none and the description will be
left black (it can be manually edited later).
Data column for

description property (should
be a text column, otherwise
select none)
Are these Hydraulic
Controls all channels or all
gutters (if a mix then select
majority and manually edit
afterwards)
How shall the type be

determined (all A, all B,
encourage downhill flow,
encourage flow against
topography)
A text data column
identifies the type
(Channel Type A,
Channel Type B, Gutter
Type A, Gutter Type B)
Setting the type can be achieved by first designating wether the controls are gutters or
channels and then assigning an approach for A/B type assignment. This can be either
achieved by assuming All A/ All B, with hill slope or against hill slope or by reference to a
data column in the GIS file.
Note:
If assigning type by reference to a GIS data column a text comparison

will be used. The data column should contain text that exactly matches
either Channel Type A, Channel Type B, Gutter Type A, or Gutter
Type B (non case sensitive).
Deleting Hydraulic Controls

Hydraulic controls may be deleted using the Delete Hydraulic Control(s) button. Hydrologic
Controls may be group selected using the Shift and Ctrl buttons or the group select buttons
or the filter and then either turned off (using the Edit Properties buttons) or deleted.
95

Draw Hydraulic Control Submenu
Draw Channel
The draw channel menu option allows you to draw channel type hydraulic controls directly
on the screen. Use the left mouse button to place line vertices and the right mouse button to
finish. If you find that the arrows are pointing the wrong way after the first left mouse click
either right click and start again or finish the line and later toggle the A/B type in the
Hydraulic Controls form.
Draw Gutter
The draw gutter menu option allows you to draw gutter type hydraulic controls directly on the
screen. Use the left mouse button to place line vertices and the right mouse button to finish. If
you find that the arrows are pointing the wrong way after the first left mouse click either right
click and start again or finish the line and later toggle the A/B type in the Hydraulic Controls
form.
Delete Hydraulic Control

The delete hydraulic control menu option allows you to delete previously imported or
manually drawn hydraulic controls by left clicking near them. You will be prompted to
confirm the Hydraulic Control to delete.
Note:
96
It is also possible to simply tun off the Hydraulic Control in the

Hydraulic Controls form rather than permanently deleting them.
Program Reference
View Hydraulic Breaches
Hydraulic breaches occur in certain circumstances when flow paths intersect Gutter type
Hydraulic Controls. Basically, a hydraulic breach occurs when a flow path can not find a
pixel of lower elevation in which to flow to within a set elevation or number of pixels
traversed threshold. This is designed to simulate ponding behind the gutter and eventual
breach due to overtopping. Hydraulic breaches are further explained in Section 5.6
(page 139) and are highly dependent on the parameters set in the Project Options |
Hydraulic Structures form.
The location of hydraulic breaches can be viewed using the Runoff Routing >> View
Hydraulic Breaches (page 97) menu option.
As shown above, by selecting the rows in the Hydraulic Breach form the location of the
hydraulic breaches is shown as a hatched yellow circle in the background. It can be seen that
these hydraulic breaches occur in areas where flow would pond behind the gutter.
97

Inspect Pixel
The inspect pixel menu option allows user to view the properties of individual DEM pixels
including their elevation, flow direction, flow accumulation, discharge basin and distance to
outlet. After selecting this menu option clicking on a part of the DEM with the left mouse
button will bring up a form illustrating the properties for the pixel directly under the cursor
and its eight surrounding neighbours.
The elevation attributes can also be edited by typing in the top text boxes for each pane. After
editing the elevation, Update Flow Direction can be clicked to recalculate flow directions for
all affected pixels. This is helpful for manual removal of flat and pit pixels by editing pixel
elevations.
Pixel row / col and

coordinates
Pixel properties
Navigation, use
arrows or type in
row and column
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Program Reference
4.1.6
Subcatchments Menu
Add Subcatchment
The add subcatchment menu option allows the user to visually designate the outlet for a
catchment or subcatchment. Outlets are plotted as a polyline and can be as long or short as
desired. After selecting this menu option use the left mouse button for each vertex of the
outlet line and right click to finish.
Other methods of adding subcatchment(s) include importing the subcatchment outlets from a
GIS file (Subcatchments >> Import Subcatchment Outlets page 101) or by using the auto
catchment breakup algorithms (Subcatchments >> Breakup Subcatchment page 101).
After a subcatchment has been added, it will be rasterised into a set of outlet pixels. These
can be manually edited in tabular or visual form using Subcatchments >> Edit
Subcatchment Outlet Pixels page 100) or the Outlet Details button on the Subcatchment
Manager form.
Delete Subcatchment
Subcatchments can be deleted in two main ways. Firstly, using the delete subcatchment menu
option, the cursor will go into subcatchment selection mode, where subcatchments will be
highlighted when the cursor is moved over them. After left clicking a subcatchment in this
mode you will be prompted for confirmation to delete. After selecting Yes, you will be asked
wether to reprocess flow paths for pixels within this subcatchment. It is recommended that you
do this to ovoid the potential for errors. However, if you are deleting a large number of
subcatchments, it can be more time effective to select no, delete further subcatchments and
then run Runoff Routing >> DEM Wide Flow Processing (page 91).
If the subcatchment you wish to delete has no area or can not be selected in this way, it may
be deleted from the Subcatchment Manager form by selecting the appropriate row and
clicking Delete.
99

Edit Subcatchment Outlet Pixels
The edit subcatchment outlet pixels menu option allows for manual and visual editing of
outlet pixels for a subcatchment. The Edit Subcatchment Outlet form can be accessed from
this menu option (and then left clicking on a highlighted subcatchment) or by clicking the
Outlet Details button on the Subcatchment Manager form.
This form presents a tabular display of the outlet pixels that form the outlet for the selected
subcatchment. A new outlet pixel can be added by clicking the New Outlet Pixel and then
typing in the row and column numbers. Outlet pixels can be deleted by selecting a row and
clicking Delete Outlet Pixel.
Editing Outlet Pixels Visually

However, outlet pixels may also be edited visually over the mapping layers by clicking Edit
Pixels On DEM. This will cause the form to disappear the outlet pixels layer (of the View
Attributes form) will disappear and only outlet pixels for the selected subcatchment will be
shown in conjunction with other selected mapping layers. At this point you may manually
click on DEM pixels to toggle their status as a member of the set of outlet pixels. With each
click they will change to a red pixel from DEM colouring or back again as shown bellow.
When you are finished, click Finished to return to the Edit Subcatchment Outlet form. The
resulting changes will be automatically updated into the tabular display.
100
Program Reference
Import Subcatchment Outlets

Subcatchment outlets may be imported as polyline or line segments from a GIS file using the
import subcatchment outlets menu option. After selected this menu option you will be
prompted to select a GIS file after which subcatchments will be imported. After importing
subcatchments, you may wish to undertake Runoff Routing >> DEM Wide Flow Processing
(page 91) to map the subcatchments for each of these outlets.
Breakup Subcatchment
The breakup subcatchment form allow discretisation of a previously mapped catchment or
subcatchment into a number of smaller subcatchments based on one of two catchment
breakup approaches, Flow Accumulation Analysis and Horton Order Analysis.
The catchment or subcatchment to be discretised can be selected by either typing in its
integer code (the number in the first row of the Subcatchment Manager form) or clicking
From DEM which allows the subcatchment to be manually selected by left mouse click when
the subcatchment is highlighted.
Flow Accumulation Analysis

The Flow Accumulation Analysis catchment breakup methodology allows the user to select a
designated number (odd number) of subcatchments into which to break the identified
catchment or subcatchment. CatchmentSIM will process all the pixels within the DEM that
have a flow accumulation greater than an internal minimum threshold. These pixels will be
analysed to rank the largest jumps in flow accumulation value (number of pixels upstream of
the pixel) between a pixel and its next downstream pixel. These flow accumulation jumps
identify points of significant lateral inflow indicating the input of a tributary. Once the lateral
inflows have been ranked then the x largest flow accumulation jumps will be selected to be
mapped to generate the required number of subcatchments (x is typically the target number
of subcatchment divided by 2). In order to map both the upstream subcatchment and the
tributary catchment, CatchmentSIM will place a single pixel subcatchment outlet at each of
the upstream and downstream pixels corresponding to the lateral inflow, hence creating two
subcatchments.
Note:
For this algorithm to work properly, stream burning may be necessary

(Digital Elevation Model >> Develop DEM >> Stream Burning
page 81). Please note, if stream burning is carried out after flow
processing, then flow processing must be re-run (Runoff Routing >>
DEM Wide Flow Processing page 91) before its effect on the Flow
Accumulation Analysis can be seem.
101

Horton Order Analysis
The Horton Order based catchment breakup algorithm aims to delineate subcatchments of a
particular Horton order based on the vector stream network. For more information on
generating a vector stream network, see page Runoff Routing >> Draw / Edit Vector
Streams (page 92) and display of vector streams of different Horton Order refer to the View
Attributes form (page 68).
You should have already generated an appropriate vector stream network prior to running
this algorithm, however, CatchmentSIM will prompt you for the SAT and MSCL parameters
required to generate a vector stream network if one does not exist.
The algorithm aims to place a subcatchment outlet pixel above and bellow the lateral inflow
corresponding to a tributary that is greater than the selected threshold Horton order. For
example, if a user wishes to delineate all 3rd order subcatchments or higher then a dual outlet
will be placed wherever two 3rd order (or higher) vector stream segments intersect such as a
3rd and 4th order intersection but not a 3rd and 2nd order intersection. Using this algorithm
does not allow the user to designate the exact number of new subcatchments, however,
reducing the order delineation threshold will increase the number of dual outlets in the table
and thus the number of subcatchments.
A comparison of the automated catchment breakup algorithms can be seen in Section 5.4
(page 133).
Select subcatchment
to breakup (id code
or visually)
Select subcatchment
breakup
methodology
Process
subcatchment and fill
table
Clear table or delete
individual dual outlet
location
List of dual outlet
locations
Regardless of which subcatchment breakup algorithm is adopted, after clicking Process

Subcatchment the table will be populated with the suggested dual outlets. The lateral inflow
column refers to the difference in flow accumulation between the upstream and downstream
pixels, that is, the number of pixels in the tributary. If accepted, an outlet will be placed at
each of the upstream and downstream pixels as listed. Dual outlets can be removed if you do
not wish to delineate them, such as if one is very close to another or the lateral inflow is not
significant enough.
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Program Reference
Once satisfied with the suggested dual outlets, click Accept New Subcatchment and the new
outlets will be introduced. You will be prompted to reprocess flow paths for all pixels within
the subcatchment being broken. This is synonymous with the Runoff Routing >> Reprocess
Subcatchment (page 91) menu option and is recommended to update the subcatchment
mapping and derived parameters.
View Subcatchment Attributes

The view subcatchment attributes menu option will bring up the Subcatchment Manager form
with the subcatchment selected (by left clicking the highlighted subcatchment) identified as a
highlighted row. Please see bellow for information on the Subcatchment Manager form.
Subcatchment Manager
The Subcatchment Manager form holds parameters for all subcatchments in the project as
well as the catchment as a whole. These parameters are dependent on the projection,
scaling factors and DEM quality. It also has buttons enabling exporting the table to a
Comma Separated Variable file (CSV) for import into Excel (for example), deleting
subcatchments (select row in table and click Delete), editing outlet pixels and printing.
103

The columns in the Subcatchment Manager form hold the following parameters:
Subcatchment Number : Integer ID of the subcatchment, used instead of subcatchment name
when the subcatchment network is discontinuous (ie., more than one catchment outlet).
Subcatchment Name : Subcatchment name assigned in nodal network arrangement (refer to
Project Options | Subcatchment Labelling (page 59) for labelling parameters).
Subcatchment Area (ha) : Subcatchment area expressed in hectares as calculated by addition
of all pixels within subcatchment multiplied by pixel area.
Downstream Subcatchment Name : Subcatchment name of immediately downstream
subcatchment.
Subcatchment Slope (%) : Subcatchment slope as calculated by average of all average
vectored slope calculations for each pixel on the perimeter of subcatchment.
Impervious Area (ha) : Impervious area within subcatchment as calculated by rasterisation of
impervious polygons, and consideration of background impervious parameter (see
Section 3.12.1 page 45).
Impervious Proportion (%) : Impervious proportion of subcatchment as calculated by
impervious area (above) divided by total area expressed as a percentage.
Raster Drainage Density (%) : Raster drainage density as calculated by raster stream pixels
(Runoff Routing >> Draw Raster Stream Pixels page 93) divided by total subcatchment
pixels expressed as percentage.
Perimeter Length (km) : Length of the subcatchment perimeter formed by combination of
outer edge lengths of all subcatchment perimeter pixels.
Horton Drainage Density (km-1) : Horton drainage density as calculated from the vector
stream network length within the subcatchment divided by subcatchment area.
Bifurcation Ratio : Bifurcation ratio calculated for subcatchment based on vector stream
network as illustrated in Figure 5-6 (page 138).
Main Stream Length (km) : For self-contained subcatchments (ie., no upstream input) the
main stream length is defined as the longest flow path in the subcatchment. For
subcatchments with one or more upstream input subcatchments, the main stream length is
defined as the longest stream segment within the subcatchment which is from an upstream
subcatchment.
Main Stream Slope (%) : The average vectored slope of the main stream defined above,
expressed as a percentage.
Shape (dimensionless) : The shape parameter is defined as the subcatchment area divided by
km 2
the perimeter length squared and is dimensionless (
(km )2
104
).
Program Reference
Advanced Submenu
Delete All Subcatchments

The delete all subcatchments menu option will delete all subcatchments from the project.
Delete All Subcatchments Except Major Outlet

The delete all subcatchments except major outlet will delete all subcatchments except the
major catchment outlet from the project. This option may be useful after a botched
catchment breakup algorithm.
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4.1.7
Analysis Menu
Graph Wizard
General
The graph wizard form provides access to a range of charts which are described individually
in the following sections. However in general, first select the type of chart required from the
tabs, either flowline profile, cross-section profile or subcatchment analysis. The subcatchment
analysis chart includes a dropdown box further specifying the type of chart required. At this
point, add the pixels (flowline profile), cross-sections (cross-section profile) or subcatchments
(subcatchment chart) for analysis. This can be done visually or manually. In the case of the
subcatchment analysis charts, select the Single Sub(s) From DEM button and manually click
on as many subcatchment as desired (they will highlight when the cursor is over them) and
then click Finished. You will find that the integer code associated with the subcatchments has
been added to the list box. Alternatively, there are buttons to manually add single
subcatchments by typing them in, adding the catchment as a whole, adding all
subcatchments or adding subcatchments with/without upstream inputs.
When the pixels, cross-section or subcatchment to analyse have been selected, press
Generate Chart to process the graphing. The resultant graph can be edited using the Edit
Chart Attributes button and zoomed by clicking and dragging on the graph window. The
charts can be printed using the Print Chart button or copied to the clipboard for pasting into
your preferred application. The charts can also be exported to a Comma Separated Variable
(CSV) file for further analysis in spreadsheet applications.
The subcatchment analysis charts are designed to be used in combination to interrogate
subcatchment parameters and gain a better understanding of their hydrologic characteristics.
Edit Chart Attributes

The edit chart form can be used to edit the colour, width and visibility status of currently
displayed series the Chart form. There is also an option governing the display status of the
legend.
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Program Reference
Specific information on each chart follows:
Longitudinal Flow Path Profile

The longitudinal flow path profile charts the change in elevation over the length of a flow
path originating from a pixel, as well as the average vectored slope of this profile (equal area
above and bellow - between flowline profile and vectored slope line). To select one or more
pixels for charting, click the Single Pixel From DEM button. This will cause the Chart form to
disappear. Individual pixels can be added to the chart by clicking on the DEM and then
clicking Finished when finished. To generate the chart select Generate Chart. The average
vectored slope of the flow path profile(s) is shown above the legend. The flow path profile
can be plotted to the catchment outlet or the subcatchment (basin) outlet depending on the
radio button selection. The checkbox governs wether the vectored slope line will be
displayed. There is also an option to display flow line profiles for all pixels on the perimeter
of a subcatchment.
Note:
The option to plot the vectored slope line will be disables once 6 or
more pixels are selected to reduce clutter in the chart.
107

Cross-Section Chart
The cross-section profile chart illustrates a cross sectional profile drawn between two point in
the DEM. To select the end points for the cross-section visually select the Assign From DEM
button. After selecting this button, the form will disappear and you can select the crosssection by two left click at either end of the intended cross-section alignment. At this stage,
the Chart form should reappear with the list box filled with the cross-section profile.
Alternatively, cross sections can be added by manually typing in either the coordinate value
pairs or pixels corresponding with the cross-section end points. At this point additional crosssections can be added. When finished, select Generate Chart to graph the cross-sectional
profiles.
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Program Reference
Pixel (%) vs Downslope Distance
This chart plots distance vs the proportion of pixels within a subcatchment that will have
reached a raster stream pixel by the time they have travel such a distance. Thus, as distance
increases, pixels (%) will approach 1 (100%). This chart illustrates how rapidly a
subcatchment can be drained. For example, the chart below indicates that after 120m of
flow path, flow from 78% of pixels from subcatchment 1.07 will be in-stream whereas 82%
of pixels from subcatchment 3.01 will be in stream. This (considered in conjunction with
slope and land use can help assign relevant runoff routing parameter in subsequent rainfall
runoff models.
109

Drainage Density vs Area Threshold
This chart plots how raster drainage density (proportion of pixel within a subcatchment that
have a flow accumulation greater than the Stream Area Threshold) varies with the Stream
Area Threshold. It can be seen from the chart bellow that for a given SAT (for example 1500)
subcatchment 3.01 has a higher drainage density, which indicates that it may be better
drained. This can help to assign runoff routing parameters in subsequent modelling.
110
Program Reference
Bifurcation (Stream Order vs # Streams)
The bifurcation chart is based on the Horton ordered vector stream network outlined in
Section 3.9 (page 38). For instructions on generating a stream network, see page 92. The
bifurcation charting adds two series to the chart for each subcatchment. The circular dots are
the stream order vs log number of stream of that order and the line is the best fit
(bifurcation). The bifurcation (slope of the line) and an indication of the fit (R) can be seen in
the legend.
Note:
The checkbox labelled Ignore Main Stream is included for analysis of

subcatchments as apposed to the catchment as a whole. If you are
analysing a subcatchment with upstream inputs the main stream(s)
actually continues from upstream subcatchments, hence using stream
drop, stream order, or stream length parameters for this stream is not
appropriate. This checkbox is available in the Bifurcation, Cum Stream
Length vs Order, Stream Drop vs Stream Order and Threshold Area
Comparison charts.
The steeper the line, the higher the bifurcation and this generally means that the generated
vector stream network is more fractal (higher proportion of 1st order streams) and may be
better drained. It is also wise to assess wether the vector stream network is
geomorphologically valid with reference to the law of stream drops (Broscoe 1959) by using
the Stream Order vs Stream Drop and Stream Area Threshold Comparison charts.
111

Cumulative Stream Length vs Stream Order
This chart is also calculate based on Horton Order, yet typically has a far weaker relationship
than the bifurcation relationship. This chart plots the log cumulative stream length for stream
of each order versus the log of the stream order. It can be seen in this case that the line
slopes are quite similar and the fit rations are relatively weak except for the catchment as a
whole and subcatchment 3.01 (ignore fit for 1.07 as there are only two points). However,
this chart can provide valuable information on the fractal nature of subcatchments when
viewed in conjunction with the bifurcation chart and vector drainage density parameters.
112
Program Reference
Hypsometric Curve (Area vs Height)
The hypsometric curve chart provides a measure of the geomorphologic state of the
subcatchment. Horton observed that subcatchments in different state of their
geomorphological evolution had different relative height vs relative area relationships. This
chart includes a background picture illustrating Hortons hypsometric profiles.
113

Stream Order vs Stream Drop
This chart allows a user to analyse the stream drop vs stream order relationship derived from
the vector stream network. This chart is based on the work of a number of researchers
including Tarboton et al. (1991) who stipulated that geomorphologic laws including the
power law of link slope with area (Flint 1974) and the constant stream drop law (Broscoe
1959) can be assumed to hold for generated stream networks similarly to field-surveyed
stream networks. The law of constant stream drops states that the mean drop between start
and end elevations of stream segments of different Strahler orders should have no clear
trend. Tarboton suggests using a Students t-test to assess the difference in means between
the mean stream drop of 1st order Strahler streams and the mean stream drop of all higher
order Strahler streams for a range of stream networks generated at different SAT values. The
minimum SAT that yields a stream network where the t-test indicates that the means are not
statistically different with a 95% confidence interval (ie., t 2) should be adopted.
The stream order vs stream drop chart plots all the stream drops for each stream segment
according to stream order as well as the mean stream drop for each order (larger dots). The
Students t-test value is also derived and shown in the legend.
It can be see that for this example, the vector stream network generated with an SAT of 100
results in a t of -17 indicating that there is a relationship in the stream drop distribution
hence the network is not geomorphological valid (ie., the SAT is too low and there are too
many first order streams resulting in two low a 1st order mean stream drop). To determine an
appropriate SAT to use to generate a vector stream network the Threshold Area Comparison
chart can be used.
114
Program Reference
Threshold Area Comparison
The Threshold Area Comparison chart can be used to determine the highest level of vector
stream network discretisation that fulfils the constant law of stream drops (Broscoe 1959). For
more information on how this law is applied to analyse vector stream networks, please see
the Stream Order vs Stream Drop chart (page 114).
This chart will derive a set of vector stream networks, determine their Students t-test values
and bifurcation and plot them for the range of SAT values. When the Generate Chart button
is clicked the following form will be generated.
Add CatchmentSIM
generated series of
SAT values
SAT values to chart
Add a new SAT
value, remove
selected value, clear
entire list
Do you wish to use a
MSCL for generating
vector stream
networks.
This chart governs the list of SAT values that will be analysed. To start by imputing a
CatchmentSIM derived list of SAT values, click Add Default Sequence. This button will add a
selection of SAT values which should include an SAT appropriate for ensuring consistency
with the constant stream drop law. Individual SAT values can be added or removed using the
Custom Sequence controls. A Minimum Source Channel Length (MSCL) option can also be
used (for more information see page 92). After clicking Ok, CatchmentSIM will generate a
vector stream network for all the SAT values selected and determine associated parameters
including bifurcation and Students t-test (this algorithm can be time consuming if many SAT
values have been added). The values are then plotted such as in the chart bellow.
115
The Student t-test values are shown on the bottom. As described under the Stream Order vs
Stream Drop chart (page 114), the minimum SAT that yields a stream network where the ttest indicates that the means are not statistically different with a 95% confidence interval (ie., t
2) should be adopted. It can be seen that for this example, this occurs around an SAT of
1500 which is the finest vector stream network consistent with the law of constant stream
drops.
116
Program Reference
Create Animation
The create animation menu option will generate the Create Animation form which holds
controls for developing custom animations within CatchmentSIM.
Type of animation
Specific data for

selected animation
type
Add default nonlinear SAT sequence
Add / remove / clear
SAT vales
Add default linear
SAT sequence
Stream Area Threshold Animation
Currently, there is only one type of animation available within CatchmentSIM which is the
Stream Area Threshold Animation. This animation displays the effect of raising / lowering the
Stream Area Threshold (SAT) and drawing raster stream pixels, similar to Runoff Routing >>
Draw Raster Stream Pixels (page 93).
The options in the lower panel of the form relate specifically to the adopted animation type.
The Direction of Play dictates in which direction the SAT frames will be processed. Add
Default Sequence will add 37 SAT frames relating to set proportions of the maximum flow
accumulation value in a non linear distribution, whereas Add Linear Sequence will add a
linear distribution of frames. The best way to come to grips with the different SAT distributions
is to experiment with them. Individual frames can be added and removed using the Custom
Sequence buttons.
The frame rate can be varied to alter the speed of the animation. The processing space
required to process the animation is shown in the top panel of the form.
After Create has been selected, CatchmentSIM will attempt to check your available memory
to determine if sufficient memory (not hard disk space) is available to complete the
animation. With high display resolutions set, even some high end computer may run out of
memory creating such animation. If this occurs, you should be warned by CatchmentSIM. To
fix this, try setting CatchmentSIM to a smaller window size and recreating the animation.
Note:
If the Stream Area Threshold animation you generate appears

discontinuous, it may be necessary to run Stream Burning (Digital
Elevation Model >> Develop DEM >> Stream Burning page 81)
and then rerun Runoff Routing >> DEM Wide Flow Processing
(page 91).
117

Play Animation
The Play Animation form allows the CatchmentSIM generated animation to be displayed and
animated along with the associated display parameter.
Menu including Save

to AVI, Save frame as
JPG
118
Play, pause, go to
start, go to end and
frame rate buttons
Type of animation, SAT value, SAT

area (last two are animation
specific)
Program Reference
Save Animation As AVI
In the Play Animation form menu there is an option to save the animation as an AVI file. This
function will stitch together all the images associated with each frame of the animation using
a third party program that is distributed with CatchmentSIM. After this menu option has been
selected a prompt will be presented asking you to click OK when the third party application
has finished. At this stage a DOS style window should be visible. Once the DOS window says
the animation is complete, click Ok.
Note:
You may need administrator privileges to save to AVI if you have

installed CatchmentSIM in the Program Files directory.
119
4.1.8
Export Menu
Export GIS Data

The export GIS data menu option allows you to export a GIS file of visual / non-visual data
associated with most of CatchmentSIMs data layers. After selecting the menu option, the
following form will be generated.
Check the checkbox associated with the data layers that you wish to export and press Ok.
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Program Reference
Exporting Individual Data Series
For each export data series that is selected in the Export GIS data form, a form will be
generated to customise the specific setting of the exported data series. The form bellow
corresponds to the vector stream network export form (in this case synthetic stream network).
Available tabular
data export columns
(for database file)
Selected data export

columns (double click
or use >>> button)
Decimal places
(decimal data
only)
Remove data
field
Edit data field

order
Reproject
export data
(mandatory for
custom
projections)
Convert polygons to
polylines or polylines to lines
The data fields available to export to the GIS data file are listed in the Available Data Fields
list box. These are a function of the CatchmentSIM data layer to be exported. They can be
added to the set of data fields to be exported by double clicking on them or clicking the
>>> button, they may be removed using the Remove button. If the data layer is a decimal
data type then the number of decimal places can be customised using the Decimal Places
spin edit control. The order of the exported data series can be edited using the up and down
arrows.
The checkboxes under the Available Data Fields list box govern the shape types for regions
and polylines in the exported data series. Unchecked, these shapes will remain in the native
shape type, however, if checked, regions may be dropped to polylines or all the way to
simple lines.
Changing Projection of Exported Data

By default, data is exported in the same projection as the project. However, the option is
available to reproject the data into a new projection. This is mandatory for custom
projections.
To reproject export data, select the Change Projection checkbox and click the Export
Projection button to select the projection for the export data series.
121

Export Raster DEM
The export raster DEM menu option allows a user to export the entire DEM or a subset of the
DEM, or a DEM derived dataset to an interchange format for import into other software
applications. The export formats available are:
ASCII-GRID format (text format recognised by most GIS software)
Surfer format (format developed by Surfer Software developers)
The raster data sources available for export are:
Digital Elevation Model
Flow Accumulation Grid (number of pixels upstream of pixels including that

pixel)
Flow Direction Grid (flow direction in degrees)
Subcatchment Grid (integer value identifying subcatchment id for each pixel)
After clicking Ok, the user will be prompted to enter the file location.
Save Display to File

The save display to file menu option will prompt the user to save the current display to a JPG
or BMP file.
Save Display to Clipboard

The save display to clipboard menu option will save the current display to the clipboard. It
will then be available to paste into another application. To save the current display including
the CatchmentSIM frame take an application screen capture using Alt + PrintScrn.
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Program Reference
Setup Display Window
The setup display window menu option allows the user to precisely setup the CatchmentSIM
window size and location by specifying its height, width, anchor points as well as the zoom
characteristics by setting the extents of the visual part of the project.
This form is designed to be used to help ensure consistent views for export of screenshots or
video capture, mostly for education and training purposes.
Result Export Wizard

The result export wizard menu option provides access to CatchmentSIMs macro language
and predefined macro scripts.
CatchmentSIMs macro language has been designed to provide the ability to export results in
any text or binary file format desired in order to streamline the creation of input files for other
software (such as hydrologic models). The language includes the ability for complete text
customisation, dialog boxes, writing to multiple files simultaneously, export of images and a
complete set of logical operators (such as LOOP, IF THEN etc).
The macro language is described in detail in the CatchmentSIM CSTalk Macro Language
Guide.
This menu option will bring up the following form.
123
Available CST directories

(<Installation
Directory>\CST Files)
Available CST scripts in

selected directory
Check internet for latest

CST scripts
CST script description (file

header)
The CST scripts are stored in the Installation Directory \ CST Files and those that are
available are shown in the file tree view. By selecting a directory in this window, the available
CST scripts in that directory are shown in the top right window. By selecting a script in this
window, the description of this CST script (stored in the CST file header) will be shown in the
Macro Description window.
After selecting the Run Macro button, CatchmentSIM will behave in accordance with the
macro instructions.
124
Note:
Most macros languages can be misused to create malicious code,

CatchmentSIM is no different. Be sure you trust the author of macros if
they are from a third party (ie., not distributed with CatchmentSIM).
Note:
If the script offers to export a background graphic, the graphic will be

the final window prior to running the CST script. Hence, you may wish
to setup the mapping layer as you would like it to be exported prior to
running any such script.
Program Reference
4.1.9
Help Menu
Help
The help menu option will bring up the CatchmentSIM offline help.
Tutorials Submenu
The tutorials submenu gives access to CatchmentSIMs tutorials.
On-line Description
The on-line description menu option links to the Overview section of the CatchmentSIM
website which provides information on the CatchmentSIM algorithms (internet access
dependent).
Technical Support
The technical support menu option provides a link to a web form where requests for technical
support can be made (internet access dependent).
Check for New Version

The check for new version menu option will check the CatchmentSIM website to see wether a
newer version of CatchmentSIM is available (internet access dependent).
Visit Web Page

The visit web page menu option links to the CatchmentSIM website (internet access
dependent).
125

Feedback
The feedback menu option links to a form were users can provide feedback (internet access
dependent).
About
The about menu option will display the About screen.
View Disclaimer and Licence Agreement

The view disclaimer and licence agreement menu option will display the disclaimer and
licence agreement in PDF format (Adobe Acrobat Reader dependent).
126
Key Challenges
5 Key Challenges
5.1
Introduction
This Chapter outlines some of the key challenges associated with undertaking a terrain
analysis project with CatchmentSIM. These include re-projection of raster DEMs, flat and pit
removal from DEMs, automated catchment breakup, using CatchmentSIMs hydraulic control
features and geomorphologic analysis.
5.2
Reprojecting Digital Elevation Models

There are two main options for incorporating an external DEM into a CatchmentSIM project,
it can be imported or sampled. Importing a DEM will simply convert an external DEM into a
CatchmentSIM DEM with the same pixel size whereas sampling a DEM will use an external
DEM to read the elevation of the pixel centre coordinates of blank pixels in a CatchmentSIM
DEM. This allows a user to setup a DEM of whatever projection, resolution and extents they
wish and then populate the pixel elevation based on an external surface (the external DEM).
This is particularly useful when DEMs are in geographic coordinates (lat/long) and you want
to undertake a CatchmentSIM analysis in a projected coordinate system. Figure 5-1
illustrates how a lat/long DEM is sampled in a UTM projection.
127
Figure 5-1 : Re-projection of a lat/long DEM into a projected coordinate system
To reproject a DEM, setup a project with the desired projection (File >> New Project
page 56), setup the DEM with the desired boundaries and resolution (Digital Elevation Model
>> Setup DEM page 78) and then populate the DEM pixel elevations with the external
DEM (Digital Elevation Model >> Assign DEM Elevations by Sampling External DEM
page 83). You will be prompted to select the projection of the external DEM or lat/long if
appropriate. CatchmentSIM will then reproject the DEM accordingly. When a DEM type is
selected where the projection is known (such as SRTM data which is lat/long) then
CatchmentSIM will automatically recognise the correct projection.
5.3
Hydrologic Conditioning of DEMs

Removing the flat and pit pixels from a DEM can be a challenging component of terrain
analysis. Depending on the resolution and quality of the DEM as well as the extent of
urbanisation in the catchment, flat and pit pixels can be hard to remove. The process is
further complicated by the fact that the best removal technique for flat and pit pixels can be
depended on the process that formed them. For example, flattened hill crests formed by ray
based interpolation algorithms are best treated by a filling algorithm whereas those formed
by low vertical precision may be best treated by the PFS algorithm.
The iterative filling algorithm simply raises all pit pixels to the elevation of their lowest
neighbour and then raises all flat pixels by a set increment. This algorithm can be applied
iteratively to treat large areas of flat pixels at the crest of hills (refer page 86).
128
Key Challenges
5.3.1
PFS Algorithm
The PFS algorithm is an advanced breaching algorithm. The algorithm methodology is

outlined in Section 3.6.2 (page 30). In simple terms, the algorithm searches for a path to
pixel of lower elevation, and where the gradient over that path (if linear interpolation was
applied) is greater than a set threshold, that meets the following criteria:
1
Has the lowest elevation gain over the course of the path;
If two paths have the same elevation gain, the shorter path is selected.
As discussed previously, there a 4 parameters that may be edited in the Project Options form
(refer page 59) that affect how the PFS algorithm operates. These are repeated here for
convenience.
Flat and Pit Removal Tab of Project Options from:
PFS Minimum Gradient: This parameter governs the minimum gradient that
must be observed over the PFS solution channel before the algorithms will
determine that a solution has been found. This parameter can be adjusted to
ensure legitimate PFS solutions are found and that rounding errors do not cause
PFS solution channels to become flat. For example, if the PFS minimum gradient
is too low then a very shallow slope may be calculated over the PFS channel.
After linear interpolation is applied to determine pixel elevation over the
channel, these elevations will be rounded to the precision of the DEM (single or
double). This can cause these pixels to become flat.
Treatment of Boundaries and Non-Defined Pixels: This parameter instructs the

PFS algorithm what to do if a potential solution channel encounters a DEM
boundary or blank pixel. Either the algorithm will terminate (the pit or flat will
remain) or the algorithm will continue to search ignoring the boundary or blank
pixel. The default option is to terminate the algorithm as ignoring the pixel can
slow down the algorithm considerable and may also find solution channels that
are not realistic (ie., the flow path from the flat or pit pixel may actually flow
across the DEM boundary). In practise, the flat and pit pixels near the
boundaries should not be in the catchment of interest anyway.
PFS Break Size: This parameter has been introduced for speed reasons, once
the PFS algorithm has grown very large looking for a potential solution channel
over a wide area it can slow down considerable. Once the PFS algorithm has
grown to the PFS Break Size the algorithm will terminate. If time is not a
constraint this parameter can be adjusted upward to ensure the PFS algorithm
finds even the most complex solutions.
Digital Elevation Model Tab of Project Options from:
DEM Precision: The DEM precision parameter governs wether the DEM will be
stored as single or double precision floating point values. Single precision stores
7-8 digits while double precision stores 15-16 digits. Selecting double precision
will increase the size of the DEM file size by 100% and total project files by
around 20% and runtimes by 20% as well as RAM requirements. Double
precision may be required when using elevation data with several digital on the
left side of the decimal point such as 10450.0560 ft or very flat DEMs or if you
wish to use a low PFS minimum gradient parameter.
129

Using the PFS Algorithm
You may wish to run a one or more iterations of the filling algorithm prior to running the PFS
algorithm. This will ensure any erroneous low pixel elevations are filled to their lowest
neighbour instead of potentially creating large deep channels to a far away lower pixel.
You can then run the PFS algorithm for the entire DEM, yellow lines will indicate the solution
paths for pixels that were treated. After running the PFS algorithm once, there are a number
of reasons why flat and pit pixels may remain in your DEM, these include:
Problems related to the pixel elevation:
Problem:
The pixel elevation is so low that an outlet can not be found
within the DEM that is lower by a sufficient amount to satisfy the minimum
downslope gradient criteria.
Solution:
Problem:
A potential solution pixel is too far away (PFS algorithm exceeds
minimum break size).
Solution:
lower the minimum downslope gradient criteria.
Increase break size criteria.
Problem:
A potential solution pixel is to far away (PFS algorithm
encounters a boundary or blank pixel prior to finding the solution pixel.
Solution:
Assign elevations for blank pixels, either by interpolation or
sampling. Alternatively, change blank pixel treatment to Ignore (note: that this
may increase the time of the algorithm and cause unrealistic solution paths for
pixels near the boundary)
Problem:
The pixel is the lowest elevation pixel in the DEM.
Solution:
Manually raise the pixel and its neighbours (using the Inspect
Pixel form page 98), or manually lower a pixel near the desired catchment
outlet to serve as a outlet for the PFS algorithm.
Problems relating to rounding:
Problem:
You may find that if the minimum downslope gradient is too low
then the PFS algorithm will create a path of flat pixels along its solution path. This
is caused by a very shallow gradient being converted to a series of stepped flat
pixels when the elevations are rounded to the DEM precision (single or double).
Solution:
Increase the minimum downslope gradient or change the DEM
precision to double.
130
Key Challenges
Advanced Use of PFS Algorithm
In extremely flat terrain or poor quality DEMs you can apply some special techniques to
ensure flat and pit pixels are removed. These may include:
Manually lower the elevation of a pixel near the catchment outlet (using the Inspect
Pixel form page 98) so as to serve as a solution for the PFS algorithm. You will
need to ensure this pixel is not too close to the boundary and that this pixel is low
enough to provide adequate slope to satisfy the minimum downslope criteria. You
will also need to ensure the minimum break size is large enough to provide a
solution for all flat and pit pixels.
Burn a vector stream network into the topography prior to running the PFS
algorithm. This could be an external stream network (imported) or a calculated
vector stream network. To use a calculated vector stream network, first export it as a
GIS file (Export >> Export GIS Data page 120) and then import it as an imported
stream network (Vector GIS Data >> Import Stream / Flow lines page 72), prior
to applying stream burning (Digital Elevation Model >> Develop DEM >> Stream
Burning page 81). This will lower pixels along the stream network and increase
the gradient along potential PFS solutions paths, hence increasing the effectiveness
of the algorithm.
Using the Digital Elevation Model >> Utilities >> Interpolate Streams Over
Existing DEM (page 89) algorithm (see Section 5.3.2, bellow).
5.3.2
Using a Stream Network to Add

Hydrologic Conditioning
An imported vector stream network can be useful during the interpolation of a DEM to ensure
it is hydrologically accurate. However, an imported stream network can also be valuable
when using an imported / sampled DEM. This network can be burnt into the DEM (Digital
Elevation Model >> Develop DEM >> Stream Burning page 81) or the Digital Elevation
Model >> Utilities >> Interpolate Streams Over Existing DEM (page 89) can be used to
ensure pixels underlying the vector network decrease in a downstream direction. This
algorithm ensures that pixels underlying the stream network decrease in a downstream
direction by applying linear interpolation to remove any rising part of the long-section along
the stream as outlined in Figure 5-2.
131
Pixel elevations
under stream line
Interpolation of DEM
pixels resulting from
algorithm
Profile that will not

allow interpolation of
streams (blue line)
Profile that will allow

interpolation of
streams (blue line)
Figure 5-2: Interpolate Streams Over Existing DEM Algorithm
In Figure 5-2, the blue line represents the interpolated elevations assigned to the underlying
pixels after application of the algorithm. The algorithm can only interpolate DEM pixel
underlying a stream segment if two criteria are met.
Note:
132
Firstly, CatchmentSIM must be able to determine the upstream and

downstream ends of the stream segment. If it sits within the network and
junction connectivity is provided (stream segments endpoints are within the
specific tolerance Project Options | General) this shouldnt be a problem.
However, if the stream segment is at the most downstream end of the
catchment (ie., the outlet) then the pixel elevations underlying its endpoints
must be different and must imply the correct flow direction along the stream
segment. If not, the pixel underlying the downstream endpoint of the
downstream segment can be manually edited using Digital Elevation Model
>> Inspect Pixel to ensure these criteria is satisfied.
The algorithm can only interpolate new pixel elevation if it can find a pixel of
lower elevation along the line segment at some point. For example, in Figure
5-2, the channel illustrated by the blue line will only be interpolated by the
algorithm in the case of the green DEM stream line profile as apposed to the
red which never dips bellow the minimum elevation of the black profile. Thus
the algorithm may be affected by very low pit pixel along the stream profile.
This can be avoided by running one iteration of the filling algorithm prior to
running the algorithm.
CatchmentSIM includes an intelligent algorithm that looks at pixel

elevations throughout the stream segment as well as the network
connectivity to assign flow directions in the 2D stream network.
However, it can be fooled by dirty or flat DEMs.
In future versions of CatchmentSIM, it is envisaged that the user will be
given the option of manual assignment of flow directions over the
stream network to remove the reliance on the first criteria outlined
above.
Key Challenges
A combination of the filling algorithm and the PFS algorithm can form a hydrologically
realistic DEM very quickly in virtually all case. In certain circumstances (very flat terrain or
poor quality DEMs) it may be necessary to adjust the parameters of the PFS algorithm to
achieve the desired results. In even rarer cases, where the desired catchment outlet may not
be the lowest part of the DEM, some manual editing of the outlet pixel elevations, stream
burning or interpolating an observed stream network over the DEM can fix the problem. This
ensures that these algorithms can work where more simple approaches (such as the J&D
algorithm) fail.
5.4
Achieving a Good Catchment Breakup

CatchmentSIM allows for manually identifying all catchment or subcatchment outlets
(Subcatchments >> Add Subcatchment page 99), importing a database of subcatchment
outlets (Subcatchments >> Import Subcatchment Outlets page 101) or automatically
breaking up a mapped catchment or subcatchment based on 2 algorithms (Subcatchments
>> Breakup Subcatchment page 101).
To use an automated breakup algorithm, at least one catchment / subcatchment must be
have been mapped by manually placing an outlet (Subcatchments >> Add Subcatchment
page 99) and running Runoff Routing >> DEM Wide Flow Processing (page 91).
Both methods of automatic catchment breakup, namely, the lateral inflow analysis algorithm
and the Horton Stream Ordering algorithm tend to be more successful in many DEMs if
stream burning has been undertaken prior to mapping the catchment.
As outlined previously, if a imported stream network is not available, the calculated vector
stream network (Runoff Routing >> Draw / Edit Vector Streams page 92) can be utilised
by first exporting it as a GIS file (Export >> Export GIS Data page 120) and then importing
it as an imported stream network (Vector GIS Data >> Import Stream / Flow lines
page 72), prior to applying stream burning (Digital Elevation Model >> Develop DEM >>
Stream Burning page 81).
It is also important to consider how many subcatchments are appropriate for breakup
considering the resolution of the DEM and the level of detail in the original information that
was used to create the DEM. Increasing the DEM resolution does not necessarily increase the
amount on information contained in the DEM.
5.4.1
Lateral Inflow vs Horton Ordering
The lateral inflow analysis algorithm and the Horton Ordering based automatic breakup may
produce different catchment breakups even when the same number of subcatchments are
generated. In general, the Horton Ordering algorithm appears to produce better results. In
the example presented in Figure 5-3 a Threshold Area Comparison (refer Section 5.5.1,
page 135) was undertaken to determine the appropriate SAT value for generation of the
vector stream network (800 pixels in this case) and vector stream network was generate. This
can be seen (coloured by Horton Order refer page 68) in Figure 5-3. A Horton Order
based catchment breakup was then undertaken based on delineating all 2nd order and higher
subcatchments. For comparison, the Flow Accumulation Analysis algorithm was also run with
the target subcatchments set to the same number that were delineated in the Horton
Ordering based breakup.
133
Figure 5-3: Comparison of Horton (top) and Flow Accumulation Analysis (bottom) Breakup Algorithms
It can be seen in Figure 5-3 that the two automated catchment breakup algorithm produce
different result. The Horton Ordering breakup seems to deliver a better distribution of
subcatchments with a similar size.
134
Key Challenges
5.5
Analysis of Subcatchment Hydrologic

Properties
As documented in Section 3.9 (page 38), CatchmentSIM is the only product currently
available that allows for development of a connected vector stream network that is based on
a more hydrologically accurate flow routing algorithm than the D8 method. Furthermore,
CatchmentSIM includes Horton / Strahler ordering and associated geomorphologic and
fractal coefficients. One of the key advantages of this method of stream network generation
is that it facilitates a significant amount of hydrologic analysis to help users develop a better
understanding of the hydrologic characteristics of the catchment and its subcatchments.
The first step in development of a stream network is assignment of the relevant SAT / MSCL
parameters. This is usually undertaken arbitrarily or based on closest match to an observed
stream network. However, CatchmentSIM allows for geomorphological assessment of the
derived stream network to ensure that it conforms with accepted stream power laws.
CatchmentSIM also includes tools to amend the selected SAT / MSCL parameters in order to
derive a more geomorphologically realistic stream network, as outlined in the following
sections.
5.5.1
Quantitative Analysis of Stream Area

Threshold
CatchmentSIM offers a range of analysis tools to help quantitatively assess the appropriate
SAT for stream network generation. This is based on the law of constant mean stream drops
as first observed by Broscoe (1959). This law states that the mean drop of streams of different
Strahler orders should be statistically similar. Tarboton (1997) suggests comparing the 1st
order mean stream drop to the mean stream drop of all other streams using Students t-test
with a 95% confidence interval (ie., T 2). The lowest SAT that yields a stream network that
has statistically similar means within this confidence interval should be applied. Alternately,
the MSCL can be adjusted with a highly detailed stream network until Students T value is less
than 2. CatchmentSIM can chart the mean stream drop scatter for a generated stream
network (Analysis >> Graph Wizard | Steam Order vs Stream Drop page 114) as shown
in Figure 5-4.
135
Figure 5-4 : CatchmentSIM Charting of Stream Drop Scatter
In Figure 5-4, the small circles represent the individual stream segment elevation drops while
the larger circles represent the mean elevation drop for that order. It can be seen in the
legend that the calculated Students T value for this stream network is -1.57 which is well
within the 2.00 95% confidence interval. Hence, the stream network generated at this SAT
(500 pixels) does obey the law of constant mean stream drops.
In order to help the user identify the appropriate SAT for use in an analysis, CatchmentSIM
also enables the Students T value to be calculated for a range of SAT derived stream
networks and displayed as a chart (Analysis >> Graph Wizard | Threshold Area
Comparison page 115). The same project used in Figure 5-4 was used to generate Figure
5-5. It can be seen that the general trend is for the Students T value (left axis) to reduce as
SAT increases. This means that SAT values smaller than 500 produce stream networks that
do not obey the law of constant mean stream drops within the 95% confidence interval. This
chart can be used to evaluate the minimum SAT that can be applied with confidence. The
chart also indicates the catchment bifurcation ratio for these stream networks which stays
quite constant for the range of stream networks analysed.
136
Key Challenges
Figure 5-5 : CatchmentSIM Charting of SAT vs Students T Value
For the example presented in Figure 5-5, it can be seen that the Students T-value trend line
crosses the threshold value of 2.0 at approximately 490 pixels. Thus, 490 pixels is the
minimum SAT value that should be used in order to generate a stream network that conforms
to the law of constant mean stream drops.
5.5.2
Analysis of Stream Network Topology
Horton / Strahler ordering provides the functionality to derive some key geomorphologic and
fractal stream network coefficients, that can be used to examine the hydrologic properties of
subcatchments. Once streams have been defined as a specific order, a number of useful
parameters and geospatial statistics can be calculated. The most important of these is the
bifurcation ratio which is a measure of the relationship between the numbers of streams of
different orders. Strahler found that a strong log-normal relationship exists between the
logarithms of the number of streams of each order versus stream order. The gradient of this
relationship is deemed the bifurcation of the subcatchment. Figure 5-6 shows the calculation
of the bifurcation for the sample stream network illustrated in Figure 3-21 (page 39).
137
Figure 5-6 : Calculation of Bifurcation Ratio
CatchmentSIM can automatically calculate the bifurcation ratio for the catchment and all
subcatchments, as well as a number of related parameters such as Horton drainage density.
Interestingly, Strahler's work on topographic maps found strong bifurcation relationships, with
bifurcation ratios that were consistently within the range of 3-5. It has been found that
CatchmentSIM generated vector stream networks also exhibit this strong relationship, with
bifurcation ratios also around this range. This lends weight to the argument that vector
stream networks generated over DEMs can closely resemble the fractal nature of natural
systems.
One of the unfortunate attributes of all techniques for analysis of stream networks is that
most derived parameters are dependent on the SAT value adopted for generation of the
stream network. However, it has been found that the bifurcation ratio is not highly dependent
on the SAT value used to generate the network. This is illustrated in Figure 5-7, which shows
the bifurcation ratios calculated for two different subcatchments for a range of vector stream
networks calculated at different SAT values.
Figure 5-7 : SAT vs Bifurcation Relationship for Two Subcatchments
138
Key Challenges
It can be seen in Figure 5-7 that there does not appear to be a strong trend in each of the
Bifurcation vs SAT plots. This fact is useful because it implies that deviations in bifurcation
ratios across subcatchments within a model may convey important information about the
hydrologic properties of the subcatchments and not simply be a function of the adopted SAT
value.
For example, in Figure 5-7, it can be seen that regardless of the SAT value used to generate
the vector stream network the bifurcation ratio for subcatchment 2.01 is significantly higher
than subcatchment 1.01. The implications of this relationship means that subcatchment 2.01
has a greater proportion of 1st order streams than subcatchment 1.01 (bifurcation plot will
be steeper) and the drainage network is more fractal. This information has important
hydrologic implications and may mean that subcatchment 2.01 will respond quicker to
rainfall and may need to be allocated a smaller lag time or related lag coefficient in any
downstream hydrologic or hydraulic model.
This example is presented simply to illustrate some methods of analysis using CatchmentSIM
that can provide the basis for assignment of runoff routing parameters in hydrologic models
that may be applied. Aside from vector stream network analysis, CatchmentSIM includes a
number of other hydrologic analysis tools to help quantify relationships between various
subcatchments and even individual pixels which are outlined on page106.
5.6
Quasi-Hydraulic Modelling using Hydraulic

Controls
CatchmentSIM allows for the natural flow paths derived from the DEM to be overridden by
adding vector Hydraulic Controls to the project as outlined in Section 3.12.2 (page 46). This
section aims to demonstrate the basic principles of their operation.
5.6.1
Channel Type Hydraulic Controls
Channel type hydraulic controls (Runoff Routing >> Hydraulic Controls page 93) are
drawn in CatchmentSIM as a solid line with triangles pointing in the direction of the line
towards the channel outlet
and by one of the following symbols in the
Hydraulic Controls Form

or
. Channel hydraulic controls force flow
paths to follow the channel regardless of the underlying topography. Figure 5-8 illustrates
how a channel type hydraulic control affects flow paths from nearby pixels. Figure 5-9
illustrates the effect on subcatchment mapping of the same channel hydraulic control.
139
Figure 5-8: Channel Hydraulic Control Flow Paths
Figure 5-9: Subcatchments Mapped with/without Channel HC
It is necessary to be careful when placing channel type hydraulic controls. If placed

incorrectly, they can cause infinite flow loops, such as the example depicted in Figure 5-10.
This flow from the end of this channel will drain back into the channel creating a perpetual
flow path. CatchmentSIM attempts to diagnose these problems but it is prudent to test
hydraulic control by manually mapping flow paths (Runoff Routing >> Draw Pixel Flow Path
page 91) in the vicinity of the hydraulic control and checking for Timeout Errors (which
indicate a Hydraulic Control problem).
140
Key Challenges
Figure 5-10: Perpetual Flow Path Example
5.6.2
Gutter Type Hydraulic Controls
Gutter type hydraulic controls (Runoff Routing >> Hydraulic Controls page 93) are drawn
in CatchmentSIM as a solid line with triangles pointing at a perpendicular angle to the
direction of the line
and by one of the following symbols in the Hydraulic
Controls form
or
. The triangles point in the direction in which flow is
allowed to pass over the hydraulic control. When a flow path intersects a gutter it is only
permitted to cross the gutter in the direction of the arrows, otherwise it must flow along the
gutter in a downslope direction. The exception occurs when a downslope direction can not
be found. In this case, the algorithm will search within a given tolerance, either a number of
pixels or a given elevation (File >> Project Options | Hydraulic Structures page 59) for a
pixel of lower elevation. If one can be found within the tolerance, then flow is mapped to this
point, if not then a hydraulic breach occurs as outlined in Section 3.12.4 (page 48). Figure
5-11 and Figure 5-12 illustrate the flow paths and subcatchments mapped from the same
gutter hydraulic control with two different elevations based hydraulic breach tolerances.
141
Figure 5-11: Effect of Gutter HC with Low Tolerance
It can be seen in Figure 5-11 that 3 hydraulic breaches are formed (yellow circles) where the
gutter hydraulic control is breached. This is designed to simulate ponding behind the low
elevation gutter and indicate the points at which it will breach. It can also be seen that this
gutter has a relatively small effect on the subcatchments. However in Figure 5-12 where a
higher gutter is implemented (using a higher elevation tolerance in the Project Options form),
that only one hydraulic breach is formed and a significant change in the mapped flow paths
is evident.
Figure 5-12: Effect of Gutter HC with high tolerance
142
Case Studies
6 Case Studies
This chapter profiles two case studies that demonstrate some of CatchmentSIM algorithms.
6.1
Holland Park Local Stormwater Management

Plan
This project was undertaken by City Design, Brisbane Australia. Brisbane City Council (BCC)
commissioned City Design to undertake a Local Stormwater Management Plan Technical
Report (LSMPTR) for the 270 hectare Holland Park catchment in Brisbane, Australia. The
LSMPTR is aimed to alleviate and minimise flooding problems experienced in the Holland
Park vicinity. The LSMPTR including the analysis undertaken with CatchmentSIM has been
developed into report entitled "Holland Park Local Stormwater Management Plan" City
Design Pty Ltd Prepared for Waterways Program, Urban Management Division, Brisbane City
Council.
One of the key criteria within the study was to "identify and assess stormwater and flooding
impacts on the Holland Park catchment". This was to be achieved by application of a range
of hydrologic and hydraulic stormwater modelling packages. This project was seen as a trial
of suitable techniques to form the basis for a further 200-300 LSMPs with the Local
Government Area (LGA) of Brisbane City Council. As such, City Design was eager to
investigate new GIS approaches to improve accuracy and save time.
In order to develop a computer model of the Holland Park stormwater system in the DRAINS
(Watercom Pty Ltd 1998) software package it was necessary to generate subcatchment
boundaries, areas and generalised topographic parameters for the subcatchments draining
to every stormwater pit in the catchment. Delineation of this quantity of subcatchments using
existing techniques of hand delineation of subcatchment boundaries over topographic maps
was seen as too time consuming and error prone. Consequently, faster and more accurate
GIS approaches were sought. However, any automated GIS approach would need to take
account of the highly urbanised nature of the catchment. CatchmentSIM was one of the
products trialled on this project as described in the following methodology.
143
6.1.1
Project Methodology
The project consisted of importing an external DEM developed from aerial survey into
CatchmentSIM and using internal algorithms to remove all flats and pits from the DEM. The
road crown database in the area was represented in the DEM by a 'road burning' approach.
Inlet gullies were directly imported from a GIS database and subcatchment boundaries and
parameters were automatically calculated prior to export of catchment and subcatchment
characteristics to the DRAINS model. The DEM, imported road network and inlet gullies are
shown in Figure 6-1.
Figure 6-1 : Holland Park GIS Layers
The DEM shown in Figure 6-1 was originally developed by aerial photogrammetry and was a
highly complex TIN of several million points. This was converted to a raster DEM with the
12D geo-processing software, since this project was completed before CatchmentSIM
included the functionality for sampling TIN models. The DEM resolution was 2499 rows by
3249 columns, which forms a DEM with over 8 million pixels.
Flat and pit pixels within the DEM were treated by the PFS algorithm until flow could be
processed from all points within the catchment.
The key challenge in modelling the Holland Park environment lies in the highly urbanised
nature of the catchment. Most of the topographic features that will control flow in the area
are not represented in surveyed GIS data (even highly accurate aerial photogrammetry based
survey). The single most important urban features in the area are the roads. Consequently, it
was crucial that these were adequately represented in the DEM. As outlined in Section 3.12
(page 45), CatchmentSIM provides two different approaches for representation of urban
features in projects, hard-coding of these features into the DEM, or simulation of these
features as overriding external controls. For this project, the road network was hard-coded
into the DEM. This was achieved using CatchmentSIMs vector data set operations to raise all
DEM pixels underlying road crown alignments by 0.5 metres.
144
Case Studies
Following the 'road burning' the PFS algorithm was applied to treat all flat and pit pixels that
were formed during the road burning procedure. This caused the roads to be breached by
major drainage paths at their points of lowest elevation. This may be seen by looking closely
at the CatchmentSIM generated minor drainage network displayed in Figure 6-3 (page 146).
The subcatchment inlets were derived based on the Asset Database of Brisbane City Council
representing inlet gullies. 466 inlets from this database were directly imported into
CatchmentSIM.
Following import of the subcatchment outlets, flow routing was undertaken for the entire
catchment producing the subcatchment boundaries shown in Figure 6-2.
Figure 6-2 : Holland Park CatchmentSIM Results
The level of detail that is accommodated by the CatchmentSIM flow routing algorithm and
resultant modelling of urban features can be clearly seen by examining the CatchmentSIM
results superimposed over aerial photography. Figure 6-3 illustrates the subcatchment
boundaries, road crown alignments, inlet gullies and calculated minor drainage paths for the
project (a vector stream network calculated at a low SAT value).
145
Figure 6-3 : Holland Park Results Superimposed over Aerial Photography
- 146 -
Case Studies
It can be seen in Figure 6-3, that the road crown alignments strongly influence the
subcatchment boundaries and minor drainage paths, yet in other areas the flow is controlled
by the DEM. This has allowed for realistic flow paths and inlet gully drainage areas to be
calculated by combination of a sampled DEM with an urban features (road crown) database.
The Brisbane City Council City Plan GIS database was also imported into CatchmentSIM to
help represent the urban environment. This database was imported as a CatchmentSIM
impervious areas database in order to calculate impervious proportions for each inlet gulley
drainage area. This GIS layer may be seen in Figure 6-4. The different colours represent
different land-use types and different impervious proportions were assigned to these polygons
to realistically represent their varying degrees of imperviousness.
Figure 6-4 : Holland Park City Plan GIS Database
Following assignment of impervious proportions to each inlet gulley drainage area, the
project was exported to the hydrologic / hydraulic DRAINS model. This was achieved by
exporting CatchmentSIM data to a CSV file and then using DRAINS spreadsheet functions to
import subcatchment attributes. CatchmentSIM now includes a CSTalk macro script designed
for simpler coupling with the DRAINS model.
6.1.2
CatchmentSIM Contribution
This project would not have been possible without CatchmentSIMs vector data set
operations tools (for raising road crown alignments) or the PFS algorithm for treatment of
resultant flat and pit pixels within the DEM. Raising DEM pixels underlying the road crown
alignments creates large closed depressions bounded by road crowns. Application of
traditional filling algorithms and the J&D Algorithm would have simply filled the closed
depression forfeiting any benefits associated with the exercise. The PFS algorithm is crucial to
the success of this project because it finds the least cost path at which to breach road crowns
as shown in Figure 6-3.
147
6.2
Upper Washita Catchment EDNA Comparison

6.2.1
Introduction
This project was undertaken to verify CatchmentSIMs algorithms against the geo-processing
undertaken by the United States Geological Survey (USGS) during their on-going project
called Elevation Derivatives for National Applications (EDNA). The EDNA project utilises the
existing National Elevation Dataset (NED) (a raster DEM data set), and the National
Hydrography Dataset (NHD) (a vector watercourse alignment data set) in combination with
automated hydrologic DEM analysis algorithms to produce the following derivative data sets:
Aspect
Contours
Filled DEM
Flow Accumulation
Flow Direction
Reach Catchment Seedpoints
Reach Catchments
Shaded Relief
Sinks
Slope
Synthetic Streamlines
This project is probably the most comprehensive automated terrain analysis work currently
being undertaken in the world. A sample data set is available on the EDNA website
(http://edna.usgs.gov/Edna) for the 835,000 hectare Upper Washita catchment in the
Arkansas-White-Red River Basin. This data has been made available as a sample of a
complete EDNA analysis and to provide a testing ground for new and improved methods
and tools.
As such the source data sets were downloaded and imported into CatchmentSIM to enable
comparison of CatchmentSIM with the various algorithms used to compile the EDNA data
sets.
6.2.2
Project Methodology
The Upper Washita NED DEM in raw format was imported into CatchmentSIM with 4475
rows and 5187 columns. The NHD watercourse alignments were imported into
CatchmentSIM and the Digital Elevation Model >> Utilities >> Interpolate Streams over
Existing DEM (page 89) tool was applied. This algorithm is similar to the watercourse
integration algorithm documented in Section 3.5.2 (page 22) but it is designed for
application to sampled DEMs as apposed to those in the process of being interpolated (refer
Section 5.3.2 page 131). The algorithm processes the watercourse alignment network to
assign flow directions and then ensures that DEM pixel elevations underlying the watercourse
alignments decrease in a downstream direction. Where pixel elevations are flat or increase in
a downstream direction, the algorithm continues to process the watercourse alignment until a
pixel of lower elevation is found. Then all pixels between these points are assigned linearly
interpolated elevations along the watercourse alignment.
148
Case Studies
Following this the filling algorithm was applied to treat some hill-crest areas where the limited
vertical precision of the DEM had flattened the hill-crest. Finally, the PFS algorithm was
applied to remove all remaining flat and pit pixels. Catchment and subcatchment delineation
was then processed based on the outlet points identified in the EDNA database. This yielded
a subcatchment network that is very similar to the ENDA results and is shown in Figure 6-5.
Figure 6-5 : Upper Washita CatchmentSIM Results
A 3D representation of the Upper Washita catchment boundary and calculated vector stream
network derived by CatchmentSIM can be seen in Figure 6-6.
Figure 6-6 : Upper Washita 3D CatchmentSIM Catchment and Streams
149

The results generated by CatchmentSIM can be compared to those derived by the EDNA
algorithms, which use the Arc Hydro tools within the ArcGIS framework.
6.2.3
Catchment Delineation Comparison
The catchment boundaries generated by CatchmentSIM and the D8 algorithm were closely
matching in most regions. However, some areas of discrepancy were found. These were not
due to the flow routing algorithm, rather, were a consequence of the differing approaches to
treatment of flat and pit pixels. A sample area of catchment boundary delineation differences
is shown in Figure 6-7.
Figure 6-7 : Upper Washita Catchment Delineation Differences
As shown in Figure 6-7, the CatchmentSIM and EDNA derivations of the catchment
boundary differ slightly. However, both of the automated catchment boundaries are more
accurate than the Hydrologic Unit Catalog (HUC) boundary which had previously been done
by hand. It is not entirely clear from the contours, which of the automated catchment
boundaries is more correct. However, it can be argued that the CatchmentSIM boundary is
more correct because the dashed black lines are realistic flow paths derived from the
contours which breach the USGS derived boundary.
Other regions of catchment delineation deviation between the two approaches are shown
draped over the 3D surface of the original NED DEM in Figure 6-8.
150
Case Studies
2.
1.
Figure 6-8 : Upper Washita Catchment Delineation Differences (3D)
Similarly to Figure 6-7, it can be seen in Figure 6-8 that both automated approaches are
more accurate than the hand delineated HUC catchment boundary. The observed
differences in the automated catchment delineation in Figure 6-8 are due to the use of the
PFS algorithm as apposed to the J&D algorithm for treatment of flat and pit regions. A
quantitative judgement of which boundary is correct is difficult, however, it could be argued
that the CatchmentSIM algorithms produce a catchment boundary that is more able to
identify ridge lines in areas of low sampling definition (Circle 1) and is better able to bisect
flat hill-crest areas (Circle 2).
The differences between the flow routing algorithms adopted in the USGS approach (D8
method) and CatchmentSIMs flow routing algorithm are more pronounced in areas near
catchment outlets as outlined in Section 3.8.2 (page 36). An example of the subcatchment
boundaries generated near the outlet of one of the Upper Washita subcatchments can be
seen in Figure 6-9.
151

Figure 6-9 : Subcatchment Delineation near Outlets
It can be seen in Figure 6-9 that the CatchmentSIM boundary is more successful at
identifying the expected ridge line between the 1140 contour alignment towards the bottom
the figure. The D8 generated boundary is tending toward the 22.5 degree increment error as
outlined in Section 3.8.2 (page 36).
6.2.4
Stream Network Comparison
CatchmentSIM also produced a very different stream network than the USGS approach even
when using the same SAT value for channel head identification. The USGS selected a SAT
value of 5,000 pixels (4.5 km2) for deriving a calculated stream network based on matching
the NHD data set used to condition the DEM. Figure 6-10 illustrates the NHD, EDNA and
CatchmentSIM vector stream network generated at the same SAT value.
Figure 6-10 : Upper Washita Stream Network Comparison over DEM
It can be seen in Figure 6-10 that the CatchmentSIM stream network is better able to match
the NHD stream network and does not exhibit the 8 direction angular bias that is commonly
associated with the D8 method and evident in the centre section of the figure.
To investigate the effect of increasing the detail level of the calculated stream networks, the
SAT was lowered to 200 pixels (0.18 km2) to examine the ability of the software products to
represent minor drainage paths and to test the effectiveness of the flow routing algorithm.
Figure 6-11 illustrates a comparison of these stream networks over the 1:24,000 Digital
Raster Graphic (DRG) mapping supplied by the USGS.
152
Case Studies
Northern Tributary
1.
Southern Tributary
2.
Figure 6-11 : Upper Washita Stream Network Comparison
The parallel flow paths associated with the J&D algorithm and the D8 method are clearly
evident in the USGS D8 generated stream network as shown in Figure 6-11 (Circle 1). The
CatchmentSIM network has a more realistic fractal nature due to the PFS flat and pit pixel
treatment algorithm and the more advanced CatchmentSIM flow routing algorithm.
Furthermore, the increased resolution of the vector stream networks has revealed a significant
deviation in the two networks (Circle 2). The USGS model incorporates the drainage area in
the bottom left of the figure (green dashed line) to the northern tributary while the
CatchmentSIM model indicates this area draining to the southern tributary input. Thus, if
subcatchments were generated for these two tributaries, the two models would produce very
different results. It is not entirely clear from the DRG mapping which model is correct since
there are no contours in the vicinity. However, the significance of this deviation is that the
different hydrologic conditioning and flow routing algorithms can have major impacts on
subcatchment delineation and stream network generation.
6.3
Conclusions
These two case studies profiling research that has been completed with CatchmentSIM, aim
to demonstrate the capabilities of CatchmentSIM and the algorithms it employs. The Holland
Park Local Stormwater Management Plan project demonstrates how the hard-coding of
urban structures in conjunction with CatchmentSIMs improved PFS flat and pit removal
algorithm can accommodate accurate modelling of urban features that may have otherwise
prohibited application of automated hydrologic analysis algorithms in such a catchment.
The Upper Washita Catchment EDNA project demonstrates how CatchmentSIM was able to
generate superior catchment boundaries and calculated stream networks than the
approaches adopted by the USGS. These improved results are largely due to
CatchmentSIMs improved flow routing algorithm and the PFS flat and pit pixel resolution
algorithm.
153
References
Broscoe, A. J. 1959. Quantitative analysis of longitudinal stream profiles of small watersheds,
Office of Naval Research, Project NR 389-042, Technical Report No. 18. Department of
Geology, Columbia University, New York.
Flint, J. 1974, Stream gradient as a function of order, magnitude and discharge, Water
Resources Research, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 969-973.
Goonetilleke, A. & Jenkins, G. A. 1996, GIS Display Tools or Analytical Tools for
Hydrologists? Proceedings of the 23rd Hydrology and Water Resources Symposium, Hobart,
Tasmania, pp 631-637.
Goyen, A. G. & OLoughlin, G. G. 1999, Examining the Basic Building Blocks of Urban
Runoff, Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Urban Drainage, Sydney, pp.
1382-1390.
Jones, R. 2002, 'Algorithms for using a DEM for mapping catchment areas of stream
sediment samples', Computers & Geosciences, vol. 28, no. 9, pp. 1051-1060.
Martz, L. W. & Garbrecht, J. 1998, The treatment of flat areas and depressions in
automated drainage analysis of raster digital elevation models, Hydrological Processes, vol.
12, no. 1, pp. 843855.
Martz, L.W. & Garbrecht J. 1998 The Treatment of Flat Areas and Depressions in
Automated Drainage Analysis of Raster Digital Elevation Models, Hydrologic Processing, vol.
12, no. 1, pp. 843-855.
Tarboton, D G., Bras, R L. 1991, 'On the Extraction of Channel Networks from Digital
Elevation Data', Hydrological Processes, vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 81-100.
Tribe A. 1992, 'Automated recognition of valley lines and drainage networks from grid digital
elevation models: a review and a new method', Journal of Hydrology, vol. 139, no. 1, pp.
263-293.
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A stand-alone GIS based terrain

The user guide.............................................................................................. 11

Data requirements ........................................................................................ 11

Input data .................................................................................. 11

Predicted or calculated data......................................................... 12

References and training ................................................................................. 12

Technical specifications ................................................................................. 13

Licence agreement ........................................................................................ 13

File server/network ...................................................................... 14

Auto-update feature .................................................................... 14

Product Registration ...................................................................................... 14

Uninstalling CatchmentSIM .......................................................... 15

Using CatchmentSIMs Algorithms .................16

CatchmentSIM Tutorial .................................................................................. 16

Setting Up a New Project ............................................................................... 16

Project Projection ........................................................................ 17

Project Boundaries ...................................................................... 17

Importing GIS Data....................................................................................... 17

Importing Contour & Watercourse Data ........................................ 17

Sampling / Importing a DEM........................................................ 18

Importing Other Datasets............................................................. 19

Development of a Digital Elevation Model....................................................... 19

CatchmentSIM User Manual

DEM Boundaries and Resolution................................................... 19

DEM Interpolation ....................................................................... 20

Hydrologic Conditioning of DEM.................................................................... 29

Priority First Search (PFS) Algorithm ............................................... 30

Assigning Catchment / Subcatchment Outlets.................................................. 34

Flow Routing ................................................................................................ 35

Comparison of Flow Routing Methods .......................................... 36

Stream Network Analysis................................................................................ 38

Development of Stream Network .................................................. 38

Automated Catchment Break-up .................................................................... 39

Flow Accumulation Jump Analysis................................................. 40

Horton / Strahler Subcatchment Break-up ..................................... 42

Nodal Network Arrangement ......................................................................... 44

Impervious Area Database ........................................................... 45

Modelling of Hydraulic Structures ................................................. 46

Channel Type Hydraulic Controls ................................................. 47

Gutter Type Hydraulic Controls .................................................... 48

Hydrologic Analysis Tools .............................................................................. 49

Coupling with 3rd Party Applications................................................................ 50

Menus and Dialogs....................................................................................... 54

View Menu ................................................................................. 67

Vector GIS Data Menu ................................................................ 72

CatchmentSIM User Manual

Digital Elevation Model Menu ...................................................... 78

Runoff Routing Menu................................................................... 91

Subcatchments Menu .................................................................. 99

Analysis Menu .......................................................................... 106

Export Menu ............................................................................. 120

CatchmentSIM User Manual

Help Menu ............................................................................... 125

Key Challenges ............................................. 127

Reprojecting Digital Elevation Models ........................................................... 127

Hydrologic Conditioning of DEMs ................................................................ 128

PFS Algorithm ........................................................................... 129

Achieving a Good Catchment Breakup ......................................................... 133

Using a Stream Network to Add Hydrologic Conditioning ............. 131

Analysis of Subcatchment Hydrologic Properties............................................. 135

Quantitative Analysis of Stream Area Threshold ........................... 135

Analysis of Stream Network Topology ......................................... 137

Quasi-Hydraulic Modelling using Hydraulic Controls ..................................... 139

Channel Type Hydraulic Controls ............................................... 139