Elements of Botany 00 Lin Dial A

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STRUCTURAL, PHYSIOLOGICAL, SYSTEMATICAL,
AND MEDICAL
X,
BEING A FOURTH EDITION OF
THE OUTLINE OF THE FIRST PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY.
BY JOHN LINDLEY,
PH.D. F.R.S.
VICE-SECRETARY OP THE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY OP LONDON;

PROFESSOR OP BOTANY IN UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, LONDON,
THE ROYAL INSTITUTION OP GREAT BRITAIN, AND TO THE SOCIETY OP APOTHECARIES.
LONDON:
'PRINTED FOR TAYLOR AND WALTON,
BOOKSELLERS AND PUBLISHERS TO UNIVERSITY COLLEGE,
UPPER GOWER STREET.

1841.
<
LONDON
PRINTED BY SAMUEL BENTLEY,

Bangor House, Shoe Lane.
PREFACE.
THE work now laid before the public is a fourth edition of

the Author's " Outline of the First Principles of Botany,"
much extended
That work was

and, it is hoped, improved.
written for the use of students, and entirely for the purpose
of enabling
them
to fix correctly in their
minds the more
important points which the teacher brings before them in an

When facts are mixed up with extended
academical course.
and
discussions,
rapidly adverted to, either in a lecture-room
or in a written dissertation, the beginner is apt to lose sight of
the exact nature of an argument, and is unable to distinguish
with certainty the points upon which
it is
most material
for
him to fix his attention. That there existed a want of such

a work has been sufficiently proved by the many editions the
original Outline has passed through, in various
guages indeed, while the present new edition
:
advice has been
European
lan-
in the press,
received of the translation of the work into
is
The propositions which it contained were such

of the most indispensable importance for a student to
understand ; and were all, apparently, deducible from the
Hungarian.
as
it is
evidence which had at that time been collected by Botanists.

The wish of the Author was to sketch a slight but accurate
outline, the
details
of which were to be
filled
up by the
reader himself, who, for this purpose, was referred to the

Author's more extended Introductions to Botany.
The original " Outline " contained nothing more than the
fundamental propositions upon which the principles of Organic
and Physiological Botany depend

but, when two editions
had been exhausted, the Author was induced, by the favour
with which the book had been received, and by its recognized
utility, notwithstanding its many defects, to combine with it a
;
2091 \ 27
PKEFACE.
IV
sketch of Systematical Botany, treated in the same manner.

He undertook the far more difficult task of reducing to their
that distinguish the various
simplest expression the characters
classified
which
are
in
by modern systematiplants
groups
the object being to diminish, by a very careful
analysis, the difficulties which present themThe
selves to the student of this branch of the subject.
cal writers
and extensive
made in the form of a series of tables, called

" Alliances of Plants
;" and it has been satisfactory to
attempt was
the
the Author to find that this too has been advantageous to

The work
students, notwithstanding its extreme conciseness.
"
thus altered appeared in 1835, under the title of
Key to
Structural, Physiological, and Systematical Botany."
In the edition now offered to students many important
improvements have been introduced, without deviating from

the original plan of the work. The skill of the wood-engraver
has enabled the Author to
fill
his
pages with
illustrations, ex-
planatory not only of the technical terms employed in Botany,

but also of the Natural Orders of plants. An analysis of the
latter, upon the plan of Lamarck, an account of De Candolle's
celebrated system of arrangement, into which a large number
of wood-cuts are introduced, and some new views relating to
natural classification, are added to the matter to be found in
previous editions besides which, the whole of the Structural

and Physiological part has been corrected with great care,
and made to include all the most important views of modern
:
physiologists, so as to present the reader with a view of the

state of Botanical knowledge in these
departments in the
spring of 1841.
It is
what
it
hoped that these improvements will render the work

was originally intended for, a complete Botanical
wherein all the principal topics which the teachers

Note-book,
of Botany introduce into their lectures are
arranged methodiThe student will naturally look to his instructor or to
cally.
more extensive works

in his
for explanations of those

points
Note-book are merely adverted
University College, London,
April 1841.
to.
which
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY;
STRUCTURAL, PHYSIOLOGICAL, SYSTEMATICAL,
AND MEDICAL.
I.
STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL

BOTANY.
PLANTS are not separable from animals by any absolute

character; the simplest individuals of either kingdom not
being distinguishable by our senses.
2. Animals are for the most part incapable of multiplying
by mechanical or spontaneous division of their trunk, and are
supported by nutritious matter, carried into their system from
an internal bag or stomach.
3. Plants are for the most part congeries of individuals,
1.
multiplying by spontaneous or artificial division of their trunk

or axis, and are supported by nutritious matter conveyed into
their system by the absorption of their lower extremities
or roots, or
by
their surface.
Generally speaking, the latter are fixed to some substance from which they grow, are destitute of locomotion, and
are enabled to digest their food by the action of light upon
4.
their epidermis.
5. Plants consist
of a hygrometrical membranous transparent tissue, chemically composed of oxygen, hydrogen, and

carbon, to which nitrogen is always superadded.
They are
also found to contain many mineral substances, which they
are supposed to separate from their proper food during the
process of digestion, and to deposit in their tissue.
STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.
Their component parts are held together by an organic

mucus, out of which the tissue itself is generated.
the woody, the
7. Tissue is found in the form of the cellular,
each of which has
and the
the
6.
vascular,
laticiferous,
pitted,
certain modifications, constituting the
Elementary organs.
ELEMENTARY ORGANS.
I.
CELLULAR TISSUE (Tela cellulosa, Lat. ; Tissu

old writers ; Zellencellulaire, Fr. ; Pulp and Parenchyma, of
found in plants ;
gewebe, Germ.) is the only form universally
8.
Of
these,
the other forms are often either partially or entirely wanting.

9. Cellular tissue is composed of vesicles, the sides of which
are not originally perforated by visible pores (22).
10. Each vesicle is a distinct individual, cohering with the
vesicle
with which
it
is
and originating from a

;
which either remains visible on its
in contact
primitive point or cytollast

sides or is absorbed.
1
,
11. Therefore the apparently simple membrane

two contiguous cells is in fact double.
which
di-
vides
12. If the adhesion of the contiguous cells be imperfect,

Such spaces are called interspaces will exist between them.
cellular passages.
13. The sides of cellular tissue are often thickened
by the
on their inner surface, of matter of lignification or

z
which is stratified, and often pierced with passages
sclerogen
deposit,
leading to the circumference.

14. The cells contain fluid;
grains of colouring matter

or
(cJiromule., chromogen,
chlorophyll) ; starch in granules (peand
renchyma) ;
crystals, which, when acicular, are named
raphides.
15. The
vesicles
of cellular
tissue,
when
separate,
are
round or oblong ; when slightly and equally pressed together,

4
with an hexagonal
they acquire a dodecahedral appearance
,
section
stretched lengthwise they
drical, fusiform,
16.
When
together
by
become
cellular tissue
is
composed of
vesicles fitting
called in general terms

prosencJiyma if the vesicles are fusiform.
their plane faces,
it
is
parenchyma ; and
Both these are sometimes branched, and
culate.
prismatical, cylin-
&c.
their divisions inos-
ELEMENTARY ORGANS.
4
or spharendtyma ; conical, conenchySpheroidal cellular tissue is merenchyma ,
ma 5 ; oval, ovenchynui 6 ; fusiform, atractenchyma ; cylindrical, cylindrenchyma 8 ;
w;
9
prismatical, prismenchyma,
sinuous, colpenckyma ; branched, cladenchyma
1
7
which, when compressed, becomes muriform ; stellate, actinenchyma *; entann.
and
branched
tubular, d(edalencliyma
gled,
=-.<#4
17. Parenchyma constitutes all the pulpy parts; the medulla or pith (98), the medullary rays (132), a portion of the
bark (120), and all that intervenes between the veins of leaves
and other appendages of the axis. Consequently it occurs in

every part of a plant, and especially in those which are succulent.
It, however, sometimes acquires, by the deposit of scle3
rogen (13), excessive hardness, as in the stone of fruits and
the bony skin of some seeds.
,
destines are large
of Parenchyma, in which raphides (60 a) are often de-
cells
posited.
18.
Prosenchyma
which
it
when
is
confined to the bark and
wood, in
only occasionally occurs.

19. Besides these a spiral line is often found in the inside of
cell,
and
it
13
or inenchyma, is produced ;
sometimes happens that the membrane connecting such
fibro-cellular tissue
fibres is absorbed,
leaving the fibres only to constitute
the
cell.
20.
The
function of the cellular tissue
in all directions
the
is
membrane of which
to transmit fluids
it
is
composed
is
therefore permeable, although not in general furnished with

B 2
thickened by the deposition of

with
are left in the latter communicating
sclerogen, passages
of
being
the sides of the tissue, and giving it the appearance
When
visible pores (9).
is
it
dotted or pitted.
one
cell
generating
21. Cellular tissue is self-productive,
In Chara, Marchantia, &c. young
others upon its surface.
in the spaces
cells are said to be formed at the points of and
cells are
new
between older cells ; in Confervse and in anthers
formed by the internal divisions of an older cell; while,

mode of production is
according to Schleiden, the most general
of vegetation (6).
mucus
in
the
from cytoblasts (10), generated
of the
modification
a
is
22. PITTED TISSUE (Boihrenchyma)
of ordinary cylindrical cells placed
and forming continuous
cellular, either consisting
end to end, opening

tubes
into each other,
or originally tubular
15
Its sides are
marked by
pits,
consequence of the sclerogen (13)

resembling dots, produced
It is
the inside of the cells.
over
being unequally deposited
common in wood, of which it forms what is vulgarly called
in
the porosity.
Its office is to convey fluids with rapidity in
the direction of the woody tissue that surrounds it. Formerly
it
was considered a form of vascular
ducts, or
msiform
tissue,
and called dotted
tissue.
Pitted Tissue is articulated, when composed of short cylinders placed end to

end, or continuous when it was originally tubular.
23. WOODY TISSUE (Pleurenchyma) consists of elongated

tubes tapering to each end, and, like the vesicles of cellular
It may be considered a form of
tissue, imperforate to the eye.
the cellular tissue

it
is
itself,
to
which
practically distinguished
length, extreme fineness,
and
it is
by
frequently referred
but
its
cylindrical form, great

toughness; the latter of which
properties is produced by the thickness of its sides.

24. It is found in the wood, among the parenchyma of the
liber (124),
and
in the veins of the leaves, or other
appendages
of the axis.
25. Its functions are to give
strength to the vegetable fabric,
to serve as a medium for the
passage of fluid from the
and
lower to the upper extremities.

Common Pleurenchyma
14
has its sides destitute of markings ; the
is a
glandular
variety in which the sides of the tubes are furnished with circular disks ; the
latter occur chiefly in coniferous
plants and such as have aromatic secretions.
ELEMENTARY ORGANS.
VASCULAR TISSUE (Trachmchyma)
26.
consists of very thin-
sided cylinders tapering to each end, and having a spiral fibre
generated in their inside.
Of
27.
this
Their
fibre is
rolling
when
kind of tissue spiral vessels 1516 are the type.

of a highly elastic nature, and is capable of un-
stretched.
28. Spiral vessels are found in the medullary sheath, and in

all parts that emanate from it,
especially the veins of the
leaves,
and everything that
is
a modification of them.
usually absent from the wood and bark.

They, however, occur in these and other unusual parts in a
few extremely rare cases ; as in the wood, and bark, and pith
29.
They
are
of Nepenthes.
30. The spiral vessels appear intended for the conveyance
of air, which has been found to contain 7 or 8 per cent, more
oxygen than the atmosphere.
31. Ducts are transparent tubes, the sides
rings, bars, or transverse streaks.
of which are
marked with
32.
They
are slight modifications of the spiral vessel, differ-
ing principally in being incapable of unrolling ; and, in some

cases, in the turns of the spiral fibre being distant or broken,
or even, in appearance, branched.
33. In those cases
where the turns of the
spire actually
touch each other, the ducts, which are then called closed, can
only be distinguished from spiral vessels by their inability to
unrol ; while at rest they appear to be absolutely the same.
Ducts are closed 50 when the spires touch each other

17
to consist of separate rings

scalariform, when the lines
septate,
when
the interior
when they
annular,
seern
19
reticulated, when the spires cross each other

upon their sides are horizontal and equidistant
is
divided
by
pierced disks, as in Echinocactus.
Ducts occur among the woody tissue of herbaceous

plants ; are abundant in the wood of the higher tribes of cellular plants, such as Ferns and Lycopodiacese ; and their ends
are often in immediate connection with the loose cellular tissue
34.
occupying the extremities of the roots.

35. Their functions have not been accurately determined.
It is probable that they act as. spiral vessels when
young ; but
it
certain that
is
they become
filled
with
as soon as
fluid
their spires are separated.
36. LATICIFEROUS TissuE 18 (Cinenchyma) consists of uninterrupted anastomozing tubes, whose final divisions are so delicate, that
the
eye only discovers them when aided by the

It forms the proper vessels of
most powerful microscopes.

old writers.
37. It principally occurs in the liber of

Exogens (124),
whence the ramifications proceed to the surface of all the
organs, and penetrate the hairs, where they form a most
delicate network.
38. Laticiferous tissue

conveys latex, a peculiar fluid, usually
and coloured red, white, or yellow ; often however
turbid,
colourless.
The use of
39.
this tissue is to
carry the latex to
all
the
newly formed organs, which are supposed to be nourished by

The
large trunks of Cinenchyma are vasa expansa, or opopkora

rasa cm: tracta.
40. There are no other

vessels,
Reservoirs of
oil,
elementary forms of
Lenticular glands, are
the small are
tissue.
all
it.
Air-
either dis-
tended intercellular
passages, or cavities built up with cellular
tissue, or large cells filled with
peculiar secretions.
41. When such cavities are essential to
the existence of a
species,
they are formed by a regular -arrangement of cellular

a definite and
unvarying figure ; Ex. Water-plants.
they are not essential to the existence of a
tissue in
When
species,
they are mere irregular distensions or lacerations of the tissue

Ex. Pith of the Walnut-tree.
42
lied
All these forms of tissue are

enclosed within a skin
the epidermis, which is one
or more external
layers of
ELEMENTARY ORGANS.
parenchyma, the vesicles of which are compressed, and in a

firm state of cohesion.
43.
The spaces seen upon the
epidermis,
when examined by
a microscope, represent these vesicles.

44. It is, therefore, not a peculiar membrane, but a form of
cellular tissue.
45. It
posed to
46. It
is
air,
is
spread over all the parts of plants which are exexcept the stigma (397).
not found upon parts habitually living
under
water.
47. It
which
is
is itself
by an extremely
protected
thin
pellicle,
apparently inorganic and homogeneous, and which
covers every part, except the openings through the stomates

This membrane is the cuticle.
(49).
The epidermis is furnished with stomates.

49. STOMATES are oval spaces lying between the sides of the
cells, opening into intercellular cavities in the subjacent tissue,
48.
and appearing
from above 22
to be bordered
by a limb when they
are viewed
23 25
.
50. This appearance. of a limb is

owing to the juxtaposition
of two or more elastic vesicles,
the
closing up or
opening
aperture which they form, according to circumstances, as is

manifest when the stomate is divided
perpendicularly to the
21 24 26
plane of the epidermis
.
51. Stomates are found

abundantly upon leaves, particularly
on the lower surface of those
organs; occasionally upon all
such as are of
parts that are modifications of leaves, especially
the
stem.
and
on
a leafy texture ;
upon the roots, nor on

submersed parts of plants,
52. Stomates have not been found

colourless parasitical plants, nor the
nor on Fungi, Algse, and Lichens
they
are,
moreover, rare,
or altogether absent, in succulent parts and in seeds.

53. It frequently happens, that they are so incompletely
formed, as to be either altogether incapable of action, or to

act in a very imperfect manner ; as in succulent plants.
54. The function of stomates is to regulate evaporation
and
has been thought, that the former funcwhich they are destined ; and,
that the cause of certain parts becoming succulent, is the
respiration.
It
tion, in particular, is that for
absence of stomates in sufficient numbers to carry off the

watery part of the sap. But some succulent plants have
more stomates than ordinary

requires reconsideration.
55. HAIRS are minute
plants,
so
that
this
opinion
expansions of transparent cellular
from the surface of plants. They are of

two kinds, lymphatic and secreting.
56. Lymphatic hairs are formed
by vesicles of cellular tissue placed end to end, and not
varying much in dimensions.
57. Glandular hairs are formed
by vesicles of cellular tissue placed end to end, and
sensibly distended at the apex or
tissue proceeding
base into receptacles of
fluid.
COMPOUND ORGANS.
58. Lymphatic hairs are for the absorption of moisture, for
the protection of the surface on which they are placed, and
for the control of evaporation through the stomates
(49).
They always proceed from
the veins, while the stomates oc-
cupy the interjacent parenchyma.

59. Glandular hairs are receptacles of the fluid peculiar to
certain species of plants, such as the fragrant volatile oil of the
sweet brier, and the acrid colourless fluid of the nettle, and
may
be regarded as organs of excretion.
Hairs are simple 35

ticulated 31 3a
liated 50
setaceous 28
27
;
septate
40 41
;
glochidiate
rumentaceous 48
capitate
armoniliform
;
;
strangulated
39
ciclavate 34 ; scabrous
;
;
43
36
45 40
araneose
stellate
scutate
;
;
;
;
38
knotted 33
branched 42
29
37
;
compound
49
.
60. Hairs are usually planted, more or less perpendicularly,

upon the surface on which they grow. In some cases, however, they are attached by their middle (peltate), as in Mal51
pighiaceous and Brassicaceous plants
.
RAPHIDES are crystals of any kind, usually acicular,

parenchyma.
61. PRICKLES are conical hairs of large size, sharp-pointed,
and having thin tissue very hard.
60
found
a.
in the interior of cells of
II.
COMPOUND ORGANS.
62. From peculiar combinations of the elementary organs

are formed the compound organs.
63.
The compound organs
are the axis (64) and
its
ap-
pendages (189).
64.
The Axis may be compared
to the vertebral
column of
animals.
formed from an embryo or leaf-bud, by the deof

a root in one direction, and of a stem in the
velopement
65. It
is
opposite direction.
10
An embryo is a young plant, produced by the agency of

and
sexes,
developed within a seed.
67. A leaf-bud is a young plant, produced without the agency
of sexes, enclosed within rudimentary leaves called scales, and
66.
developed on a stem.
68.
An
70.
When
embryo propagates the species.

69. Leaf-buds propagate the individual.
the vital action of an embryo or bud
is
excited,
the tissue developes in three directions, upwards, downwards,
and
horizontally.
71. That part which developes downwards is called the
descending axis or root ; that upwards, the ascending axis or
that horizontally, the medullary system

and the part
;
from which these two axes start is called the crown or collar.
stem
72. This elongation in three directions takes place simultaneously ; hence it follows that all plants must necessarily
have an ascending and descending

and a medullary system.
73.
axis,
or a stem
and
root,
The only apparent exceptions
tribes of plants, in
to this are the lower

which the developement seems to be either
spherical, filamentous, or horizontal.

III.
74.
The
root
is
ROOT.
formed by the descending and dividing
fibres of the stem.
75. Anatomically it differs from the stem in the absence of

normal buds, and of stomates (49), and in Exogens of
pith.
76. Although the root has no distinct pith in
Exogens, yet
it
possesses a distinct medullary system.
77.
The
functions of the root are to fix plants in the

earth,
and to absorb nutriment from it. As it has to force

through substances which offer resistance to its
lengthens exclusively
of its divisions.
by
its
way
passage, it
successive additions to the
points
78. This absorption takes place almost

exclusively by the
extremities called spongelets, or
spongioles, which consist of a
lax coating of cellular tissue
lying upon a concentric layer of
woody tissue, in the midst of which is often placed a bundle
of ducts (31).
Spongioles are not, however, a distinct organ,
but are merely the young extremities of roots.
11
ROOT.
Roots are nodose 52

tubercular 56
53
;
placentiform
coralline
58
;
conical 54
tuberous 59
and
moniliform 55
fasciculate,
when
testiculate, or
in clusters as in
the Asphodel.
79. Occasionally the epidermis separates from the end of

the roots in the form of a cup or cap 57 , as in Pandanus and
Lycopodium.
80. The power of affording nutriment to the stem and other
by the root exclusively in consequence

The root is often a reservoir
the
soil.
from
absorption
of nutritious matter ready formed, and consisting of starch,
as in the Dahlia mucilage, as in the Orchis ; alkaline matter,
as in Rhubarb ; upon which the young stem feeds, even although the root itself is cut off from communication with any
parts, is not possessed
of
its
source of supply.
Moniliform, tuberous, testiculate, placentiin short, all which are unusually thickform, conical roots,
are intended by nature as reservoirs of food.
ened,
They
must not be confounded with tubers (152), rootstocks (152),

or corms (153), all which are forms of stem.
IV.
81.
The stem
is
STEM.
produced by the successive developement
of leaf-buds (164), which lengthen in opposite directions.

82. If an annular incision be made below a branch of an
Exogenous plant
(95),
the
upper
lip
of the
wound
heals
the part above the incision inrapidly, the lower lip

the
in
creases sensibly
diameter,
part below does not.
not
12
83. If a ligature be made round the bark, below a branch,

the part above the ligature swells, that below it does not
swell.
84. Therefore
the matter which
plants in
causes
the
increase
of
diameter descends.
Exogenous
85. If a growing branch
is
cut through below a leaf-bud,

between the section
that branch never increases in diameter

first bud below
The diameter of
and the
it.
Exogenous stems increases in each

number of leaf-buds developed.
species in proportion to the
of leaf-buds above a given part,
number
The
87.
greater
the greater the diameter of that part and vice versa.
86.
all
88. In the spring the newly forming wood is to be traced

in the form of organic fibres descending from the leaf-buds ;
is most newly formed lying on the outside, and
from
the most newly developed buds.
proceeding
that which
89. Therefore the descending matter, by successive addiwhich Exogenous plants increase in diameter, pro-
tions of
ceeds from the leaf-buds.

90. Their elongation upwards gives rise to new axes, with
appendages ; their elongation downwards increases the
their
diameter of that part of the axis which pre-existed, and produces roots.
91. Roots, therefore, in all cases, should consist of extensions of
woody
92. Hence,
tissue
and
this is
while the stem
is
evolution of leaf-buds, the root,

evolution, has no leaf-buds.
93.
The
conformable to observation.
formed by the successive

which is the effect of that
leaf-buds thus successively developed are

firmly
by the medullary system of the stem, which
held together
proceeds from the bark inwards, connecting the circumference

with the centre.
94.
The stem
95. It
is
side of the
varies in structure in four principal

ways.
formed by successive additions to the out-
either
wood, when
it
is
called Exogenous^ ; or
by sucis called
Endogenous^ ;
cessive additions to its centre, when it

or by the union of the bases of leaves,
and by addition to the

point of the axis, or by simple elongation or dilatation where
no leaves or buds exist ; this is called
Acrogenous.
96. In what are" called
Dictyogens^, the stem has the
STEM.
structure of Endogens, the root that of the stem of
Ex. Smilax.
97. The stem of EXOGENS
nearly
Exogens
may
Pith, the Medullary Sheath, the
Medullary Rays.
98. The PITH consists of
be distinguished into the

the Bark, and the
Wood,
cellular tissue,
occupying the cen-
tre of the stem.
99. It occasionally contains scattered spiral vessels, which
appear to originate in the medullary sheath (104), or scattered bundles of vascular and woody tissue, as in Ferula.
is produced by the elongation of the axis
upwards.
101. It serves to nourish the young buds until they have
100. It
acquired the power of procuring nourishment for themselves.

For this purpose it is filled with starch, which, in the process
of vegetation, becomes converted into mucilage
passes out of the pith into the nascent organs.
102. It
cases
when
it
it
is
always
solid
when
first
organized
and the
latter
but in some
separates into regular cavities, as in the Walnut,

is called disciform ; or it tears into irregular
spaces,
as in Umbelliferous plants.
of nourishing the young parts being acno further importance, and dies.
of
complished,
63
104. The MEDULLARY SHEATH consists of spiral vessels ".
103. Its
office
it is
105. It immediately surrounds the pith, projections of

which pass through it into the medullary rays (132) 63 *.
106. It is in direct communication with the leaf-buds and
the veins of the leaves.
14
the de107. It carries upwards the oxygen liberated by

it into
conducts
and water, and
composition of carbonic acid
the leaves.
108.
sists
The WOOD
lies
and conupon the medullary sheath,
of concentric layers.
109. It is formed by the successive deposit of organized

matter descending from the buds, and by the interposition
of the medullary system, here called medullary rays, con63 b b
.
necting the pith and the bark
110. The first concentric layer
lies immediately upon the

medullary sheath and pith, and consists of woody and vasiform tissue 63 *.
Each succeeding
concentric layer consists <tf woody

and vasiform tissue, which either form themselves intoMistinct
strata, in which case the latter is innermost, or are con-
111.
founded together.
112.
When
there
is
any material
difference
between the
compactness of the tissue of the two sides of a concentric

layer, zones are formed in which the woody tissue is outerbut when the vasiform and woody tissues are equally
intermingled, no apparent zones exist.
most
113.
concentric layer, once formed, never alters in di-
mensions.
114.
Each
concentric layer,
which
is
distinctly limited, is
usually the produce of one year's growth.

115. Therefore, the age of an
Exogenous tree
should be
15
STEM.
known by
number of
the
But
numerous diswhich the period
concentric circles of the wood.
this rule is of uncertain application,
owing
to
turbing causes, especially in countries in

of rest is less distinctly marked than in the winter of northern
latitudes.
The
116.
secretions of plants are deposited
in the oldest concentric layers
most abundantly
while those layers which are
most recently formed contain but a
slight deposit.
When
117.
secretions,
it
the tissue of the concentric layers is

ceases to perform any vital functions.
The dead and
118.
fully
filled
with
formed central layers are called
the heart-wood.
The
119.
and incompletely formed external layers
living
are called the alburnum.
120.
like the
wood
Upon
the outside of the
wood,
consists of concentric layers.
lies
the BAKK, which,
66
121. It consists of four distinct parts
1. the Epidermis
";
65
65 66c
2. the EpipJilceum
3. the Mesophlceum
and 4,
;
the
65
Endophlmum or Liber
122. Each of these parts
to its
own
^d
increases
by
successive additions
except the epidermis, which
inside,
is
never re-
newed.
123.
The Epiphloeum and Mesophlosum
cellular tissue only
but their
rections with respect
large and
soft,
and
to each
may
cells are
other.
are both formed of
placed in different diThe former is often
separate spontaneously from the
young
16
layers forming beneath
it,
as in Cork, which
is
the epiphlceum
of Quercus Suber.
124. The Endophloeum or Liber consists of cellular tissue
on the alburnum, of laticiferous tissue (36), and of
resting
pleurenchyma (23). The tubes of the latter

ened rapidly by a deposit of sedimentary matter ; in which
case, sections of the tubes present the appearance of concentric
^ 65 66
Hence arises the toughness of the tubes of
circles
are often thick-
pleurenchyma which occur in the liber, and are manufactured

into cordage, as in the Lace-bark tree, the Lime-tree, &c.
125. Occasionally the liber is only formed during the first
year's
growth;
after
which
it
is
enclosed in wood, and
is
eventually found near the pith. This has as yet been observed
only in the Menispermaceous order.
The power of renewing themselves by the production

new matter upon their inner surface, is apparently given to
126.
of
the layers of bark in order to compensate for the gradual

incessant distension of the wood beneath them.
and
127. As the older parts die, from becoming too small to

bear the strain upon them, new parts form, each in its allotted
place, and take the station of that which went before it.
128.
bark
The
secretions of a plant are often deposited in the
any other part.

Hence chemical or medicinal
in preference to
129.
principles are often to be

sought in the bark rather than in the wood.
130. The immediate functions of the bark are to protect the
young wood from injury, and to serve as a filter through which
the descending elaborated juices of a plant

may pass horizontally into the stem, or downwards into the root.
131. It also contains the laticiferous vessels
(36), by which
is
conveyed to all parts of the surface of a plant.
132. The MEDULLARY RAYS or PLATES consist of
the latex
compressed
parallelograms of cellular tissue (muriform cellular tissue), belonging to the medullary system.
133. They connect together the tissue of the
trunk, maintaining a communication
ference.
134.
They
of the wood.
between the centre and the circum-
act as braces to the
woody and vasiform
tissue
They convey secreted matter horizontally from

the bark to the heart-wood, and
they generate adventitious
leaf-buds.
17
STEM.
135.
Cambium
a viscid secretion, which, in the spring,

Exogenous plant from the liber.
is
separates the alhurnum of an
It is free vegetable mucilage, out of which the new elementary

organs (8) are constructed, whether in the form of vessels, or
wr oody tissue, or of the cellular tissue of the medullary system,
whose office is to extend the medullary plates, and maintain the

communication between the bark and central part of a stem.
136. As Exogenous plants increase by annual addition of
new matter to their outside, and as their protecting integu-
capable of distension in any degree, commensurate with the increase of the wood that forms below it, it
ment or bark
is
follows, taking all circumstances into consideration, that there

are no assignable limits to the life of an Exogenous tree.
137. The stem of ENDOGENOUS plants offers no absolute dis-
Medullary Bays, Wood, and Bark.

formed by the intermixture of bundles of vascular
tissue among a mass of cellular tissue, the whole of which is
surrounded by a zone of cellular and woody tissue, inseparable
from the stem itself, and therefore not bark.
tinction of Pith,
138. It
is
139. It increases
by the successive descent of new bundles

down into the central cellular tissue,
of fibrovascular tissue
curving outwards as they descend.

140. The vascular bundles of the centre gradually force outwards those which were first formed, the cellular mass augments
simultaneously, and in this way the diameter of a stem increases.
141. What appears to be bark in these plants is an external
layer of cellular tissue, into which the lower extremities of the
arcs of fibro-vascular tissue descend obliquely, losing their vascularity as soon as they reach the cortical integument, or falsebark.
142. It
is
an oblique
and the external cortical
in consequence of this continuity in
direction of the fibro-vascular bundles
integument, that the latter can never, in Endogens, be separated from the wood beneath it.
143.
The diameter
of the stem of an Endogenous plant is

its tissue possesses of distending, and
determined by the power
by
its
hardness.
144.
When
the external tissue has once
become indurated,
the stem can increase no further in diameter.

145.
When
the tissue
is
soft
and capable of continual
dis-
18
there is no more certain limit to the life of an

Endogenous than of an Exogenous tree.
146. Generally, the terminal bud only of Endogenous plants
tension,
is
developed
but very often a considerable number develope
Ex. Asparagus.
147.
When
a terminal bud only of an Endogenous plant
is
Ex. Palms when several
cylindrical
conical
Bamboo.
becomes
Ex.
;
develope,
148. In Acrogens no other stem is formed than what arises
from the simple union between the bases of the leaves and the
original axis of the bud from which they spring, and which
they carry up along with them.
149. In the order of Ferns the section of a stem indicates
the same structure as that of the numerous petioles (197) out
of which it is constituted.
developes, the stem
it
150. When Acrogens have no proper leaves, they are mere

expansions of cellular matter, sometimes in all directions ; Ex.
Fungi
sometimes in particular directions
Ex. Lichens,
Algse, &c.
151. The stem of a plant assumes numerous

ent appearances in different
plants.
and very
differ-
67
68
72
If above ground it is
;
rootshaped, or knotted
;
ascending
creeping
71
culated 73 ; leafless, succulent, and deformed 69 ; or
leafy .
If it bears the fmcers,
proceeding immediately from the soil or near it,
70
scape
10
arti-
it is
19
STEM.
152. It often burrows beneath the earth, when it is vulgarly

Sometimes the internodes become
called a creeping root'*.
much
thickened,
when what
or the stem lies prostrate

its
under
side,
when
it is
are called tubers 11
78
are formed
upon the earth, emitting roots from

called a rhizoma, or rootstock 67
.
distend underground, without creeping or rooting, but always retaining a round or oval figure, it is called a
153. If
it
75
.
154. All these forms of stem are vulgarly called roots.
155.
No
ments of
root can have either scales, which are the rudiwhich are the rudiments of buds.
leaves, or nodes,
scaly root
156.
is,
therefore,
a contradiction
The ascending axis,
in terms.
or stem, has nodes
and internodes.
157. Nodes are the places where the leaves are expanded
and the buds formed.
158. Internodes are the spaces between the nodes.
Whatever is produced by the evolution of a leaf-bud
(164) is a branch.
159.
160.
is the
imperfect evolution of a leaf-bud, and
a
branch.
is, therefore,
161. All processes of the stem which are not the evolutions
of leaf-buds, are mere dilatations of the cellular
integument of
the bark.
spine
Such are prickles (61).
162. In solid form the stem
lowing are
common terms
is
extremely variable; the
relating to
it
c 2
fol-
20
Terete 74
angled
half-terete 75
obtuse-angled
">
octangular
85
triquetrous
80
multangular
trilateral
Buds
are of
164. LEAF-BUDS
acute-
88
87
86
V.
163.
triangular
77
76
76
two-edged ;
piano-compressed
82
81
83
quinquangular ;
;
quadrangular
79
78
;
obscurely
quadriquetrous
triquetrous
compressed
81
78
quadrilateral
quinquelateral
LEAF-BUDS.
two kinds, Leaf-buds and Flower-buds.

(Bourgeon, Fr.)
consist
of rudimentary
leaves surrounding a growing vital point, the tissue of
which
capable of elongation, upwards in the form of stem, and

downwards in the form of root.
is
165. FLOWER-BUDS (Bouton, Fr.) consist of rudi-
mentary leaves surrounding a fixed
vital point,
and
assuming, when
fully developed, the form of floral

or
sexual
apparatus.
envelopes
166. Notwithstanding this difference, a leaf-bud
sometimes indicates a tendency to become a flower-
bud
and flower-buds frequently assume the chaEx. Monstrous Pears.

;
167. In appearance a leaf-bud seems 89 to be a
;
racters of leaf-buds
collection
of scales
above the other.

ary leaves.
The
arranged symmetrically one

scales are the rudiment-
These
centre
upon which they are placed
with a thin stratum

of spiral vessels, and these two
parts answer to
the pith (98) and the
medullary sheath (104) in
is
cellular substance coated
Exogens.
168. By the growth of a leaf-bud a branch is formed
and
;
the scales gradually change into true leaves as
vegetation ad-
vances 92
169. Sometimes they

separate spontaneously from the stem
21
LEAF-BUDS.
deciduous), and are
Ex. Lilium bulbiferum.
(are
then called
bulbills
or bulblets 9 *.
170. Often they are of large size, and are formed under9 91
;
they are then called bulbs or scaly bulbs
ground
171. Although the corm (153) is regarded as a kind of

underground stem, it may also be considered as a sort of leaf-
bud, the centre of which is very large and the scales very thin.
172. In bulbs, young buds or bulbs then called cloves
(nuclei),
Garlic
upon
are often formed in the axils of the scales, as in

and then gradually destroy the old bulb by feeding
In like manner corms produce other corms at the
it.
and are destroyed by their offspring.

some Gladioli 93 94 an old corm produces the
axils of their scales,
173. Thus
in
new one always

remains of
its
at
its
point
the latter
parent, and, being in like
is
then seated on the
manner devoured by
own offspring, becomes the base of the third generation 94 :

this process enables such plants by degrees to raise themselves
its
.out of the earth in which they were born.

174. In like manner the Crocus 75 produces
two or more
corms near the apex, and gradually dies as they develope ;

and the Colchicum bears its mother in the form of a shrivelled
96
spungy lump on one side of its base ", while on the opposite
966
side a new bud
is prepared by which the now vigorous
parent will hereafter perish.
22
175. Both corms and bulbs are reservoirs of nutriment in

either a starchy or mucilaginous condition, or both.
176. Leaf-buds are of two kinds, the regular and the adventitious.
177. Regular or normal Leaf-buds are only found in the

axils of leaves.
178.
They
exist in a developed or
axils of all leaves,
179. Therefore
undeveloped state in the
and of all modifications of leaves.

they
may
be expected to appear at the
axils of scales of the bud, of stipules (223), of bracts (274), of
sepals (335), of petals (336), of stamens (348), and of carpels

(406) ; in all of which situations they are generally undeveloped,
for these different
180.
They
organs are
all
modifications of leaves.
are frequently not called into action, even in the
axils of leaves.
181. As regular buds are only found in the axils of leaves,

or of their modifications, and as branches are always the deit follows, that, whatever
may be the
arrangement of the leaves, the same will be the disposition of
the branches ; and vice versa.
velopement of buds,
182. This corresponding symmetry is, however, continually

destroyed by the unequal developement of the buds.
183. Leaf-buds which are formed
among
the tissue of plants
LEAF-BUDS.
23
subsequently to the developement of the stem and leaves, and

without reference to the latter, are called latent, adventitious,
or abnormal.
184. Adventitious Leaf-buds
be produced from any
may
part of the horizontal medullary system, or wherever cellular

tissue is present.
It has been distinctly proved, that, while
roots are prolongations of the vertical or woody system, leafbuds universally originate in the horizontal or cellular system.
185.
are formed'in the root,
They
among
the wood, and at
the margin or on the surface of leaves.

186. They are constructed anatomically exactly as regular
buds, having pith in their centre, surrounded by a medullary
sheath of spiral vessels,

cellular integument.
and coated over by woody
tissue
and
187. Hence, as adventitious buds, containing spiral vessels,

can be produced from parts such as the root or the wood, in
which no spiral vessels previously existed, it follows that this
form of tissue
is
by some other
either generated spontaneously, or

a manner unknown to us.
tissue, in
is
produced
most
It is
probable, that spiral vessels are spontaneous modifications of

vesicles of cellular tissue.
188.
Embryo buds
woody nodules found
are
in
the bark of
and apparently rudimentary branches formed without

leaves, within a space in which they are forcibly pressed upon
trees,
by the surrounding
tissue.
VI.
189.
leaf
is
LEAVES.
an expansion of the bark immediately below

is an appendage of the
the origin of a regular leaf-bud, and

axis (64).
Whenever a regular leaf-bud is formed, a leaf, either

or
perfect
rudimentary, is developed also ; and vice versa.
191. Leaves are developed alternately 97 , one above and op190.
posite the other, around their common axis

in consequence of the internodes
leaves
become opposite 98 or
produced
side
192. In
by
side,
Exogenous
but sometimes,
being unequally developed,

103
They are never
verticillate
except by irregular developement.

plants, the primordial or seed-leaves
(cotyledons) are opposite
hence, in .such plants the supposed
24
non-developement of the
formation of the embryo.
193. There
is
axis takes place during the original
a constant tendency in opposite or verticillate
become alternate.
194. This law applies equally
leaves to
to the
arrangement of
all
of leaves.
parts that are modifications
195. In leaves the developement takes place at their point
of junction with the stem ; and consequently the tissue at the
point of a leaf is the oldest.
196.
leaf consists of a petiole or stalk, a
lamina or blade,
and a pair of stipules.

197.
The PETIOLE
is
the channel through which the vessels
of the leaf are connected with those of the stem

of one or more bundles of spiral vessels and
enclosed in a cellular integument.
it is
woody
formed
tissue,
198. The spiral vessels of the leaf of Exogenous plants derive their origin from the medullary sheath ; those of En-
dogenous plants from the bundles of fibro-vascular tissue.

199. The cellular integument of the petiole is a continuation
of that of the bark.
200.
it is
and the lamina
is
abortive,
When the petiole becomes dilated and hollowed out at

upper end, the lamina being articulated with and closing
201
its
When
the petiole is leafy

called a phyttodium".
.
25
LEAVES.
up
as in Sarracenia
its orifice,
a pitcher or ascidium
if it
is
104
100
it is called
and Nepenthes
mere
a
is
and
sac, as
unclosed,
,
101
in Utricularia, it is called
ampulla
202. Sometimes the petiole has no lamina, or is lengthened
or taper
beyond the lamina, and retains its usual cylindrical
a
such
and
twists
becomes
but
;
petiole
spirally
long,
figure,
is
called
fewrfriJ (Vrille,
Fr.).
1
The petiole is usually either taper, or channelled ; and it has often a struma" ,
or apex, especially in those leaves which
(coussinet, Fr.) at either its base
107
103
In other cases it is inflated 106 , sheathing , ainplexicaul ,
are sensitive.
winged
203.
108
108
,
The
auriculate, leafless, jointed
petiole is
'
spinescent
10
,
&c.
sometimes articulated transversely as in
the Orange.
204. The
LAMIXA of a leaf is an expansion of the- parenof the petiole, and is traversed by veins which are ramifications or extensions of the bundles of vascular tissue of the
chyma
petiole, or,
when
there
is
no
petiole, of the stem.
205. Sometimes one, sometimes

leaf are furnished with stomates.
206.
The
both
the
surfaces of a
veins either branch in various directions
among
the parenchyma, anastomosing and forming a kind of network, or they run parallel to each other, being connected by
single transverse
uubranched
207. The former
is
of Endogenous plants.
veins.
characteristic of Exogenous, the latter
26
208.
The
petiole,
and
leaf is a continuation of the

principal vein of a
the base to the apex of
from
line
runs in a direct
It usually prothe lamina; this vein is called the midrib.

both such
from
or
or
base
from
its
veins
other
duces
sides,
and proceeding from the
veins are called ribs, if
:
very strong,
base to the apex; under other circumstances, they are fre-
quently named nervures.

209. There are two strata of veins, the one belonging to the
upper, and the other to the under surface.
The upper stratum conveys the
210.
juices from the stem

and elabo-
into the lamina, for the purpose of being aerated

rated ; the under returns them into the bark.
The
211.
veins are interposed
cellular
among
substance,
called diackyma, diploe^ or mesophyllum ; which is often stratified differently below the two surfaces of the leaf; the upper
stratum being more compact than the lower, and having its
in such cases, the
cells perpendicular to the plane of the leaf
:
cells
of the lower stratum are
commonly more or
less parallel
with the under surface.
The lamina is variously divided and formed; it is

thin
and membranous, with a distinct upper and under
usually
surface ; but sometimes becomes succulent, when the surfaces
212.
are often not distinguishable.

213. The upper surface is presented to the sky, the lower
to the earth ; this position is
rarely departed from in nature,
and cannot be altered artificially, except by violence.
leaf is simple when its lamina is undivided, or when,

separated into several divisions, those divisions do not
reach the midrib ; Ex. Lime-tree, Oak.
215. The form of the simple leaf is
extremely variable, and
214.
if it
is
the terms employed to denote the variations are numerous in

proportion.
216.
outline
Of such
forms
Some
leaves have the margin so continuous, that the
scarcely interrupted, except by small toothings.

leaves the following are among the more common
is
Orbicular 120
ovate 121
cordate" 9
124
peltate
oblique"
auriculate
122
113
oval 118 ; oblong 117 ; roundish
;
oblong
cordate ovate 114 ; cordate acuminate 119 ; renifonn 123
lanceolate
;
139
.
;
;
121
12:2
21 7. In other leaves the margin is produced here and there

in which cases the following terms are
;
into manifest angles

commonly in use
:
Sagittate or arrow-headed
128
.
lar 131 ; triangular
126
;
cuneate or wedge-shaped 127
218. In other cases the margin
a definite manner along

as the following are
its
is
hastate 130
angu-
repeatedly interrupted in
and then such terms
;
whole course
employed
28
Palmate 138
seven-lobed
133
134
;
pinnatifid
sinuated 132
panduriform
leaf is compound when the divisions pass down to

219.
the midrib so as to subdivide the leaf into smaller and distinct
leaves, or leaflets (foliola).
220.
is
When
expressed by
Ternate 144
leaves are compound, their

such terms as the following :
biternate 146 or triternate
terruptedly pinnate
147
;
lyrate
bijugate
140
;
digitate
143
148
conjugate-pinnate
150
;
bipinnate
mode
pedate
of division
142
;
decompound
pinnate
221. In speaking of the margin,
we say
that
145
;
in-
or tripinnate 141
149
it is
29
LEAVES.
Entire
126
serrate 114
tate 125
biserrate 137
129
crisp or curled
dentate 139
137
duplicato-dentate
tri-den-
crenate 120 .
222. The point of the leaves gives rise to other terms, such
as the following
:
Acute 118
obtuse 139
;
truncate 129 .
retuse
113
113
;
emarginate
acuminate 119
mucronate 132
223. STIPULES are attached to each side of the base of the

have, if leafy, veins, the anatomical structure
the same as that of the veins of the leaves.
petiole.
They
of which
is
224. Sometimes only one stipule
is
formed, the other being
constantly abortive, as in Azara.

225. Stipules are sometimes transformed into leaves
sometimes have buds in their axils
and may
they
be, therefore,
considered rudimentary leaves.

226. Whatever arises from the base of a petiole, or of a
leaf, if sessile, occupying the same place, and attached to each
side, is
considered a stipule.
The appearance
some being
so extremely variable,
large
and
of this organ is
leaflike, others
being mere rudiments of scales, that botanists are obliged to

define it by its position, and not by its organization.
227.
The
stipules
must not be confounded with
cellular
marginal appendages of the petiole, as in Apocynacese.

228. Stipules, the margins of which cohere in such a
that they form a
called ochreee
way
membranous tube sheathing the stem, are
Ex. Rhubarb.
229. All leaves are originally continuous with the stem^

as they grow, an interruption of their tissue at their junction
with the stem takes place, by which a more or

is formed sooner or later.
less
complete
articulation
The articulation between a leaf and stem being comthe

tissue of the former becomes gradually incrusted
pleted,
the
foreign matter deposited by the sap in the process of
by
230.
secretion
action,
and
digestion,
when -it
in diameter, as
dies.
and
a dead leaf
is incapable of further
the stem continues to increase
at last
When
will not increase
with
it,
the latter
But in
eventually thrown off; this is the fall of the leaf.
some Endogens the articulation is so slight, and the stem
is
increases so little in diameter, that the leaf
but simply withers and decays.
is
never thrown
off,
30
231. All leaves ultimately
fall
off;
evergreen leaves later
than others.
The mode
232.
bud
is
in
which leaves are arranged within their
called vernation, or gemmation.
the
have, under particular circumstances,
Ex.
from their margin (185) ;
power of producing leaf-buds
and proliferous Ferns.
Malaxis
paludosa,
Bryophyllum,
233. Leaves
FOOD AND SECRETIONS.
VII.
by the absorption of food from

consequence of which they grow, and
234. Plants are nourished
the air and earth, in
produce their peculiar secretions.

235. The growth of plants is very rapid ; that of the leaves
is such that they often acquire six or seven times their original
weight per hour.
236. The food of plants always consists of carbonic acid,
and water, and also of various mineral matters,
nitrogen,
chiefly
alkaline,
the
nature
of which
varies
according to
species.
237. Boots have the power of absorbing most substances in

a fluid or gaseous form, even although their extremities are
unbroken.
It appears probable that when plants are incapable of imbibing certain substances, such as strontian, there is no isomorphism between their ordinary
mineral constituents and those they reject. Thus, lime and magnesia, which
are isomorphous ; but between them and
plants will indifferently absorb,
strontian, which they will not absorb, no isomorphism exists.
Daubeny.
is obtained by plants in the form of carbonic
the atmosphere, or generated in soil by the
from
derived
acid,
of
vegetable matter.
decay
238. Carbon
239. Hydrogen is obtained principally by the decomposition

of water, and is assimilated along with carbonic acid, while
the oxygen of the water is liberated.
240. Nitrogen can only be obtained by plants in the form
The nitrogen of the atmosphere cannot be the
of ammonia.
source of supply, because it cannot be made to enter into combination with any element except oxygen, even by the employment of the most powerful chemical means.
241.
Ammonia exists
the stem, and in
all
in every part of plants, in the roots, in

blossoms and fruits in an unripe condition.
SI

It is supplied
by
rain-water,
which
carries
it
down from
the
consequence of the putrefacThis ammonia affords

tion of animal and vegetable matters.
all vegetables, without exception, the nitrogen which enters
into the composition of their constituent substances.
air, in
which
it is
suspended, in
certain portion of the ammonia which falls with

242.
rain evaporates again with the water ; but another portion is
taken up by the roots of plants, and, entering into new combinations, produces albumen, gluten,
and a number of other
compounds, containing nitrogen.

243. But
it is
not so
much
the quantity of
ammonia
that
is
important to plants, as the form in which it is presented to

them.
in a volatile state, it is in great measure lost
before it can be imbibed.
fixed, in the state of salts,
When
When
overcome, and not the smallest portion of the

lost to the plants, for it is all dissolved by water
its volatility is
ammonia
is
and imbibed by the roots.

244. But carbonic acid, water, and ammonia, are not the
Ceronly elements necessary for the support of vegetables.
tain inorganic constituents are also essential.
245. Phosphate of magnesia in combination with ammonia
is
an invariable constituent of the seeds of all kinds of grasses.

acids found in the different families of plants are of vari-
The
ous kinds.
It
cannot be supposed that their presence and
peculiarity are the result of accident.
If these acids are con-
stantly present and necessary to life, it is equally certain that

some alkaline base is also indispensable, in order to enter into
combination with the acids, which are always found in the
state of salts.
246. If a plant does not produce more of its peculiar acids

it requires for its own existence, a
plant must contain an
than
invariable quantity of alkaline bases,
acids
may
form
wherewith the vegetable
salts.
The proportion of alkaline bases in a plant is indicated by the quantity of ashes they yield.
The quantity of
ashes obtained from the same quantity of vegetable matter
varies constantly in different species.
Therefore the propor247.
tion of alkaline bases varies in different species, and consequently different species demand a different amount of alkaline
food in the
soil.
32
a plant is therefore deperfect developement of

or alkaline matter ; for
alkalies
of
on
the
presence
pendent
when these substances are totally wanting, growth will be
and when they are deficient, it must be impeded in
arrested
248.
The
proportion.
249. But other substances besides alkalies are required to

life of
Phosphoric acid has been found in
plants.
sustain the
plants hitherto examined ; and common salt,

sulphate of potash, nitre, salts of iron and copper, chloride of
potassium, and other matters, may be regarded as necessary
the ashes of
all
constituents of several plants.

is indispensable that every plant should
cultivated in those inorganic constituents
which nature has rendered necessary to it, just as it is neces-
250. Therefore
find in the soil
it
it is
sary for animals that they should find in their food the phosphates of lime and magnesia, which harden their bones.
251. As soon as food is absorbed, it begins to ascend into
the stem, or to diffuse itself through the system, and receives
the name of sap.
252. In the course of the sap upwards, the water and carbonic acid are partially decomposed and their elements are
deposited along with nitrogen in the interior of the tissue,
forming a layer over the interior of every cell and vessel,
which thus become in part solidified.
253. As soon as the sap reaches the leaves or the surface of

the bark, green matter, or
occasionally some other colour, is
formed, provided the part is exposed to light.
254. This appears to arise
chiefly from the decomposition of
carbonic acid, ammonia, and water, when the
carbon, nitrogen, and hydrogen are fixed by the plant, and the oxygen
restored to the atmosphere.
Such action is called the assimilating power of plants.
Plants are, therefore, the great purifiers of the
atmosphere, consuming the products of animal respiration and of all
organic putrefaction, and converting them
again into matter suited to the wants of man.
255. In the absence of

light, plants re-absorb oxygen from
the atmosphere, and re-combine it with the
matter they contain, to be again liberated at the return of
light.
256. They also, at all
times, especially at night, part with
carbonic acid in small
quantities.

It has,
by
is
33
however, been proved experimentally that they purify the air much more
(254) action, than they vitiate it by their respiration.
their assimilating
257. No plants can long exist in which this alternate action

prevented, unless, perhaps, Fungi and brown parasites.
258. The amount of assimilation is determined by the de-
It is light alone
gree of light to which a plant is exposed.
that causes, in conjunction with vital forces, the decomposition
of the matters contained in living plants.
259. Hence, if a plant is compelled to grow in darkness, no

assimilation takes place of the food that the roots receive ;
oxygen accumulates ; its natural proportion to other elements
disarranged ; and a destruction of the tissue takes place.

260. In order to avoid this, plants will always lengthen
themselves in the direction in which the smallest ray of light
is
approaches them, as
ness into light.
etiolated,
and then
From
261.
the case of seed which shoot from dark-
is
If this
is
impossible, they
the continued assimilation
constituents of plants,
of the elementary
result, and serve for the
solid matters of a similar
new products
woody fibre, and all

The leaves produce
formation of
become blanched or
die.
sugar, starch, and acids,

which were preyiously formed by roots, when necessary for the
developement of the stem, buds, leaves, and branches.
composition.
Some phyto-chemists
believe that during the chemical transformations that result

in plants from the separation and re-combination of their elements, two compounds are necessarily formed, one of which remains as a component part,
while the other is separated by the roots, in the form of excrementitious matBut the experiments upon which this supposition is founded are not conand great doubt is entertained whether plants have really
the power of rejecting excrementitious matter by their roots.
It appears more
probable that the necessary separation of effete matter takes place by the
hairs and glands that clothe the surface of plants, or by a fluid secretion from
ter.
sidered conclusive
their whole surface.
262. Sap (251)
is put in motion
by the newly developing
by constantly consuming the sap that is near
them, attract it upwards from the roots as it is required.
Therefore, the movement of the sap is the effect, and not the
leaf-buds, which,
cause, of the
and
growth of plants.
It
depends upon
vital irritabi-
lity,
independent of mechanical causes.
263. This irritability is indicated not only by the motion
of the sap, but by several other
phenomena of vegetation ;
such as,
The
is
elasticity
with which the stamens sometimes spring up when touched, and
the sudden collapse of
many
leaves
when
stimulated
the apparently spon-
34
taneous oscillation of the labellum of some Orchidaceous plants ; the expansion

of flowers and leaves under the stimulus of light, and the collapse of them
when light is withdrawn (this phenomenon in leaves is called the sleep of
and
the effects of mineral and vegetable poisons being the same
;
by
plants)
upon plants as upon animals.

rosion
vegetable poisons
Mineral poisons
by the
kill
by inflammation and
cor-
destruction of irritability.
264. After the sap has been distributed through the veins
it becomes
exposed to the influence of air and
of the leaves,
and undergoes peculiar chemical changes.

called the proper juice.
light,
it is
265.
When
In this state
the proper juice has been once formed,
back, and descends towards the
it
flows
roots, passing off horizontally
into the centre of the stem.
266. Hence the great importance of leaves to plants, and

the necessity of exposing them to the full influence of light and
air, for the purpose of securing a due execution of their natu-
Hence also the impropriety of mutilating

by the destruction of their leaves.
267- In Exogenous plants (95), the upward course of the
fluids is through the young wood
their downward passage
through the bark, towards, or into the root and their horizonfunctions.
ral
plants
tal diffusion takes place
268.
Hence the
by the medullary
peculiar principles of such plants are, in

be sought either in the bark or the heart-
trees
and shrubs,
wood
(118), not in the alburnum (119).
to
rays.
But
in plants
whose
stems are annually

nial,
destroyed while the roots are perenthe latter are the chief reservoir of secretions ; and in
annuals, whose root
and stem both
perish, the secretions are
dispersed equally through the stem and root.

269. As they are the result of the
growth of a plant, they

be found more abundantly in annual
plants at the end
than at the commencement of their
growth.
will
270. In Endogenous plants (95) it is

probable that the upward course of the fluids is through the bundles of vascular
and woody tissue, and that the downward and horizontal
passage takes place through the cellular tissue.

271. The precise direction of the
sap in Acrogens (95) is
unknown.
VIII.
272.
The FLOWER-BUD
ed by imbricated,
FLOWER-BUD.
consists of a fixed
point, surround-
rudimentary,
or
metamorphosed
leaves,
FLOWER-BUD.
35
the external or inferior of which are usually alternate, and the

internal or superior always verticillate, or opposite ; the latter
are called floral envelopes
As
273.
and
sexes.
every flower-bud proceeds from the axil of a
either fully developed or

rudimentary,
exactly the same

bud.
leaf,
therefore occupies
position with respect to the leaf as a leafit
274. The leaf from the axil of which a flower-bud
arises, is
called bract or flower-leaf ; and all

rudimentary leaves, of
what size or colour soever, which appear on the peduncle (284)
between the
floral leaf
and the calyx (325), are
called Iracteola
or bractlets.
275. But, in common language, botanists constantly confound these two kinds, which are, nevertheless, essentially
distinct.
276. Although the buds in the axils of bracts are often not
developed, yet they have the same power of developement as
those in the axils of leaves ;
they are generally flower-buds,
very rarely leaf-buds.

277. When a single bract
is rolled together,
highly developed, and coloured, and is placed at the base of that form of
inflorescence called a spadix (304), it is named spathe ; Ex.
Arum.
278. When several bracts are verticillate or densely imbricated around the base of the forms of inflorescence, called the
umbel or capitulum (306), they receive the name of involucre ;
Ex. Carrot, Daisy.

279. When the bracts of an involucre form a single whorl,
and cohere by their margins, it is impossible to distinguish
them from the calyx by any other mark than by their position,
and by their usually surrounding more flowers than one.
The minute or colourless bracts at the base of the

of a capitulum (306) are called pale*.
281. Small imbricated bracts are often called scales.
280.
florets
when placed immediately below the sexes,

apetalous flowers, are only distinguished from the
calyx by being alternate with each other, and not verticillate ; hence the
glumes and paleee of grasses are bracts and
not calyx.
282. Bracts,
as
in
283.
The
axis of the flower-bud in its natural state does
D2
36
not
series of
lengthen beyond those upper
metamorphosed
leaves which constitute the sexes.
part of the axis, from the point of its

connection with the stem, as far as the floral envelopes, is
called the peduncle.
284.
The lengthened
285. When several peduncles spring from the axis at short

distances from each other, the axis receives the name of racMs,
and the peduncles themselves are called pedicels.
never more than one flower to each peduncle,

therefore, when we speak of a two-flowered
strictly speaking
we
peduncle,
only mean that two flowers, each having its
286. There
is
peculiar pedicel, terminate the axis,

peduncle common to each pedicel.
which
is
then considered a
287. Every flower, with its peduncle and bractlets, being

developement of a flower-bud, and flower-buds being
the
altogether analogous to leaf-buds, it follows, as a corollary,

that every flower, with its peduncle and bractlets, is a meta-
morphosed branch.
288. And further, the flowers being abortive branches,
whatever are the laws of the arrangement of branches with
respect to each other, the same will be the laws of the arrangement of flowers with respect to each other.
289. Flower-buds,
however, being
abortion than leaf-buds, flowers are
much
less
posed than branches, and appear to possess their

order of developement.
290.
bract,
As
it
subject
more symmetrically
own
to
dis-
peculiar
flower-buds can only develope from the axil of a

while a pedicel without bracts can
follows, that
never accidentally produce other flowers,

any one-flowered
pedicel, on which bracts are present, can, and frequently does,
bear several flowers.
291. In consequence of a flower and its
peduncle being a
in a particular state, the
rudimentary or metamor-
branch
phosed leaves which constitute bracts, floral envelopes, and

sexes, are subject to exactly the same laws of
arrangement as
regularly formed leaves.
292. The manner in which the floral
organs, especially the
calyx and corolla, are arranged before expansion takes place,
is called the Aestivation or
pra-flomtion.
FLOWER-BUD.
37
valvate 151 ; valvate and

following are the principal kinds of aestivation:
involute 156 ;
imbricate 157 ; alternate 159 16 ; convolute 152 ; induplicate 155 ;
The
153
plicative
293.
quincuncial
The modes
in
l54
157 l58
;
lei
supervolutive
vexillary
which the flower-buds are arranged are

which they un-
called forms of inflorescence ; and the order in

fold is called the order of expansion.
IX.
294. Inflorescence
is
INFLORESCENCE.
the ramification of that part of the
plant intended for reproduction by seed.

295. The greater developement of some forms of inflores-
cence than of others, is owing to the greater power one plant

possesses than another of developing buds, latent in the axils
of the bracts.
29 6. In consequence of flower-buds obeying the laws whieh

all forms of inflorescence must, of necessity,
regulate leaf-buds,
be axillary to a leaf of some kind.

297. Those forms which are called opposite the leaves, extraaxillary^ petiolar or epiphyllous, and even the terminal itself,
are
mere modifications of the
298.
axillary.
The kinds of inflorescence which
botanists
more
parti-
cularly distinguish are the following

299. When no elongation of the general axis of a plant takes
place beyond the developement of a flower-bud, the flower be:
comes what
is
called terminal
and
solitary
Ex. Pseony.
38
300.
When
a single flower-bud unfolds
in the axil of
leaf,
and the general axis continues to lengthen, and the leaf underno sensible diminution of size, the flower which is devegoes
and axillary.
loped is said to be solitary
of
a newly formed elongated branch
301. If all the buds
at the same time produce peand
develope as flower-buds,
duncles, a raceme
is
formed 163
302. If buds, under the same circumstances, develope with1
out forming peduncles, a spike is produced

303. Hence the only difference between a spike and raceme
flowers are sessile, and in the latter
is, that in the former the
.
stalked.
304.
spadix differs from a spike in nothing more than in
the flowers being packed close together upon a succulent axis,
which
is
equal
enveloped in aspathe (277).

amentum is a spike the bracts of which are
An
305.
size,
and
closely imbricated,
and which
is
of
all
articulated
with the stem.

306.
When
tion of its
own
a bud produces flower-buds, with little elonga170 172

or an umbel 16 is
axis, either a capitulum
,
',
produced.
307. The capitulum bears the same relation to the umbel
as the spike to the raceme ; that is to say, these two forms
differ in the flower-buds of the
capitulum being sessile, and of
the umbel having pedicels.
39
INFLORESCENCE.
308.
The
dilated depressed axis of the capitulum
is
called
the receptacle.
raceme, or panicle, the lowest flowers of which

long pedicels, and the uppermost short ones, is a
309.
have
corymb
310.
l65 ier
.
A panicle is a raceme,
the flower-buds of which have,
in elongating, developed other flower-buds
173
.
middle branches of which are longer

than those of the base or apex, is called a thyrsus.
311.
312.
which
A
is
panicle, the
panicle, the elongation of all the ramifications of

arrested, so that it assumes the appearance of an
umbel, is called a cyme

313. In all modes of inflorescence which proceed from the
buds of a single branch, the axis of which is either elongated
or not, the flowers expand first at the base of the inflorescence,
and
last at
the summit.
This kind of expansion
is
called
centripetal.
314. When the uppermost or central flowers open first,

and those at the base or the circumference last, the expansion
is
called centrifugal.
315. The centripetal order of expansion always indicates

that the inflorescence proceeds from the developement of the
buds of a single branch.
316.
When
inflorescence
is
the result of the developement
of several branches, each particular branch follows the centri-
40
but the
petal law of expansion,
whole mass of inflorescence
the centrifugal.
317. This arises from the partial centripetal developement

the inflorescence,
commencing among the upper extremities of
instead of
among
the lower.
318. Consequently, this difference of expansion will indicate

whether a particular form of inflorescence proceeds from the
when it is called
developement of the buds of a single branch,
when
simple, or not,
319.
it is
called compound.
Whenever
the order of expansion is centripetal, the

to be understood as simple ; when it is centricompound, although in appearance simple. This
inflorescence
is
fugal, it is
difference is often of great importance.
320.
When
that the
either
the order of expansion is irregular, it indicates

of developement of the flowers is irregular also,
mode
on account of abortion or other causes.
321. Sometimes
abortive,
all
the flowers of the
and the ramifications, or the axis
twisted or spiral direction

formed; Ex. the Vine.
X.
when
this
inflorescence
itself,
are
assume a
happens, a tendril
is
FLORAL ENVELOPES.
322. The Floral Envelopes are the parts which immediately

surround the sexual organs.
323.
They
are formed of one or
more whorls of
bracts,
and
are therefore modified leaves (274).
324. In anatomical structure they do not

essentially differ
from the leaves, farther than is necessarily
consequent upon
the peculiar modifications of size or
developement to which
they are subject.
325.
When
the floral envelopes consist of but one whorl of
leaves, they are called calyx.
326.
When
two or more whorls are developed, the outer
called calyx, the inner corolla.
is
41
FLORAL ENVELOPES.
327. There
calyx and
is
corolla.
no other essential difference between the

Therefore, when a plant has but one floral
envelope, that one is calyx, whatever

degree of developement.
may
be
its
colour or
328. It is necessary, however, to be aware, that sometimes

the calyx is reduced to a mere rim, either in consequence
of lateral compression, as in the pappus (aigrette, Fr.) of many
Composite, or from other unknown causes, as in some
Acanthacese.
329. If the floral envelopes are of such a nature that it
not
obvious whether they consist of both calyx and corolla,
is
or of calyx only, they receive the name of periantMum or
perigonium.
330. Plants have frequently no floral envelopes
case flowers are said to be naked or achlamydeous.
in that
331. When the floral envelopes are deciduous, they fall from
the peduncle, as leaves from a branch, by means of an articulation ; if they are persistent, it is because no articulation
exists.
When the margins of floral envelopes are united, the

where
the union has taken place is called the tube, and
part
that where they are separate is named the limb.
It frethat
in
an
the
articulation
beforms
quently happens
calyx
tween the limb and the tube.
332.
333. Botanists generally consider that the tube of the calyx

invariably formed by the union of the margins of the sepals.
It is, however, probable that it is in some cases a mere dila-
is
tation
and expansion of the pedicel
334.
as in Eschscholtzia.
When
able from
rities
itself,
the calyx and corolla are readily distinguisheach other, they exhibit the following peculia-
335.
The calyx
consists of
two or more
divisions, usually
green, called sepals, which are either distinct, when a calyx is

said to be polysepalous ; or which unite by their
margins in a
greater or less degree, when

palous, or monophyttous.
it is
called monosepalous, gamose-
42
The calyx may be
178
superior
181
182
or inferior 177 ; galeate 176 ; calyptrate
; double
;
188
dilated 179 ; spiny 183 ; oblique 175 18S ; rin;
calcarate 186 ; coroniform 187 ; vesicate
gent
336.
184
.
The
two or more divisions, called

some bright colour, different from that of the
than which they are frequently more developed. When
corolla consists of
petals, usually of
sepals,
the petals are distinct, a corolla is said to he polypetalous ;

when they are united hy their margins, it is called gamopetah>iis or monopetalous.
The
corolla
panulate
may be
195
;
196
134
labiate 189 ; calceolate 193 ;
; papilionaceous
ringent
;
190
197
.
; crisp
funnel-shaped
cam-
43
FLORAL ENVELOPES.
or
337. If the union of the petals or sepals takes place in one

two parcels, the corolla or calyx are said to be one or two-
These
lipped.
lips
are always anterior and posterior with
respect to the axis of inflorescence,
and never
338. If the sepals or petals are of unequal
unequal degrees, the calyx or corolla
right
size,
and
left.
or unite in
1
is
said to be irregular ".
339. If the sepals and petals are unequal in number, or

no multiple of each other, or if the stamens are neither equal
to them in number, nor any power of them, a flower is said to
be unsymmetrical.
When
340.
the petals are so arranged, that of five the

dilated, the two lateral ones contracted and
uppermost is
parallel with each other, and the two lower also contracted,
parallel with each other, and coherent by their anterior mar19
gins, a flower is said to be papilionaceous *.
When
a petal tapers conspicuously towards the base,

1
said to be unguiculate ^ ; its lower part is called the
The former is analogous to the
unguis, its upper the limb.
341.
it
is
petiole, the latter to the
lamina of a
leaf.
The
petals always alternate with the sepals, a necessary consequence of their following the laws of developement
342.
of leaves.
343. If at any time the petals arise from before the -sepals,
is due to the abortion of one whorl of
such a circumstance
between the sepals and those petals which are actually
petals
developed.
344. As petals always alternate with sepals, the number of

each row of either will always be exactly the same. All
deviations from this law are either apparent only, in conse-
quence of partial cohesions,
or, if real,
are due to
partial
abortions.
Whatever
345.
intervenes
between the bracts and the
stamens belongs to the floral envelopes, and is either calyx or

corolla
of which nature are many of the organs
vulgarly
;
called nectaries.
Of
this nature are the horn-like bodies
found beneath the upper galeate sepal of
Aconitum 192, the cup of Narcissus 300, a part of the coronal appendages or
'"
net of
Stapelia
coro-
44
But it is to be observed, that as there are no exact

between the corolla and the stamens (348), such bodies
as have been just described are often of an indifferent nature,
and may be referred with equal justice to petals passing into
stamens, and to stamens passing into petals.
346.
limits
with the fringes of Parnassia 198 , some parts of the

is
particularly the case
coronet of Stapelia 203 , the long rays of the Passion-flower.
This
347. If, however, anomalous bodies at this part of the

vegetable system can be shown to belong to any whorl or
series of which a part is certainly petals or stamens, such ano-
malous bodies are to be regarded as belonging to the organ in

whose series they are placed.
in Aconitum 192 , the horn-like
processes belong to the series of the corolla,
and are therefore petals ; in the Ma-
Thus
202
and in the Canna 205 , they
,
evidently appertain to the Andro3ceum
This
(348), and are therefore stamens.
settles the true nature of what has been
called the nectary 206 , in Orchidaceous
hogany
plants,
now termed
the
which, forming a part

series of floral
or labellum,
of the second
lip,
envelopes, is therefore universally recognised as a petal, notwithstanding its singular form.
MALE ORGANS.
MALE ORGANS.
XI.
348.
45
The whorl of organs immediately within
the petals,
is
composed of bodies called stamens, which are considered the

male apparatus of plants, and constitute the Andrceceum.
They consist of a bundle of spiral vessels surrounded

cellular tissue, called t\i& filament, terminated by a peculiar
349.
by
arrangement of the cellular tissue, in a case, finally opening

and discharging its contents, called the anther.
350. There are many instances in which no limits can be
traced between the petals and stamens ; Ex. Nymphsea.
351. In such cases
contracts,
petal
it
is
found that the limb (341) of the
and becomes an anther, while the unguis
assumes the state of a filament.

352. Now as there are no limits between the petals and
sepals (327), nor between the sepals and bracts (323), nor
between the bracts and leaves (274), it follows that the sta-
mens are
and
also
a modification of leaves.
And
as the limb of a petal is analogous to the lamina,

the unguis (341) to the petiole of a leaf, it also follows
353.
that the anther
is
a modification of the lamina, and the
ment of the petiole.

354. The stamens follow the same laws of
fila-
successive de-
velopement as leaves ; and, consequently, if their arrangement

be normal, they will be either equal in number to the petals,
and alternate with them,
or, if
multiple of the petals.

355. If they are twice the
more numerous, some regular
number of petals, two whorls
are
considered to be developed ; and so on.

356. If they are equal in number to the petals, and opposite them, it is to be understood that the innermost
only of
two whorls
is developed, the outermost

being abortive.
357. All deviations from these laws are owing to the abor-
some part of the stamens
Ex. Lamium, Hippuris.

;
the stamens do not contract any union with
the sides of the calyx, they are hypogynous" ; Ex. Ranuntion of
358.
When
culus.
359.
When
they contract adhesion with the sides of the
177
calyx, they become perigynous ; Ex. Rose
46
of the calyx
360. If they are united both with the surface
Umbelliferse.
and of the ovary, they are epigynous ; Ex.
217
,
they are
361. When two are long and two are short
are
two
and if out of six
opposite ones
called didynamous ;
shorter than the other four, they are tetradynamous.
362. The filaments (349) are either distinct or united by
are united in one tube, they are called
If
their
margins.
216
monadelphous
they
Ex. Malva
if in
two
19
;
parcels, diadelphous"
13
Ex. Hypericum.
Ex. Pea if in several, polyadelphous"
the
a
solid
in
united
are
363. When they
body, along with
form what is called a column, and are said to be
;
style,
they
06
gynandrous"
Filaments are sometimes apparently forked 209 , in consequence of the separation

of the connective (366), into two arms ; strumose, when a tubercle forms upon
their face 220 ; stupose, if covered with long hairs 212 ; and toothed 214 , if their
214
margin is lengthened on either side beyond the attachment of the anther
.
364.
The
filament
The
anther~
is
not essential to a stamen, and
is
the limb of the stamen, forming within
is
often
absent.
365.
io
substance, and finally emitting a matter called pollen.

366. The two sides of the anther are called its lobes ; and
the solid substance which connects them, and which is in fact
its
a continuation of the filament, as the midrib of a leaf
is
of the
named the connective.

367. The connective is usually simple and uninterrupted
but it is sometimes lengthened into two arms 209 or is articupetiole, is
MALE ORGANS.
47
across which it is placed, and on

which it swings. In the latter case it either bears an anther213
210
or only on one
Ex, Salvia.
lobe on both arms
;
lated with the filament,
The
368.
cavities of the anther containing the pollen are
the cells, and the place by which the pollen is emitted is the
point or line of dehiscence ; the membranous sides of the
anther are named the valves.
369. Dehiscence usually takes place along a line, which

be considered to indicate the margin of the limb out of
may
which the anther is formed ; Ex. Rose.

370. Sometimes a portion only of this line opens, and then
the anther is said to dehisce by pores ; Ex. Azalea.
371. If the line of dehiscence occupies both margins of the
connective, and not the centre of the lobes, the anther opens
by one valve instead of two, which is then hinged by its upper
edge
Ex. Berberry.
372.
The
cells
of the anther are usually two in number
sometimes they are four 239 ; Ex. Tetratheca rarely one ; Ex.
223
Epacris and still more rarely several ; Ex. Viscum
373. The number of cells appears to be determined by no
:
certain rule.
374. Sometimes the

and become sinuous 237 ;
bristles 227
24
,
cells are
folded
down upon themselves
in other cases they are prolonged into

224
or tubes , or even into a spur 211 ; Ex. Mela-
stomacese.
375. Although in most cases the line of dehiscence is

with the anther-lobes, it is occasionally transverse 238
parallel
In Laurus the transverse and hinged (371) dehiscence being

combined 226 the face of the anther breaks up into four hinged
,
lobes.
376. It
an anther
may be
is
conjectured that the transverse dehiscence of

to the transverse articulation of
analogous
petioles (203).
377. The anthers frequently grow together by their marSuch anthers are called syngenesious.
gin ; Ex. Composite.
378. The Pollen is formed by a peculiar modification of the
cellules of the
parenchyma of the anther.
379. It consists of hojlow cases, of extreme smallness, containing a fluid in which float grains of starch and drops of oil.
380. It
is
furnished with apertures 229 , through which
its
STRUCTURAL AXD PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.
48
227
226
225
224
223
222
form of a delicate tube,

lining is protruded in the
with
the stigma.
in
contact
comes
pollen
The shape of
381.
231
spherical
are common
,
pollen grains
the triangular
forms.
382. Its surface
is
228
,
either
is
where the
very variable
the
the polygonal" 22 , the oblong
smooth or studded with
230
,
little
231
points
383.
The
pollen grains are usually distinct from each other,
but in some cases they cohere in definite numbers ; Ex.

Acacia 232 or in irregular masses ; Ex. Orchidacese 23 * or are
:
enclosed within a bag, which seems to be the lining of the

anther (Endothecium) ; Ex. Asclepiadacese 233 23fi
384. In cases where the pollen grains cohere in masses, or
are enclosed within bags, they are connected with a cartilagi.
nous or elastic process, called the caudicle" 3*, which adheres

234
to a gland
belonging to the stigma.
385.
The
function of the
pollen
is
to vivify the
ovules
(396).
XII. DISK.
386.
Whatever
intervenes between the stamens
receives the general name of disk.

387. It usually consists of an annular
and the
pistil
passing the base of the ovary,
when
it is
elevation,
encom-
sometimes called the
cup , Ex. Pseony.

388. Or it appears in the form of a
glandular lining of the
MALE ORGANS.
tube of the calyx
Ex. Rose
Ex. Gesnera,
;
49
or of tooth-like,
hypogynous
Cruciferse.
(358) processes
389. When a fleshy substance occupies the
flower, and bears a single row of carpels, it
;
centre of a
is
called the
Ex. Lamium, Ochna, Geranium, &c. If this subgynobase

stance bears a greater number of carpels than can be arranged
in one row, it is called the torus or receptacle; Ex. Strawberry, Nelumbium.
390. It is certain that the disk is a non-developement of an
inner row or rows of stamens, as is proved by the Moutan
;
Paeony.
391.
The receptacle or torus is the growing point (164)

of the flower-bud in a state of enlargement.
392. The disk is one of the parts which Linnsean botanists
call nectary.
XIII.
393.
FEMALE ORGANS.
The organ which
occupies the centre of a flower,

within the stamens and disk, if the latter be present, is called
the pistil.
394. It
the female apparatus of flowering plants, or the
is
241
gynoeceum
395. It
style,
is
distinguished into three parts
viz.
the ovary, the
and the stigma.
396.
(445).
The OVARY
241
a hollow case, enclosing ovules

It contains one or more cavities, called
is
cells.
397.
The STIGMA
is
the upper extremity of the
pistil.
398. The STYLE is the part that connects the ovary

and stigma.
399. The style is frequently absent, and is no
more essential to a pistil than a petiole to a leaf,
or a filament to an anther.
400. Sometimes the style is thin,

and assumes the form of a petal, as in
401.
The
tinuous with
style
it.
is
flat,
and membranous,
Iris.
either articulated with the ovary, or con-
It usually proceeds directly from the

in some cases arises from the side, or
of the ovary ; but

the base of that organ
apex
even
Ex. Alchemilla, Chrysobalanacese.

E
50
the
properly speaking, stigma, except
the name is
the
of
Nevertheless,
style.
secreting
often inaccurately applied to mere divisions of the style, as in
Labiatse ; or to the hairy surface of undivided styles, as in
402. Nothing
is,
surface
Lathyrus.
403. Sometimes the stigmas grow to the face of the anthers,
204
which form themselves into a solid mass; Ex. Asclepias
.
In this case the styles remain separate.

404. The pistil is either the modification of a single
of one or more whorls of modified leaves,
leaf,
or
405. Such modified leaves are called carpels.

CARPEL is formed by a folded leaf, the upper sur406.
of
face
which is turned inwards, the lower outwards; and
within which are developed one or a greater number of buds,

which are the ovules.
407. When the carpels are stalked, they are said to be
seated upon a thecaphore, or gynophore ; Ex. Cleome, PassiTheir stalk is analogous to the petiole of a leaf.
flora.
408.
with
When
facility,
solid
the carpels are all distinct, or are separable

they are apocarpous ; when they all grow into
body, which cannot be separated into
parts, they are
its
constituent
syncarpom.
The ovary is the lamina of the leaf.

410. The style is an elongation of the midrib (208).
411. The stigma is the denuded, secreting, humid apex of
409.
the midrib.
412.
Where
the margins of a folded
leaf,
out of which the
formed, meet and unite, a developement of cellular

tissue sometimes takes
place, forming what is called the marcarpel
is
ginal placenta.
413. Every such
parts, one of
placenta is therefore composed of two

which belongs to one margin of the carpel, and
one to the other.

414. But although the
placenta of many plants appears to
derive its origin from the
margin of the carpels, it is certain
that in
other instances the
is a mere deve-
many
placenta
lopement of the centre of the flower-bud, and in reality the

end of the
Such a placenta is called
medullary system.
central.
It is not
impossible that even marginal placentae
and be
reality central.
may
be so in appearance only,
FEMALE ORGANS.
51
415. This law will explain the structure of some anomalous

pistils, in which the carpels are united into a confused mass ;
Ex. the Pomegranate 271
As
the carpels are modified leaves, they necessarily

of arrangement of leaves, and are therefore dethe
laws
obey
veloped round a common axis.
416.
417. And as they are leaves folded inwards, their margins

are necessarily turned towards the axis.
placenta, therefore, formed by the union of those margins, will be invariably
next the axis.

418. So that
if
a whorl of several carpels with a marginal
placentation unite and constitute a

pistil will be all in the axis.
pistil,
the placentae of that
The normal position of the carpels is alternate with

row of stamens, to which they are also equal
number but this symmetry of arrangement is constantly
419.
the innermost
in
destroyed by the abortion or non-developement of part of the

carpels.
The carpels often occupy several whorls, in which case

are
they
usually distinct from each other ; Ex. Eanunculus,
420.
272
Fragaria, Rubus
421. Sometimes,
notwithstanding their occupying more

than one whorl, they all unite in a single pistil ; Ex. NicoIn these cases the platiana multivalvis, Monstrous Citrons.
centse of the innermost whorl of carpels occupy the axis,
while those of the exterior carpels are united with the backs
of the inner ones, as must necessarily happen in consequence
of the invariable direction of the placentae towards the axis.
When
the carpels are arranged round a convex receptacle (389), the exterior ones will be lowest ; Ex. Ru-
422.
bus 272
423. But
if they occupy the surface of a tube, or are placed

upon a concave receptacle, the exterior ones will be uppermost Ex. Rosa 177
424. Whenever two carpels are developed, they are inThis
variably opposite each other, and never side by side.
happens in consequence of the law of alternate opposition of
;
leaves (191).
425. When carpels unite, those parts of their sides which

are contiguous gTow together, and form partitions between the
cavities of the carpels.
E 2
52
426. These partitions are called dissepiments.

427. Each dissepiment is therefore formed of two layers.
But these often grow together so intimately as to form but one
layer.
428. Such being the origin of the -dissepiments,
it
follows
that,
429. All dissepiments are vertical, and never horizontal.

430. They are uniformly equal in number to the carpels out
of which the
pistil is
formed.
single carpel can have no dissepiment whatever.

432. It will also be apparent, that as the stigma must bear
the same relation to the dissepiments as the point of the leaf
to the sides of the lamina, the stigma will always be alternate
431.
with (between) the dissepiments.

433. When the dissepiments of a many-celled pistil are
contracted so as not to separate the cavity into a number of
distinct cells, but merely project into a cavity, the placentae,
which occupy the edges of these dissepiments, become what is

r
called parietal ; Ex. Poppy ?
Occasionally the placentae are
diffused over the whole face of the
dissepiments, as in Bu.
tomus.
434.
one-celled ovary
may
also be
formed out of several
carpels, in consequence of the obliteration
Ex. Nut.
of dissepiments
FEMALE ORGANS.
53
of the foregoing diagrams explain these laws : a is a leaf ; b, a leaf rolled

to its conversion into a carpel ; c and k, a carpel ; d and I,
three carpels approximated, but not united ; e and m, the same united at the
and , these completely united into
ovaries, but disunited at the styles ;
Some
up preparatory
one ovary, one
style,
and one stigma.
435. All dissepiments whose position is at variance with

the foregoing laws are spurious.
436. Spurious dissepiments derive their origin from various
causes,
and may have
either a vertical or horizontal position.
When
they are horizontal they are called phmgmata,

are formed by the distension of the lining of the ovary ;
437.
and
Ex. Cathartocarpus,
Fistula.
438. If vertical, they either are projections from the back

of the carpel, as in Amelanchier and Thespesia* ; or they are
caused by modifications of the placentae, as in Martynia, Didymocarpus, and Cruciferae ; or they are produced by the turning inwards of the margins of the carpels*.
244
, consisting of five cavities in the axis, sursingular fruit of Diplophractum
five two-celled cavities at the circumference, must be composed of
carpels constructed as just described, and arranged in several series (420).
The
rounded by
244
explained by the following cut, where
is a section of the fruit of

shows an ideal arrangement of fifteen carpels in three
rows, five being external and perfect, with the margins of the carpels turned
inwards (406) ; five being altogether imperfect, and the five in the centre
243
shows the transverse section of this ideal figure.
being less imperfect.
In the ripe fruit we must suppose the intermediate carpels to be obliterated,
and the spurious dissepiments of the external carpels to be pressed up against
This
is
Diplophractum
242
their back, so as to bisect the cavity of each carpel.
54
439. Sometimes the central placenta extends beyond the

base of the carpels, rising up between them, and either forming an adhesion with the styles, as in Geranium, or a central
distinct axis, as in
Euphorbia.
440. This elongation of the placenta is more apparent in

the fruit than in the pistil.
It is analogous to the cellular
apex of the spadix (304) of Arum.
The styles of different carpels frequently grow tointo

a solid cylinder'; Ex. Lilium. There are various
gether
441.
degrees of union between the styles.

442. The style is incorrectly said to be divided in different
ways, in consequence of this adhesion.

443. If the ovary adheres to the sides of the calyx
called inferior, and the calyx is said to be
superior ;
it
is
Ex.
Apple.
444. If
it is
it
contracts no adhesion with the sides of the

calyx
and the calyx inferior.
called superior,
XIV. OVULE.
The OVULE is a body borne by the placenta

(412),
and destined to become a seed (531).
446. It is to the carpel (406) what the
marginal buds are
to leaves
(185), and to the central placenta what buds are to
445.
branches.
447. It does not, however,

appear to bear any other
analogy to a bud than what is indicated by its position.
448. The ovule is
usually enclosed within an ovary (396) ;
but in Coniferse and
Cycadaceae it is destitute of any covering,
and is exposed, naked, to the influence of the
pollen.
449. It is either sessile, or attached
by a little stalk called
the funiculus, or
The point of union of the funipodosperm.
culus and ovule is the base of the
latter, and the opposite extremity is its apex.
450. It consists of two
sacs, one enclosed within the other,
and of a nucleus within the sacs.
451. These sacs are called the
primine and secundine.
452.
The
primine, secundine,
and nucleus, are
with each other

by a perfect continuity of
point of their surface.
453.
When
all
tissue,
connected
at
some
the parts of the ovule

undergo no alteration of
55
OVULE.
position during their growth, thfe two sacs and the nucleus are
connected at the base (449) of the ovule, which is orthotropous or atropous.
all
454.
And
then the base of the nucleus and that of the
ovule are in immediate connection with each other.
455. But the relative position of the sacs and the base of
the ovule are often entirely altered during the growth of the
latter, so that it frequently happens that the point of union of
the sacs and the nucleus
456.
And
is at the apex (449) of the ovule.

then the base of the nucleus is at the apex of the
ovule.
457. In such cases, a vascular connection is maintained between the base of the ovule and the base of the nucleus, by
means of a bundle of vessels called a raphe.

458. The normal position of this raphe is on the
side of the
ovule, next the placenta.
459. The expansion of the raphe, where it communicates

with the base of the nucleus, gives rise to the part of the seed
called the chalaza (548).
460.
When
the ovule
proach the placenta,
it is
curved downwards so as to apcampylotropous ; when curved downis
wards and grown to the lower half, anatropous ; when attached by its middle so that the foramen is at one end and the
base at the other, it is amphitropous.
461. The mouths of the primine and secundine usually contract into a small aperture called the foramen of the ovule, or
the exostome.
462.
The apex of the nucleus
is
always applied to
this
foramen.
463. In consequence of the relation the base of the nucleus
bears to the base of the ovule, the foramen will be at the
apex of the ovule when the two bases correspond, and at the
base
of the ovule
when
the two
bases
are
diametrically
opposite.
464.
The foramen
indicates the future position of the radi-
of the embryo (555) ; the radicle being always next the

foramen.
This is a fact of great importance in practical
cle
Botany.
465. Within the nucleus
is
a cavity or bag, called the sac
56
of
tke
among
named the liquor amnios,

amnios, containing a fluid
which the emhryo is developed.
XV. IMPREGNATION.
466. Impregnation is effected

pollen (378) and the stigma (397).
by contact
between the
ci
emits a tube" of extreme delicacy,

pollen
which pierces the stigma 6 and style 51, and, passing downwards
l
/A enters the foramen
of the ovule"
into the
467.
The
(461)
ovary ,
468. Having reached the foramen, it comes into contact
with the nucleus (450).
.
469. This accomplished, the act of impregnation is over;

a new body gradually appears in the sac of the amnios (465),
and eventually becomes an embryo.

470. Great numbers of modifications of this phenomenon
have been observed, but they^ all resolve themselves into these
facts.
471. In plants, the ovules of which have no pericarpial

covering, such as Cycadaceae and Coniferse, (gymnosperms,)
the pollen falls in the foramen, and there acts as" if it had
struck the stigma.
472. If only one pollen tube enters an ovule, there is but
one embryo in the seed.
But if several pollen tubes pass into
the same ovule, there
seed
may
Ex. Onion, Miseltoe.
be several embryos in the same
57
FRUIT.
XVI. FRUIT.
The
473.
pistil
FRUIT, in the strictest sense of the word, is the
But the term
arrived at maturity.
the
pistil
are
all
and
is
also applied to
envelopes taken together, whenever they

one uniform mass.
floral
united in
474. Hence, whatever is the structure of the pistil, the

same should be the structure of the fruit.
475. But in the course of the advance of the pistil towards
many
maturity,
take
alterations
in
place,
consequence of
and union of
abortion, non-developement, obliteration,

476. Whenever the fruit contains anything
at
parts.
variance
with the laws that govern the structure of the pistil, the latter
should be examined for the purpose of elucidation.
477. Sometimes a pistil with several cells produces a fruit
with but one Ex. the Hazel-nut and Cocoa-nut. This arises
from the obliteration of part of the cells.
478. Or a pistil, consisting of one or two cells, changes to
a fruit having several: the cause of this is a division and
;
doubling of the placentary divisions ; Ex. Martynia or the

expansion of portions of the interior ; Ex. Cathartocarpus,
:
Fistula.
479.
indicate
As
the fruit
upon
its
is
the maturation of the
some
surface
pistil,
traces of a style
true in all cases, except Cycadacese
and
Coniferse,
it
ought to
and this is
which have
no ovary.
480. Hence the grains of corn, and
many
other bodies that
resemble seeds, having traces of the remains of a style, cannot

be seeds, but are minute fruits.
481. That part which was the ovary in the pistil, becomes
the pericarp in the fruit.
482. The PERICARP consists of three parts ; the outer coating called the epicarp, the inner lining called the endocarp, or
putamen, and the intermediate substance named the sarcocarp.

483. Sometimes these three parts are
guished ; Ex. the Peach

substance ; Ex. a Nut.
484.
The
all readily distinfrequently they form one uniform
is the part where it is joined to

where the remains of the style are
base of the fruit
the peduncle.
found.
The apex
is
58
485.
The
axis of the fruit
is
often called the columella
the space where two carpels unite is named the commissure.

486. All fruits which are mere modifications of a single
carpellary leaf (406) have always a suture corresponding with
the junction of the margins, or with the placenta?, and often
another corresponding with the midrib of the carpellary leaf
:
the former
is
called the ventral, the latter the dorsal suture.
is
487. If the pericarp neither splits nor opens when ripe, it

if it does split or open, it is said to
,
said to be indehiscent
dehisce, or to
be dehiscent
and the pieces into which
it
splits
are called the valves.
488.
The dehiscence of the
pericarp takes place in differ-
ent ways.
489. If
it takes
place longitudinally, or vertically, so that
the line of dehiscence corresponds with the junction of the
carpels, the dissepiments are divided, the cells remain closed
at the back,
dodendron 264
and the
dehiscence
is
called septicidal
Ex. Rho-
490. Formerly, botanists said that in this kind of dehis; or, that
cence the valves were alternate with the dissepiment

the valves had their margins turned inwards.
491. If it takes place vertically, so that the line of dehiscence corresponds- with the dorsal suture
(486), the dissepiments remain united, the cells are opened at their back, and
the dehiscence
is
called loculicidal
Ex. Lilac, Lily.
492. Formerly, it was said that in this kind of dehiscence

the dissepiments were
opposite the valves.
493. When a separation in the
pericarp takes place across
the cells
horizontally, the dehiscence is transverse ; Ex. Anagallis.
494. If the dehiscence is effected

by partial openings of
the pericarp, it is said to take
place by pores ; Ex. Poppy.
495. Sometimes the cells remain
closed, separating from
the axis formed
by the extension of the peduncle
Ex.
;
Umbelliferae, Euphorbia
(284)
255
.
496. Or the cells

open and separate from the axis, which
formed by a cohesion of the
placentse which separate from
the dissepiments ; Ex. Rhododendron 264
is
497. Sometimes the

dissepiments cohere at the axis, and
separate from the valves (487) or back of the
carpels; Ex.
Convolvulus.
FRUIT.
59
498. All fruits are either simple or multiple.

499. Simple
proceed from a single flower
fruits
Ex.
Poeony, Apple, Nut, Strawberry.

500. Multiple fruits are formed out of several flowers D F ;
Ex. Fir, Pine-apple, Fig.
They are masses of inflorescence
and are also called anthocarpous.

501. Simple fruits are either the maturation of a single
carpel (406), or of a pistil formed by the union of several
in a state of adhesion,
carpels (408).
Of fruits formed
502.
ant
are
the
Achenium
503.
of a single carpel, the most import-
Follicle
(503), Legume (504), Drupe (507),

(508), Caryopsis (511), and Utricle (512).
The
Follicle
a carpel
is
dehiscing
by the
ventral
and having no dorsal suture 260

504. The Legume is a carpel having both a ventral and
E 258
dorsal suture, and dehiscing by both, either, or neither 263
505. The two sutures of a legume sometimes form what is
called a replum ; Ex. Carmichselia.
506. When articulations take place across the legume, and
suture,
it falls
507.
cent,
into several pieces,
The Drupe
and
differs
in its pericarp
it is
said to be lomentaceous" 51
from the
follicle in
262
.
being indehis-
having a distinct separation of epicarp

59
(482), sarcocarp, and endocarp'

508. The Achenium is an indehiscent,
.
bony, one-seeded
60
pericarp,
which does not contract any degree of adhesion with

251
249
the integument of the seed
a
the
It
is
509.
drupe,
pericarp of which does not separate into three layers.
.
is pappose when it bears the remains of a calyx at its apex ; Ex.

245
46 while the
245
, or rostrate*
,
,
pappus is setaceous
Compositae : and is truncate
If the style remains and becomes
double 245 , plumose 246 , or paleaceous 251 .
249
kind
of
is
caudate
.
a
the
achenium
tail,
feathery, forming
The Achenium
achenium is elevated on a large

Anacardium 250
510. Occasionally the

fleshy receptacle, as in
511.
The Caryopsis
is
an indehiscent, membranous, one-
seeded pericarp, which adheres firmly to the integument of

the seed ; Ex. Corn.
512. The Utricle is a caryopsis, the pericarp of which has
no adhesion with the integuments of the seed ; Ex. Eleusine,
Ohenopodium.
513. Of fruit formed of several carpels, the principal are
Samara (517), Cremocarp

Nuculanium
(518),
(519), Siliqua (515), Nut or Gland (517),
(522),
Berry
Orange (523), Pome (524), Pepo (525), and
the Capsule (514), Pyxis (520),
Balausta (526).
514. The Capsule
carp
is
a many-celled, dry, dehiscent peri-
253 256 264 269
It i* stellate 256 , toothed at the

265
or spiral"*
,
apex
alter separation 268 ,
they are named cocci.
if its
cells
remain close
61
FRUIT.
515. The Siliqua consists of two carpels fastened together,

the placentae of which are parietal, and separate from the
valves, remaining in the form of a replum (505), and con266
nected by a membranous expansion

516. When the siliqua is very short, or broader than
.
long,
it is
it is
called a Silicula.
The Nut
Gland
is a dry, bony, indehiscent, onefrom

a pistil of three cells, and enproceeding
closed in an involucre called a Cupule ; Ex. the Hazel, Acorn.
It is a sort of compound achenium.
517.
or
celled fruit,
In some Palms, Ex. Sagus, it is covered by scales turned downwards 273 . It is

often bordered by expansions or wings which surround it longitudinally, as
261
or proceed from the apex or
in the Elm 247 ; or transversely, as in Paliurus
;
back only, as in Sycamore 252, in which case it receives the name of Samara.
518. The Cremocarp is a pair of Achenia, then called

mericarps, placed face to face, and separating from a central
55
Their planes of union constitute
axis ; Ex. Umbelliferar .
the commissure.
The Nuculanium is a capsule, which, being fleshy,

Ex. Grape, Arbutus 570
520. The Pyxis is a capsule whose dehiscence takes place
519.
does not dehisce
253 254
transversely
521.
Ex. Hyoscyamus, Anagallis.
The Efario
is
a collection of
distinct,
indehiscent
272
carpels, fleshy or dry, within a calyx ; Ex. Rubus
522. The Berry is a succulent fruit, the seeds of which lose
.
their adhesion
berry.
when
ripe,
and
lie
loose in pulp
Ex. a Goose-
62
The Orange is a berry having a pericarp separable

an epicarp, an endocarp, and a sarcocarp, and the cells
filled with pulpy bags, which are cellular extensions of the
523.
into
sides of the cavity.
524.
The Pome
is
a union of two or more inferior carpels,
the pericarp being fleshy, and formed of the floral envelope

and ovary firmly united 274
.
525.
The Pepo
526.
The Balausta
composed of about three carpels, forming

a three-celled, fleshy, indehiscent fruit, with parietal placentae ;
Ex. Cucumber.
is
is
a many-celled
fruit,
with the seeds
63
FRUIT.
arranged in an irregular manner on the backs of the cells, and

is formed
by more whorls of carpels than one, enclosed within
a tough rind ; Ex. Pomegranate 271 .
527. The most remarkable modifications of multiple or
anthocarpous fruits are, the Cone (528), Pine-apple (529),
and Fig (530).

528.
Pinus.
cohere,
529.
all
When
it is
A B
an indurated amentum (305)

Ex.
in size, and its scales
firmly
called a Galbulus ; Ex. Thuja.
The Cone
it is
is
The Pine-apple
grow together
530. The Fig
much reduced
is
a spike of inferior flowers, which
into a fleshy mass.
is the
fleshy, hollow, dilated apex of a
peduncle, within which a number of flowers are arranged,
each of which contains an achenium ; Ex. Ficus, Dorstenia 275
.
Of
the terms above explained only a few are in common use, and it seenis to
be found by systematic botanists more convenient to describe a given fruit by
exact words than to use any particular term.
The names most employed are
the Achenium, Nut, Caryopsis, Drupe, Capsule, Siliqua, Legume, and Cone.
XVII. SEED.
The SEED is the ovule (406) arrived at maturity.

532. It consists of integuments (540), albumen (551), and
embryo (555) ; and is the result of the reciprocal action of
531.
the sexual apparatus.

533. In general, seeds are, like ovules, enclosed within a
covering arising from a carpellary leaf (406) ; but all Gymnosperms are an exception to this. Moreover, some ovules
rupture the ovary soon after they begin to advance towards

the state of seed, and thus become naked seeds ; Ex. Leontice.
Others are imperfectly protected by the ovary, the carpels

not being perfectly closed up ; Ex. Reseda.
534. The seed proceeds from the placenta (412), to which
attached by the funiculus 280 , which is sometimes very
long, but is more frequently not distinguishable from the
it
is
placenta.
535. Sometimes the funiculus, or the placenta, expands

about the seed into a fleshy body ; Ex. the Mace of a nut76 281 283
meg, Euonymus. This expansion is named aril*
.
never developed until after the vivification of the

ovule, and must not be confounded with tumours or dilatations of the integument of the seed.
536. It
is
537. Sometimes there are tumours of the testa near the

hilum or at the opposite end such are called StropMolte or
Caruncula
538. The precise nature of these is unknown ; sometimes
;
or they are
they are dilatations of the chalaza ; Ex. Crocus
caused by a fungous state of the lips of the foramen ; Ex.
:
Eicinus
539.
or they arise from unknown causes.

scar, which indicates the union of the seed with
The
the placenta, is called the hilum or umbilicus

540. The integuments are called collectively testa, and
consist of membranes resulting from the sacs of the ovule
.
(451).
541. Sometimes the testa
whole surface
sions of its
is
covered by hair-like expan-
as in the Cotton
or these hairs
occupy one or both ends, when they constitute what is called

the coma'287
This must not be confounded with pappus (328),
which is calyx.
.
542.
The integuments
which are either
284
single
are
often
expanded into wings,

and appear intended
or several 277
render seeds buoyant.

Very often they are corky or
282
and
not
,
spongy
unfrequently consist of spiral cells (19).
to
543. In the seed these membranes are called

by various
names, of whiph the most frequently used are spermoderm or
testa for the primine ;
mesosperm, for the secundine ; and endopleura for the coat of the nucleus (450).
65
SEED.
The mouth of the foramen (461) is often distinctly

is named the micropyle ; Ex. Pea.
545. The raphe 279 285 occupies one side of the seed in all
544.
visible,
and
cases in which
becomes much
546.
pre-existed in the primine

ramified.
it
The raphe
in
is
no
way
but
it
frequently
connected with impregnation
being apparently confined to maintaining a

vascular connection between the placenta and the base of the
nucleus, for the purpose of nourishing the latter.
functions
its
547. Spiral vessels are found in the raphe and
its
ramifica-
tions.
548.
Where vessels of the
raphe expand into the mesosperm
(543), the chalaza (459) appears as a discoloured thickening

of the integuments 285 .
549. The micropyle always indicates the point in the circumference of a seed towards which the radicle (561) points.
550. And the chalaza is as constant an indication, when it
present, of the situation of the cotyledons (559) ; it being
always at that part of the circumference organically opposed
to the radicle.
is
551. Between the integuments and the embryo of some

1 * 293
plants lies a substance called the albumen or perisperm""
299,
552. It consists of a peculiar matter deposited during the

growth of the ovule among the celullar tissue of the nucleus
(450).
553.
When
the cellular tissue of the nucleus combines with
the deposited matter so completely as to form together but

one substance, the albumen is called solid ; Ex. Wheat,
Euphorbia.
When
verted, the
albumen
554.
Albumen
a portion of the tissue remains unconruminated ; Ex. Anona, Nutmeg.

usually wholesome, and may be fre-
is
is
quently eaten with impunity in the most dangerous tribes

Ex. Omphalococca, a genus of Euphorbiacese.
555. The organised body that lies within the seed, and for
the purpose of protecting and nourishing which the seed was
8
created, is the Embryo"*
.
556.
The embryo was
the amnios (465).

557. The latter
is
originally included within the sac of
usually absorbed or obliterated during
66
the advance of the
embryo
to maturity
but
it
sometimes
form of Vitellus
remains surrounding the ripe embryo, in the
Ex. Saururus, Piper
The embryo
consists of the
cotyledons (559),
collar (562).
the
and
the
radicle (561),
plumule (560),
558.
297 .-
the
The cotyledons represent undeveloped leaves 295 ".

560. The plumule, or gemmule, is the nascent ascending
559.
axis (64) 2956
561.
The
radicle
is
the rudiment of the descending axis
295c
(7l)
562.
The
collar is the line of separation
between the radicle
and the cotyledons.

563. The space that intervenes between the collar and the
base of the cotyledons is called the cauliculus. (Tigelle, Fr.)
564. In some seeds the embryo is furnished with a
300
suspensor from the point of the radicle

565. The embryo is usually solitary in the seed, but occasionally there are two or several (472).
.
When
several embryos are produced within a single

sometimes
seed,
happens that two of these embryos grow
in'
which
case a production analogous to animal
together,
monsters
is formed.
dicephalous
566.
it
In form, position, and direction, the embryo varies in different species. In

291
in others heliacal 294
in others
general it is straight ; in some it is spiral
;
;
vermicular 290
in others arcuate 301 .
It usually occupies the axis of the

:
but it is also excentrical 292 ; and unilateral 299 . In
either erect with
respect to the seed, or inverted or transverse.
albumen or seed 278

direction,
it is
293
SEED.
67
567. The number of cotyledons varies from one to several.

The most common number is either one or two. In the latter
case,
they are always directly opposite each other.
The cotyledons
are semiterete 895 "
foliaceous 278
flat,
convolute 288
with each other, or divergent 300 . When there is but one cotyledon,
assumes peculiar forms: it is, for instance, fungous 289 ; spheroidal 298
parallel
it
often
lenti-
cular 299 a.
The direction of the embryo, with respect to the seed,

depend upon the relation that the integuments, the raphe,
chalaza, hilum, and micropyle, bear to each other.
569. If the nucleus be inverted, the embryo will be erect,
or orthotropous ; Ex. Apple.
570. If the nucleus be erect, the embryo will be inverted,
or antitropous ; Ex. Nettle.
571. If the micropyle is at neither end of the seed, the em568.
will
will be neither erect nor inverted, but will be in a more

or less oblique direction with respect to the seed ; Ex. Primrose ; and is said to be heterotropous.
bryo
572. Plants that have but one cotyledon, or, if two, with
the cotyledons alternate with each other, are called MONO2
".
COTYLEDONOUS 293
two opposite each other, or a greater

a whorl, are called DICOTYLEDONOUS 288 29 C92
573. Plants that have
number
placed in
297 300 301
574. Endogenous plants are monocotyledonous.

575. Exogenous plants are dicotyledonous.
576. Plants that have no cotyledons are said to be ACOTYLE-
DONOUS 294
577. But
term is usually applied only to cellular

plants which, having no sexual apparatus, can have no seeds
this
(587).
578. Acrogenous plants are acotyledonous.
579. Those seeds of flowering plants, which appear to have
no cotyledons, owe their appearance to the cotyledons being
consolidated
Ex. Lecythis, Olynthia
or abortive
Ex. Cus-
cuta.
580.
action
The plumule is very often

by the germination of the
latent, until it is called into
seed.
Sometimes
distinguishable from the cotyledons; sometimes

developed, and lies in a furrow of the cotyledon
it
;
it is
is
un-
highly
Ex. Maize
F2
68
2
".
In the monocotyledonous embryo
it
frequently happens
margins of
which grow together, so that the whole embryo forms one
uniform mass 293 ; but as soon as germination commences the
that the plumule
is
rolled
up
in the cotyledon, the
margins separate.
581. The radicle elongates downwards, either directly from
the base of the embryo, or after previously rupturing the integument of the base. Plants with the first character are
called ExoRHiz^s 295
582.
with the second, ENDORHiz^; 298 2 ".
The endorhizal embryo
is
very
common
in
monocoty-
the exorhizal, in dicotyledons.

583. When the' seed is called into action, germination takes
The juices of the plant, which before were insipid,
place.
ledons
immediately afterwards abound with sugar ; Ex. Barley ; and

growth commences.
584. This growth is in the first instance caused by the
absorption and decomposition of water, whose oxygen combines with the superfluous carbon of the seed,
in the form of carbonic acid
gas.
585.
As
this
and
phenomenon does not take place
plants, except in the
expelled
in full-grown
dark (258), so neither can
seeds, except under the same condition.

exposed to constant light, would not
is
it
occur in
Hence an embryo,
germinate at all ; and

hence the care taken by nature to
provide a covering to all
embryos in the form of the integuments of the seed or of a
pericarp.
586.
As
soon as the
necessary proportion of carbon is reseed by the expulsion of carbonic acid, the
moved from a
young plant begins

cesses of assimilation
and to grow by the proand respiration already described (254).
to absorb food,
ACROGENS, OR FLOWERLESS PLANTS.

587. Many plants not
being increased by seeds, the result
of the mutual action of sexual
apparatus (531), are flowerless,
and destitute of
organs of fructification.
588. Such are
propagated by what are called organs of reproduction, which have no other
analogy with the organs of
fructification than that both
perpetuate the species.

589.
The reproductive organs of flowerless
69
plants vary ac-
cording to the tribes of that division of the vegetable kingdom ;

and have so little relation to each other, that each principal
tribe may be said to have its own peculiar method of propagation.
590.
They
all
agree in their reproductive parts or spores,

seeds, not germinating from any fixed
which are analogous to
point, but producing root or stem indifferently from any point

of their surface.
This germination is therefore vague.
591. The principal tribes are Ferns (592), Mosses (598),

Lichens (605), Algacea (607), and Fungacea (610).
592. FERNS are increased by, little bodies, called spores,
enclosed within cases named tliectz or sporangia 302 303 which
often grow in clusters or sori 3M , from the veins of the under
,
from beneath the epidermis. The

termed the indusium 308
sides of the leaves, or
when
it
593.
encloses the
The indusium
in consequence of the
594.
one
thec<e, is
The
side,
thecse
and
latter,
separates from the leaf in various ways,

growth of the thecse beneath it.
have frequently a stalk which passes up
finally,
curving with their curvature, disappears
on the opposite side 307

595. The part where the stalk of the theca
.
its side, is
called the annulus.
is
united with
70
596. These thecse
may
be considered minute leaves, having
the same gyrate mode of developement as the ordinary leaves

of the tribe ; their stalk the petiole, the annulus the midrib,
and the
theca; itself the lamina, the edges of
which are united.
597. They would, therefore, be analogous to carpels,

appeared that they were influenced by the action of any
if it
vivi-
fying matter.
598. MOSSES
are increased by spores (590), contained

within an urn, or theca, or sporangium 31 * 316, placed at the
apex of a stalk or seta, bearing on its summit a kind of loose
31
hood, called a calyptra *, and closed by a lid or operculum.
599.
and the
The
inside of the theca has a central axis or columella,
orifice
processes, or a
600.
At
beneath the operculum
membrane
is
closed
called the peristome 313
the base of the theca
is
by
teeth- like
318
.
sometimes found a tumour
or struma 31 *, or an
equal expansion named apophysis 319 .
601. The number of the teeth of the
is
peristome
some multiple of four.
always
The calyptra
originally grew from the base of the
when the stalk lengthened, the
calyptra was torn
away from its base and carried up,
surrounding the theca.
603. The
be understood to
calyptra
602.
stalk; but
may
at;
be a convolute
the operculum,
another; the peristome, one or
more

whorls of minute
flat
leaves
and the theca
71
be the
itself to
excavated distended apex of the stalk, the cellular substance

of which separates in the form of sporules.
604. There are also in mosses certain organs, called anthers
by some, which do not appear analogous to the male apparatus of flowering plants, and the nature of which has not
been demonstrated.
They
are jointed filaments, staminidia or
antheridia, containing vibrios lodged in

round the rudiment of the future theca.
At
figure 315 the flask-like figure is a

tillidium ; and the club-shaped body
lated threads
may
mucous
cells,
young sporangium, or
on
its left,
and
sur-
in this state pisThe articu-
a staminidium.
be abortive staminidia.
605. LICHENS are cellular expansions, usually horizontal,
but occasionally perpendicular, consisting of a tkallus 331 , or

combination of stem and leaves, upon which shields, apotliecia,
331
or reproductive organs, appear

606. The shields consist of a margin, enclosing a kernel,
nucleus, in which tubes containing sporules, and called asci,
.
are imbedded.
They vary a little
scutellum 337
gyroma ;
whence they have received the following other names

which is the same thing ;pelta 339 tuberadum 335 ; tricaor
in nature,
orbilla,
if covered
with sinuous concentric furrows, lirella
333
;
patellula
334
.
Be-
sides the foregoing, some other peculiar terms are used by writers on Lichens.
Asci are tubes of the nucleus, containing sporules ; the latter are sometimes
named gongyli : periikedum is the part in which asci care immersed hypothe;
a substance overlying the pcrilluvinin.

339
tions of the thallus
;
scypha or oplarium
cium
is
J'oi/ctiu are stalk-like elongais
a cup-like expansion of a
72
on the margin
podetium, having shields
they are also called globuli and glomtruli.
338
Soredia, or
3
powdery masses ^
.
Lacuna, are pits of the thallus
which forms the rim and base of shields.
Excipulm is that part of the thallus
Tftallodes signifies formed of the thallus.
of any
607. ALGACEJS are submersed plants, equally destitute
kind of tissue, except the cellular, and propagated by spores
of the system.
(590) lodged in various parts
of
608. The sporules either lie freely in the whole substance
3
or
cells
",
occupy
or are collected in particular
such
plants,
321
324
in spheres
occupying
jointed filaments , or are placed
thallus (605).
of
the
circumferences of expansions
609. There are also other modes of multiplication.
,
the
the special terms employed by writers on this order, the following may
be enumerated as the principal. Among their reproductive organs are gongyli,
or hard round deciduous bodies ; granula, or large spores ; sporidia, or bodies
321 325
.
resembling spores, but not such ; sporangia or coniocysta, or spore-cases
Hypha is a filamentous thallus ; phycomatcr is the gelatine in which the
spores of some begin to vegetate ; peridiolum is a membrane immediately
Among
covering the
spores
vesicula are air-bladders that enable
some species
to
float.
610. FUNGACE.E, which are the lowest form of vegetation,

also cellular, some of their cells however containing
spiral threads, and are propagated by spores.
are
611. In the highest forms, two kinds of organs are de545

are conical naked elevations ; the
one, cystidia
,
tected
other, basidia
3*5
,
spores in definite
are also conical
number on
elevations, but
their apex.
they bear
73
612. The highest forms of the fungaceous order consist

of a stipes 6, an annulus or collar 346 , a pileus 346 or cap, and
an hymenium.
613.
Lower forms
are reduced to a
mere peridium or
in-
342
tegument, containing the reproductive system .
614.
615.
to end,
Some have the sporules enclosed in asci (606).

The lowest consist of nothing but cells, placed end
and enclosing spores
in the terminal cells
344
.
Of
the special terms employed by Mycologists (writers on Fungaceous plants),

The volva is the wrapper which covers over
the principal are the following.
many of them, as Agarics, in their youngest state. Thattus is the spawn
under
Velum is a
ground, or amongst decaying matter.
usually generated
membrane that connects the pileus and collar. Cortina is that part of a velum
which adheres to the margin of the pileus. Flocci are wool-like threads found
mixed with sporules ; and stroma is the body on which flocci grow. Orbiculi
little disks contained within the peridia of certain genera.
Sporangium
Peritkecium is the
the external coating of such genera as Lycoperdon 343 .
348
Ostiolum is the mouth of the bag.
bag of fructification in Sphaeria .
34
Capillitium is a kind of purse or net containing spores *. Mycelia are
nascent fungi, or fragments of their spawn.
are
is
II.
SYSTEMATICAL BOTANY.
616. SYSTEMATICAL
BOTANY
is
the science of arranging plants
such a manner that their names
in
affinities
determined, their true
may
place
be ascertained, their
a natural system
in
judged of, and their whole hisand

with
elucidated
tory
certainty
accuracy.
617. Anything short of this is not a system, but an artificial
fixed, their sensible properties
scheme.
The latter is intended to enable a person

name of a plant, and goes no further.
619. But as the name of a plant conveys no
618.
to ascertain
the
by
itself,
the power thus acquired
by
artificial
information
schemes
is
of
and cannot be considered as anything

beyond a very imperfect and elementary mode of investibut
little
real value,
gation.
What
620.
scheme
is
knowledge is gained by the use of an artificial

mere
a
collection of isolated facts, without mutual
dependence, or any distinct bearing upon general views.

621 In a natural arrangement, on the other hand, the name
.
of a plant
the least object that
gained. Any investigation

is, of necessity, attended
with the discovery of the relationship a given plant bears to
others ; and as plants which are most closely akin in struc-
upon
is
its principles,
is
when completed,
ture are also most similar in their sensible properties, it often

enables us to judge of the use of an unknown plant whose
place is determined in the system, by the ascertained uses of
those species in whose vicinity it takes its place by virtue of
its natural affinities.
622. The only artificial schemes in general use are, 1, that

of Linnseus (623), called the SEXUAL System, in consequence
of its characters being dependent upon variations in the sta-
mens and
method.
pistil,
or sexes, of plants
and
2,
the Analytical
76
I.
623. 'This
LINNÂN SEXUAL SYSTEM.
now
is
disused
by men of science
books
employed have been arranged upon
a student to understand it.
for
necessary
still
but, as
many
its plan, it is
624. Its divisions, called classes and orders, depend upon

of the stamens and pistils, and have Greek
modifications
names expressive of
Class
their distinctive characters.
2.
Monandria. Stam. 1.
Diandria. Stam. 2.
3.
Triandria. Stam. 3.
1.
4.
Tetrandria. Stam. 4.
5.
Pentandria. Stam.
6.
7.
Hexandria. Stam. 6.
Heptandria. Stam. 7.
8.
Octandria. Stam. 8.
9.
Enneandria. Stam.
5.
9.
10. Decandria. Stam. 10.
12 19.
20 or more, perigynous (359).
13. Polyandria. Stam. 20 or more, hypogynous (358).
11. Dodecandria. Stam.

12. Icosandria. Stam.
Each of these classes

by the number of styles
Orders.
terized
nia signifies
style
is
divided into orders charac-
or sessile stigmas.
Digynia, 2
4 ; Pentagynia, 5 ;
Octogynia, 8 ; Enneagynia, 9 ; Decagynia, 10
nia, &c. about 12 ; Polygynia, many.
nia,
Class 14.
Didynamia
Orders:
2.
1.
Monogy-
Trigynia, 3 ; TetragyHexagynia, 6 ; Heptagynia, 7 ;
Dodecagy-
Stamens 4, two long and two short.

Gymnospermia, seeds apparently naked ;
Angiospermia, seeds evidently in a seed-vessel.
Class 15. Tetradynamia
Stamens
6,
four long
and two
short.
Siliquosa, with a long pod; 2. Siliwith

a
short pod or pouch.
culosa,
Class 16. Monadelphia: Filaments united into a
cup or column.
Orders: 1. Pentandria; 2. Decandria, &c.
Orders:
1.
as before.
Class 17. Diadelphia:

fraternities.
Filaments united into two parcels or

Orders : 1 Hexandria, Sic. as before.
.
LINN-ffiAN
Class 18. Polyadelpliia
than two.
SEXUAL SYSTEM.
77
Filaments united into more parcels

1. Dodecandria;
2. Icosan-
Orders:
dria, SEC. as before.
Class 19. Syngenesia: Anthers united into a tube.

Orders:
1. Monogamia, flowers
solitary; 2. Polygamia,
flowers in heads.
Sub-orders of the latter:
1.
u3qualis, florets all equal ; 2. Superflua, florets

of the disk complete, of the ray female ; 3. Frustranea, florets of the disk perfect, of the ray
neuter
4. Necessaria, florets of the disk male, of

;
the ray female ; 5. Segregata, florets each with its
own
proper involucre.
Class 20. Gynandria

Stamens and styles consolidated.
ders: 1. Monandria, &c. as before.
Or-
Class 21. Monoecia: Stamens in one flower, pistils in another,

on the same plant. Orders: 1. Monandria, &c. as
before.
Stamens in one flower, pistils in another,

on different plants. Orders: 1. Monandria, &c.
Class 22. Dicecia
as before.
Class 23. Polygamia: Stamens and pistils separate in some

flowers, united in others, either on the same plant
or on two or three different ones. Orders: 1. Moncecia,
&c. as before.
Class 24. Cryptogamia

lices,
no apparent flowers.
Orders
Musci, Hepaticse, Algae, Fungi (592).
Fi-
78
ANALYTICAL METHOD.
II.
625. THIS
is
founded upon the
common
process of analysis
In all
unconsciously employed by the human mind.
cases the mental operation by which one thing is distinguished
from another, consists in a continual contrast of characters.
that
is
For instance, in a mass of individuals we distinguish one set

which is coloured, and another which is colourless of those
that are coloured we distinguish red, black, blue, and green
of the round,
of the red, some are square, others are round
some are sculptured on their surface, others are even
and so
;
we
proceed, analysing the subject by a constant series of contrasts, until we have arrived at a point beyond which no
analysis can go.
The
following pages contain such an analysis of the

natural
orders of plants.
The method may be
principal
and
to
applied
genera
equally
species, and is an instructive
626.
process if employed by way of exercise to the mind,

the purpose of rendering distinctions definite
and
for
1.
Plants with visible
seeds
flowers and
.2
Plants with visible flowers and

spores
Plants without flowers

2.
Wood
Leaves netted.
centric layers
in
confused
in concentric
layers
3.
HOMALIACEJE.
ANONACE^.
Carpels consolidated
11. Placenta
over the
spread
.3
...'
239
12. Petals definite in
Wood
237
13.
LOASACE.E.
CACTACEÊ.
Leaves
with
transparent
Petals united
dots
MYRTACE^.
.4
.12
.13
number
Petals indefinite
Flowers having a calyx only, or

none
.
.
119
4. Petals distinct
septa
Placenta parietal
Placenta in the axis
Flowers having both calyx and
corolla
.11
con-
....
Leaves straight-veined.
LECYTHIDACEJE.
Placenta parietal
Wood
Leaves straight-veined.
Placenta central
10. Carpels distinct
RHEANTHS.
.261
.-
9.
Leaves dotless
14. Petals indefinite
.14
MESEMBRYACE^;.
Petals definite
PHILADELPHACE.*;.
Leaves with stipules
.
Leaves without stipules
24
.
.
15.
186
.16
5.
Stamens more than 20
Stamens fewer than 20

6.
7.
Ovary
inferior, or partially so
Ovary
superior
15
Leaves furnished with

stipules
.
8.
Carpels more
or less disunited
16. Carpels disunited
36
.10
POME.E.
9
17.
Stamens hypogynous
Stamens perigynous
MAGNOLIACEÊ.
18. Placenta parietal
Placenta in the axis
.17
.18
ROSACES.
BIXACE^J.
19. Estivation of
calyx imbricated
Estivation valvate
.19
.
20
22
ANALYTICAL METHOD.
EUPHORBIACE,E.
20. Flowers unisexual
Flowers hermaphrodite
21.
Ovary
one-celled
Ovary
wit<h
PORTULACACE^:.
more
than one
cells
and
enlarged
irregular
DlPTERACEÊ.
Calyx not enlarged
23. Stamens monadelphous
Stamens
MALVACEAE.
distinct
24. Carpels disunited or solitary
30
NELUMBIACEÊ.
26
the disk
Carpels clear of
Placentas axile
.
27
ANACARDIACE.E.
Stamens hypogynous
27. Carpel solitary
ROSACES.
43. Disk double
Stamens
free
29. Herbs
Carpels several
on
46. Parasites
48. Calyx valvate
.31
34
Stamens
32. Sepals
51. Leaves dotted
PORTULACACE.S.
Sepals more than 2
seeds
flat,
few,
33
phous
stamens
flat,
.
MYRTACE.E.
52
.
Anthers curved downwards
.
52.
34. Placentas spread over the lining

of the fruit
FLACOURTIACE.E.
.
.
35.
Ovary stalked
36.
Ovary sessile
Ovary more or
.
.
35
CAPPARIDACE.E.
PAPAVERACE.E.
less inferior
37
quite superior
55
37. Leaves with stipules
38
Ovary

.41
.
BEGONIACEÊ.
.
MELASTOMACEÊ.
.
53. Flowers tetramerous
.53
ONAGRACEÊ.
Flowers not tetramerous
54
.
.
54. Petals always distinct
SAXIFRAGACE^:.
HUMIRIACE.33.
Placentas in lines
BRUNIACE.E.
monadel-
50
CORNACEÊ.
Leaves not dotted
Anthers erect
leaves
.
.
CLUSIACE-E.
leathery .
Petals crumpled, seeds numerous,
leaves membranous
.
CISTACE..E.
Petals
downwards
Sepals united into a tube LYTHRACEJE.

33. Petals
.49
MEMECYLACEÊ.
.32
RHAMNACEÊ.
altern. petals
Anthers erect
...
COMBRETACEÊ.
50. Anthers curved
SARRACENIACEÊ.
.
.47
31. Stigma large, umbrella-shaped
Stigma simple
LORANTHACEJE.
Calyx imbricated
49. Stamens opp. petals
Placentas dissepimental
NYMPH-EACE.E.
.44
.45
.51
.46
.48
ANACARDIACEÊ.
ANONACE.E.
Placentas parietal
47. Leaves balsamic, acrid
Leaves insipid
30. Placentas in the axis
trees
Root plants
APIACE.E.
Seeds numerous
45. Carpels solitary
RANUNCULACEÊ.
Trees or Shrubs
.43
CUCURBITACEJE.
.29
Disk simple
44. Seeds few
.28
.
Carpels several .
28. Stamens polyadelphous HYPERICACEÊ.
42
Flowers hermaphr. or polyg.

GROSSULACE.E.
26. Stamens perigynous
RHAMNACE.E.
41. Placentas parietal
25
.
25. Carpels plunged in a tabular disk
Calyx imbricate, stamens alternate

with petals
HAMAMELACE.S.
.
TILLAGES.
40. Calyx valvate, stamens opposite
.23
HOMALIACE.E.
40
.
Placentas in the axis
the petals
ClSTACBLE.
22. Calyx
.21
79
39
Petals at
first
united into a tube
ESCALLONIACRS.
56
.
.
81
.57
.
.
59
57. Anther valves recurved
BERBERACE.E.
Anther valves
straight
58. Fruit leguminous
.58
FABACEÊ.
Fruit drupaceous or capsular
ROSACES.
80
'

Placentas in the axis
62

Flowers without a coronet
Anthers with straight valves
61
when young
Fruit not leguminous
DROSERACE-E.
Leaves straight when young
VIOLACE.E.
63
.64
Sepals more than 2
65
65. Styles distinct to the base
66
Styles more or less united
72
66. Petals minute
Petals conspicuous
68. Stigmas capitate
Stigmas simple
.68
Leaves not dotted

EL.SOCARPACEJE.
Calyx imbricated
CUNONIACE^;.
88.
Hypogynous
Calyx simple
75. Leaves simple
Trees or shrubs
73
91
CALYCANTHACE.S.
Stamens hypogynous
92. Stamens indefinite
Stamens
definite
ZYGOPHYLLACKE.
.
CORIARIACEÊ.
NYMPH.EACE.E.
95.
Stamens not tetradynamous
95
Hypogynous disk
large
96
Hypogynous disk
small or
97
96. Stamens indefinite
Stamens
STAPHYLEACE.E.
VITACEÊ.
Sepals distinct
98. Sepals 2-3
Sepals 5
99.
Brown
parasites
80
CHAILLETIACE.E.
BURSERACE.E.
100. Styles distinct
Styles consolidated
101. Stain,
98
PAPAVERACEJE.
TURNERACEJE.
MONOTROPACEJE.
Green rooting plants
ELÊOCARPACEÊ.
RESEDACILE.
FRANKENIACE.E.
'
.
78
Stamens alternate with petals
.
79
78. Stamens perigynous .
RHAMNACEÊ.
slits
CAPPARIDACEÊ.
definite
97. Sepals tubular
77. Stamens opposite the petals
.94
.99
BRASSICACEÊ.
76
SAPINDACEÊ.
Stamens hypbgynous
79. Anthers opening by pores
92
ANONACE.E.
Placenta parietal
Placenta axile .
.75
93. Placenta dissepimental
Flowers symmetrical
Petals undivided
.90
94. Stamens tetradynamous
double
89
MENISPERMACEJE.
MALPIGHIACELE.
Anthers opening by
88
FRAXCOACE.E.
RANUNCULACEÊ.
.74
Leaves compound
76. Flowers unsymmetrical
80. Petals split
double
scales
.77
distinct
.,
scales simple
89. Herbaceous plants
OXALIDACEJJ.
surrounded with
.i
.87
CRASSULACE^.
Hypogynous
SAXIFRAGACE.E.
73. Stamens monadelphous
glands
.71
72. Calyx imbricated

Calyx valvate or open
74. Calyx
.86
MALPIGHIACE^;.
Stamens perigynous
71. Leaves opposite
Stamens
FABACE^.
91. Stamens perigynous
70. Stamens hypogynous
Leaves alternate
Carpels without ditto
.70
85
87. Carpels with hypog. scales
ILLECEBRACEÊ.
ANACARDIACE^S.
69
ELATINACE.E.
69. Calyx valvate
84
AMYRIDACE.E.
Carpels several
Fruit without a beak
83
CoNNARACEiE.
85. Leaves dotted
64. Fruit with a long beak
GERANIACE^.
Radicle remote from hilum
PORTULACACE.E.
84. Radicle next hilum
EUPHORBIACE.E.
Flowers hermaphrodite or polyg.

63. Sepals 2
.93
BERBERACEJ3.
PASSIFLORACE^.
82. Anthers with recurved valves
60. Flowers with a coronet
61. Leaves circulate
82
.
.
.100
.101
.105
polyadelphous HYPERICACE.E.
Stamens
free
.102
ANALYTICAL METHOD.
with
102. Carpels
scale
an
Carpels without
124. Carpels triple
hypogynous
CRASSULACE-E.
do.
103
Stamens
106. Seeds wingless
PIP BRACED.
Flowers unisexual
Sepals more than 2
inferior
Ovary
superior
108. Anthers opening by pores
slits
109
.110
.112
110. Fruit succulent

.
.111
111. Flowers hermaphrodite
Flowers not
1
BALSAMINACEÊ.
.113
do.
.
Calyx imbricated
115. Stam. opposite petals
Stamens more
petals
RHAMNACE.E.
numerous
134. Leaves
Stamens perigynous
118. Seeds comose
Seeds naked
120
121
126
SALICACEÊ.
.
.128

121. Ovules numerous
.
.122
.
123
.124
CHLORANTHACEÊ.
Stamens whorled
SAURURACEÊ.
.
37
.138
.142
Flowers^/
143. Leaves with
.140
SANTALACEÊ.
.141
COMBRETACEÊ.
Embryo straight
Embryo curved
142. Flowers^/
.139
ONAGRACEJE.
141.
Flowers unisexual
CELASTRACE/E.
Flowers not^/
117
.118
123. Stam. unilateral
2-6-celled
TAMARICACEÊ.
Calyx present
Ovules few
LORANTHACE<E.
PITTOSPORACEÊ.
Ovary
140. Calyx valvate

Calyx not valvate
.'
MYRTACE,E.
than
MYRICACE,E.
38. Parasites on branches
139. Flowers^/
GARRYACE.E.
Leaves not dotted
.135
136. Leaves dotted
EMPETRACE.S.
JUGLANDACEÊ.
Leaves simple .
135. Leaves opposite
137. Ovary 1-celled
.134
compound
Terrestrial
36
CUCURBITACE.E.
LYTHRACE.E.
119. Calyx none
.114
.115
.116
133. Climbing tendrilled herbs
Leaves alternate
SIMARUBACE.E.
.133
Flowers herm. or polyg.
113. Stamens arising from scales
114. Calyx valvate
BEGONIACE.E.
Trees or shrubs
Flowers regular
Stamens not
do.
CORYLACEA;.
RUTACE.E.
XANTHOXYLACEÊ.
.131
131. Flowers amentaceous
Flowers polygamous
112. Flowers irregular
132
Flowers unisexual
AURANTIACE.E.
Fruit capsular
Leaves not dotted
ARISTOLOCHIACEÊ.
ERICACEAE.
Anthers opening by
109. Leaves dotted .
.129
.143
.130

.108
CALLITRICHACE.E.
Ovary
PORTULACACE.E.
MYRICACE.E.
Carpels double
128.
CEDRELACE.E.
106
.107
.127
127. Carpels single
MELIACEÊ.
Seeds winged
107. Sepals 2
PLATANACEÊ.
104
CARYOPHYLLACE<E.
free
MYRICACEÊ.
LINAGES.
J05. Stamens monadelphous
.125
Ovule pendulous
Stigmas simple
125. Ovule erect
SAXIFRAGACE.E.
Carpels parallel
EUPHORBIACE.E.
Carpels single
103. Carpels two divaricating
104. Stigmas capitate
81
CHENOPODIACE^.
ONAGRACEÊ.
ARISTOLOCHIACKE.
stipules

Flowers unisexual
145. Sepals 2
Sepals more than 2
Carpels solitary
160
145
47
PORTULACACE.S.
146. Carpels more than
.144
46
consolidated 147
.
.153
82
147. Stamens hypogyno us
.148
.150
Stamens perigynous
148. Fruit beaked
CARYOPHYLLACE^-:.
Stamens perigynous
GERANIACELE.
Fruit not beaked
49
Fruit many-celled
149. Calyx biglandular imbricated
MALPIGHIACE.E.
Calyx eglandular valvate TILIACEX.
PASSIFLORACE.E.
Placenta axile
CUNONIACEÊ.
Leaves alternate
153. Calyx
.152
152. Calyx valvate

Calyx imbricate
RHAMNACE.E.
ULMACE^;.
membranous
ILLECEBRACE.E.
Calyx firm and herbaceous
Styles terminal
Fruit not leguminous
Anther valves
sepals
Calyx tube membranous

1
78. Cal. all hardened
Base only of
cal.
hardened
NYCTAGINACE.E.
THYMELACEÊ.
.159
BETULACE^.
Calyx tubeless
.183
62
Calyx herbaceous
CHENOPODIACEÊ.
183. Carpels solitary or distinct

.
Carpels solitary or disjoined
Ovules
many
165. Leaves dotted
Calyx open, carpels several
.168
RUTACEÊ.
.166
.167
167. Carpels numerous, separable
PHYTOLACCACE^;.
Carpels few, inseparable
MENISPERMACEJE.
XANTHOXYLACEJE.
Leaves not dotted
EUPHORBIACE.E.
Ovary
inferior
187. Flowers regular
Flowers irregular
188.
168. Carpels 2,
divaricating
SAXIFKAGACE.E.
.
170
.187
RUTACE.E.
.190
226
.188
.218
.189
.192
.,
Ovary deeply split

Ovary not split
189. Leaves dotted
Leaves not dotted
CELASTRACE.E.
Carpels not divaricating
186. Ovary superior
OLEACE.E.
185. Leaves dotted
165
compound
Leaves simple
.164
184
.185
MYRISTICACE/E.
172
PAPAVERACEJE.
Leaves not dotted

166. Leaves
184. Calyx tubular, carpel

solitary
162. Carpels more than 2, consolidated 163
.182
AMARANTACE^.
161
PORTULACACE.E.
Sepals more than 2
.181
182. Calyx dry and coloured
Flowers unisexual
.180
EtJPHORBIACEjE.
1S4. Ovules few
179
Leaves not lepidote

181. Calyx tubular
.
URTICACEÊ.
.
Placenta axile
SCLERANTHACE.*.
EIÂGNACEJE.
Flowers not amentaceous
.177
.178
180. Leaves lepidote
159. Flowers amentaceous
PROTEACEÊ.
do.
PETIVERIACEÊ.
.
of
POLYGONACE.E.
Carpels more than one
161. Sepals 2
points
179. Fruit triangular

Fruit rounded
.176
the
177. Calyx hardened
.156
Styles triple
.175
AMYRIDACE.E.
within
FABACE^;.
Leaves not dotted

176. Stamens
.174
.157
ROSACES
Stipules simple or
157. Styles simple
LAURACE.E.
straight
POLYGONACEÊ.
156. Stipules ochreate
.173
175. Leaves dotted
.155
LYTHRACEÊ.
RANUNCULACEÊ.
174. Fruit a legume

Fruit not do.
154
FABACEÊ.
Carpels solitary
Stamens not
PRIMULACE^:.
173. Anther valves recurved
154. Styles from the base of ovary
CHRYSOBALANACE^J.
172. Carpels several
.151
151. Leaves opposite
.171
171. Fruit one-celled
190. Inflorescence
gyrate BORAGINACE.E.
Inflorescence straight
.
.191
191. Estivation
plaited
Estivation
flat.
NOLANACE*:.
STACKHOUSIACEÊ.
ANALYTICAL METHOD.
192. Carpels 4, 5, or more
.193
83
235. Leaves alternate
EBENACE.E.
Leaves opposite
254. Stamens very short
Stamens long, weak
236
GALIACKS.
.
236. Fruit didymous
Fruit not didymous CAPRIFOLIACKS:.
255. Floating
237. Stem cylindrical, unbranched
256. Ovules pendulous
Stem
conical, branched
238. Fruit solitary

Fruit in cones
Ovules erect
238
240
246
Ovary superior
MELAXTHACEÊ.
Anthers turned inwards
258. Stems herbaceous
Stems woody
Flowers hexapetaloid
260. Flowers coloured
Anthers more than one

242. Anther one-celled
243
COMMELINACE.E.
260
.
MARANTACELE.
Anther two-celled
ZINGIBERACKS.
Flowers scarious
Axis
244. Stamens 3
IRIDACEÊ.
Stamens 6
245
Stamens more than 6
HYDROCHARACE.E.
AMARYLLIDACEÊ.
245. Sepals petaloid

Sepals herbaceous
.
Flowers regular
247. Sheaths of leaves
slit
247
248
GRAMINACE^.
Sheaths of leaves closed
SMILACE^.
249
Leaves straight-veined
250
259
250. Placentae dhsepimental BUTOMACBL&.

Placentae axile
251. Flowers imperfect

Flowers perfect
252. Flowers on a spadix
Flowers scattered
253. Fruit drupaceous
Fruit berried
Fruit dry
251
252
257
253
255
PANDANACEJE.
.
ARACE.S.
254
.
LILIACEJE.
JUNCACEÊ.
.
262
CHARACEÊ.
distinct, leafless
Axis confused
.268
FILJCALES.
Sporangia arising from the stem 263

263. Sporangia involucrate .
264
.
Sporangia naked
264. Involucres uniform
.265
MARSILEACEJE.
Involucres 2-formed
265. Sporangia
valved
SALVINIACEÊ.
axillary,
.
sessile,
.266
BRYACE^:.
Sporangia valvate
267.
An operculum
No operculum
2-
LYCOPODIACEJE.
Sporangia stalked
266. Sporangia valveless
CYPERACE.E.
248. Leaves netted
262. Sporangia upon leaves
BROMELIACE.S:.
246. Flowers glumaceous
261. Axis distinct, leafy
243. Veins of leaves diverging MUSACEJE.

Veins of leaves straight
. 244
Veins of leaves netted DIOSCOREACILE.
258
PALMACEÊ.
242
...
ALISMACEÊ.
259. Flowers seinipetaloid
PISTIACE-E.
ORCHIDACKE.
240. Flowers gynandrous
Flowers not gynandrous
241
.
241. Anther
NAIADACE/E.
257. Anthers turned outwards
PINACEÊ.
.256
JUNCAGINACE.E.
TAXACE.E.
239. Ovary inferior
ACORACEJE.
TYPHACE.E.
Terrestrial
CYCADACILE.
267
ANDR.EACE.S.
JUNGERMANNIACELE.
268. Stomates
269
No
270
stoniates
269. Sporangia valvate, operculate
JUNGERMANNIACE.E.
Sporangia valveless, without an
operculum
270. Submersed
Aerial
MARCHANTIACEÊ.
271. Thallus superficial

Thallus buried
ALGACKÊ.
.271
LICHENACKS.
THE NATURAL SYSTEM.
THE NATURAL SYSTEM.
III.
627.
THE
85
true Natural System, whenever
it
shall
be dis-
covered, will represent the species, genera, orders, alliances,

groups, subclasses, and classes of plants, or whatever other
divisions
may
shall stand
be admitted into
it,
next those to which
structure than to
any
so arranged that each plant

is more
nearly allied in
it
others.
of man has not yet attained this end ; no

to
this description has been devised, nor
system answering
does there appear any probability that it will be discovered till
our knowledge of plants is much more advanced.
628. But the
skill
629. All so-called natural systems are, to the present day,

The lower and higher
partly artificial and partly natural.
divisions in
them
are natural, the intermediate divisions are
In other words, the stones of the edifice are hewed

and squared, and the general plan is drawn out, but no
artificial.
builder has yet been found with skill to put
them
together, so
as to form a consistent whole.
630. But although in theory no system that can properly be

called natural has yet been devised, yet for practical purposes many answer to the name, and fulfil the principal conditions required of them.
631.
The genera and natural orders can alone be considered

upon by botanists, the other divisions are unsettled
as agreed
and
this is the reason
why
the natural orders seldom follow in
the same manner in the arrangements of two different botanists.

is no such thing as an arrangement which
express the natural relations of plants in a consecutive
632. There
shall
series.
633. It seems to be generally admitted
by those who have
turned their attention to the consideration of the manner in
which organized beings are related to each other, that each

species is allied to many others in different degrees, and that
such relationship
is
best expressed
by rays
(the affinities)
86
common
In like
centre (the species).
of
the
several
the
mutual
relationship
manner,
studying
of
distribution
form
the
same
of
the
vegetable kingdom,
parts
and orders
constantly forces itself upon the mind; genera
of
whose
the
centre
be
to
found
spheres,
apparently
being
surface is only defined by the points where the last traces of
proceeding from
in
affinity disappear.
634. But although the
mind may conceive such a
distribu-
tion of organized beings, it is impossible that it should be so

presented to the eye, and all attempts at effecting that object
have failed. If in describing the surface of a sphere we are
compelled to travel in various directions, continually returning back to the point from which we started, and if in preeye at one glance we are compelled to
a
plane, the effect of which is to separate
upon
project
to the greatest distance some objects which naturally touch
senting
it
to the
it
how much more impossible must it be to follow

the juxtaposition of matter in treating of the solid contents of
each other,
a sphere.
635. The fundamental principle of systematic botany is, that
those plants should be stationed in company with each other
which have the greatest degree of affinity, and that those
should be placed most remotely which have

degree of affinity.
the smallest
636. Affinity is an accordance in all essential characters.

637. From this is distinguished analogy, which is a conformity in one or two characters only.
638.
What we
call
the characters of plants are

merely the
affinity, and all the groups into
by which we judge of
which plants are thrown are
signs
in
one sense
as nature recognises no such

groups.
639. Nevertheless, consisting in
artificial,
inasmuch
cases of species
very
closely allied in nature, they are in another sense natural.
all
640. But as the classes, subclasses,

groups, alliances, natural
and genera of botanists have no real existence in
orders,
follows that they have no fixed

limits, and consethat
it is
quently
impossible to define them.
641. They are to be considered as
more than
nature,
it
the
nothing
expression of particular tendencies (nixus), on the
part of the
THE NATURAL SYSTEM.
87
plants they comprehend, to assume a particular
mode of deve-
lopement.
642. Their characters are therefore nothing more than a
declaration of their prevailing tendencies, and are liable to
numerous exceptions.
This
liability, it
must be remarked,
the natural system
exists as
much
in all artificial
schemes as in
itself.
643. If a system
is
ever to be devised which shall
by com-
mon consent be admitted to be natural in all its parts,

as human means can make it so, this will be brought
as 'far
about
by settling the relative value of the characters by which

plants are limited, and by introducing uniformity and consistency into the distinctions of the groups, whether inferior,
superior, or intermediate.
to the present time, no attempt at settling these points has been successful,
and consequently the characters employed in denning the limits of groups,
of all denominations except the highest, are arbitrary and inconsistent.
Up
644.
1.
The
following propositions seem incontrovertible

is constant can be regarded as
unimportant.
:
Nothing that
2. Every thing constant must be dependent upon or conTherefore all constant

nected with some essential function.
characters,
of whatever
nature,
require
to
be taken into
account in classifying plants according to their natural
affi-
nities.
nature are the internal structure of stems and leaves, the anatomical condition of tissue, the organization of the anther, pollen, and female apparatus,
and the interior of the seed.
Of this
645.
On
the other hand, whatever points of structure are
same species, or in species nearly allied to each

other, or in neighbouring genera, are unessential to the vital
functions, and should be set aside, or be regarded as of compavariable in the
rative unimportance.
Hence the badness
of the Monopetalous, Polypetalous, and Apetalous divisions

upon the presence or absence, and union or disunion, of
of Jussieu, depending
The genus
Fuchsia, for example, has petals highly developed ; but in

F. excorticata they are absent, and yet the plant differs no otherwise from the
rest of the genus : the same is true of species of Rhammis.
Again, the Rue
has the petals separate ; and Correa, very nearly allied to it, has them competals.
bined.
88
are connected
646. Those peculiarities of structure which
is
a
which
in
developed are physiowith the manner
plant
logical.
connected
647. Those peculiarities of structure which are
structural.
are
are
which
in
manner
with the
arranged
parts
648. Physiological characters are of two kinds; 1, those
which are connected with the mode of growth (or organs of

and, 2, those which regulate reproduction (or
vegetation),
organs offructification).
649. Physiological characters are of greater importance in
of plants than structural.
regulating the natural classification
650. All modifications of either are respectively import-
with the
ant, in proportion to their connection
phenomena of
life.
allow ourselves to be steadily guided by these

considerations, we shall find that the internal or anatomical
651. If
we
structure of the axis,
and of the
foliage, is of
more importance
than any other character.

Because these are the circumstances which essentially regulate the functions of
growth, and the very existence of an individual.
652. That next in order
is
the internal structure of the
seed, by which the species must be multiplied.

of an embryo, or its absence, the first indicating a true
seed (531), the latter a spore (590), are most essential circumstances to conAnd so also the existence of albumen in abundance round the embryo,
sider.
or its absence, must be regarded as a physiological character of the highest
value : because, in the former case, the embryo demands a special external
provision for its early nutriment, as in oviparous animals ; while, in the latter
case, the embryo is capable of developing by means of the powers resident in
Thus the presence
itself,
and unassisted, as
in viviparous animals.
653. Next to this must be taken the structure of the organs

by whose united action the seed is engen-
of fructification,
dered
for
without
some
certain,
uniform,
able action on their part, the race of a plant
and invarimust become
extinct.
Thus we
find that the structure of the anthers, placenta?,
and ovules, are more

while their numbers are
;
and
the
condition
of
the filament, which appears of so little import;
ance in a physiological point of view, is also inconstant.
So also the texture
and surface and form of the pericarp, which acts as a mere
covering to the seeds,
is not to be regarded in these
in
differs
from
inquiries, and,
fact,
genus to genus ;
as, for instance, between Pyrus and Stranvaesia, or Rubus and
Spiraea, in the
truly natural Rosaceous order.
uniform than that of the parts surrounding them

variable
THE NATURAL SYSTEM.
On
654.
89
the other hand, of the floral envelopes (322), the
number, form, and condition, the" presence or absence, the

regularity or irregularity, seem to be unconnected with functions of a high order, and to be designed rather for the decoration of plants, or for the purpose of giving variety to the
aspect of the vegetable world ; they are consequently of low
and doubtful
value, except for specific distinctions.
There seems, indeed, reason to expect that every natural order will, sooner or
later, be found to contain within itself all the variations above alluded to.
Even in the cases of regularity and irregularity we already know this to be so ;
witness Veronica and Scoparia in Scrophul.iriaceae, and Hyoscyamus in
Solanaceae, Delphinium in Ranunculaceae, and Pelargonium in Geraniaceae.
The
consolidation of the parts of fructification is a circumstance but little attended to in a general point of view,
except in respect to the corolla ; but as it seems to indicate
655.
change that the parts can undergo, or,

occurs between important and unimportant organs,
that in such cases the latter are essential to the former, it proeither the greatest
where
it
bably deserves to be regarded with great attention.

For instance, the presence or absence of the corolla is often a point of little
moment, and is, we know, a very fluctuating circumstance. This is especially
true of those natural orders in which the stamens and petals are separated ; as
On the other hand, when the

Rhamnaceae, Onagraceae, &c.
stamens, which are indispensable organs, adhere to the petals, the latter are
more constantly present, as in Scrophulariaceae, Acanthaceae, Solanaceae, &c.
in Rosaceae,
656. If consolidation is, on the one hand, to be regarded as

a character of high importance, so must disunion also be so
considered on the other.
is indicated by those natural orders of plants, which, like the Rosaceous,
the Ranunculaceous, and the Magnoliaceous, are called apocarpous.
This
657. If
tremely
we descend lower than those points, we find it exwhen we enter into details, to comprehend
difficult,
what gives some of the subordinate

value
we
covered for judging of this

characters
No
assign to them.
is in
and
peculiarities of plants the

fixed rule has yet been disthe employment of secondary
a great degree arbitrary.
THE NATURAL SYSTEM OF DE CANDOLLE.
IV.
MANY
natural
systems have been proposed by different
Ray, Linnaeus, Jussieu, De Candolle, Bartling,

Reichenbach, Schultz, Endlicher, myself, and many others,
botanists.
have each had their own system

racter that can be given of them
and, perhaps, the best chathat while they are all far
is,
from the truth, each has some merits which the others want.
The system of De Candolle, however, having been taken
as the basis of the most perfect enumeration of plants that has
ever been made, has so great a reputation, that for the conAnd it
venience of students it most requires explanation.
seems the more deserving of illustration, because the University of
London have declared that
conducted with reference to
be necessary to introduce into an illustration of
It will not
this
their examinations shall be
it.
system every natural order
known, and only
for
interest the botanist
many
are imperfectly
when he extends
inquiries into the minutiae of the science.
his
All, however, of
importance, will be found in the succeeding pages.

Plants are either furnished with visible flowers, or they
are multiplied in some other way.
Hence the two great diviof FLOWERING (Phanogamous or
Phanerogamous), and
FLOWERLESS (Cryptogamous)
sions,
EXOGENS (95) or ENDOGENS

Flowering plants
with
which
(95),
Dicotyledons (573) and Monocotyledons
are
either
(572) respectively correspond.

4.
Flowerless plants are either TETHEOGAMOUS
(Semivascular),
that is, furnished with stomates and vascular tissue ; or
they
are
AMPHIGAMOUS
(Cellular), that
is,
destitute of stomates
entirely cellular.
Hence
arise four CLASSES.
I.
Class
Class 2.
FLOWERING PLANTS.
Exogens or Dicotyledons.
Endogens or Monocotyledons.
and
EXOGEN^l THALAMIFLOR^:.
91
FLOWERLESS PLANTS.
II.
Class 3.
Êtheogamous or Semivascular.
Class
Amphigamous
4.
CLASS
or Cellular.
I.
EXOGEN.E.
the largest class in the vegetable kingdom, comprehending more species than all the others put together. The
subclasses are the following
This
is
Thalamiflora.
calyx and corolla.
Petals distinct
Petals distinct
Stamens hypogynous.
2.* Calycifloree.
calyx and corolla.
Stamens perigynous.
3.
Corottiflorte.
4.
Monochlamydea.
calyx
bearing the stamens.
SUBCLASS
I-
Order
climbing.
Petals
corolla.
united,
calyx only, or none.
J.
Ranunculaceee.
1.
and
THALAMIFLOIU3.
Herbs or shrubs, occasionally
Leaves with the petiole generally dilated, and the
blade very often palmate or digitate.

Sepals 3-6, usually
deciduous.
Petals 3-15, or none.
Stamens indefinite ; anCarpels numerous, or united into a single pistil.
Seeds either erect or pendulous.
USES.
Generally acrid, bitter, narcotic plants, with vesi-
thers adnate.
cating leaves, as Aconite, Stavesacre, Crowfoot. Some however

have the bitter principle predominant and the acridity slight,
as Hydrastis canadensis, Coptis, Xanthorhiza, which are
tonics.
* These are not
exactly the characters given by De Candolle, who includes all
monopetalous orders with an inferior ovary in Calyciflorae, and limits Corolliflorae to
But it seems to me more easy in practice to
the hypogynous monopetalous orders.
regard Corolliflorae as equivalent to the Monopetalae of Jussieu, while Thalamiflorse
and
of that
and MonochlamydejB
author,
Calyciflorae correspond to the Polypetalso
his Apefcihe ; and in a series so very artificial as this, we may
to consult convenience.
be pennitted,
to
think,
DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM.
92
This order divides into two principal sections.

TYPICAL GENERA. Ranunculus, CleFlowers
/.
regular.
matis, Adonis.
2. Ripe
1. Flower.
Ceratocephalus orthoceras.
4. Section of carpel and seed of the same.
fruit.
3.
Ovaries of Ranunculus
Krapfia.
//. Flowers
irregular.
TYPICAL GENERA.
Delphinium,
Aconitum.
Delphinium
2.
tricorne.
Anonacea.
without stipules.
Petals and stamens.
2.
Carpels.
3.
A branch
Leaves
and dull-coloured.
Trees or shrubs generally tropical.
Flowers
axillary, large,
of ripe fruit.
EXOGENÊ THALAMIFLORJE.
Sepals 8-4.
Stamens
93
Petals 6, coriaceous, with a valvular aestivation.

anthers adnate ; filaments angular.
;
indefinite
Ovaries numerous.
pels
Fruit succulent or dry, with the caror many-seeded, separate or consolidated.

Embryo
Albumen ruminate.
minute.
The fruits
Aromatic and fragrant in most cases.
of some are succulent and eatable, as the Custard Apple,
Anona squamosa, and the Cherimoyer, Anona Cherimolia;
USES.
those of others are hard, dry, and often jointed, as Habzelia

aromatica, the Piper Êthiopicum of the shops, and are used as
peppers.
Some
species are
employed as
Anona, Uvaria.
TYPICAL GENERA.
Anona
furfuracea.
1.
4.
expanded flower. 2. A vertical section oftheandroeforms a central and terminal tuft.

3. A vertical
vertical section of a ripe seed, showing the embryo and
An
ceum and gynoaceum, which

section of a carpel.
febrifuges.
latter
ruminated albumen.
3.
Menispermacea. Shrubs with a sarmentaceous habit.
Leaves alternate. Flowers small. Flowers unisexual, usually
Stamens monSepals in one or several rows.
very small.
Anthers turned outwards.
Ovaries
adelphous or distinct.
numerous, each with one style, sometimes soldered together
into a many-celled body, which is occasionally, in conse-
quence of abortion,
1-celled.
embryo curved, lying
in
albumen
Drupes
;
berried,
radicle superior.
1-seeded
.94
USES.
Roots of many bitter and
tonic, as
Cocculus palma-
the Calumba root ; of others also diuretic,

tus, which yields
the latter a
as Cissampelos Pareira, and Cocculus Balds,
the negroes of Senegal against intermittents.
used
by
remedy
In the seeds a poison is formed, which in Anamirta Cocculus,

danthe Cocculus Indicus of the shops, becomes extremely
gerous.
TYPICAL GENERA.
Menispermum, Cocculus.
2. A female flower.
3. The vertical
1. A male flower.
which gradually curves the apex downwards, till, when it becomes
vertical section of a drupe, show5.
the drape 4, it acquires a horseshoe form.
ing the embryo and albumen ; a. is the true apex of the fruit, brought to the base
Cissampelos Pareira.
section of an ovary,
as just described.
Berberacea.
4.
Shrubs or herbaceous perennial plants.
SeLeaves alternate, compound, usually without stipules.

Petals sometimes with an
pals 3-4-6, in a double row.
Stamens equal in number to the

appendage at the base.
anthers opening elastically with
petals, and opposite to them
a valve from the bottom to the top.
Ovary solitary, 1;
Seeds attached to the bottom of the cell, 1, 2, or

albumen between fleshy and corneous.
USES. Bark astringent, and in Berberis yielding a
yellow
celled.
die.
Fruit of Berberis acid
TYPICAL GENERA.
5.
leaves,
Nympli<eacea.
growing
tubers of Bongardia eatable.
Berberis,
Epimedium.
Herbs with
in quiet water.
peltate or cordate fleshy
Sepals and petals imbricated,
EXOGENJE THALAMIFLORÊ.
95
Stamens numerous, inpassing gradually into each other.

serted ahove the petals into the disk ; filaments petaloid ;
disk large, fleshy.
Fruit many-celled.
Seeds very numerous,
attached to spongy dissepiments.
Embryo on the outside of
the base of the albumen, in a bag.
USES.
Of little moment. Euryale seeds are eaten. Rhi-
zomata slightly astringent and sedative.

TYPICAL GENERA. Nymphsea, Nuphar.
6.
Herbs with
Nelumbiacea.
Sepals 4 or
peltate,
floating
leaves.
Petals numerous. Stamens numerous.
5.
Disk
fleshy, enclosing in hollows of its substance the monospermous

ovaries.
Nuts numerous, half buried in the disk.
Nuts and creeping rhizomata eatable.

Nelumbium.
USES.
TYPICAL GENUS.
Dilleniaceae.
7.
Trees, shrubs, or under-shrubs, rarely
Flowers often yellow.
herbaceous, leaves without stipules.
Petals 5.
Stamens indefiSepals 5 ; 2 exterior, 3 interior.
"2.
nite.
Ovaries definite.
surrounded by a pulpy
USES.
Generally
Seeds
Carpels baccate or 2-valved.

aril.
Embryo
The
astringent.
in solid
albumen.
leaves of
many
species
are covered with asperities, which render them useful mechanically as polishing substances.
Nothing deleterious known
among them.
Flowers occasionally intolerably fetid.
TYPICAL GENERA.
[^
8.
Dillenia, Tetracera, Hibbertia.
Trees or shrubs with convolute
Magnoliacete.
Flowers
pules.
imbricated.
large,
Stamens
solitary.
Sepals
indefinite.
3-6.
Carpels
sti-
Petals 3-27,
numerous,
dis-
tinct or consolidated.
Bark tonic and febrifugal that of the root of Magglauca and Liriodendron in great repute in North
USES.
nolia
America.
Flowers often very fragrant.
TYPICAL GENERA.
Magnolia, Liriodendron.
Shrubs or small trees. Woody tissue

Leaves
alternate, dotted, with convolute deciduous
glandular.
often brown.
Petals 2-30,
Flowers
Sepals 2-6.
stipules.
Ovaries 1-celled with
imbricated.
Stamens hypogynous.
Fruit consisting of a single row
suspended or erect ovules.
9.
Winteraceee.
of carpels.
Seeds with or without
aril.
96
Aromatic stimulants.
USES.
Illicium yields the Star
Winters Bark, of the shops.

Drimys Winteri, the
Anise, and
TYPICAL GENEKA.
Fumariea.
10.
An
Illicium,
Tasmannia.
Herbaceous plants with

Petals 4
Sepals 2.
outer one, or both saccate at the base.
and a watery
juice.
brittle
stems
parallel
Stamens
6,
the
in
parcels.
Unimportant. Species slightly diaphoretic.

TYPICAL GENERA. Fumaria, Corydalis.
USES.
Fumaria
3.
The
anthers.
11.
flower seen from below.

2. The same from the side.
1.
4.
stamens, and a portion of the bagged upper sepal.
parcel of
officinahs.
pistil,
5.
The
fruit.
Sarraceniacea.
Herbaceous perennial plants, living
Leaves with a hollow urn-shaped petiole. Scapes

one
Petals 5,
bearing
large flower.
Sepals 5, imbricate.
in bogs.
97
TITALAMIFLORJE.
unguiculate, concave.
5-celled
Stamens
indefinite,
hypogynous.
Ovary
Capstigma very large, umbrella-shaped, peltate.

sule crowned by the stigma.
Seeds very numerous, minute.
USES.
Unknown. Petiole-like leaves remarkable.
;
TYPICAL GENUS.
Sarracenia.
Herbaceous plants ; rarely

Flowers without bracts.
Petals 4, cruciate.
Stamens
Brassicaceee or Crucifera.
Leaves alternate.
12.
under-shrubs.
Sepals 4, deciduous, cruciate.

6, of which two are shorter (tetradynamous).
Ovary superior, with parietal placentae, meeting in the middle, and forming a
spurious
dissepiment.
Fruit a silique
or
silicule.
Seeds attached by a funiculus, generally pendulous.

with the radicle folded upon the cotyledons.
Embryo
A very large and difficult natural order, the subdivisions

which are now made to
in
depend upon the structure

of the embryo.
They
are the following
when
1. Pleurorhizea,
the
embryo has the
dicle applied to the
of the cotyledons
ra-
edge
fig. 17.
when
NotorMzeez,
has
the
radiembryo
2.
the
cle applied to the
the cotyledons
back of
Jig. 14.
Orthoplocea, when
embryo has the radicle applied to the back
of cotyledons which are
3.
the
hollowed out;
4.
fig. 12.
when
Diplecolobea;,
the cotyledons are three

times folded, and the radicle
|)*1OK
applied
"
'
H.fl
"*
their
'
USES.
!
to
1 fi
Erucastrum Canariense.
All the Species
harmless; Some
ailtlSCOr-
The
stamens.
3.
The
1.
siliqua,
flower.
2.
with the valves
4.
transverse
separating from the replum.
5.
of a seed.
perfect seed.
I!
98
more or less pungent. Radishes, Turnips, Mustard,

are wellCabbage and all its varieties, Rape, Charlock,
butic, all
Cress,
known
plants of the order.

Brassica, Sinapis, Draba.
TYPICAL GENERA.
6. Siliqua of Mathiola livida.

7. Silicula of Thlaspi
Fruits of various genera.
9. Silicula of Schiverukia podolica.
8. Silicula of Alyssum spatlmlatum.
13. Silicula
10. Silicula of Farsetia.
12. Seed of Didesmus -/EgjT>tius cut across.
of Menonvillea linearis.
14. Seed of Lepidium Africanum.
15. Silicula of jEthio-
latifolium.
nema
cristatum.
16.
Seed of Heliophila
18. Siliqua of Mathiola oxyceras.

Silicula of Senebiera serrata.
ceras.
13.
crithmifolia.
Seed of Mathiola oxyDidesmus -(Egyptius. 20.
17.
19. Silicula of
Herbaceous plants or shrubs with a
PapaveracefE.
milky juice. Leaves alternate, without stipules. Sepals 2.

Petals either 3 or 4, or some multiple of that number.
Stamens hypogynous, generally numerous.
Fruit 1-celled,
with parietal placentae.
Seeds numerous.
USES.
A narcotic milk pervades the species ; that of
The
Papaver somniferum becomes opium when inspissated.
roots of Meconopsis
are
a
SanNepalensis
deadly poison.
guinaria Canadensis is emetic and purgative in large doses,
stimulant and diaphoretic in smaller.
TYPICAL GENERA.
14.
Papaver, Glaucium.
Capparidacece.
without true stipules.

cruciate.
Stamens
Herbaceous plants, shrubs, or trees,

Leaves alternate. Sepals 4. Petals 4,
definite or indefinite.
Disk hemispherical,
EXOGENJE THALAMIFLORJE.
or
Fruit
stalked.
Ovary
elongated.
99
most
1-celled,
fre-
quently with two polyspermous placentae ; embryo incurved.

USES.
pungent principle exists in some, as the flowerbuds of Capparis spinosa, which are the Capers of shops, and
several Cleomes
used
as
sometimes so
is
acridity
The
species dangerous.
blister like
substitutes
much
for
This
mustard.
concentrated as to render the
root of Cratseva gynandra
said to
is
Cantharides, and that of Cleome dodecandra
is
used as a vermifuge.
TYPICAL GENERA. Cleome, Capparis.
Physostemon lanceolatum.
mens, and ovary.
The same
15.
small
3.
cut vertically,
1.
A flower
of the natural size.
2.
with one valve separating.

to show the incurved embryo.
The
ripe fruit,
The
4.
calyx, sta5.
seed.
Herbaceous plants with alternate leaves,

and gland-like stipules.
Calyx
Petals lacerated, unequal. Disk large, 1-sided.
Resedacea.
colourless
many-parted.
Stamens
definite,
flowers,
inserted
into
the
disk.
Ovary
sessile,
H 2
100
3-lobed,
1 -celled,
many-seeded,
with 3 parietal
placentae.
Fruit opening at the apex.

Embryo incurved.
well
known for its fragrance,
so
USES.
Mignionette,
is
Reseda odorata. R. luteola yields a yellow dye.

TYPICAL GENERA. Reseda, Ochradenus.
Shrubs or
Flacourtiacea.
16.
Leaves alternate,
trees.
Petals equal to them

Stamens occasionally changed into nectariferous
in number.
scales.
Ovary roundish ; stigmas several, more or less dis-
without stipules.
Fruit
tinct.
Sepals from 4-7.
1-celled,
capsular or
fleshy,
the centre
filled
with a thin pulp. Seeds few, attached to the lining of the

fruit in a branched manner.
Embryo in albumen.
USES.
The
fruit
TYPICAL GENERA.
Bixacete.
17.
of some eatable and pleasant in India.

Flacourtia,
Roumea.
Trees or shrubs.
Leaves alternate, with
deciduous stipules and pellucid dots.

Sepals 4-7, imbricated.
Petals of a like number. Stamens indefinite, distinct.
Ovary
sessile
placentae 4-7, parietal
styles 1-2-4.
fleshy or capsular, many-seeded.
Fruit 1-celled,
Seeds enveloped in pulp.
Albumen hardly present.

USES.
The seeds of Bixa Orellana are covered with a
pulp, which, when dry, is the Arnotta of shops, used for
Otherwise the properties uncertain.
TYPICAL GENERA. Bixa, Prockia, Azara.
colouring cheese.
18.
Cistacea.
Shrubs
or
herbaceous
Leaves
plants.
usually entire, stipulate or exstipulate.

Sepals 3 or 5, persistent, unequal, in a broken whorl, the three inner twisted.
Petals 5, often crumpled, twisted in a direction
contrary
to that of the
Stamens indefinite.
sepals.
celled ; ovules with their foramen at their
stigma simple.
or
1- or
many-
apex ; style single ;

Fruit either 1-celled with
parietal placentae,
imperfectly 5- or 10-celled.
inverted, either spiral or curved,
bumen.
Ovary
Seeds indefinite.
in the midst of
Embryo
mealy
al-
Radicle remote from the hilum.
USES.
Unimportant. The balsamic Gum Ladanum is a
spontaneous secretion from Cistus Creticus and others.
Many
are beautiful garden
plants, with large delicate flowers.
TYPICAL GENERA. Cistus, Helianthemum.
EXOGEN.E THALAMIFLOR.E.
Cistus Berthelotianus.
2.
off.
4.
1.
A calyx
and
cross section of the ovary.
seed cut through
pistil,
3.
101
the petals and stamens having fallen

of ovary and calyx.
vertical section
the pointed end being the true apex.
Herbaceous plants, often covered with

Leaves
with
glands.
stipulary fringes and a circinate vernation.
Peduncles circinate. Sepals imbricate. Petals 5, hy19.
Droseraceae.
pogynous.
Stamens
petals, or 2,
3-5 valves.
3,
USES.
distinct, either equal in
or 4 times as
many.
number
Styles 3-5.
to the
Capsule of
Embryo in fleshy or cartilaginous albumen.

The herbage of some Droseras is acrid. The bulbs
of others abound in a rich purple dye, and are filled with

It is probable that
starch, which renders them eatable.
would
of
value
to
many species
prove
dyers.
TYPICAL GENERA.
Drosera, Dionsea.
20.
Tamaricacea. Shrubs or herbs, with rod-like branches.
Leaves alternate, resembling scales. Calyx 4- or 5-parted,
Petals withering.
persistent.
Stamens
definite, distinct, or
monadelphous. Stigmas 3. Capsule 3-valved, 1-celled, manyseeded.

Seeds ascending, comose ; embryo straight.
USES.
Ornamental bushes or
resembling
Manna oozes
trees.
sweet substance
out of the stem of Tamarix Gallica, in
The bark
is bitter, astringent, and tonic.

employed in medicine and dyeing, in
India,
yielded by some oriental species.
TYPICAL GENERA. Tamarix, Myricaria.
hot,
dry countries.
very astringent
i.s
gall,
102
21.
Leaves
Herbaceous plants, or shrubs, or trees.

with an involute vernation. Sepals 5, perPetals 5, regular or irregular, one someimbricate,
Violaceee.
stipulate,
sistent,
Stamens definite in number ; filaments ditimes spurred.

lated ; connective elongated beyond the anthers.
Ovary
with 3 parietal placentae style with a hooded stigma.
Capsule of 3 valves, bearing the placentae in their axis.
Embryo large, straight, in fleshy albumen.
1-celled,
USES.
Roots emetic. Those of the common Sweet Violet
and other species have been employed medicinally.
lonidium Poaya yields one sort of Brazilian Ipecacuanha.
Viola canina and some others have the power of removing
some cutaneous affections, and have been employed as cosmetics.
TYPICAL GENERA.
Viola, Alsodeia.
1.
Corynostyhs Hybanthus.
set of stamens, each
having the connective lemrthI
beyond the anther in the form of a scale.
2.
3.
transspurred petal.
thlee Parietal
Tary '
WiDg
4'
rie frrit- 5 An
Placen
22.Polygalacea.
alternate,
which 1
'
Shrubs or herbaceous
Leaves
plants.
Pedicels with three bracts.
destitute of stipules.
lowers unsymmetrical.
Sepals
Petals consolidated,
laceous.
5,
very irregular, often glu3, of
hypogynous, usually
is anterior and
larger than the rest.
Stamens usually
tube; anthers innate,
1-celled, and opening at their apex.
103
EXOGEKLffi THALAMIFLOR^l.
Ovary with 2 or 3 cells ; ovules solitary, pendulous. Seeds

pendulous, with a caruncula next the hilum ; albumen abundant.
USES.
Leaves bitter, root milky. Polygala Senega, the
Rattlesnake root, is stimulant, diaphoretic, emetic, and emmenagogue ; it has been employed successfully in croup. Many
other species have similar properties.
Polygala Poaya is one
of the Brazilian emetics.
The bark of Monnina polystachya,
a Peruvian plant,
is
detersive,
and used as a
substitute for
soap.
Polygala, Mural tia, Mundia.
TYPICAL GENERA.
1. An entire flower seen from the side.

2. The same cut
Polygala erioptera.
section of a ripe seed ; in the
open to exhibit the stamens. 3. The pistil. 4.
middle is the embryo ; at the apex, which represents the real base, is seen a carun-
cula.
Herbaceous plants or under-shrubs.

Leaves small, opposite, exstipulate,
with a membranous sheathing base. Sepals 4-5, in a furrowed
tube.
Petals hypogynous, unguiculate, with appendages at
FranJceniacea.
23.
Stems much branched.
Stamens definite.
Style 2- or 3-fid.
enclosed in the calyx, 2- 3- or 4~valved, manySeeds attached to the margins of the valves, very
the base of the limb.
Capsule
seeded.
minute
USES.
1 -celled,
embryo
in the
midst of albumen.
Unknown.
TYPICAL GENUS.
Frankenia.
DE CANDOLLES SYSTEM.
104
Elatinaceee.
24.
with
site,
stipules.
Stamens
hypogynous.
weedy
Lijttle
definite.
Sepals 3-5.
3-5-celled;
Ovary
Petals
styles
Seeds numerous,
Fruit capsular.
stigmas capitate.
little albumen.
with
but
straight,
embryo
3-5;
Unknown.
USES.
TYPICAL GENERA.
25.
Leaves oppo-
annuals.
Flowers minute.
Elatine, Bergia.
Herbaceous plants
CaryopTiyllaceae.
with
undivided exstipulate leaves, and tumid nodes.

Petals often
Stamens
slit.
definite.
opposite
Sepals 4-5.
Ovary usually many-
seeded, with a free central placenta.

Stigmas sessile, 2-5.
2-5-valved.
with
Seeds
the embryo curved
Capsule
usually
round mealy albumen.

USES.
Some
Unimportant.
bear gay flowers;
species
more are weeds; a few are

is
fragrant, as the Pink.

said to have an anthelmintic root.
Virginica
There are two sections of this order
1.
Alsinea.
Silene
Sepals disjoined.
Stellaria, Cerastium.
TYPICAL GENERA.
2.
Sepals united into a tube.
Silenete.
TYPICAL GENERA.
iun a
1
vrtv
o
rtically, to
PW\
show
Lychnis, Silene, Dianthus.
2 A flower of Stellaria
f *?**'
US Placenta loaded with seeds
-
J
the
mcdi <%
5 A
\
embryo curved round mealy albumen'
-
'
*<*-
3.
through
EXOGEN.K THALAMIFLOR.E.
26.
Malvacea.
Herbaceous
plants,
105
trees,
or
shrubs.
Leaves alternate, stipulate, very often covered with stellate

hairs.
Flowers generally showy.
Calyx with a valvate
aestivation.
Petals twisted.
Stamens
indefinite,
monadelph-
anthers 1-celled, reniform.

Ovary formed by the union
of several carpels ; styles the same number as the carpels.
ous
Fruit either capsular or baccate ; albumen in small but variable quantity; embryo curved, with twisted and doubled
cotyledons.
USES.
Mucilaginous
low.
The unripe
fruit
as
Marsh Mallow and common Mal-
of Hibiscus esculentus
is
used as an
The liber of several affords a tenacious

ingredient in soups.
fibre ; the hemp-like substance called Sun in India is obtained
from
Hibiscus
The hairy
cannabinus.
seeds of
Many
are
beautiful
objects.
furnish cotton.
Gossypium
TYPICAL GENERA. Malva, Lavatera, Hibiscus.
Abutilon macropodum.
1.
An
unexpanded flower. 2. The stamens and styles.

whose upper extremities are free and ra-
ripe fruit, consisting of many carpels,

section of a seed.
diant.
4.
3.
27.
plants.
Tiliaceae.
Leaves
Trees or shrubs, very seldom herbaceous

Flowers often small.
alternate.
stipulate,
Calyx valvate. Petals 4 or 5, usually with a little pit at their

Stamens distinct; anthers 2-celled.
Ovary single,
composed of from 4 to 10 carpels; style one; stigmas as
many as the carpels. Seeds several ; embryo erect in the
axis of fleshy albumen, with flat foliaceous cotyledons.
base.
106
The leaves
fibres.
SES
Mucilaginous plants with tough
Corchorus capof Corchorus olitorius are eaten as spinach.
From the
sularis furnishes a kind of coarse hemp in India.
Russia mats are made; its
inner hark of Tilia
Europsea
from the hracts, are said to be antispasmodic.
TYPICAL GENERA. Tilia, Triumfetta, Grewia.
flowers, separated
Leaves alternate, with involute

Trees.
28.
Dipteracea.
vernation; stipules deciduous.
Calyx 5-lobed, unequal, beStamens
Petals contorted.
coming enlarged, imbricated.
indefinite, distinct
towards the apex.

in pairs,
anthers
subulate, opening longitudinally

disk, few-celled ; ovules
Ovary without a
pendulous; style
single.
Fruit surrounded by a
having tough, leafy, enlarged, permanent divisions.

Seed single, without albumen. Cotyledons crumpled.
that
USES.
Tropical trees often yielding valuable timber ;
calyx,
called Sal, or Saul, belongs to
The
Shorea robusta.
juice
is
Sumatra Camphor.'
balsamic; Dryobalanops Camphora yields

Dammer pitch
Vateria Indica furnishes Copal.
from species of Shorea.
'
TYPICAL GENERA.
29.
and
Aumntiacea.
filled
is
obtained
Shorea, Dipterocarpus, Vateria.
Trees or shrubs, almost always smooth
with transparent receptacles of
oil.
Leaves
alter-
compound, always articulated with the petiole.

Flowers usually white or green, and fragrant. Calyx urceo-
nate, often
late
or campanulate, short.
Petals 3-5, inserted upon the
outside of an hypogynous disk.

Stamens inserted upon an
filaments
sometimes
combined in one or
disk;
hypogynous
several parcels.
Ovary many-celled ; style 1 ; stigma thickFruit many-celled, filled with pulp.

Seeds usually pendulous ; raphe and chalaza distinctly marked.
ish.
USES.
The Orange, Lemon, Lime, and Citron are species
of Citrus, and are well known for the aromatic rind and
pulpy
flesh of their fruit.
The wood is generally hard and durable.
The unripe fruit of ^gle marmelos, an Indian tree, is prescribed in diarrhrea and
The leaves of the order
dysentery.
generally are regarded as stomachic and tonic.
TYPICAL GENERA.
Citrus, Triphasia, Limonia.
SQTernstromiacea.
Trees or shrubs.
Leaves alternate,
EXOGENJE THALAMIFLOR^l.
107
Flowers
stipules, now and then with pellucid dots.
often large and showy.
Sepals 5 or 7, coriaceous, in a broken
Petals not equal in number to the sepals.
whorl, deciduous.
without
Stamens numerous
with
several
monadelphous or polyadelphous.
cells
styles
Ovary
filiform.
usually with a central column.
Capsule 2-7-celled ;
Seeds large, attached to the
very few ; albumen none ; cotyledons occasionally plaited.

USES.
The Tea of Commerce consists of the leaves of Thea
axis,
viridis
and Bohea.
Camellia oleifera yields excellent
oil.
species of Camellia, common in gardens, are objects of

Leaves of Kielmeyera speciosa are mucilaginous.
beauty.
The
TYPICAL GENERA.
4.
Kielmeyera rosea.
An embryo.
31.
1.
The
pistil.
2.
A transverse
section of
it.
3.
A ripe fruit.
Herbaceous plants, shrubs or trees.

Flowers geneentire, sometimes dotted.
Hypericacea.
Leaves opposite,
rally
Camellia, Gordonia, Thea.
yellow.
Sepals 4-5,
persistent,
imbricated,
unequal,
with glandular dots. Petals 4-5, hypogynous, twisted, oblique,

often having black dots.
Stamens indefinite, often polyaFruit a capsule or berry, of many
delphous.
Styles several.
valves and many cells.
Seeds minute, indefinite ; embryo
straight,
USES.
with no albumen.
The
juice
is
resinous,
purgative, febrifugal or asan essential oil or a
tringent in different species, according as
108
resemabound. The latter, when concrete,

yellow juice most
the
has
Hypencum
properties.
bles gamboge, of which it
vulneranes.
Androsjemum and perforatum are old-fashioned
for a gargle
In Brazil a species of Hypericum is employed
in cases
of sore throat.
TYPICAL GENERA.
Hypericum, Vismia.
3. A
2. A bundle of stamens.
1. An entire flower.
A seed laid horizontally and cut through, to show the em5. A piece of a leaf with transparent dots.
Hypericum floribundum.
pistil
with 3 carpels.
bryo and netted
4.
testa.
Leaves
Trees or shrubs.
Guttifera.
Flowers sometimes
opposite, coriaceous.
Petals hypogynous,
Sepals 2 to 6, persistent.
Clusiacea or
32.
without stipules,
polygamous.
4 to 10. Stamens numerous, hypogynous.
Disk
fleshy, occa-
sionally 5-lobed.
Ovary 1- or many-celled ; ovules solitary,
or
erect,
ascending, or numerous and attached to central pla-
Seeds
style very short ; stigma peltate or radiate.
in
often
none.
with
an
aril
albumen
;
pulp,
frequently nestling
centae
USES.
The
Gamboge is the juice
delicious
Malacca
of Hebradendron cambogioides.
Mangosteen is the produce
fruit called
of Garcinia mangostana.
The resinous oil Tacamahaca flows
from the root of Calophyllum Calaba. The general properties
of the species are acrid and purgative.
of great beauty on account of their
some thick
They
leaves.
TYPICAL GENERA.
are often objects
large flowers
Clusia, Garcinia.
and hand-
EXOGENÊ THALAMIFLORJE.
109
Hebradendron cambogioides. 1
female flower, with the sterile stamens surrounding the pistil. 2. A male flower. 3. An anther, which opens by throwing off
a cap, in consequence of transverse dehiscence. 4.
transverse section of the ovary.
.
Leaves opposite, without stipules.

Flowers unsymmetrical.
Petals
inserted
round an hyimbricated.
Calyx
an
disk.
Stamens
inserted
upon
pogynous
hypogynous disk,
33.
Aceracea.
Trees.
Flowers small, green, often polygamous.
Fruit of 2 parts,
generally 8.
Ovary 2-lobed; style 1.
which are samaroid ; each 1 -celled ; with one or two seeds ;
albumen none.
The
USES.
kind of sugar
is light,
saccharine sap of Acer saccharinum yields a

North America. The timber of most species
in
and
clean,
useful,
TYPICAL GENUS.
34.
where strength
large,
Leaves opposite, withterminal. Flow-
Trees or shrubs.
Êscnlaceee.
out stipules, quinate or septenate.

ers
not required.
is
Acer.
Racemes
4 or 5, unequal,
showy.
Calyx
cam-
Petals
5-lobed.
hypogynous.
Stamens 7-8, unequal. Ovary 3-celled ; ovules 2 in each cell.
Fruit 1- 2- or 3-valved.
Seeds large, with a broad hilum ;
panulate,
albumen none
embryo curved, germinating under ground.
Handsome
which renders them
USES.
trees or bushes. Seeds filled with starch,
nutritious
also dangerous.
TYPICAL GENUS.
Êsculus.
but
it
is
said that they are
110
Small trees or shrubs, sometimes

MalpigUacea.
with stipules. Sepals generally
Leaves
opposite,
climbing.
on the outof
with 5
oblong conspicuous glands
35.
large
pairs
side.
1,
seldom fewer.
Stamens
unguiculate.
less combined
or
more
carpels,
Petals
of S
5,
Ovary
ovules suspended.
Seeds without albumen.

Fruit dry or berried.
Of no moment. The fruit of some Malpighias is
USES.
eaten in the West Indies under the name of Barbadoes
cherries.
The bark appears
and samaroid,
2.
36.
1.
3.
Sapindacete.
tendrils.
Fruit dry
Banisteria.
Diplopteris paralias.
An expanded flower.
have
to be astringent.
Fruit succulent, Malpighia.
TYPICAL GENERA.
flower-bud, showing the double glands of the calyx.

4. Ripe fruit of Ryssopteris timorensis.
carpels.
The
Trees, or shrubs which often climb
Leaves generally compound.
and
Flowers un-
Petals hypoCalyx imbricated.

sometimes
sometimes
with
a
doubled
naked,
gynous,
appendsymmetrical, polygamous.
Disk fleshy. Stamens 8-10,

the
cells containing 1, 2, 3,
rarely
Ovary 3-celled,
seldom
ovules.
Fruit
sometimes
more,
very
capsular, sometimes samaroid, sometimes fleshy and indehiscent.
Seeds
age in the inside, imbricated.

5-6-7.
Albumen 0.
usually with an aril.
USES.
Leaves and branches of
some species of Magonia

and Paullinia poisonous.
The fruit of some Euphorias or
Nepheliums, Pierardias and Hedycarya, eatable and agreeable ; the former is the
Longan and Litchi, which occasionally
EXOGENÊ THALAMIFLOR.E.
Ill
The fruit of Sapindus

arrive in this country from China.
of soap.
others
instead
and
employed
saponaria
TYPICAL GENERA.
Sapindus Senegalensis.
after fertilization.
4.
Sapindus, Paullinia, Serjania.
1.
An
expanded flower.
A vertical section of a ripe
2.
petal.
3.
The
ovaries
drupe, showing the embryo.
Trees with timber which is usually comand beautifully veined. Leaves alternate, without stipules. Calyx 4-5-cleft. Petals 4-5.
Stamens 8-10,
Seeds
either united or distinct.
Style and stigma simple.
37.
Cedrelaceee.
pact, scented,
flat-winged.
USES.
Mahogany is the timber of Swietenia Mahagoni
the
of Cedrela Toona, and Soymida febrifuga, is

valuable as a tonic, in careful hands ; it can only be exhibited
bark of that
tree,
in small doses.
East India Satin-wood
oxylon Swietenia.
TYPICAL GENERA.
is
Cedrela, Swietenia.
produced by Chlor-
112
Leaves alternate,
without stipules.
numerous,
Calyx 5-parted.
monadelphous ; anthers with a fleshy connective extended
beyond the lobes. Ovary 5-celled; ovules 1-2, suspended;
Fruit drupaceous. Embryo in fleshy albumen.
styles simple.
Trees or shrubs.
Humiriacea.
38.
Stamens
USES.
The liquid yellow fragrant Balsam of Umiri flows
from the wounded trunk of Humirium floribundum. In properties
it
resembles Copaiva.
TYPICAL GENUS.
39.
Leaves alternate, with-
Trees or shrubs.
Meliacete.
out stipules.
Humirium.
Sepals
3, 4,
Petals hypogynous, usually

as many as the petals; filaments
or 5.
Stamens twice
cohering in a long tube ; anthers sessile within the orifice
of the tube.
Ovary with 3, 10, 12 cells; ovules suspended,
valvate.
1-2 in each cell.

Fruit often 1-celled.
Seeds without albumen, not winged.
USES.
The bark of Guarea Aubletia, Trichilia cathartica,
and others, purgative and emetic. Eoot of Melia Azedarach
anthelmintic.
Some of the tropical genera have a wholesome
pleasant fruit.
Febrifugal qualities have been recognized in
the Neemtree, Melia Azedarachta, and some others.
TYPICAL GENERA. Melia, Quivisia.
Ekebergia Senegalensis.
averse section of the
1.
ovary.
flower.
4.
2.
The calyx and
ripe fruit.
5.
staminal tube.
3.
vertical section of the latter.
EXOGEN-E THALAMIFLOR^:.
40.
Vitacece.
separable joints.
113
Scrambling, climbing shrubs, with tumid

Leaves with stipules.
Flowers small,
Calyx small, nearly entire. Petals in aestivation valand often inflected at the point
stamens opposite
them, inserted upon the disk.
Ovary 2-celled ovules erect,
definite.
Berry pulpy albumen hard. Embryo small.
green.
vate,
The common Vine,
USES.
Vitis vinifera,
is
well
known
besides which there are other species, in which reside similar

The leaves of some kinds of
qualities, although very inferior.
being acrid, are used in bringing indolent tumours
Cissus,
to suppuration.
TYPICAL GENERA.
Vitis, Cissus,
41.
Strong-scented herbs or shrubs with
Geraniacea.
Ampelopsis.
sti-
Stems tumid, and separable at the joints.

ribbed.
Stamens definite,
Petals 5, unguiculate.
Sepals 5,
often monadelphous.
Fruit of 5 elastic cocci, rolling back
from a long-beaked gynobase, to which the hardened styles
pulate leaves.
Seeds solitary, pendulous, without albumen. Cotyledons convolute and plaited.

USES.
The root of Geranium maculatum is a powerful
adhere.
astringent.
Otherwise the order
is
of no importance, except
Geranium sylvaticum. 1. The stamens and style. 2. The unripe fruit surrounded
by a calyx. 3. The rostrate gynobase, from which the cocci are rolling back with
elasticity
one has dropped
off.
4.
transverse section of a seed.
114
for the beautiful flowers of
numerous
species,
especially be-
longing to the genus Pelargonium.
TYPICAL GENERA.
42.
Geranium, Erodium, Pelargonium.

Succulent herbaceous plants.
Balsaminaceae.
Leaves
Flowers usually unsymmetrical.
Sepals 5,
without stipules.
~
StaPetals
4,
odd
the
irregular.
sepal spurred.
irregular;
mens 5. Carpels consolidated into a 5-celled ovary. Fruit
5 elastic valves.
capsular, with
suspended
Seeds solitary, or numerous,
albumen none.
They have generally gay flowers.

Unimportant.
TYPICAL GENERA. Balsamina, Impatiens.
USES.
Linacea. Herbaceous plants or small shrubs. Leaves

43.
Flowers
Petals fugitive.
without stipules, usually alternate.
Petals
imbricated,
3-4-5,
persistent.
Sepals
symmetrical.
united
Stamens
in
a
twisted.
ring.
hypogynous, unguiculate,
Ovary with about

number to the cells
as
;
many
cells as sepals.
stigmas capitate.
Styles equal in
Capsule many-celled.
albumen present.
cell single, inverted
The mucilaginous seeds of Linum usitatissimum
The leaves of L. catharticum are purgative. The
linseed.
Seeds in each
USES.
are
tough fibre of the first is the Flax of manufacturers.

TYPICAL GENERA. Linum, Radiola.
44.
Oxalidacea:, Herbaceous plants, under-shrubs, or trees.
Leaves alternate, compound, often sensitive. Sepals 5, equal.
Petals equal, unguiculate.

Stamens 10, more or less
adelphous.
Styles 5 ; stigmas capitate. Fruit capsular,
mon-
mem-
branous, with 5
cells.
Seeds few, within a fleshy integument,
which expels the seeds with elasticity.
Embryo long, taper.
Albumen between cartilaginous and fleshy.
USES.
They
are generally acid in a

high degree.
Blimbing and Carambola, acid
The
of the Indian ArchipeThe roots of

lago, are the produce of the genus Averrho.a.
Oxalis Deppei form an
esculent.
agreeable
TYPICAL GENERA.
45-
Pittosporaceee.
fruits
Oxalis, Averrhoa.
Leaves simple, alternate, without
sti-
Shrubs, trees, or half herbaceous plants, sometimes

twining.
Petals hypogynous,
Sepals deciduous, imbricated.
pules.
EXOGENJE THALAMIFLORJE.
imbricated.
Stamens
5.
capsular or berried, with
115
Ovary single, many-seeded. Fruit

many-seeded cells which are some-
Albumen fleshy.
times incomplete.
USES.
Unimportant. The species are resinous.
TYPICAL GENERA.
46.
Rutacea.
dotted.
stipulate,
aphrodite,
sionally
Trees or shrubs (or herbs). Leaves exFlowers often very gay.

Flowers herm-
sometimes irregular.
times combined.
like disk.
Pittosporum, Sollya, Billardiera.
Stamens
Ovary few-celled ;
divided near
component parts
the
as the
Petals someSepals 4-5.

on the outside of a cupovules 2-4 ; style single, occa-
definite,
base,
fruit
always separable into
approaches maturity.
capsular, separating into carpels when

or without albumen ; radicle superior.
ripe.
its
Fruit
Embryo with
a cupEriostemon myoporoides.
1.
complete flower. 2. The ovary, seated in
3. The ripe fruit, separated spontaneously into
shaped disk, surrounded by a calyx.
its component carpels.
4.
vertical section of a seed, showing the embryo lying in
the midst of albumen.
i2
116
U SES
The powerfully scented oil possesses active properRuta graveolens, common Rue, is anthelmintic, sudo-
ties.
Various species of Barosma, called

at the Cape of Good Hope Bucku, are powerful antispasmoThe bark of Cusparia febrifuga, called Angostura bark,
dics.
rific,
and emmenagogue.
a valuable febrifuge ; and that of many other American

trees of the order seems to possess the same quality.
Correa is
TYPICAL GENERA. Ruta, Boronia, Dictamnus,
remarkable for having a monopetalous corolla.
is
Leaves without
Xanihoxylacea. Trees or shrubs.
unisexual.
Flowers
dots.
with
Calyx in 3,
pellucid
stipules,
Petals usually longer than the calyx, convo4, or 5 divisions.
47.
Stamens equal to the petals in number, or twice as

many. Ovary of the same number of carpels as there are
lute.
a smaller number
petals, or
ovules 2
styles
more
or less
Fruit berried or membranous, sometimes consistSeeds solitary or

ing of several drupes or 2-valved capsules.
combined.
and shining; embryo lying

within fleshy albumen ; radicle superior.
USES. Aromatic, pungent, and stimulant.
Xanthoxylum
twin, pendulous, usually smooth
Clava Herculis is a powerful sudorific and aperient.

The
bark of Brucea, of Xanthoxylum caribeeum, and others, is
The capsules of some Fagaras are used as pepper.
febrifugal.
TYPICAL GENERA. Xanthoxylum, Ptelea.
48.
Herbaceous plants, shrubs, or trees ;
Zygophyllacea.
branches often articulated at the joints.
Leaves opposite, with
stipules,
not dotted.
Flowers hermaphrodite.
Calyx con-
Petals unguiculate.
Stamens dilated at the base,
sometimes placed on the back of a small scale.
Ovary with a
volute.
and 4 or 5
disk,
simple.
Seeds few
USES.
cum
cells
ovules pendulous or erect
albumen whitish.
Zygophyllum Fabago is- an anthelmintic.
;
radicle superior
yields the
wood
for its hardness,
and
called
in
TYPICAL GENERA.
49.
style
Fruit capsular, rarely fleshy, with

angles or wings.
Simamlacea.
Lignum Vit, known
medicine for
Guaia-
in turnery
its sudorific
qualities.
Zygophyllum, Guaiacum.
Trees or
shrubs.
Leaves without
EXOGEN.E THALAMIFLORJE.
stipules, alternate,
without dots.
unisexual.
in
117
Flowers hermaphrodite, or
4 or 5 divisions. Petals longer ; aesti-
Calyx
Stamens arising from the back of an hyposcale.
gynous
Ovary 4- or 5-lobed, upon a stalk, each cell
with 1 suspended ovule ; style simple.
Fruit indehiscent
without
albumen.
embryo
vation twisted.
The wood
USES.
intensely bitter.
The
root of
Simaruba
amara, used as a tonic, is bitter, purgative, and emetic. The

wood of Picraena excelsa furnishes the Quassia chips of the shops.
TYPICAL GENEKA. Quassia, Simaruba.
Shrubs with square branches. Leaves

Flowers herbaceous, hermPeaphrodite, monoecious or direcious.
Calyx 5-parted.
tals 5, fleshy, with an elevated keel.
Stamens 10. Ovary
Ovules
5-celled, 5-angled ; style none ; stigmas 5, subulate.
50.
Coriariacea.
opposite, simple,
entire, ribbed.
Carpels 5, drupaceous, indehiscent, 1-seeded, someAlbumen none.

times surrounded by the enlarged petals.
solitary.
The
USES.
fruit
of Coriaria myrtifolia
leaves are used for dyeing black,

drian Senna.
TYPICAL GENUS.
and
is
poisonous
for adulterating
the
Alexan-
Coriaria.
SUBCLASS
II.
CALYCIFLOR*:.
trees. Leaves simple. Flowers in axillary cymes, minute.

Sepals 4 or 5, imbricated, inserted into the margin of an expanded torus.
Petals imbri-
51.
cate.
disk.
Celastraceee.
Shrubs or
Stamens alternate with the

Disk large, expanded, flat,
Ovary with 3 or 4
inserted into the
petals,
closely
surrounding the
ovules ascending
fruit cap;
;
ovary.
sular or drupaceous ; seeds often with an aril ; albumen fleshy.
USES.
Sub-acrid, but apparently unimportant plants in a
medicinal point of view.
yellow die is obtained from the
cells
bark of Euonymus tingens in India.

TYPICAL GENERA. Celastrus, Euonymus.
52.
Shrubs.
Staphyleaceae.
with both
imbricated.
common and
Petals
5,
the petals, perigynous.
Leaves opposite, pinnate,
partial stipules.
imbricated.
Disk
Sepals
5,
coloured,
Stamens alternate with
large, urceolate.
Ovary
2- or
118
3-celled,
ovules
superior;
erect;
styles
or
3,
cohering.
Seeds with a bony testa and no
Fruit membranous or fleshy.
albumen none.
Staphylea pinnata and trifolia are cultivated as ornamental shrubs under the name of Bladder-nuts, because their
aril
hilum large
USES.
nut-like seeds are enclosed in a bladdery seed-vessel.
TYPICAL GENUS.
Staphylea.
Rhamwacea. Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate, with

minute stipules. Flowers axillary or terminal, minute. Calyx
53.
Petals distinct, inserted into the orifice of
4-5-cleft, valvate.
the calyx.
Stamens definite, opposite the petals, to which
they are equal in number. Ovary superior, or half-superior, 23- or 4-celled
ovules solitary, erect
frequently a berry
albumen
fruit
fleshy, in
a capsule, or more
very small quantity
embryo with large flat cotyledons, and a short inferior radicle.

USES.
The berries of Rhamnus Frangula, catharticus, and
others, are active purgatives.
When ripe,
those of some species,
especially R. catharticus and infectorius, yield a yellow dye.
The fruit of Zizyphus communis is the Jujube of the shops,

and that of the Z. Lotus gave their name to the Lotophagous
nation of antiquity ; all the fruit of that
genus seems harmless ; Z. Chinensis, indeed, is cultivated in China as the
apple
is with us.
The bark of Ceanothus americanus and some
others is astringent, and has been
employed in diarrhoea.
TYPICAL GENERA. Rhamnus, Paliurus, Ceanothus.
4.
AA
seed
.,
dmded
8een from above '

vertically.
frait -
3.
The same
cut
EXOGEN/E CALYCIFLORJE.
119
Trees or shrubs, with a resinous causbecoming black in drying. Leaves alternate, without pellucid dots.
Flowers small, green, unisexual. Calyx
small.
Petals perigynous, imbricated.
Stamens usually definite.
Disk fleshy, hypogynous. Carpel simple ; styles 1 or
3, occasionally 4 ; ovule solitary, attached by a cord to the
bottom of the cell. Fruit indehiscent. Seed without albumen.
USES. A hard, black, acrid varnish is obtained from Semecarpus Anacardium and Melanorhoea usitatissima. The Cashew
nut, whose eatable kernel is surrounded by a rind full of
54.
Anacardiaceee.
tic juice,
oil, is produced by Anacardium occidentale.

Rhus toxicodendron and radicans are dangerous acrid poisons.
Rhus Coriaria, Cotinus, and some others, are astringents.
Rhus Typhinum, and some others, are cultivated as plants of
resinous acrid
ornament. Pistacia Atlantica and Lentiscus yield mastich

and P. Terebinthus, Scio turpentine.
TYPICAL GENERA. Rhus, Pistacia.
Pistacia Atlantica.
show the
55.
ovule.
4.
1.
Fdbaceee
shrubs, or trees.
Female
ripe fruit
flowers.
opened
to
2.
An
ovary.
show the
3.
The same
cut open to
seed.
Herbaceous plants,
Leguminosa).
alternate
Leaves
;
petiole tumid at the base.
(or
Flowers usually showy.

Calyx inferior, the
Petals
and
segments
variously combined.
unequal,
Stamens deeither papilionaceous or regularly spreading.
Stipules 2.
often
or indefinite, perigynous, or hypogynous.

Ovary simSeeds
destitute
of
albumen.
a
Fruit
ple, superior.
legume.
finite
BE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM.
120
there are 3 principal

natural order, of which
very large
divisions:
/O<A\
Flowers papilionaceous (340).

Division l.Papilionace*.
and Sissoo, a species
Laburnum,
The Locust-tree,
USES
wood. The roots of Glycyrluza
of Dalbergia, yield valuable
Beans, Kidney Beans, Vetches,
Peas,
glabra are liquorice.
Clover, Suckarticles of food.
are
of
and other sorts
pulse,
and others, are f
Lucerne, Medick, Saintfoin,
ling, Melilot,
der plants.
furnished
Indigo
is
various
by
plants, especially
tinctoria.
gofera
Indi-
kind of manna oozes
from Alhagi
sists
Maurocon-
Cowhage
runi.
of the
on
hairs
stinging
the pods of
Mucuna pruriens.
tain
Astragali
Ceryield
gum Tragacanth. The

seeds of Laburnum and
several others are narcotic
as
also
the
is
root of Piscidia Erythtincture of

rina, the
which is said
more powerful
to
be
than
laudanum.
TYPICAL GENERA.
Cytisus, Lathyrus, Co-
1. The standard,
Adenocarpus frankenioides.
3.
wings, and keel split open. 2. The stamens.
4.
cross section of a seed.
legume, with a portion of one of the valves turned back.
lutea.
Division 2.
Ccesalpiniea.
Petals regularly spreading, im-
Stamens perigynous.
USES.
Senna is the foliage of different species of Cassia.
The Tamarind fruit comes from Tamarindus Indica. The
bricated.
pods of the Carob-tree (Ceratonia Siliqua)

tritious.
Hsematoxylon
Campeachianum
Csesalpinia Brasiliensis, Brazil
TYPICAL GENERA.
wood.
Cassia, Bauhinia.
are highly nuyields
logwood
EXOGEN;E CALYCIFLOR^:.
Cassia acutifolia.
Division 3.
MimoseeE.
1.
flower
121
somewhat magnified.
Sepals and petals valvate.
Sta-
mens hypogynous.
Gum
Arabic oozes from various species of Acacia,

and arabica.
A.
Verek
Catechu is obtained by
especially
Catechu
and
the
bark
of
A.
boiling
many kinds are employed
USES.
Several are fine timber trees.
for
tanning purposes.
Finally,
The
the leaves and branches of some kinds are poisonous.
a
of
coarse
kind
of
stems
Desmanthus
natans
supply
spongy
rice paper.
Most
are objects of great beauty.
TYPICAL GENERA.
J.
Acacia Verek.
same. 4. Half a seed.
Acacia, Mimosa, Inga.
flower magnified.
2.
The
pistil.
3.
section of the
122
56.
Trees, shrubs, or herbaceous plants.
Rosaceee.
Leaves
alternate, usually with conspicuous stipules, more frequently

Flowers large, showy, arranged
compound than simple.
in
terminal.
but
most
cases
Calyx lined with a
variously,
Stamens usually indefinite.

Carpels
equal.
or
disunited
or consolidated.
several,
Styles distinct,
solitary
and more or less obliquely placed upon the ovary. Fruit
disk.
Petals
various.
Embryo
Tube of calyx
straight.
and covering
over the achsenia with a false pericarp.
USES.
Fruit astringent.
Petals fragrant and astringent.
Division 1.
Rosea.
fleshy,
Flowers in all cases beautiful.

TYPICAL GENUS. Rosa.
Division 2.
Potentillete.
Carpels numerous, superior, inde-
hiscent.
Usually gay flowers. The fruit of Fragaria is the

The
Strawberry, of Rubus the Bramble and the Raspberry.
roots of Tormentils and some Geums and Potentillas are
USES.
astringent,
and have been used as
TYPICAL GENERA.
febrifuges.
Rubus, Fragaria.
t>
1.
Spiraea Arancus, flower cut open.

2.
section of an ovary. 3. Part of flower
4.
tragamlndica
vertical section of the
half-ripe receptacle, covered with
5.
carpels.
6.
single carpel.
section of a ripe
carpel, with the seed inside
Division 3.
USES.
Spiraea.
Carpels few, 2-valved.
Roots of Gillenia emetic, of

Spirsea ulmaria tonic.
TYPICAL GENUS. Spiraea.
EXOGEN^l CALYCIFLOR.E.
Division 4.
Amygdaleee.
123
Carpel single, a drupe.
The fruit of the Peach, Nectarine, Almond, Plum,

and
Cherry,
Apricot, are produced by various species. Many
are of great beauty on account of their gay flowers.
HydroUSES.
cyanic acid
is
yielded
by the
leaves of
all,
especially of the
Prunus Laurocerasus, or common Laurel. The bark of Prunus Coccomilia and some others is febrifugal.
TYPICAL GENERA.
Division 5.
Prunus, Amygdalus.
Carpels adhering to the calyx.
Pome<z.
Beautiful trees or bushes, bearing a fruit which is,

majority of species, eatable. Apples, Pears, Quinces,
USES.
in the
The
Medlars, Services, are the produce of different species.
The
is
hard.
Hawthorn
is a valuable mausually very
wood
terial for fences.
TYPICAL GENERA.
Division 6.
none.
USES.
Pyrus, Cratsegus.
Sanguisorlea. Flowers often unisexual. Petals
Tube of the calyx hardened.

Astringents of
used for sheep pasture

TYPICAL GENERA.
is
little
importance.
Sanguisorba
Common
Burnet
officinalis.
Alchemilla, Sanguisorba, Poterium.
A
A
2. The same with

1 .
flower with a pair of bracts.
Sanguisorba officinalis.
removed.
3.
half the calyx cut away.
ripe fruit, from which the calyx has been
5. Transverse section of a fruit.
vertical section of fruit and calyx.
4.
124
Resinous
Amyridacete.
with
pellucid dots.
compound,
57.
minal, panicled.
mens
definite.
Calyx minute.
Ovary
superior,
Leaves
shrubs.
or
trees
Flowers axillary and

1-celled;
ter-
Sta-
Petals 4-5, imbricated.
stigma capitate;
Seed with-
Fruit indehiscent, glandular.

ovules pendulous.
out albumen ; radicle superior.
Us ES Fragrant resinous shrubs.

Myrospermum toluiferum yields Balsam of Tolu and Gum Elemi comes from
some species of Amyris. Balsam of Copaiva is furnished by
.
different species of Copaifera.
TYPICAL GENERA.
58.
Amyris, Copaifera.
Chrysobalanacete.
Leaves simple,
Trees or shrubs.
with veins that run parallel with each

other from the midrib to the margin.
Calyx 5-lobed. Petals
alternate, stipulate,
more or
less irregular, either 5 or
none.
Stamens
definite or
usually irregular.
Ovary superior, solitary, cohering more or less on one side with the calyx ; ovules erect.
Seed solitary, erect. EmFruit, a drupe with 1 or 2 cells.
indefinite,
bryo with no albumen.
The
USES.
of the
West
fruit of
Indies.
Chrysobalanus Icaco
The general
the Cocoa
is
Plum
properties appear to be in-
nocuous.
TYPICAL GENERA.
Hirtella, Chrysobalanus.
Shrubs with square stems. Leaves

without
opposite, simple,
stipules.
Sepals and petals conStamens infounded, indefinite, combined in a fleshy tube.
serted in a fleshy rim.
Anthers adnate, turned outwards.
Ovaries several, simple; ovules solitary.
Nuts enclosed in
59.
Calycanthacea.
the fleshy tube of the calyx, 1-seeded.

ledons convolute.
The
USES.
flowers are fragrant, but of no
TYPICAL GENERA.
60.
Albumen none
Lythraceee.
quently 4-cornered.
known
coty-
use.
Calycanthus, Chimonanthus.
Herbs, rarely shrubs.

Branches freLeaves without stipules. Flowers in
cases showy.
Calyx tubular. Petals inserted between
the lobes of the calyx,
very deciduous. Stamens inserted
into the tube of the
calyx below the petals.
Ovary 2- or
many
4-celled
style filiform
calyx, usually 1-celled.
capsule membranous, covered
by the
Seeds numerous, without albumen.
EXOGENJE CALYCIFLORJE.
USES.
125
The Lngerstromias and Lythrums,
as well as
some
others, are species of great beauty.

Lythrum Salicaria has
been employed in diarrhoea on account of its astringency.
Lawsonia inermis furnishes the Henn6 with which oriental
women
stain their nails.
A few are acrid.
Ly thrum, Ammannia.
TYPICAL GENERA.
Trees or shrubs.
Combretaceee,
Leaves without stiFlowers
pules.
generally showy.
Calyx 4- or 5-lobed, deciduous.
Stamens twice as many as the segments of the
calyx, or three times as many.
Ovary 1 -celled, with from 2
to 4 ovules, hanging from the apex of the cavity. Seed with61.
out albumen
cotyledons usually convolute.

Many species are astringent, and are used by the
tanners in the countries where they occur.
Myrobalan nuts,
;
USES.
also tonics, are
produced by Terminalia
bellerica.
The
kernels
of T. Catappa are eaten like almonds.
TYPICAL GENERA.
Combretum, Conocarpus.
Melastomacea.
62.
Trees, shrubs, or herbaceous plants.
Leaves opposite, with several ribs. Flowers generally purple

and very handsome. Calyx cohering with the angles of the
Petals twisted in aestivation ; filaments curved downovary.
wards
in aestivation
anthers 2-celled, elongated beyond the
insertion of the filament (see fig. 211, p. 46).

Ovary with
several cells, and indefinite ovules.
Pericarp with placentae
attached to a central column.
Of no
fruit, when
USES.
their
importance.
succulent,
TYPICAL GENERA.
is
Seeds innumerable.
The
species appear harmless

eatable.
Ehexia, Melastoma, Lasiandra.
Leaves deciduous, oppoPMladelphacea. Shrubs.

without dots or stipules. Flowers usually white. Calyx
63.
site,
persistent,
imbricate.
having from 4 to 10 divisions.
Stamens
definite.
Petals convolute,
or consoli-
Styles indistinct,
dated; stigmas several. Capsule with 4 to 10 cells, manySeeds scobiform ; aril loose, membranous. Albumen
seeded.
fleshy.
USES.
Merely known as plants of ornament, and someThe rough leaves of Deutzia are said to
times of fragrance.
be used by the Japanese as a polishing material.
TYPICAL GENERA. Philadelphus, Deutzia.
126
Leaves with transTrees or shrubs.

Myrtaceee.
often
with
a
and
vein
running parallel with their
parent dots,
Petals
like a cap.
4or
sometimes
5-cleft,
margin.
Calyx
64.
Stamens indefinite ; anthers ovate,

quincuncial or wanting.
Fruit either dry or fleshy.
l-2-4-5-6-celled.
small.
Ovary
Seeds definite or indefinite ; embryo without albumen.
The
principal divisions are the following
Fruit 2- or more celled, fleshy.
Division 1.
Myrteee.
Division 2.
Leptospermea.
Fruit 2- or more celled, cap-
sular.
Division 3.
Chamadaucieez.
Fruit 1-celled.
USES.
The spices called Cloves and Pimento are the dried
flowers of Caryophyllus aromaticus and the dried fruit of
The New Holland Eucalypti contain a
Eugenia Pimenta.
great quantity of tannin in their bark.
Cajeputi oil is obtained

from Melaleuca Cajeputi.
The bark of the Pomegranate
root is an anthelmintic.
Almost all the species are beautiful
either in foliage or flower.
Eugenia tuberculata.
men. 4.
ripe fruit.
65.
1.
5.
A flower. 2. The same

A leaf with the dots upon
Onagracea.
alternate or opposite.
lar, 4-lobed, valvate.
tion.
Stamens
2,
4,
divided vertically.
3.
sta-
it.
Herbaceous plants or shrubs.

Leaves
Flowers generally showy.
Calyx tubuPetals regular, with a twisted sestivaor 8, inserted into the
calyx.
Styles
EXOGEN.7E CALYCIFLOR.E.
consolidated.
cells.
Stigma 4-lobed.
127
Fruit many-seeded, with four
Division 1.
Fruit a capsule.
Petals 4.
CEnotherea.
Seeds
numerous.
These are gay flowered plants, of no known use.

TYPICAL GENERA. (Enothera, Epilobium.
USES.
Jussiaeoides.
Ludwigia
2.
A calyx
and
1.
Division 2.
An
5.
Fuchsiea,
Unknown.
USES.
TYPICAL GENUS.
Division 3.
flower with two sepals and all the petals cut off.
transverse section of the ovary.
4.
seed
3,
embryo extracted.
inferior ovary.
with the distinct raphe.
Fruit a succulent berry.
Petals 4.
Beautiful bushes.
Fuchsia.
Circteea.
Petals
2,
4, or none.
Stamens
Fruit a capsule.
USES. Unknown.
or 2.
TYPICAL GENERA.
66.
Small shrubs, or obscure herbaceous
Cercodiaceae.
Calyx minute.
plants.
Ovary
Circaea, Lopezia.
Petals small or none.
Stamens
1-8.
Ovules pendulous, anaStyles distinct.

Fruit nut-like, usually crowned by the rim
1-4-celled.
tropous (460).
of the calyx.
Seed pendulous, with a small quantity of fleshy
albumen.
Division
Stamen
USES.
1.
Hippuridete.
Calyx obsolete.
1.
Unknown.
'TYPICAL GENUS.
Obscure weeds.
Hippuris.
Petals none.
128
Hippuris vulgaris.
position of the ovule.
Division 2.
1.
3.
A complete flower. 2. A section of the pistil, showing the

A section of the ripe fruit and seed.
Haloragea.
Stamens more than one.
Calyx toothed.
Petals present.
EXOGEN^l CALYCIFLOR.E.
129
Unknown.
USES.
TYPICAL GENERA.
Myriophylluin, Loudonia.
Loasacea.
Herbaceous plants, hispid, with pungent
Leaves without stipules.
Flowers generally showy,
67.
hairs.
white or yellow. Calyx 5-parted. Petals 5 or 10, hooded, with

an inflexed aestivation the interior often much smaller. Stamens indefinite. Ovary with several parietal placentae, or with
;
a free central lobed one.
numerous, without
aril
Unknown.
USES.
TYPICAL GENERA.
Seeds
Loasa, Bartonia.
Cucurbitacea.
68.
Fruit capsular or succulent.
embryo in axis of fleshy albumen.

Usually handsome plants.
Annual or perennial
herbs.
Stem
climbing by tendrils. Leaves palmated, or with palmate ribs,

covered with asperities.
Flowers white, yellow, or brownish
red, unisexual.
Calyx 5-toothed. Corolla o-parted, scarcely

distinguishable from the calyx, with strongly reticulated veins.
Stamens 5, either distinct, or cohering in three parcels ; anthers sinuous.
Ovary with 3 parietal placentas ; stigmas very
thick,
Seeds
Fruit
velvety or fringed.
flat,
in
an
aril
embryo
flat,
more or
less
succulent.
with no albumen.
USES.
The Gourd, Melon, Cucumber, Pumpkin, Vegetable
Marrow, and Squash, are the fruits of various species, in all
which an acrid purgative principle is diffused ; which, when
concentrated, as in the Bottle Gourd, the Colocynth, and the
Bryony, becomes dangerous, unless administered with skill,
-
when
it
is
a useful medicine.
is
Elaterine, or Elatine, an ex-
found in the Spirting Cucumber,
tremely poisonous principle,

Momordica Elaterium. The seeds are nutty and harmless.
TYPICAL GENERA. Cucumis, Bryonia, Momordica.
Passifloracea.
Usually climbing by means of tenLeaves alternate, with leafy stipules. Flowers often
enclosed in an involucre.
Sepals 5, their tube lined with fila69.
drils.
mentous processes. Petals
5.
Stamens monadelphous. Ovary
Fruit
;
;
stigmas simple, clavate.
with 3 polyspermous placentae.
Seeds with a brittle sculptured testa.
Embryo in fleshy albumen.
stalked,
styles 3
The fruit of Passiflora quadrangularis, the Granaof P. edulis, and several others, contains a pleasant sub-
USES.
dilla,
1-celled
130
acid pulp, on account of which they are served up at dessert.

The root of the first species is emetic and narcotic ; and similar properties are ascribed to that of P. rubra, which is called
P.
Jamaica Dutchman's laudanum.
as
an
emmenagogue.
reputation
TYPICAL GENERA. Passiflora, Tacsonia.
in
Herbaceous plants.
Turnemcea.
70.
foetida
has some
Leaves alternate,
without stipules, with occasionally two glands at the apex

of the petiole.
Calyx often cploured, with 5 lobes, imbriPetals 5, equal, twisted.
cated.
Stamens
distinct.
Ovary
with 3 placentae; ovules indefinite; styles 3 or 6, cohering

more or less. Capsule 3-valved, the valves bearing the plaSeeds with a thin aril on one side ;
centas in the middle.
embryo
USES.
in the
middle of fleshy albumen.
Unknown.
TYPICAL GENUS.
Turnera.
Portwlacacea.
71.
Succulent
shrubs or herbs.
Leaves
without stipules, or sometimes with membranous ones. FlowPetals generally 5.

ers usually ephemeral.
StaSepals 2.
mens
inserted irregularly into the calyx, or hypogynous,

variable in number.
Ovary 1 -celled ; style single, stigmas
several.
centa.
Capsule 1-celled. Seeds attached to a central plaEmbryo curved round the albumen.
USES.
Insipid plants, occasionally employed as esculents,
as in the case of Portulaca oleracea, the common Purslane.
TYPICAL GENERA.
72.
Calandrinia, Montia.
Herbaceous or half shrubby plants, with

Flowers minute, with scarious bracts. Se-
Illvcebracea.
scarious stipules.
pals 3, 4, or 5.
Petals minute.
Stamens
definite.
Fruit dry, 1-3-celled.

Seeds
superior; styles 2-5.
central placenta ;
embryo on one side of the albumen.
USES.
Unimportant weeds
TYPICAL GENERA.
Ovary
upon a
said to be slightly astringent.
Herniaria, Illecebrum.
73.
Scleranthacea. Small herbs. Leaves
opposite, without stipules.
Flowers axillary, sessile, minute, hermaphrodite.
Calyx 4- or 5-toothed.
Stamens from
1 to 10.
Ovary
simple, superior, 1-seeded. Fruit a utricle enclosed within the
EXOGENJE
131
CALYCIFLOR-ffi.
hardened calyx. Seed pendulous from a funiculus

cylindrical, curved round farinaceous albumen.
Unknown.
USES.
TYPICAL GENUS.
74.
Mere weeds.
Scleranthus.
Succulent herbs or shrubs.
Crassulaceee.
Flowers usually in cymes, showy.
none.
Petals either distinct
20.
embryo
or
Stipules
Sepals from 3 to
Stamens inserted
cohering.
with the petals.

Hypogynous scales usually several, 1 at the
base of each carpel.
Ovaries of the same number as the
which they are placed. Fruit of several

opening on their face. Seeds variable in number.
USES.
Sempervivum tectorum, and many others, are refri-
petals, opposite to
follicles,
gerants and somewhat acrid. Some are plants of considerable

beauty, and capable of growing in the most exposed and sunburnt places.
Sempervivum glutinosum is used to impregnate the water in which the fishermen of Madeira steep their
nets, in order to render
TYPICAL GENERA.
them
Succulent shrubs or
Mesembryacea or Ficoidea.
Flowers showy, opening only under bright sunshine.
75.
herbs.
Sepals definite, succulent.
mens
durable.
Sempervivum, Sedum.
indefinite.
Petals indefinite, linear.
Ovary many-celled.
Capsule many-celled, with a starry dehiscence.

curved or spiral, on the outside of mealy albumen.
USES.
Sta-
Stigmas numerous.
Mesembryanthemum emarcidum,
Embryo
the Hottentot's
when
bruised and fermented, becomes narcotic, and is

fig,
used like tobacco.
M. crystallinum and nodiflorum are collected in the countries
where they grow wild,
for the sake of
the alkali they contain.
TYPICAL GENUS.
76.
Mesembryanthemum.
Cactacea. Succulent shrubs, usually destitute of leaves,

Flowers usually very handsome. Se-
and with spinous buds.
Stamens indefipals indefinite, confounded with the petals.

nite ; filaments long, filiform.
inferior,
1-celled, with
Ovary
numerous
Fruit succuparietal placentae ; stigmas numerous.

USES.
The fruit is eaten under the name of Indian figs.
lent.
TYPICAL GENERA.
Cereus, Mammillaria.
K 2
132
Bushes with alternate leaves, mem

Flowand
a
plaited vernation, often spiny.
stipules,
4or
ers in axillary racemes.
5-parted, reguCalyx superior,
1 -celled,
Petals 5, minute. Stamens 5.
lar.
inferior,
Ovary
with 2 parietal placentae. Berry 1 -celled, many-seeded; embryo minute, in horny albumen.
USES.
Bibes rubrum is the common garden Currant, B.
Black Currant, and B. Grossularia the Goosethe
nigrum
all
well-known
fruits. Many have beautiful flowers.
berry,
77.
Grossulacea.
branous
TYPICAL GENUS.
Bibes.
78.
Saxifmgacea. Herbaceous plants.
with or without stipules.
Calyx superior or
Leaves simple,
inferior.
Petals
Stamens 5-10, perigynous or hypogynous ; anthers bursting longitudinally.

Disk hypogynous or perigynous, rarely consisting of 5 scales.
Ovary 1-celled, with two
formed
from extended points of
parietal placentae.
Styles 2,
the ovary.
Fruit membranous, with two divaricating lobes.
5,
or none.
Seeds numerous, very minute.

fleshy albumen.
USES.
gent roots.
Embryo
taper, in the axis of
Heuchera Americana, and some
Many
TYPICAL GENERA.
are pretty flowers.
Saxifraga, Heuchera.
others,
have
astrin-
EXOGENÊ CALYCIFLOR.3E.
Shrubs
Escattoniacea.
79.
leaves.
with
133
toothed,
alternate,
Flowers showy.
glandular, exstipulate
Calyx 5toothed. Petals forming a tube, but finally separating ; aestivation imbricated.
Disk conical, epiStamens definite.
Ovary
gynous.
centse
in
with two large polyspermous plaFruit

style simple ; stigma 2-lobed.
2-celled,
the axis
capsular, splitting by the separation of the cells

base.
Seeds minute ; embryo in oily albumen.
Escallonia.
Hamamelacea. Shrubs. Leaves alternate, with deFlowers sometimes unisexual. Calyx in

Stamens 8
4 being sterile.
4, linear.
80.
ciduous stipules.
4 pieces.
Petals
styles 2 ; ovules solitary, pendulous.

Embryo in the middle of horny albumen.
2-celled
capsular.
Araliacea.
81.
habit
5-10.
Fruit
Unknown.
USES.
TYPICAL GENERA.
the
their
Unknown.
USES.
TYPICAL GENUS.
Ovary
at
Hamamelis, Fothergilla.
Trees, shrubs, or herbaceous plants, with
Petals
Calyx entire or toothed.
of Apiacese.
Stamens equal
to the petals or twice as
from without an epigynous disk.
many, arising
Ovary with more cells than
two.
Fruit succulent or dry, consisting of several 1-seeded

Seeds pendulous. Embryo minute, in copious albumen.
USES.
Panax quinquifolium forms the root Ginseng, re-
cells.
sort of
garded by the Chinese as a powerful stimulant.
in
North
America
from
Aralia
nuis
Sarsaparilla
prepared
Common
dicaulis.
TYPICAL GENERA.
82.
Cornaceee.
Ivy,
Hedera Helix, has
irritating leaves.
Hedera, Aralia.
Trees or shrubs, seldom herbs.
Leaves
Flowers
(except in one species) opposite, entire or toothed.
dioecious.
4.
Petals
4, oblong, broad,
Sepals
occasionally
Stamens 4, alternate with the petals.

crowned by the calyx, 2-celled. Seeds pendulous,
valvate.
Albumen
Drupe
solitary.
fleshy.
Cornus mascula, the Cornelian Cherry, and some

C.
others, produce a succulent eatable fruit of bad quality.
florida and sericea have a powerfully tonic bark.
TYPICAL GENERA. Cornus, Aucuba.
USES.
134
Herbaceous plants with

Apiacea or Umbellifera.
Flowers in umbels.
Calyx entire or 5Stamens
Petals 5, usually inflexed at the point.
toothed.
83.
stems.
fistular
Ovary 2-celled. Styles 2, di5, alternate with the petals.

Fruit consisting of 2 carverging ; disk double, epigynous.
from a common axis. Seed
pels, or mericarps, separable
Embryo minute, at the base of horny
solitary, pendulous.
albumen.
USES.
The
Carrot, Parsnip, Parsley, Fennel, Skirret,
others, are eatable.
Celery
is
poisonous when
and
wild, bland
if
Many species are dangerous poisons, as (Enanthe

Cicuta
crocata,
virosa, Conium maculatum, .ZEthusa Cynacultivated.
pium
Coriander, Anise.
Dill,
nax,
others have aromatic carminative fruits, as Caraway,
foetid
gum
resins,
Assaftetida,
GENERA.
TYPICAL
Ammoniacum, Opopa-
exude from certain Oriental

Pastinaca,
Carum,
species.
Petroselinum,
Daucus.
Athamanta
cervarisefolia.
2.
separate flower, with hairy petals.
petal
itself.
3.
ripe fruit with the two carpels or mericarps separating from the
double carpopod or axis.
4.
seed deprived of its
integuments, and divided vertically, so as to show the position of the embryo.
1.
by
The genera of
terized
cut
is
this large
very much by
and
difficult
order being charac-
peculiarities in their fruit, the following

intended to explain the
principal terms employed in
speaking of them.
EXOGEN.E CALYCIFLORJE.
135
1. Is an ideal plan of a fruit divided transversely ; a a is the commissure, or

2. Is a
plane of contact of the mericarps ; b b primary ridges ; c c secondary ridges.
view of the back and section of the fruit of Laserpitium Siler ; each mericarp has the
secondary ridges winged, the primary obsolete ; there are two vittae on the commissure, and one under each secondary ridge ; these vittae, which are cavities containing
3. Sclerosciadium humile ; the
oil, are represented by dots ; the albumen is solid.
primary ridges are corky ; there are no secondary ridges ; the vittae alternate with
the primary ridges, and there is one at each edge of the commissure ; the albumen is
solid.
4. Discopleura capillacea ; there are 5 very small primary juga, the two
lateral of which are in contact with a thickened accessory margin ; there are 2 vittae
on each face of the commissure, and one between each primary ridge ; the albumen is
solid.
5. Echinophora spinosa ; albumen involute ; vittae alternate with the primary
6. Compressed fruit of Diposis saniculaefolia ; the commissure is very narridges.
row ; there are 5 minute primary ridges ; one along the back, one along each edge,
and two on the indexed
side
the albumen
SUBCLASS
LorantJiacea.
84>.
Leaves opposite, without
and
COROLLIFLORÊ.
Parasitical
stipules.
the
base,
1-celled
half-shrubby
valvate
ovule erect.
more or
less
united
stamens opposite to them. Ovary

Seed solitary ; emFruit succulent.
bryo cylindrical, longer than the fleshy albumen.

USES. Bark astringent ; that of Loranthus tetrandrus
in Chili for a black dye.
ployed
TYPICAL GENERA.
plants.
Flowers either very long

Calyx with 2 bracts at
and green.
Corolla with 3, 4 or 8 petals,
tubular, or small
the base.
at
III.
is solid.
Miseltoe
Viscum, Loranthus.
is
is emViscum album.
136
85.
Caprifoliacea.
Shrubs or herbaceous plants, with

Flowers usually showy
opposite leaves, destitute of stipules.
Calyx 4-5-cleft, with bracts at its base. Comonopetalous or polypetalous, rotate or tubular, regular
Stamens epipetalous. Ovary with from 1 to 5
or irregular.
cells.
Fruit indehiscent, 1 or more celled.
Embryo straight
and
fragrant.
rolla
in fleshy
albumen.
Honeysuckles, species of Caprifolium, are beautiful,

The Elder has sudorific flowers,
fragrant, twining shrubs.
and drastic foetid leaves. The roots of Triosteum perfoliatum
USES.
are emetic
and
cathartic.
The
fruit
of Symphoria racemosa,
the Snowberry, is a favourite food of pheasants ; that of different species of Viburnum is eatable, but unpleasant.
TYPICAL GENERA.
86.
Sambucus, Caprifolium, Viburnum.
Leaves
Trees, shrubs, or herbs.
or
with
verticillate,
simple, opposite
interpetiolary stipules,
Avhich are simple, bifid, or multifid, and form one of the
prinInflorescence extremely
cipal characteristics of the order.
Cinchonaceee.
varied.
Corolla tubular, regular, valvate, or

Calyx simple.
Stamens all on the same line, alternate with the
lobes of the corolla.
Ovary surmounted by a disk ovules
numerous or few. Fruit either splitting, or indehiscent and
imbricated.
Seeds definite or indefinite

dry, or succulent.
surrounded by horny albumen.
USES.
Foremost among the useful
embryo
small,
species of this large

order stand the species of Cinchona, whose bark is so valuable
on account of its tonic
febrifugal qualities ; in this respect a
large number of other genera correspond, among which are
Buena, Remija, Portlandia, and Exostema. Others are poweremetics ; as Cephaelis

Ipecacuanha, whose roots form the
best Ipecacuanha of the
shops ; Richardsonia scabra, and
ful
species
Manettia, Chiococca, and Spermacoce. A
few have the emetic
principle so concentrated as to be dangerous poisons, as Randia dumetorum.
Coffee is the horny
albumen of Coffea Arabica.
several
of
EXOGENÊ COROLLIFLOR;E.
137
1.
flower magnified.
section across a ripe fruit.
Coffea Arabica.
2.
3.
portion of a seed, stowing the small embryo laid bare in the end of convolute albumen.
Richardsonia scabra.
section of a seed, with
1.
an
An
erect
ovary with
its calyx.
2.
in copious albumen.
embryo
corolla.
3.
.A
vertical

87.
Dipsacete.
Leaves opposite or whorled.
Flowers capitate, surrounded
by a many-leaved
surrounded by an
Stamens 4
lous ovule
like calyx,
involucre.
involucel.
anthers distinct.
stigma simple.
embryo
in fleshy
Calyx superior, membranous

Corolla
Ovary
oblique,
1-celled,
imbricated.
with a pendu-
Fruit crowned by the pappus-
albumen.
138
The ripe heads of Dipsacus fullonum, dried, are

USES.
formed of hard stiff spines, and are employed by fullers, in
dressing cloth, under the name of teasels.
TYPICAL GENERA. Scabiosa, Dipsacus, Knautia.
88.
Valerianacete.
Herbs.
Leaves opposite, without
Flowers corymbose, panicled, or in heads. Calyx

Corolla tubular,
superior, membranous, or resembling pappus.
1 to 5.
calcarate.
or
sometimes
Stamens
regular
irregular,
stipules.
Ovary with
perfect cell, and 2 other abortive ones ; ovule

Fruit dry.
stigmas 1 to 3.
Embryo destitute
1
pendulous ;
of albumen.
Common
USES.
Valerian, and several others, have power-
fully aromatic, antispasmodic, febrifugal roots. The genus Valerianella consists of annual herbs, whose leaves are used as
under the name of Lamb's lettuce.
salad,
The Spikenard of
was Nardostachys Jatamansi.

TYPICAL GENERA. Valerianella, Centranthus, Valeriana.
the ancients
Valeriana Celtica.
calyx.
npe
3.
fruit
The
and
fruit,
An
entire
flower magnified.
with the pappose

full-grown calyx.
2.
4.
The ovary and young
A vertical section
of a
seed.
89.
Asteracea or Composite.
Shrubs, or herbs, extremely variable in appearance.
Flowers in heads, surrounded by an involucrum, and seated on a
from which
a pappus
Co(328).
receptacle,
palese often spring.
Calyx obsolete
EXOGEN/E COROLLIFLOR2E.
regular or irregular.
rolla
Ovary
inferior, one-celled,
Anthers
139
a tube.
united into
with an erect ovule.
Embryo
with-
out albumen.
Division 1.
Cichoracea.
TYPICAL GENERA.
Division 2.
lar.
Florets
all ligulate.
Milky.
Hieracium, Taraxacum.
Corymbifera.
Corolla funnel-shaped.
Florets in part or wholly tubuInvolucrum hemispherical, leafy
or scaly, soft, seldom spiny.
TYPICAL GENERA.
Chrysanthemum, Tussilago.
Division 3.
Cynaracea. Florets wholly tubular. Corolla

with a ventricose throat. Involucrum hard, conical, and generally spiny.
TYPICAL GENERA.
Division 4.
Carduus, Cynara, Onopordum.
Labiatiflvra.
Florets bilabiate.
TYPICAL GENERA.
USES.
ciple is
Among
commonly
Mutisia, Triptilion.
the Cichoraceous division a narcotic prinfound, which in the garden Lettuce is so
diffused as to be bland,
and
in
Lactuca virosa
trated as to render the extract similar to
is
so concen-
opium
in effect.
Succory, Endive, Salsafy, Scorzonera, well-known esculents,

Of the Corymbiferous division, Chamomile is
belong here.
characteristic,
with
its bitter
tonic qualities.
Many
others,
such as Coltsfoot, Elecampane, Feverfew, correspond in proWormwood, Southernwood, species

perties with Chamomile.
of Artemisia, are aromatic and extremely bitter
pungent herb, used for pickling,

Pellitory of Spain,
organs
and
and
is
acrid,
is
;
Tarragon, a
Artemisia Dracunculus.
and
excites the salivary

Pyrethrum ; and similar
Anacyclus
produced by Spilanthus oleracea, Bidens
powerfully,
effects are
which
is
others.
others,
tripartita,
The Sunflower, Guizotia oleifera, Madia sativa,

yield a bland oil when their seeds are pressed.
Jerusalem artichokes, a well-known article of food, are the

tubers of Helianthus tuberosus. The Cynaraceous division consists principally
of bitter plants.
Centaurea calcitrapa, Sily-
bum
(or Carduus) Marianum, Cnicus Benedictus, and the

common Burdock, are all stomachics of some importance.
The flowers of Carthamus tinctorius are dried for the use of
The fleshy receptacles of

the dyers, and resemble Saffron.
the
bottoms
of our kitchens.
are
artichoke
Cynara Scolymus
2.
ligulate
tubular floret of the disk.
1.
involucrum and
5.
4. An anther.
stigmas.
ach^mum cut
6.
lp e
the lorets have fallen.
Argyranthemum Jacoteifolium.
3. Style and
florel^Tthe ray.
An
which
receptade, from
with toothed coronetted pappus.
through vertically,
Intl
The
old divisions of this large order are adhered to be-
cause they appear more likely to be permanent than the more

recent suborders, &c. proposed by De Candolle and others,
in
which
peculiarities in the stigma are chiefly employed.

who desires to become acquainted with the de-
The
student
tails
of this
enormous order, numbering more than 7000

De Candclle' s Prodromus, Vols. V. VI.
(
species, will consult
EXOGEN^
COROLLIFLORJE.
141
The preceding wood -cut will assist him in understanding the distinctions of that author.
and VII.
1. Tubular floret of Webbia aristata, with double pappus (Vernoniacea,

2.
D.C.)
Tubular floret and stigma of Anisochaeta mikanioides, with pappus of 4 setae (Eupaof
Tubular
floret
Berthelotia
3.
with
toriacetB, D.C.)
lanceolata,
silky pappus (Aste-
4. Stigma of Blumea senecioides (Asteroidete, D.C.)

5. Ligulate floret
roidea, D.C.)
and stigma of Lipochaeta umbellata ; pappus of two unequal winged paleae (Senecio6. Stigma of Dunantia achyranthes (Senecionidcce, D.C.)
nulece, D.C.)
7. Tubular
floret with ventricose throat and the
stigma of Aplotaxis Nepalensis (Ci/narete,
D.C.)
8.
Ligulate bilabiate floret of Oreoseris lanuginosa (Mutisiacetz, D.C.)

Brachyramphus obtusus (Cictioracete, D.C.)
9.
Ligulate
floret of
90.
Galiac&e,
or
Herbaceous plants, with

Stems usually angular.
stipules.
Stellate.
whorled leaves, destitute of
Corolla valvate, rotate or tubular,

Calyx 4-5- or 6-lobed.
Stamens
in
number to the lobes of the corolla,
regular.
equal
and alternate with them.
Ovary 2-celled ovules solitary,
;
erect.
Fruit a didymous, indehiscent pericarp.
Embryo
minute, straight, in horny albumen.

USES.
The roots of Bubia tinctorum yield madder, a
in
which others participate, though in a less degree.
quality
The yellow flowers of Galium verum are used to curdle milk.

The fragrant Woodruff has the reputation of being diuretic
;
Asperula cynanchica is said to be astringent. Except the

species used for dyeing, none are of any real importance.
TYPICAL GENERA. Asperula, Galium, Rubia.
91.
out
Goodeniacea. Herbaceous plants, rarely shrubs, withLeaves scattered, without stipules.

Flowers
milk.
Calyx superior, equal or unequal. Corolla more or

folded inwards
split at the back ; the segments
in aestivation.
Stamens 5, distinct. Ovary with indefinite
Fruit
ovules; stigma surrounded by a membranous cup.
a capsule ; albumen fleshy.
Unknown. TYPICAL GENERA. Goodenia, Euthales.
USES.
showy.
less irregular,
92.
Scawlacea.
axillary or
terminal,
Herbaceous plants with the flowers

and never in heads. Calyx superior,
sometimes obsolete. Corolla irregular, split at the back,

Stathe edges of the divisions folded inwards in aestivation.
mens 5, distinct ; anthers distinct or united. Ovary fewwith solitary erect ovules ; stigma surrounded by
Fruit drupaceous or nucamentaceous.
USES.
Unknown.
celled,
cup.
TYPICAL GENERA.
Sceevola,
Dampiera.
142
93.
Glandular herbs.
Stylidiacea.
Calyx superior,
StaCorolla irregular, imbricated.

2-6-parted, permanent.
which
with
mens 2, connate into an elastic slender column,
the style
is
consolidated.
many-seeded. Seeds albuminous.

Unknown. Eemarkable
USES.
column of stamens.
TYPICAL GENERA.
for
the
irritable
elastic
Stylidium, Leuwenhoekia.
Herbaceous milky plants or shrubs.

Lobeliacea.
94.
Capsule 2-valved,
2-celled.
Ovary
Leaves alternate, without stipules.
Calyx
or entire.
superior, 5-lobed,
Corolla irregular, 5-lobed,
Stamens 5; anthers cohering. Stigma fringed.

Fruit capsular, 1 or more celled, many-seeded ; embryo in
or 5-cleft.
the axis of albumen.
USES.
The
abound in a milky juice of extreme

is an emetic, but dangerous from
species
Lobelia inflata
acridity.
its violence.
hypercathartic.
Many
TYPICAL GENERA.
95.
(or Isotoma) longiflora

are plants of great beauty.
Hippobroma
is
fatally
Lobelia, Clintonia, Siphocampylus.

Flowers
stipules.
Gesneraceee.
Leaves opposite, rugose, fleshy, without
Calyx half superior, valvate. Corolla tugenerally showy.

Anthers cohering, with
bular, with an imbricate sestivation.
a thick connective. Ovary 1 -celled, surrounded by glands,
with 2-lobed polyspermous placentae ; stigma capitate. Embryo in the axis of albumen.
USES.
The
succulent fruit
is
eatable.
Some
species yield
a dyeing substance. The species are, however, of no real

importance but they are generally gay flowers.
TYPICAL GENERA. Gloxinia, Gesnera, Columnea.
;
96.
Campanulacea.
yielding a white milk.
Herbaceous plants or under-shrubs,

Leaves alternate, without stipules.
Calyx superior, permanent. CoStamens

regular, valvate.
alternate with the lobes of the corolla.
Anthers distinct.
Style covered by collecting retractile hairs ; stigma naked.
Fruit dehiscing by apertures, or valves.
Seeds numerous ;
rolla usually 5-lobed,

withering,
embryo
in the axis of
albumen.
EXOGENJE COROLLIFLORJE.
USES.
Slightly acrid, but not dangerous.
used like Radishes,

TYPICAL GENERA.
is
Rampion, a root
Campanula Rapunculus.
Campanula, Phyteuma, Roella.
Wahlenbergia procumbens.
4.
143
1.
An
Transverse section of the ovary.
entire
5.
flower.
A vertical
2.
Stamens.
3.
section of a seed,
stigma.
showing the
embryo.
97.
ovary is
USES.
Are the same
Vaccinacea.
as Ericacese, only the
inferior.
The bark
is
slightly astringent,
and
fruit succulent.
Cranberries are the fruit of species of Oxycoccus, Bilberries

and Whortleberries of species of Vaccinium.
TYPICAL GENERA.
98.
Ericaceae.
Vaccinium, Thibaudia.
Shrubs or under-shrubs.
without stipules.
Leaves ever-
4- or 5-cleft,
Calyx
green, rigid,
Corolla hypogynous, 4- or 5-cleft, imbricated.
inferior.
Stamens de-
hypogynous; anthers 2-celled, dehiscing by a pore.

Ovary many-celled, many-seeded style 1. Fruit capsular.
Seeds indefinite, minute ; embryo in the axis of albumen.
USES.
Loiseleuria procumbens, Rhododendron ferrugineum, and others, are astringents. Arctostaphylus Uva Ursi
Rhododendron Chrysanthum is a powerful naris diuretic.
cotic, and this seems to be a general character of the order,
some of which, as Rhododendron maximum, Kalmia latifolia,
and Azalea Pontica, are dangerous poisons. Most of the
finite,
species are plants of great beauty.
TYPICAL GENERA.
Rhododendron, Kalmia, Erica.
144
Rhododendron
save
one.
2.
albiflorum.
An
1.
anther.
3.
A corolla and pistil, with all the stamens removed

A ripe capsule burst. 4. A vertical section of a
seed.
99
Leaves
Trees or shrubs without milk.
or
divisions.
in
6
3
Calyx inferior,
Ebenacea.
alternate,
coriaceous.
Stamens
Corolla hypogynous, usually pubescent, imbricated.
definite ; twice as many as the segments of the corolla, four
times as many, or the same number.
Ovary several-celled,
the cells having 1 or 2 pendulous ovules;
style divided.
Albumen cartilaginous ; embryo in
Fruit fleshy, few-seeded.
the axis
radicle turned
Subdivision.
nous.
towards the hilum.
Styraceae.
Ovary
inferior.
Stamens perigy-
Style simple.
The fruit of Diospyros Lotus, Kaki, and others, is

USES.
extremely astringent when* green, but becomes bletted and
sweet after a time, when it is eaten.
Diospyros Virginiana and
others have a febrifugal bark.
Ebony is the wood of Dios-
The
pyros Ebenus and several other species of that genus.
fragrant gum resins, Storax and Benzoin, are produced by
species of Styrax.
TYPICAL GENERA.
100.
Aquifoliacea.
Flowers small.
Trees or shrubs.
Leaves coriaceous.
Sepals inferior, 4 to 6, imbricated.
Corolla
Stamens alternate with its segments. Disk

Ovary with from 2 to 6 cells; ovules solitary, pen-
hypogynous.
none.
Diospyros, Maba, Styrax.
EXOGENÊ COROLLIFLORJE.
145
Fruit indehiscent, with from 2 to 6 stones.
dulous.
Seed
suspended ; albumen large embryo small, 2-lobed.

USES.
Ilex Aquifolium, the common Holly, has leaves
;
emetic,
and
fugal.
The
berries purgative
fruit
have similar
Some
its
leaves are powerfully febriverticillatus and others
and bark of Prinos
qualities.
Paraguay tea
is
Ilex
Paraguensis.
are diuretic.
TYPICAL GENERA.
Ilex, Prinos, Cassine.
101.
Trees or shrubs with milky juice.

Sapotaceee.
Leaves alternate, without stipules, coriaceous.
Calyx inferior, regular,
permanent.
Corolla hypogynous;
its
segments
usually equal in number to those of the calyx, seldom twice

or thrice as many.
Stamens arising from the corolla, definite.
Anthers
present.
each
turned outward; sterile stamens usually

with
several cells, and one erect ovule in
Ovary
1
Fruit
baccate.
Seeds nut-like. Testa
Style
usually
cell.
bony, shining. Embryo large, usually in fleshy albumen.

USES.
The species are generally astringent and febrifugal.
Achras Sapota and others are the Sapodilla plums, whose
fruit is
much esteemed
West Indian
in the
West
Indies.
The
Star-apple
Chrysophyllum Cainito.
vegetable butter is yielded by some species of Bassia.
TYPICAL GENERA.
Achras, Chrysophyllum, Mimusops.
(another
102.
fruit)
is
Trees or shrubs.
Myrsinacea.
Leaves alternate,
Calyx 4- or 5-cleft.
Stamens opposite the segments of the
serrated, coriaceous; stipules wanting.
Corolla hypogynous.
corolla; sometimes 5 sterile, petaloid, additional filaments.
Ovary 1, with a free central placenta ; style 1. Fruit fleshy,
mostly 1-seeded.
Seeds peltate, albumen horny
lying across the hilum.

USES. Embelia robusta
TYPICAL GENERA.
is
embryo
said to have purgative berries.
Ardisia, Myrsine.
Branches usually dichoCalyx monophyllous, permanent.

Stamens 2. Ovary
Corolla hypogynous, 4-cleft, valvate.
without any disk, 2-celled
ovules pendulous ; stigma bifid
or undivided.
Seeds with dense
Fruit often 1-seeded.
103.
tomous.
OleaceaE.
Trees or shrubs.
Leaves opposite.
albumen.
USES.
Olive
oil
is
obtained from the fruit of Olea eu-
146
exudes from the trunk of Ornus europsea

bark of the Olive is a powerful febrifuge.
Manna
ropsea.
and others. The
Phyllireas are
handsome evergreen shrubs.
TYPICAL GENERA.
Olea, Phyllirea, Syringa.
Leaves opposite or alternate,

mostly compound. Calyx divided or toothed, permanent.
Corolla regular, with from 5 to 8 divisions, imbricated and
Shrubs.
Jasminacea.
104.
Stamens
twisted.
2.
Ovary
destitute of a disk, 2-celled
Seeds with no albumen.

ovules erect ; stigma 2-lobed.
USES.
The flowers of most species are fragrant.
leaves and bark are bitter, but of little moment.
TYPICAL GENERA.
The
Jasminum, Nyctanthes.
Apocynacea. Trees or shrubs, usually milky. Leaves

opposite, quite entire, often having glands upon the petioles,
with no stipules. Calyx inferior, permanent. Corolla reguStamens 5.
Filaments distinct.
lar, 5-lobed, contorted.
105.
Ovaries 2, or 1 which is 2-celled, polyPollen granular.

spermous.
Stigma 1. Seeds with fleshy albumen.
USES.
Often dangerous poisons, but in some cases simply
The root of Nerium, the kernel of Tanghinia
purgatives.
the seeds of various kinds of Strychnos, called
first class ; the leaves of Cerbera
venenata,
Nux
vomica, belong to the
Manghas, Allamanda cathartica, to the second.

elastica, and others, abound in Caoutchouc.
TYPICAL GENERA. Vinca, Echites, Nerium.
Vahea,
Urceola
106.
Shrubs or herbaceous plants, milky,
Asclepiadacea.
and often twining. Leaves entire, opposite, having cilise between their petioles. Calyx inferior, permanent. Corolla 5lobed, regular, imbricated, very seldom valvular. Stamens 5 ;
filaments connate
anthers 2-celled
and sticking by 5 glands

Ovaries
to as
pollen cohering in masses,
many
processes of the stigma.
Stigma common to both styles, 5cornered.

Follicles 2.
Seeds comose ; albumen thin.
USES.
The roots of many are emetic, sudorific, acrid, and
2.
purgative.
indicus.
Styles 2.
Indian Sarsaparilla is the root of Hemidesmus

Asclepias tuberosa and Curassavica are employed
as cathartics in the United States

leaves of
Senna ;
and West
Cynanchum Argel are used

The extract
they are acrid.
in
Egypt
Indies.
The
to adulterate
of Calotropis gigantea,
EXOGEN^l COROLLIFLORJE.
the
Mudar
plant,
147
powerfully alterative and purgative.
is
species have a tough fibre, which renders

cordage ; others yield abundance of Caoutchouc.
Many
TYPICAL GENERA.
them
fit
for
Periploca, Stapelia, Physianthus.
Schubertia multiflora.
1. The anthers united to the
2. The ovary and
stigma.
3.
stigma, from the latter of which the pollen masses have been removed.
pair of
pendulous pollen masses, with their gland. 4. The ripe follicles.
Trees or shrubs, often twining or

Leaves
climbing.
opposite, usually compound, without stiand showy. Calyx inferior, sometimes
Flowers
large
pules.
107.
Bignoniacea.
Corolla irregular.
Stamens 5, of which 1 alare sterile.
Ovary in a disk, 2-celled,
spathaceous.
ways and sometimes 3

polyspermous
capsular
pressed.
style 1
stigma of 2 plates.
Fruit berried or
the latter, 2-valved, 2-celled, long and

Seeds often winged ; albumen 0.
if
com-
Some have hard timber,

USES. Usually beautiful plants.
and a red fecula is obtained from the leaves of Bignonia CheThe genera with berried fruit form a pecurere and others.
liar division, and include Crescentia Cujete, the Calabash-tree,
and Parmentiera edulis, both of which have eatable fruit.
TYPICAL GENERA. Bignonia, Tecoma.
108.
cal.
Cyrtandraceee.
Flowers showy.
Leaves opposite, often radi-
Herbs.
Calyx
Corolla irregular, imbricated.
inferior,
campanulate, equal.
Stamens didynamous.
i 2
Disk
148
annular.
Ovary
1 -celled,
with 2 double placentae
stigma
Fruit capsular and siliquose, or succulent, manySeeds minute, often with tails ; albumen absent.
2-lobed.
seeded.
Unknown.
USES.
TYPICAL GENERA.
Êschynanthus, Streptocarpus.
Leaves opposite,
Flowers showy.
Calyx inferior, permanent. Corolla regular, with an imbriStamens inserted upon
cated, twisted, or plaited aestivation.
the corolla, some of them occasionally abortive.
Ovary 1-
Herbaceous
Gentianaceee.
109.
plants.
without stipules, usually 3-5-ribbed.
entire,
Capsule or berry many-seeded ; the

stigmas 1 or 2.
of
the
turned
inwards.
valves
margins
Embryo in the axis of
soft albumen.
celled
USES.
tensely
so.
All the species are more or less bitter ; many inThe Gentian root of the shops is obtained from
Gentiana lutea chiefly the leaves and stems of Agathotes

Chirayta furnish the Gentian of India.
Menyanthes trifoliata
;
is
the Buck-bean, employed advantageously as a tonic.

TYPICAL GENERA. Erythrsea, Gentiana, Chironia.
Gentiana amarella.
the ripe
fruit.
site.
3.
1.
seed.
Section of the ovary of Chironia baccifera.

4.
vertical section of it.
Polemoniacea.
Calyx
inferior,
Herbaceous
5-parted.
plants.
Corolla
2. Section of
Leaves oppo-
regular,
5-lobed.
EXOGEN.E COROLLIFLOR^!.
Stamens
celled
5,
unequal, on the tube of the corolla.

Ovary 33-lobed.
Capsule 3-celled ; 3-valved, the
stigma
valves separating from the axis.
Unknown
USES.
Embryo
in
horny albumen.
TYPICAL GENERA.
Polemonium, Phlox,
Ill
Herbaceous plants, or shrubs, usually

Leaves alternate. Calyx permanent, in-
Gilia.
GonvolvulacetK,
twining and milky.
in 5 divisions, remarkably imbricated, often unequal.

Corolla hypogynous, plaited.
Stamens 5, inserted towards
the base of the corolla.
Ovary with 2 to 4 cells, few seeded ;
ferior,
ovules erect
1.
style
Disk annular.
Capsule with the
valves fitting at their edges to the angles of a loose dissepi-
Seeds with mucilaginous albumen
ment.
embryo curved
cotyledons shrivelled.
The
Scammonia yield Scamtrue

mony
Exogonium Purga,
Jalap ; of Ipomoea Batatoides, a kind of false Jalap, called Purga Macho ; and a great
many more possess similar properties. The Batatas, or Sweet
USES.
;
roots of Convolvulus
of
Potatoe, has the purgative quality so much diffused as to be a

valuable article of food ; the great roots of others have also
been found eatable.
TYPICAL GENERA.
Ipomoea Batatoides.
1.
Ipomoea, Convolvulus, Calystegia.
The
pistil
and annular disk.
3.
the ovary.
capsule of Convolvulus tricolor.
seed of that species.
4.
2.
transverse section of
section of the
vertical
150
112.
Leafless parasites.
Cmcutacea.
Calyx permanent,
Corolla permanent, imbriinferior, 4-5-parted, imbricated.

Stamens
cated.
Scales alternating with segments of corolla.
opposite the last.
styles 2.
USES.
Capsule.
Embryo
ovules in pairs,
spiral, in fleshy
erect
albumen.
Unknown.
TYPICAL GENUS.
113.
2-celled
Ovary
Cuscuta.
Cordiacete.
Trees.
Leaves scabrous, without
sti-
pules.
Calyx inferior, 5-toothed. Corolla regular. Stamens
alternate with the segments of the corolla.
Ovary 4-celled,
Fruit
with 1 pendulous ovule in each cell ; stigma 4-cleft.
Seed pendulous by a funiculus cotyledrupaceous, 4-celled.
dons plaited ; albumen 0.
;
USES.
Unimportant.
Sebesten plums, an emollient muciby Cordia Myxa, and Sebestena.
laginous fruit, are produced

TYPICAL GENUS. Cordia.
114.
Herbaceous plants, or shrubs. Stems

Boraginaceee.
Leaves alternate, covered with asperities. Flowers in
gyrate racemes (scorpioid).
Calyx inferior, permanent. Coround.
rolla
hypogynous, regular.
corolla.
simple or
USES.
Ovary
Stamens
4-parted, 4-seeded
Nuts
5,
inserted
style simple
upon the
;
stigma
Seed without albumen.

The dye called Alkanet is obtained from the roots
of Anchusa tinctoria and several other
The foliage is
species.
insipid and harmless.
bifid.
TYPICAL GENERA.
4, distinct.
Myosotis, Anchusa, Lithospermum.
151
COROLLIFLORJE.
1. Throat cut
2.
3. Ripe fruit with two of the nuts
Myosotis.
open.
pistil.
4.
remaining, and the scars of two that have dropped off.
perpendicular section
of a nut.
115.
Solanacete.
alternate,
sometimes
Leaves

collateral.
Inflorescence often out of the
;
pedicels without bracts.
Calyx permanent, inferior.
Corolla regular, or somewhat unequal, plaited.
Stamens in-
axil
serted
upon the
corolla.
Pericarp with 2 or 4 cells.

curved in fleshy albumen.
2-celled
stigma simple.
Seeds numerous
embryo usually
Ovary
USES.
Many are narcotic, as Tobacco, Henbane, Stramonium, Bitter-sweet, and Deadly Nightshade, or Belladonna.
The fruit of others is almost free from deleterious qualities,
and eatable as the Aubergine, Solanum esculentum, Tomatoes,

Solanum Lycopersicon, Physalis edulis, and many others.
In some species starch is collected in great quantity, and
renders them fit for food, as in the tubers of the Potatoe, Solanum tuberosum.
TYPICAL GENERA. Solanum, Datura, Physalis.
;
or
Petunia violacea.
1.
cross section of the ovary.
Dulcamara. 3.
section of one of its seeds.
2.
116.
Hydrophyllacea.
Herbaceous
Ripe
fruit
of Solanum
plants.
Leaves
Inflorescence often gyrate.

usually lobed.
Calyx inferior,
Corolla regular.
Stamens
5-cleft, with reflexed appendages.
5, epipetalous.
Ovary simple, 1-celled ; placentae 2.
2-valved.
Seeds reticulated ; embryo cartilaginous.
Fruit
Unknown.
USES.
TYPICAL GENERA.
Corolla irregular.
Calyx permanent.
1 -celled, in
brown leafless herbs.

Stamens didynamous.
with 2 or more parietal pla-
Parasitical
Orobanchaceee.
117.
Ovary
Nemophila, Phacelia.
a fleshy disk,
Fruit capsular, many-seeded, enstigma 2-lobed.

closed within the withered permanent corolla ; seeds very
centse
minute
USES.
embryo extremely
known
Scarcely
TYPICAL GENERA.
118.
small, in the
apex of albumen.
they are astringent plants.
Orobanche, Lathraa.
Scrophulariacea.
Herbs or shrubs with opposite or
rolla irregular.
Calyx tubular, permanent. CoStamens didynamous, or 2. Ovary 2-celled;
ovules numerous
alternate exstipulate leaves.
stigma 2-lobed.
Fruit 2-celled
seeds in-
is
so lower-
definite or definite, albuminous.
USES.
Foxglove, whose action upon the pulse
ing, is Digitalis purpurea.
and
Gratiola
officinalis,
some Calceo-
are purgative and emetic.

and sub-aromatic. Vandellia
powerful antibilious emetic and febrifuge.
larias,
others,
officinalis is bitter
TYPICAL GENERA.
Scrophularia, Antirrhinum, Pentstemon.
I.
Digitalis purpurea.
corolla split open.
2.
pistil.
tion ot it.
4.
5.
ripe capsule.
vertical section of a seed.
Euphrasia
a
diffusa is
3.
transverse sec-
153
COROLLIFLORJE,
Herbaceous plants or underLeaves opposite, often replete

Flowers in axillary cymes; sometimes
Lamiacete or Labiate.
119.
Stem
shrubs.
with aromatic
4-cornered.
oil.
Calyx tubular, permanent.
solitary.
Corolla bilabiate.
mens didynamous, the 2 upper sometimes wanting.

4-lobed
style
Seeds with
little
Fruit 1
stigma bifid.
or no albumen.
;
to 4
Sta-
Ovary
small nuts.
The
species are always harmless, and in many cases

useful for their tonic aromatic qualities.
Lavender is Lavan-
USES.
for coughs, is Marrubium vulMint,

Marjoram, Thyme, Sage, are all potSavory,
herbs used in cookery.
Teucrium Marum is a powerful and
dula vera
Horehound, used
gare.
The cordial Peppermint is presingular stimulant of cats.

kind of stearoptene resempared from Mentha piperita.
bling Camphor, is found in many species.
TYPICAL GENERA. Lanaium, Salvia, Scutellaria.
3.
Marrubium
The pistil.
An
1.
vulgare.
nut.
5.
4.
2.
corolla slit open.
entire flower seen in profile.
vertical section of the latter, showing the embryo.
Trees or shrubs, sometimes herbaceous

Verbenaceee.
Flowers in opLeaves
plants.
in dense
sometimes
or
alternately
spiked
posite corymbs,
Stamens didyCorolla irregular.
heads.
Calyx tubular.
120.
namous, occasionally
2.
Ovary
2- or 4-celled
ovules erect
154
Fruit composed of 2
or pendulous ; style 1 ; stigma bifid.
or 4 nucules in a state of adhesion ; albumen none.
USES.
few are slightly aromatic and bitter.

Verbena, Aloysia, Callicarpa.
TYPICAL GENERA.
121.
AcantJiaceee.

fascicles, or even solitary.
Leaves
Inflorescence in spikes, racemes,
Flowers usually opposite, placed

Calyx very much imbricated, permanent, inCorolla irregular, 2-lipped.
Stamens mostly 2, some-
within bracts.
ferior.
times didynamous.
Ovary in a disk, 2-celled, 2- or manyseeded ; stigma 2-lobed.
Capsule 2-celled, bursting elasti-
Seeds hanging by hard, usually hooked processes of

cally.
the placentae ; albumen none.
USES.
Acanthus spinosus is accounted emollient. The
and roots of Adhatoda Vasica are supposed to be

antispasmodic. Justicia paniculata is bitter and stomachic.
TYPICAL GENERA. Ruellia, Justicia, Eranthemum.
leaves
122.
Lentibulacea.
Herbaceous plants. Leaves undiFlowers
vided, or resembling roots, and bearing vesicles.
single, or in spikes.
Calyx permanent, inferior. Corolla
with a spur. Stamens 2 ; anthers simwith a free central placenta; stigma

bilabiate.
Capsule 1-celled.
USES.
Of no importance.
irregular, bilabiate,
Ovary
ple.
1-celled,
TYPICAL GENERA.
Pinguicula, Utricularia.
123.
Plumbaginacea. Herbaceous plants or shrubs.
Leaves alternate, undivided, somewhat
sheathing.
Calyx
inferior, tubular, plaited.
Ovary
superior, 1-seeded
cord
styles 5.
USES.
Statice
astringent roots.
cant.
Corolla regular.
Stamens definite.
ovule pendulous from an umbilical
Fruit a utricle.
Seed inverted.
Limonium, and others, have extremely

The bark of Plumbago is acrid and vesi-
TYPICAL GENERA.
Armeria, Plumbago.
l24.Globulariace<e. Shrubs or herbs.

Leaves alternate.
Flowers in heads.
Calyx inferior, permanent, 5-cleft, sometimes 2-lipped.
Corolla hypogynous,
bilabiate,
made up
of
EXOGENJE COROLLIFLORJE.
Stamens
5 parts.
155
from the tube of the
4,
corolla.
Ovary
Albumen fleshy.
superior, 1-celled, with a pendulous ovule.
USES.
The species are said to be bitter, tonic, and pur;
they appear to be of little importance.
TYPICAL GENUS. Globularia.
gative
Herbaceous plants. Calyx 4-5-cleft,

Stamens inserted upon
permanent,
the corolla opposite its segments.
Ovary 1-celled, with a
125.
Primulaceee.
Corolla regular.
inferior.
free
central placenta
style
with a central placenta.

fleshy albumen.
USES.
The
root of
stigma capitate.
Embryo
Cyclamen
Capsule
lying across the hilum in

is
acrid
the
flowers of
Cowslips sedative. Anagallis arvensis is powerfully acrid.

TYPICAL GENERA. Primula, Anagallis, Lysimachia.
1.
Aretia Vitaliana.
of the latter,
126.
flower cut open.
3.
free central placenta.
5.
2.
showing the
inconspicuous
4-leaved, imbricated.
Stamens 4
USES.
ovules peltate or erect, solitary, twin,
stigma hispid,
in fleshy
The
Corolla membranous, hypogynous, 4filaments flaccid ; anthers versatile.
Ovary without a disk

or indefinite
Embryo
Herbaceous plants, with spiked

and ribbed leaves. Calyx inferior,
Plantaginacea.
flowers,
parted.
4. A vertical section
pistil.
A section of a seed.
The
simple.
Capsule membranous.
albumen.
species are of little importance.
The
seeds of
and others are mucilaginous; the foliage
Plantago Psyllium
this plant, which
of PI angustifolia is slightly astringent ;
Plantain or Ribgrass, is of some value
is commonly called
for sheep-feed in
dry exposed places.

TYPICAL GENEBA. Plantago, Littorella.
SUBCLASS IV. MONOCHLAMYDE^:.
127.
Under-shrubs or herbaceous plants.

without stipules, often with pellucid dots.
Phytolaccacea.
Leaves alternate,
Stamens indefinite,
of 4 or 5 petaloid leaves.
the calyx, alterof
divisions
the
of
number
or, if equal to the
several
to
1
cells, each
from
of
them.
nate with
Ovary
baccate or dry, 1- or
Fruit
ovule.
1
ascending
containing
Calyx
inferior,
Seeds solitary, with a cylindrical embryo curved

round mealy albumen.
The succulent fruit of Phytolacca decandra is said
USES.
many-celled.
to be useful in chronic
is
and
siphylitic
rheumatism
its
juice
and dangerously purgative.

TYPICAL GENERA. Phytolacca, Eivina.
acrid, emetic,
Under-shrubs or herbaceous plants,

Petiveriacea.
128.
with an alliaceous odour. Leaves alternate, with distinct
with minute pellucid dots.
Calyx of several
stipules, often
distinct leaves.
Stamens perigynous,
indefinite, or, if equal
segments of the calyx, alternate. Ovary superior,

Fruit 1-celled, indehiscent, dry. Seed
1-celled ; ovule erect.
to
the
without albumen
USES.
radicle inferior.
Petiveria alliacea
is
acrid, sudorific,
and emmena-
gogue.
TYPICAL GENERA.
Petiveria, Seguiera.

Flowers small. Calyx
stipules.
sometimes tubular at the base, persistent. Stamens inserted
129.
Chenopodiacea.
Leaves alternate without
the base of the calyx, opposite its segments.

Ovary
superior, with a single ovule attached to the base of the
into
cavity.
Fruit membranous.
Embryo curved round
farina-
ceous albumen, or spiral, or doubled up without albumen.

USES.
Spinach, Garden Orach (Atriplex hortensis), Chard
Beet, and Sea Beet, are delicate esculents whose leaves are
eaten boiled.
The roots of common Beet and Mangel Wurzel
EXOGEN;E MONOCHLAMYDEJE.
157
are succulent, sweet, and valuable for food.

The seeds of
are
consumed
for food in
Chenopodium Quinoa
extensively
Peru.
On the other hand, Chenopodium olidum and bary-
osmon
are
emmenagogues Ch. anthelminticum furoil of wormseed

Ch. ambrosioides is
foetid
nishes the anthelmintic
a fragrant expectorant. Several species of Atriplex are reVarious kinds of Salsola and
ported to have emetic seeds.
Salicornia supply the sodas of the shops.
TYPICAL GENERA.
Chenopodium, Atriplex, Blitum.
1.
portion of the spike of Salicornia herbacea, with the flowers lodged in the
flower separate.
flower of Salsola Kali.
2.
3.
4. Its
notches of the axis.
5. The same magnified, with a portion of the leafy dilated calyx torn
ripe fruit.
flower
of
album.
8.
section of the
Chenopodium
away. 6. Its embryo. 7.
same, showing the superior ovary. 9. Its seed cut through to show the embryo.
Stem either herbaceous, shrubby, or

130. Nyctaginaceee.
Leaves opposite, and almost always unequal ;
arborescent.
Flowers having either a common or
sometimes alternate.
Calyx tubular, sometimes coloured ; beproper involucre.
coming indurated at the base. Stamens definite, hypogynous.
Ovary
superior, with a single erect ovule.
Fruit a utricle,
enclosed within the base of the calyx.

Embryo with
aceous cotyledons, wrapping round floury albumen.
USES.
The
fleshy roots of the
species of Mirabilis
slightly purgative.
TYPICAL GENERA.
Mirabilis,
Oxybaphus.
foli-
are
158
Leaves simple,
Amarantacea. Herbs or shrubs.
in
heads
or
without stipules. Flowers
spikes, usually coloured.
in
immersed
dry coloured bracts.
Calyx scarious, persistent,
131.
Stamens hypogynous.
Ovary superior, 1- or few-seeded ;
Fruit a utricle.
central funiculus.
from
a
free
ovules hanging
Seeds lentiform albumen farinaceous ; embryo curved round
;
the circumference
radicle next the hilum.
Unimportant. The species are insipid, on which

account some species of Amaranthus have been employed as
Their dry richly coloured flowers render some of
spinach.
USES.
the species beautiful objects of cultivation.
TYPICAL GENERA.
132.
Amaranthus,
Celosia, Trichinium.
Begoniaceae.
Leaves alternate, oblique. Stipules scarious. Flowers unisexual.

Stamens
Sepals in the males 4 ; in the females 5.
anthers collected in a head, the connective very
Ovary winged, 3-celled, with 3 double polyspermous
indefinite
thick.
Fruit 3placentae in the axis ; stigmas 3, somewhat spiral.

celled, with an indefinite number of minute seeds; embryo
without albumen.
USES.
Unknown.
TYPICAL GENUS.
133.
nate.
Lauracea.
Begonia.
Trees.
Leaves without
imbricated.
stipules,
alter-
Stamens
Calyx
definite, perigynous; anthers 2-4-celled, bursting by recurved valves.
Glands at the base of the inner filaments.
Ovary superior,
with one or two pendulous ovules. Fruit
Seed withfleshy.
out albumen ; embryo
amygdaloid, with peltate cotyledons.
USES.
All appear to be aromatics,
although some, as Oreofoetens
and others, have the aromatic
daphne
so con4-6-cleft,
The
centrated as to be acrid.
principle
seeds of Nectandra Puchury
and Aydendron Cujumary are the Pichurim beans or Sassafras

nuts, used as a substitute for nutmegs.
Cimiainomum zeylanicum yields cinnamon, and a bark of like nature is
supplied
by many other plants of this order. Camphor is obtained

from Camphora officinarum and the aromatic Sassafras
bark,
used by the
people of the United States as a powerful sudois taken from the root of
rific,
Sassafras officinale.
The
;
EXOGEN.E MONOCHLAMYDE.E.
Avocado
pear,
an eatable West Indian
Persea gratissima.
TYPICAL GENERA.
Laurus,
borne by
is
Cinnamomum.
fruit,
159
A
A
1.
male flower. 2.
female.
3.
stamen, with a gland at
cluster of fruit.
5.
6.
anther, with the recurved valves.
cotyledon seen from within, with the plumula adhering to the inner face.
Litssea Baueri.
the base.
4.
An
Herbaceous plants, rarely shrubs.

134.
Polygonacea.
Leaves alternate, their stipules usually cohering in the form of
an ochrea. Calyx inferior, imbricated. Stamens definite.
Ovary superior, with a single erect ovule. Nut triangular.
Seed with farinaceous albumen
remote from the hilum.
USES.
Rumex
embryo inverted
scutatus, Acetosa,
and
radicle
others, are the Sorrel
plants used in cookery. Rhubarb is the root of several species

of Rheum similar properties, only more feeble, are found in
Rumex alpinus. In addition to acid and purgative qualities,
;
a great degree of astringency manifests itself, as in the roots

of Rumex, and the bark of Coccoloba uvifera, which is said
to yield a kind of Kino. It is reported that the seeds of Poly-
gonum aviculare are emetic, notwithstanding

P. Fagopyrum and tataricum are employed as
places
the leaves of
that those of
food in some
Polygonum hydropiper and
acrid.
TYPICAL GENERA.
Rumex, Polygonum, Rheum.
others are
160
Polygonum
seed.
1.
lapathifolium.
A flower of Polyg.
3.
2.
flower cut open.
Convolvuli.
4.
The same
vertical section of the
cut open.
5.
A transverse
section of a seed.
135.
juice.
-Myristicacea.
Tropical trees, often
Flowers unisexual. Calyx
trifid.
yielding a red
Ovary
superior, with
Seed enveloped in a
albumen ruminate.
aril ; embryo very minute
many-parted
USES.
Myristica moschata yields the well-known spices
Fruit 2-valved.
a single erect ovule.
mace and nutmeg.
Similar aromatic qualities pervade
the
order.
TYPICAL GENUS.
136.
Myristica.
Proteacea.
Shrubs or small
trees.
Leaves hard,
Calyx valvular. Stamens 4, opposite

dry, without stipules.
the segments of the calyx, and usually imbedded in their
points.
Ovary superior, simple ; style simple. Fruit dehisSeed without albumen.
These are often handsome bushes with densely
capitate flowers, and in Australia are regarded as indications
of bad land but they are of little use.
The seeds of Gue-
cent or indehiscent.
USES.
vina are large, almond-like, and sold as nuts in the markets

of Chili.
TYPICAL GENERA.
137.
Leaves
grant.
Protea, Banksia, Grevillea.
Trees or shrubs with a scurfy surface.

without stipules.
Flowers axillary, often fraMales: calyx 4-parted; stamens 3 to 8, sessile.
Elaagnaceee.
entire,
EXOGENÊ MONOCHLAMYDEJE.
161
Female calyx inferior, tubular, persistent. Ovary 1-celled ;

ovule ascending ; stigma subulate.
Fruit enclosed within the
:
calyx ; embryo surrounded by fleshy albumen.

USES.
The succulent fruit of Elseagnus hortensis and orien-
forms a part of an oriental dessert. That of Hippophae

rhamnoides, the Sea Buckthorn of England, may be eaten.
TYPICAL GENERA. Elaeagnus, Shepherdia.
talis
138.
Stem shrubby.
Thymelacetz.
Leaves without
sti-
pules.
Calyx inferior, tubular, often coloured. Stamens defiin
the orifice of its tube.
nite,
Ovary with one pendulous
ovule.
Fruit nut-like or drupaceous.
Albumen none, or
thin
embryo straight radicle superior.

The bark of the species is generally
;
USES.
caustic
that
Daphne Laureola, the Spurge Laurel, acts as a vesicant ;

the succulent black fruits are dangerous.
Lace Bark, the
of
lintearia, derives its name from the delicate

which are tough, and easily separated by a little
violence.
The same toughness of the fibre is found in many
;
species
Daphne cannabina derives its name from being as
as
Cannabis (Hemp).
tough
TYPICAL GENERA. Daphne, Gnidia, Struthiola.
liber of
white
3.
Lagetto
fibres,
Daphne Mezereum.
The fruit.
139.
1.
Santalacea.
flower cut
Trees,
Leaves alternate, without
open.
2.
shrubs,
stipules.
vertical section of
an ovarv.
or herbaceous plants.
Flowers small. Calyx
M
162
Stamens
half-coloured, valvate.
the calyx.
tral
Ovary
placenta.
Embryo
1-celled.
Style
single.
in the axis of
4-5, inserted in the base of
Ovules 1-4, attached to a cenFruit 1-seeded, indehiscent.
albumen.
The wood is sometimes fragrant

USES.
obtained from several species of Santalum.
TYPICAL GENERA.
Sandal wood
is
Thesium, Nyssa, Santalum.
AristolocMacea.
140.
Herbaceous
plants
or
shrubs.
Leaves alternate, often with leafy stipules. Wood without

Flowers brown, or some dull colour, hermconcentric zones.
Calyx superior, valvate.
aphrodite.
inferior, 3- or 6-celled
Ovary
Stamens epigynous.
;
stigmas radiatSeeds with a minute
style simple
Fruit 3- or 6-celled, many-seeded.

embryo in the base of fleshy albumen.
ing.
Many are tonic and stimulating. Aristolochia serand

pentaria
fragrantissima are employed as powerful aromatics; others, as A. Clematitis, indica, &c. are emmenaThe Asarums seem to have similar qualities, but
gogues.
more feeble; A. Canadense is called Wild Ginger in North
USES.
America.
In
consequence of their stimulating properties some

are employed as alexipharmics ; the Guaco of the Oronoko,
said to be a specific against the bite of
snakes, is a species of
Aristolochia.
TYPICAL GENERA.
Aristolochia,
Asarum.
141.
Empetracea. Small acrid shrubs with heath-like
evergreen leaves and minute flowers, which are unisexual.
Sepals hypogynous imbricated scales. Stamens equal in number to the inner sepals, and alternate with them.
3:
Ovary
6- or 9-celled
ovules solitary,
ascending ; stigma radiating.
Fruit fleshy, 3- 6- or 9-celled ; the
coating of the cells bony ;
embryo in the axis of fleshy watery albumen.
USES.
Unknown.
TYPICAL GENERA.
Empetrum,
Ceratiola.
l4>2.Euphor1)iacea:.
Trees, shrubs, or herbaceous plants,
abounding in acrid milk. Leaves opposite or alternate,
usually with stipules.
Flowers sometimes enclosed within
often
EXOGENJE MONOCHLAMYDEJE.
163
an involucre, monoecious or
dioecious.
Calyx lobed, someCorolla consisting of petals, or scales, or
Stamens definite or indefinite.
Ovary superior,
times wanting.
absent.
or
2-
ovules solitary or twin; suspended ; styles

to the cells; stigma compound or single.
generally consisting of 3 dehiscent cells, separating
3-celled
equal in
Fruit
number
with elasticity from their

albumen.
USES.
Castor-oil
communis
common
axis;
in
embryo
fleshy
obtained from the seeds of Ricinus
is
Tiglium-oil from that of Croton Tiglium ; and

a similar purgative quality seems to be general in the seeds
;
of the order.
Cascarilla
is
the bark of Croton Eleutheria
and the same aromatic
principle occurs in many species.

are
as
Manchineel, Hysenanche, Sapium
Many
deadly poisons,
aucuparium, Sec. The drastic drug Euphorbium flows from
the stem of some

so
Boxwood,
Buxus sempervirens.
nutritious
substance
Euphorbias in North Africa.

engravers, is the timber of
Cassava, or Mandioc, or Tapioca, a
succulent
useful
to
wood
consisting of starch,
is
obtained from
the stem of Jatropha Manihot, a poisonous plant
but
it
is
purified by washing and torrefaction.

TYPICAL GENERA. Buxus, Andrachne, Cluytia.
1.
The
involucre of a Euphorbia, containing monandrous male florets, surrounding

2. 3. 4. Male florets of different species, with the articulation
a long-stalked female.
6.
vertical
5.
that separates the filament from the pedicel.
carpel separate.
vertical section of a ripe seed, showing the central column
7.
section of an ovary.
and an embryo in the midst of albumen.
164
Andrachne
the scales at
telephioides.
base.
4.
its
vertical section of
143.
1.
male flower.
A transverse
2.
section of
A female
flower.
an ovary.
5.
3.
A ripe
A pistil with
seed.
6.
it.
Herbaceous plants.
Chlomntkacete.
Leaves opposite with
intervening
Stamens
aphrodite or unisexual.
with a fleshy connective.

Fruit drupaceous.
lous.
stipules.
Stems jointed.
Flowers herm-
lateral; anthers 1-celled,
Ovule penduat
the apex of
minute
Embryo
Ovary
1-celled.
fleshy albumen.
USES.
Chloranthus
and others are powerful arowhich have been used with suc-
officinalis
matics, especially the roots,

cess in dangerous typhus.
TYPICAL GENUS.
Chloranthus.
Leaves
144.
Piperacea. Shrubs or herbaceous plants.
without stipules. Flowers usually sessile in spikes, hermaphrodite.
Stamens
1-celled, containing
definite or indefinite.
a single erect ovule
Ovary
stigma
superior,
sessile,
sim-
Fruit somewhat fleshy, indehiscent.

Seed erect, with
the embryo lying in a fleshy sac or vitellus placed at that
ple.
end of the seed which
is
opposite the hilum, on the outside
of the albumen.
USES.
The pungent aromatic peppers of the shops are
obtained from different species; Piper
nigrum yields black
and white pepper; P. longum the long pepper. Cubebs is
the pepper of P. caninum and others.
P. Betel and me-
thysticum are both intoxicating.

TYPICAL GENERA. Piper, Peperomia.
EXOGENÊ MONOCHLAMYDE.E.
Serronia Jaborandi.
1.
vertical section of the same,
cluster of flowers magnified.
2.
165
ripe fruit,
3.
showing the seed and the position of the embryo.
Herbaceous marsh or water plants.

Flowers hermaphrodite. Stastipules.
mens 6, clavate, persistent.
Ovaries 4, distinct, with solitary
or a 3- 4-celled pistil.
Nuts 4, indeascending ovules
minute
in a fleshy
hiscent or a 3- 4-celled capsule.
Embryo
sac or vitellus, on the outside of hard mealy albumen.
145.
Saururaceae.
Leaves alternate, with
USES.
Unknown.
TYPICAL GENERA.
Saururus, Aponogeton.
Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate, simFlowers

unisexual, amentaceous.
ple,
stipules.
Ovary
1-celled
erect.
ovules
Fruit coriaceous,
;
numerous,
superior,
Seeds comose ; albumen 0.
1-celled, 2-valved, many-seeded.
146.
Salicaceee.
with
USES.
whose
Various species of Salix are the Willows from

S. alba is a
shoots wicker-work is made.
flexible
tree, and its bark abounds in tannin

and purpurea yield a good febrifugal bark.
The same property resides in Populus tremula, and other
the young buds of Populus candicans
species of that genus
and balsamifera exude a fragrant resin used in medicine
finally, the timber of Poplars is light, clean, and very useful
for purposes in which hardness and strength are not required.
very large fast-growing
S. Russelliana
TYPICAL GENERA.
Populus, Salix.
166
Populus.
1.
ripe capsule.
2.
Nigra.
6.
Tremula.
3.
male flower.
4.
female flower.
5.
seed.
Leaves alternate,
Platanacea. Trees or shrubs.
147.
with scarious sheathing stipules. Flowers amentaceous, in
round unisexual catkins. Stamens single. Ovaries terminated by a thick style, having the stigmatic surface on one
ovules solitary, or two, suspended.
Nuts clavate.
;
Seeds solitary ; embryo in the axis of fleshy albumen.
USES.
The large species yield a beautiful but brittle and
side
perishable timber.
TYPICAL GENUS.
148.
Platanus.
Trees, shrubs or herbs, sometimes lacLeaves alternate, usually covered with asperities
or stinging hairs; with stipules.
Flowers small, monoecious
or dioecious.
Stamens definite, often
Calyx membranous.
turned back with elasticity.
ovule
Ovary superior,
Urticacea.
tescent.
simple;
EXOGENÊ MONOCHLAMYDEJE.
solitary,
167
erect or suspended ; stigma simple.

Fruit, a nut.
or without albumen ; radicle always superior.
Embryo with
Division 1.
Urticea.
TYPICAL GENERA.
Flowers
loose.
Juice watery.
Urtica, Parietaria.
A
A
I. Branch of Procris splendens.

2. Cluster of male and female flowers.
3.
male flower about to expand. 4. The same expanded. 5.
nut of hemp. 6.
vertical section of it.
vertical section of the ovary of Dorstenia.
7.
8. An acci-
dental double pistil of the same.
Division
2.
Flowers consolidated.
Artocarpea.
Juice
milky.
TYPICAL GENERA.
USES.
The
Morus, Artocarpus.
leaves of
Hemp
are narcotic
and the Upas,
(Antiaris toxicaria,) certain kinds of Fig, and many Nettles,

are dangerous narcotico-acrid poisons.
The deleterious principle
is,
however, so
little
developed in some that they befor food, as the fruit of the
come harmless, and are used
common
several
Fig, the Mulberry, the Bread-fruit, (Artocarpus,) and

Even the milky juice, which is generally
others.
very acrid, is bland in some cases, especially that of the

Cow-tree of Equinoctial America, on which the natives feed ;
it
always abounds in Caoutchouc, which is obtained in large
quantities from many kinds of Fig. The Banyan-tree of India
is
is
Ficus indica.
also
common
The toughness
of fibre found
in other species, especially
some
in
Hemp
nettles
and
168
Broussonetia papyrifera.
Hops, so valuable for their bitterand
bracts
the
of
ripe fruit of Humulus Lupulus.
ness, consist
Morus
alba.
1.
female flower
3.
2. Clusters of females.
5.
vertical section of
part of the calyx cut away.
cluster of fruit consisting of baccate calyxes.
male flower.
The same with a
4.
separate.
a ripe achEenium.
6.
Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate, with

Flowers
amentaceous, monoecious ; males
unisexual,
stipules.
sometimes having a calyx. Stamens definite, usually distinct.
Betulacea.
149.
Ovary
superior,
branous,
none.
2-celled
indehiscent,
Fruit mempendulous.
Seeds pendulous; albumen
ovules
1-celled.
Timber trees, furnishing a

TYPICAL GENERA. Betula, Alnus.
USES.
150.
Leafy shrubs, with resinous glands and

Flowers unisexual, amentaceous,
Stamens 6 or 8. Ovary 1-celled, surrounded
alternate.
achlamydeous.
by
kind of wood.
Myricacea.
leaves
dots,
light
several
hypogynous
scales
ovule solitary, erect
Fruit drupaceous, or dry and dehiscent.
2.
erect
Seed
stigmas
solitary,
radicle superior.
Aromatic shrubs.
Sweet Gale, Myrica Gale, is

as a substitute for hops.
The berries of the
M. cerifera, the Candleberry Myrtle, secrete a natural wax
from their surface ; its roots are astringent. Comptonia asUSES.
used
in
Sweden
plenifolia is
used
in
TYPICAL GENERA.
North American medicine

Myrica, Comptonia.
in diarrho?a.
MONOCHLAMYDE^l.
151.
Corylacea or Cupuliferee.
with
Trees or shrubs.
169
Leaves
Flowers unisexual, amentaceous.

stipules,
Stamens 5 to 20. Ovary crowned by the rudiments of a
calyx, within a coriaceous involucre, with several cells and
several ovules ; ovules pendulous.
Fruit a 1 -celled nut, enalternate.
closed in the involucre.
Seed
solitary.
The Beech, valuable for its timber, and its nuts

called mast, is Fagus sylvatica.
Hazel-nuts are the fruit
of Corylus Avellana.
Sweet Chesnuts are borne by Castanea
USES.
vesca.
Oaks, the most valuable of European trees, are va
rious species of Quercus.
TYPICAL GENERA.
Fagus, Quercus.
3. The latter, with the

2. Female do.
1. Male catkins.
sylvatica.
male
4.
of the involucre stripped off to show the ovaries at the apex.
5.
flower.
half-grown female, with the involucre, now consisting of consolidated
7.
the nuts.
fi.
sculps, forced back.
ripe involucre opening .and exposing
8. The same of a young ovary.
transverse section of a ripe nut.
Fagus
scales
170
Leaves alternate, pinnated,

Trees.
152.
Juglandacea.
Flowers unisexual, amenwithout pellucid dots or stipules.
in the females
membranous
in
the
males
taceous.
;
Calyx
Petals in the males
superior.
Stamens
present.
2- 4-celled
indefinite.
in the females occasionally
Ovary
inferior, incompletely
Fruit drupaceous, 1-celled,
Seed 4-lobed ; radicle superior.
ovule solitary, erect.
with 4 imperfect partitions.

USES.
Trees furnishing excellent timber
and nigra
regia
that of Juglans
;
of Carya alba for purthe former are Walnuts, the
used for gunstocks
is
poses of elasticity and strength
purgative ; that of the common

Walnut when young, made into a preserve with the husk, is
a domestic medicine ; and Juglans cathartica derives its name
latter
from
The
Hickory.
its
fruit is
quality.
TYPICAL GENUS.
Juglans.
53.
Cycadacea. Trees, with a cylindrical trunk, increasing
a
by single terminal bud. Leaves pinnated, gyrate. Flowers
1
dioBcious.
Males monandrous,
in cones.
Females either in
Ovules solitary,
cones, or in the form of contracted leaves.
naked.
Embryo
the midst of albumen,
in
hanging by a
spiral suspensor.
USES.
bitter
starch,
Zamias
which forms
in the
of unknown use exudes from the

the latter contains a great
quantity of
a kind of arrow-root extracted from
gum
trunk when wounded
West
Indies,
and a
sort of
Sago from the
species of Cycas.
TYPICAL GENERA.
Zamia, Cycas.
154.
Taxace/e.
Trees with continuous branches.
Ligneous tissue marked with circular disks.
Leaves usually entire ; sometimes dilated and
lobed, and in those cases having
forked veins.
Flowers mono3cious or
Fidirecious, solitary.
laments monadelphous.
Females ; ovules naked, their outer
skin
hard.
Seed
becoming
hard, either naked or surrounded
by a succulent
ous.
USES.
trees.
cup.
Albumen
fleshy.
Embryo
dicotyledon-
The Yew and several others are valuable timberThe leaves of Yew are foetid and deleterious
;
are said to act
they
medicinally like Digitalis without accumulating
EXOGEN-ffi
in the
system
MONOCHLAMYDE^;.
171
the succulent fruit seems harmless
but the
seeds are said to be dangerous.
TYPICAL GENERA.
Taxus, Dacrydium.
flowers.
1.
male flower. 2. An anther.
female flower.
5. Of a ripe fruit.
4.
vertical section of an ovule.
6. Of a
N.B. 4. and 6. are the same part in youth and age.
ripe seed, showing the embryo.
5. Is the ripe ovule, with an accessory cup.
Taxus baccata loaded with male
3.
155.
Pinacete,
or
Conifers.
branched trunk abounding in

with circular disks. Leaves
Trees or
resin.
entire.
shrubs,
with a
Ligneous tissue marked

Flowers moncecious or
Males monandrous or monadelphous, collected in

a deciduous catkin. Females in cones. Ovary a flat scale.
Ovules naked. Fruit a cone. Seed with a hard integument.
Embryo in oily albumen, with 2 or many opposite cotydioecious.
ledons.
USES.
The timber is of great value Deal, Fir,

wood are produced by various species.
;
Cedar, Larch
Pine,
Tur-
pentine, resin, pitch, and similar substances are obtained from

others ; the resin Sandarach exudes from Thuja articulata.
Juniper-berries are the galbuli of Juniperus communis, and

are diuretic.
Savin, a dangerous emmenagogue, is the Juni-
perus Sabina.
Larch bark
is
equal to that of
ning power.
TYPICAL GENERA.
>t.(
Thuja, Abies, Cupressus.
Oak
for tan-
172
Thuja
orientalis.
1.
magnified fragment of a branch bearing a cone of male
portion of a female branch.

vertical section of a ripe seed.
flowers.
2.
3.
4.
Scales with
naked
ovules.
5.
Abies Larix
4.
1.
An
anther.
2.
female scale with ovules.
3.
ripe cone
scale of the latter with a naked seed.
5. Vertical section of seed
and embrm
EXOGE1O3 MONOCHLAMYDEÊ.
1.
Cupressus sempervirens.
female cone with naked ovules.
scale of a
3.
173
male cone with pollen.
ripe cone.
4.
2.
scale of
The same with one
of the
scales removed.
CLASS
This class
much
is
II.
ENDOGENÊ.
easy to arrange systematically.

lowing subdivisions may be used
1.
Rhizanthee.
2.
Florida.
3.
Glwmaceee.
last, and much more

For general purposes the fol-
smaller than the
Fungoid parasitical plants.

Leafy plants with the floral envelopes ver-
ticillate.
Leafy plants with the
floral
envelopes im-
bricated.
SUBCLASS
Order 156.
Rafflesiacea.
I.
RHIZANTH^;.
Flowers by abortion
dioecious.
Perianth superior, 5-parted, imbricated ; the throat surrounded by calli. Column adhering to the tube of the perianth ;
anthers numerous, 2-celled, opening by a vertical aperture.
Ovary
inferior, 1-celled,
with many-seeded parietal placentae
styles conical.
USES.
Astringents
TYPICAL GENERA.
scarcely
known.
Rafflesia, Pilostyles.
174
the top of a stalk

157.
Cytinaceae. Flowers monoecious, at
Perianth tubular, with a spreading
covered with scales.
limb.
Column fleshy, thickened at the point, covered by
anthers.
Anthers
8, 2-celled.
Ovary
inferior, 1-celled,
with
8 parietal placentae. Style simple, joined to the tube of the

perianth by septiform processes ; stigma capitate, thick.
USES.
Unknown.
TYPICAL GENERA.
Cytinus, Aphyteia.
Balanoplioraceec. Flowers monoecious, in dense heads.
158.
Calyx deeply 3-parted, equal, spreading, sometimes imperfect.

Stamens 1-3, epigynous.
Ovary inferior, 1-2-celled, 1-2seeded
convex.
ovule pendulous.
Style 1 ; stigma simple, rather
Fruit 1-celled, containing spores collected in a bag
resembling a seed.
USES.
Cynomorium coccineum was formerly used as an
astringent, under the name of Fungus Melitensis.
TYPICAL GENERA.
fu
"giforme
},Kbetween them
;
hairs
4.
pendulous ovules.
6.
Balanophora, Cynomorium.
SUBCLASS
I59.ffydrocharacex.
herbaceous.
male P lan t- 2.
female.
3. Male flowers with
Females. 5.
vertical section of a
female, with the two
section across a ripe fruit.
7. Seeds.
_}
II.
FLORIDA.
Floating or water-plants.
Petals 3, coloured.
Ovaryl- or many-celled;
Stamens
Sepals
3,
definite or indefi-
stigmas 3-6; ovules often
ENDOGENJE FLORIDA.
parietal.
Seeds without albumen;
175
embryo undivided,
anti-
tropous.
USES.
Unknown
TYPICAL GENERA.
Hydrocharis, Stratiotes.
Aromatic, tropical,
Zingiberacea or Scitaminea.
Leaves with divergent veins.
herbaceous plants.
Calyx
Corolla irregular, with 6 segments in 2
superior, tubular.
160.
whorls.
Stamens
of which
3,
Filament not petaloid.
Anther
the
2 lateral are abortive.
2-celled.
Stigma
dilated,
Fruit usually capsular, occasionally berried.

Seeds
with or without an aril ; albumen floury ; embryo enclosed
hollow.
within a vitellus.
USES.
Zingiber
Aromatic stimulants.
officinale
Cardamomum and
Cardamoms
Ginger
are
the
is
the
fruit
rhizoma of
of Elettaria
Grains of Paradise, or Meleguetta

Turmeric, Galangale,
pepper,
and Zedoary are other products of the order.
TYPICAL GENERA. Alpinia, Hedychium.
others.
are furnished
by Amomums.
Flowers of Kaempferia pandurata. 2. The inner row of the corolla seen in pro4. The
3. The anther, enclosing the apex of the style between its lobes.
5.
style and stigma, with two abortive stamens at the base.
the ovary.
6. Ripe fruit of Ceylon Cardamoms, Elettaria Cardamomum Zeylanicum
of Pereira.
seed.
8. The same cut through to show the embryo seated in
7.
1.
file.
vitellus.
Herbaceous plants, in tropical countries

Leaves often articuoften growing on trees and rocks.
161.
Orchidacea.
176
Petals 3, of which 2 are

Sepals 3.
Stamens 3, united in
the
undermost.
and
1,
lip,
uppermost,
a column, the 2 lateral abortive, the central perfect, or the
central abortive, and the 2 lateral perfect
pollen powdery,
with the stem.
latecl
or cohering in masses.
Ovary 1-celled, with 3 parietal placentae ; style a part of the column of the stamens ; stigma
a viscid space in front of the column.

minute.
USES.
The
roots of Orchis mascula
Seeds very numerous,
and others contain a
large quantity of hard mucilage, and form a nutritious substance called Salep.
The fragrant Vanilla is the succulent
fruit
of Vanilla planifolia.
The corm of Bletia verecunda
bitter; the expressed juice of
be purgative.
TYPICAL GENERA.
Orchis,
Epidendrum bifidum
is
is
said to
Epidendrum, Spiranthes, Onci-
dium.
AAA
fl Wer
Seen
P Uen m
skin
in
P rofile
'
"
The
en from
"
A SCpd
ENDOGENJE FLORID JE.
377
Marantacea. Herbaceous tropical plants destitute

Leaves with divergent veins. Calyx superior, of
162.
of aroma.
sepals.
Stamens
Corolla irregular, with the segments in 2 w~horls.

petaloid, of which one of the laterals and the
3,
intermediate are barren or abortive.
Filament petaloid;
Seeds
Stigma cucullate, and incurved.
without aril albumen hard ; embryo naked.
USES.
Maranta arundinacea and some others form a large
quantity of pure starch in their tubers, and this, when extracted, forms arrow-root ; the leaves of both this and the
anther
1-celled.
;
Zingiberaceous order are plaited into baskets by the Indians.

TYPICAL GENERA. Maranta, Canna.
163.
Musaceee.
Leaves with divergent veins, sheathing at
the base, and forming a kind of spurious stem ; often very
Flowers spathaceous. Perianth 6-parted, petaloid,
large.
2 rows.
Stamens 6, some abortive ; anthers 2-celled.
Stigma usually 3-lobed. Fruit either a 3-celled capsule, or
succulent.
Embryo in the axis of mealy albumen.
in
USES.
The
large fleshy fruits filled with starch in
Musa
are the Plantains and Bananas of tropical countries, where

they furnish the inhabitants with an abundance of most nutritious food.
TYPICAL GENERA.
Musa,
Strelitzia.
Amaryttidacea. Generally bulbous, sometimes fibrousLeaves ensiform.

rooted, occasionally with a lofty stem.
and
Stamens 6 ;
corolla
coloured,
superior.
Calyx
equally
1
64.
anthers bursting inwardly.

or corneous.
Stigma 3-lobed.
Albumen
fleshy
toxicarius, and many others, have

deleterious principle in a diffused state
renders them simply emetic, as in Narcissus, several species of
which possess this quality ; or purgative, as Oporanthus luteus.
USES.
Hsemanthus
poisonous bulbs.
The
In some Alstromerias with fleshy roots a large quantity of

starch exists, which, when freed from impurities, forms a sort
of arrow-root. Agave Americana, the American Aloe, as it is
miscalled
by gardeners, abounds, when flowering, in a sweet

becomes an intoxicating liquid,
sap, which, being fermented,

called Pulque.
TYPICAL GENERA.
Amaryllis, Oporanthus, Narcissus.
178
Pancratium maritimum.
1.
flower cut open, and showing that there is a bifid

transverse section of the
2.
tooth, forming a coronet or cup, between each stamen.
3.
section of the seed, showing the embryo.
ovary.
165.
Leaves alternate,
Twining shrubs.
Flowers
minute, dioecious.
petiole.
Stamens
6.
superior.
Ovary 3-celled,
Dioscoreacea.
netted, with a distinct
Calyx and corolla

with 1- or 2-seeded
Fruit leafy,
;
style deeply trifid.
near the
succulent.
small,
compressed, occasionally
Embryo
cells
hilum, in a large cavity of cartilaginous albumen.

USES. The roots of many species of Dioscorea abound in
starch,
and are the
Yams
instead of Potatoes.
used for food in tropical countries

is present a highly
Nevertheless there
deleterious principle, that, when concentrated, renders these

plants dangerous. The root of Tamus communis is very acrid ;
and even some Yams are too nauseous to be used for food,
even after careful cooking.
TYPICAL GENERA. Tamus, Dioscorea.
ENDOGEN/E FLORIDA.
179
Herbaceous plants or under-shrubs. Stem

Leaves usually equitant. Calyx
and corolla confounded, sometimes irregular. Stamens 3, from
166.
Iridacea.
often a rhizoma or cormus.
the base of the sepals ; anthers bursting externally.

Stigmas
Albumen corneous, or densely fleshy.
3, often petaloid.
USES.
which,
Crocus sativus has long orange-coloured stigmas,

Orris-root is the slightly
dried, form saffron.
when
stimulating aromatic rhizoma of Iris florentina and others

that of I. pseudacorus is acrid, purgative, and emetic.
TYPICAL GENERA.
Crocus vernus.
tion of the ovary.
1.
4.
Iris,
Crocus, Tigridia.
flower split open.
section of the seed to
2.
The stigmata. 3.
show the embryo.
transverse sec-
Stemless or short-stemmed plants, with

scurf.
rigid channelled leaves often covered with cuticular
coloured.
Petals
herbaceous.
Calyx 3-parted, superior, usually
167.
Stamens
Bromeliacea.
6,
or more.
Stigma 3-lobed, or
entire, often twisted.

N 2
180
Seeds numerous; embryo taper, or minute, in the base of

mealy albumen.
The sub-acid fragrant fruit of Ananassa sativa is the
USES.
The dry filamentous stems of Tilwell-known Pine-apple.

landsia usneoides are used in tropical countries for stuffingmattresses.
TYPICAL GENERA.
Bromelia, Tillandsia.
Herbaceous plants or under-shrubs, with

Stems woody. Flowers hermaphrodite
or dioecious. Calyx and corolla inferior, 6-parted. Stamens 6.
Ovary 3-celled stigmas 3. Fruit a roundish berry. Albumen between fleshy and cartilaginous.
The diuretic demulcent called Sarsaparilla is the
USES.
root of several species
others have a large fleshy root possessing similar properties, and called Chinee radix : it appears to
be nutritious. The leaves of Smilax glycyphylla are bittersweet, and are used for tea in New Holland.
168.
Smilacex.
a tendency to climb.
;
Smilax glycyphylla. 1.
male flower seen from above. 2.
female flower.
3.
transverse section of an ovary.
4.
seed.
5.
section of a seed, showing
the embryo.
169.
Liliacetz.
Boots fibrous or fasciculate. Stem none
a bulb; or tuberous, or creeping, or arborescent.
Calyx and
corolla inferior, coloured,
Stamens
6.
Anthers
regular.
open;
ENDOGEN^l FLORIDA.
181
ing inwards.
Ovary 3-celled; stigma simple, or 3-lobed.
Fruit 3-celled.
Embryo in the axis of fleshy albumen.
USES.
nalis.
and
Asparagus
is
Squills, so well
diuretic qualities,
the
young shoots of Asparagus
known
are
offici-
their expectorant, emetic,

roots of Squilla maritima.
for
the
What
are called Alliaceous plants are found here in the form

of Garlic, Onions, Chives, Leeks, and Rocambole, all species of
Alliuin.
socotrina
is
The purgative drug Aloes is an extract from Aloe

and other species.
The Dragon-tree of Teneriffe
an arborescent form of the order, and yields an astringent

Gum Dragon.
TYPICAL GENERA. Tulipa, Fritillaria, Hyacinthus.
substance called
1. A flower magnified.
A vertical section of a seed.
Arthropodium paniculatum.
170.
it.
4.
MelantliacetK.
Rhizoma sometimes a
Roots
ripe capsule.
3.
sometimes fascicled.
Leaves sheathing at the
fibrous,
fleshy corm.
2.
182
Perianth
base.
in 6
inferior,
anthers opening outwards.
style trifid or 3-parted.
bumen
Stamens
pieces, or tubular.
Ovary
3-celled,
many-seeded
Capsule divisible into 3 pieces.
Al-
dense, fleshy.
Poisonous plants.
Meadow Saffron (Colchicum auan
acrid
narcotic
and cathartic. White Helletumnale)
bore the root of Veratrum album, Cebadilla produced by
USES.
is
Asagrsea officinalis, and the roots of various kinds of Trillium

and Helonias, possess similar properties.
TYPICAL GENERA. Veratrum, Colchicum.
tZr mg ,Theova L V^
'
coa^s
r
SonenLl T
t
6S
floral
'
"F
*****.
'~
uncacea; '
Mowers
unisexual.
2 The
""
stri
envelopes are cut
away
5.
;
open to show the stamens
and the 3-parted
in flower '
nes a ft er the
ctfon of
"
PPd
section of a seed.
3.
of
its
outer
A transverse
6.
The
flower
style.
Herbaceous plants, with fascicled or fibrous
generally
brown or green, hermaphrodite
Calyx and corolla more
or
less
glumaceous.
ENDOGENJE FLORIDA.
Stamens
6,
sometimes
3.
Ovary
1-
or
183
3-celled.
Stigmas
Seeds neither
Fruit capsular, with 3 valves.

generally 3.
black nor crustaceous ; albumen firm ;
USES.
Unimportant.
Used
for
embryo within it.

making mats and similar
objects.
TYPICAL GENERA.
172.
Juncus, Luzula.
Commelynacete.
sheathing.
Sepals
Herbaceous
inferior,
3,
sometimes cohering at the base.

deformed.
from the hilum
Capsule 2- or 3-celled.
embryo pulley-shaped, in a cavity remote
albumen
TYPICAL GENERA.
73.
coloured,
Stamens hypogynous, some
fleshy.
Unknown.
USES.
Leaves usually
Petals
3-celled; stigma 1.
Ovary
Seeds often twin
plants.
herbaceous.
Commelyna, Tradescantia.
Butomacete.
Aquatic plants.
Leaves very
cellular,
often milky. Sepals 3, inferior, herbaceous. Petals 3, coloured.

Stamens definite or indefinite. Ovaries 3, 6, or more. Follicles many-seeded.
Seeds minute, attached to the whole of
the inner surface of the fruit.
USES.
Unimportant.
TYPICAL GENERA. Limnocharis, Butomus.
Palmaceee.
Stem simple, rarely forked.
174.
Leaves
terminal, very large, pinnate, or flabelliform, plaited in vernation.
Spadix enclosed in a valved spatha. Flowers small,
hermaphrodite, or polygamous. Perianth 6-parted, persistent.

Stamens inserted into the base of the perianth, definite or
Ovary 3-celled, or deeply 3-lobed, with an erect

Fruit baccate or drupaceous. Albumen cartilaginous
or fleshy ; embryo in a cavity at a distance from the hilum.
indefinite.
ovule.
The Cocoa-nut, whose whole structure appears useindependently of its agreeable fruit, is the produce of Cocos
nucifera ; the tough coarse fibre of this plant is manufactured
USES.
ful,
The Date-tree is
called Coir-rope.
the Phoenix dactylifera.
Sago, a nutritious starchy substance,
is secreted in the trunks of several species, especially of Sagus
into the elastic cables
The sugary nature of their sap, and

its great abundance, enables the natives of Palm countries to
obtain an intoxicating beverage called Palm wine from others.
Isevis
and Caryota urens.
The Palms of Scripture were the
leaves of the Date-tree.
foliage
and hard,
of the order generally, being large
suited
to
is
The
well
The Canes, whose

such purposes as thatching.
into
woven
chair-bottoms, are
are
flexible stems when split
different species of Calamus.
TYPICAL GENERA.
Phoenix, Chamaerops.
Jft
I.
2.
Inflorescence of Chamaerops humilis, in its spathe.
portion of the same
3.
male flower. 4.
female flower.
fruit ripening.
5.
ripe fruit.
seed with a portion of the
section of another variety, showing the seed.
7.
with the
6.
surface cut
away,
175.
to display the
Juncaginacea.
embryo.
Herbaceous bog-plants.
Flowers
siform.
Leaves enand petals both
inconspicuous.
Sepals
Stamens 6. Ovaries 3 or
herbaceous, inferior, rarely absent.
Fruit dry ; albumen
6, cohering firmly ; ovules 1 or 2, erect.
wanting
USES.
embryo orthotropous, with a
lateral cleft.
Unknown.
TYPICAL GENERA.
Triglochin, Scheuchzeria.
ENDOGENÊ FLORIDA.
185
Alismacete.
176.
Sepals 3,
Floating or swamp plants.
Petals 3, petaloid.
Stamens definite or
herbaceous, inferior.
indefinite. Ovaries several, 1-celled. Ovules ascending. Fruit
not opening, 1- or 2-seeded.

Embryo doubled upon itself.
USES.
The leaves are acrid. The rhizoma of the Arrowhead, Sagittaria,
is
eatable.
TYPICAL GENERA.
1.
Leaf of Ouvirandra
O. Bernieriana.
Alisma, Sagittaria.
fenestralis.
carpel of
4, 5.
2.
Embryo
flower cut open.
in different positions
3. Section of
:
a ripe
the thicker part
is
the cotyledon, the smaller the plnmula.
177.
Acoracea. Rhizoma jointed. Leaves ensiform. Flow-
ers hermaphrodite, surrounded with inferior scales.

Spathe
leaf-like.
Stamens with 2-celled anthers, turned inwards.
Seeds albuminous.
on
one
side.
Embryo
USES. Acorus Calamus was the sweet rush with which the
rooms of the higher orders were strewed before the introduction of carpets, &c.
It has a fragrant rhizoma, whose
aromatic qualities have rendered it useful in medicine it is,
however, chiefly employed as an ingredient in hair-powders.
TYPICAL GENUS. Acorus.
Ovaries distinct.
with a
Fruit finally juiceless.
cleft
178.
very
Leaves
Water-plants.
Flowers inconspicuous, hermaphrodite or uniPerianth of 2 or 4 pieces, rarely wanting. Stamens
Naiadaceee or Flumales.
cellular.
sexual.
Ovaries 1 or more, superior ; ovule pendulous.

Fruit not opening, 1-celled, 1-seeded.
Albumen none ; embryo antitropous, with a lateral cleft.
definite.
186
USES.
Unknown.
TYPICAL GENERA.
Zannichellia
palustris.
Potamogeton, Zanuichellia.
1.
flower.
ovary opened to exhibit the ovule.

folded up embryo.
4.
An
3.
cluster of ripe ovaries.
vertical section of a seed, showing the
2.
Herbaceous or shrubby, stemless or arborescent plants.

Leaves with parallel or branching veins ;
sometimes compound. Spadix generally enclosed in a spathe.
Flowers unisexual. Perianth wanting. Stamens definite or
179.
Araceee.
indefinite,
'
very short.
Ovary
1-celled,
very seldom 3-celled
ovules erect, or pendulous, or parietal. Fruit succulent.

bryo in the axis of albumen, with a cleft in one side.
USES.
the
Dumb
Em-
Acrid plants which are sometimes dangerous, as

cane, Dieffenbachia Seguina, which paralyses the
muscles of the mouth
if bitten.
Nevertheless, by cooking, this
that the leaves of Colocasia
diminished,
acridity
esculenta and others are used in tropical countries instead of
is
so
much
187
ENDOGENJE FLORIDA.
Some, too, secrete large quantities of starch,

Cabbages.
becomes fit for
when
which,
separated from the acrid matter,
food, as in
Arum
maculatum.
TYPICAL GENERA.
1.
Spathe of
A transverse
Arum
Arum, Dracontium, Caladium.
maculatum.
Its spadix loaded with flowers.

6.
cluster of ripe fruits.
2.
an ovary. 5.
section of the same, showing the embryo.
4.
section of
3.
An
seed.
anther.
7.
180.
Herbaceous plants, growing in marshes
Typhaceae.
or ditches. Leaves rigid, ensiform.
Flowers unisexual, upon
a naked spadix. Sepals 3, inferior, sometimes a bundle of
hairs.
Petals wanting.
Stamens 3 or 6
anthers wedge-
ovule pendulous ; stigmas 1

shaped.
Ovary
Fruit not opening.
or 2, linear.
Embryo in the centre of
single, 1-celled
albumen, with a
USES.
cleft in
one
side.
Unknown.
TYPICAL GENERA.
Typha, Sparganium.
188
181.
Pistiacea.
cular, or lobed stems
Floating plants, with very cellular, lentiand leaves. Flowers from the margin
Stamens definite. Ovary

of the stems, inconspicuous, naked.
Fruit membranous or
with
erect
ovules.
1
-celled,
superior,
capsular, 1- or
more seeded.
Embryo
fleshy albumen, and having a lateral
either in the axis of
cleft,
or at the apex of
the nucleus.
USES.
Acrid plants of no importance.
TYPICAL GENERA.
Lemna,
SUBCLASS
182.
Cyperacete.
Pistia.
III.
GLUMACE.E.
Leaves with their sheaths
Stem
entire.
Flowers consisting of imbricated solitary bracts. Perianth none.

Stamens definite, 1,2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 10, 12 ;
solid.
anthers fixed by their base.

Ovary often surrounded by
bristles ; ovule erect ; style single, trifid or bifid.
Nut crustaceous or bony.
Embryo
lenticular, within the base of the
albumen.
hyp08yi""" bris ""-
'
ENDOGENJE GLUMACE^.
Of no
USES.
189
situations with
other importance than as covering many

a coarse herbage containing but little nu-
tritive matter.
quantity of starch secreted in the tubers

of some species renders them eatable, as Cyperus esculentus
and others. The Papyrus of the ancients was made from the
stems of the Papyrus antiquorum.
few species are
slightly
aromatic.
TYPICAL GENERA.
183.
Scirpus, Schosnus, Carex.
Stems cylindrical, usually fistular.

Graminacea.
with a split sheath. Flowers in little
consisting of imbricated bracts, with distinct glumes
Leaves alternate,
locustse,
Hypogynous scales 2 or 3, sometimes

Stamens hypogynous, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, or more anthers versatile.
Ovary simple styles 2, very rarely 1 or 3
Albumen farinastigmas feathery. Pericarp membranous.
ceous embryo on one side of the albumen, lenticular.
USES.
The most important of all orders, because the floury
albumen of certain species furnishes man with bread, and
or palese, or both.
wanting.
the nutritious herbage of others is the sustenance of herbiTo the class of Corn belong Wheat, Barley,
vorous animals.
Rye, Oats, Maize, Rice, and
warmer
countries
many other species cultivated in

to that of fodder, Crested Dogstail, various
kinds of Fescue, Foxtail,

cultivated
by
farmers.
Rye
Sugar
Grass,
is
and a number of others
obtained from the juice of
the Saccharum officinarum, whose stem is solid, contrary to

the custom of the order.
Bamboos, whose hard stems are
so valuable in hot countries, are arborescent grasses
60 to 100 feet high and more.
fragrant principle
growing
is found
in Anthoxanthum odoratum and others, especially Andropogon Schoenanthus, called Lemon-grass in the gardens,
which is used as a stomachic in India ; where also an oil,
valued as an external application in rheumatism, is obtained
from the Andropogon Calamus aromaticus, believed to have
been the ancient drug of that name.
The diseased grain
of
Rye
uterus.
Ergot, valuable for its powerful action upon the

Finally, a narcotic quality has been remarked in a
is
few species, especially Lolium temulentum.

TYPICAL GENERA. Agrostis, Bromus, Aira, Lolium.
190
3. Paleae of
2. Palese and stamens, &c. of the same.
1. Locusta of Agrostis alba.
5. Lo4. Pistil, stamens, and hypogynous scales of the same.
Leersia oryzoides.
6. Paleae, &c. of the same.
7. Locusta of Stipa
custa of Polypogon monspeliensis.
9. Locusta of Cy8. Rachis, bracteae, and florets of Cynosurus cristatus.
pennata.
nodon Dactylon.
10. Paleae,
and abortive
floret of
the same.
Locusta of Corynephorus canescens. 2.

3. Locusta
Paleae, &c. of the same.
4. Locusta of Alopecurus
aquatica.
5. Locusta of Aira
pratensis.
6. Floret of the same.
caryophyllea.
7. Locusta of
Festuca duriuscula.
8.
Locusta of Glyceria fluitans.
9. Floret of the same.
10. Locusta of Eragrostis
1.
of Phalaris
poseformis.
ACROGENS.
CLASS
III.
191
ACROGENS.
Substance of the plant composed of cellular tissue chiefly
ducts only present in the highest orders.

either increasing by an extension of its point, or by
vessels or
spiral
Stem
a developement in all directions from one common point ;

not increasing in thickness when once formed.
Sexual organs
absent.
Reproduction taking place by spores, or by a mere
dissolution of the utricles of tissue.
184.
Plants, with creeping stems, the

Lycopodiacea.
annular ducts.
Organs of reproduction
axis abounding in
axillary sessile thecse, containing either minute powdery matter, or.sporules, marked at the apex with three minute ridges.
USES.
Some are powerful emetics and cathartics, especially
L. Selago and rubrum.
TYPICAL GENERA.
185.
zoma.
mous
Lycopodium, Bernhardia.
Filicales or Filices.
Leafy plants producing a rhiLeaves usually coiled up in vernation, with dichoto-
Thecse or sporangia arising
veins of equal thickness.
from the veins upon the leaves, pedicellate with an elastic

ring, or sessile and destitute of a ring.
Thecse with a vertical, usually
Division 1.
Polypodiacea.
incomplete ring ; bursting irregularly and transversely.
Thecse with a transverse, ocDivision 2.
Gleicheniacea.
casionally oblique ring, nearly sessile,
and bursting lengthwise
internally.
Division
or without
ring,
Thecse with an operculiform

reticulated, striated with rays at the
Osmundacea.
3.
any
bursting lengthwise, and usually externally.

Thecse sessile, without any ring,
Division 4.
DaneEacea.
concrete into multilocular sub-immersed masses, opening at
apex
the apex.
Division
5.
Ophioglossaceee.
Thecse single, roundish, coria-
cellular reticulation, half

ring
opaque,
Vernation straight.
The rhizomata of some are astringent ; that of NeUSES.
phrodium Filix mas has been used as an anthelmintic. In
ceous,
without
or
2-valved.
used as food by the

South Seas.
Polypodium, Pteris, Adiantum.
some countries the pith of the stem
natives, especially in the islands of the
TYPICAL GENERA.
is
192
JOS
307
303. The same of Schizaca

302. Theca of Trichopteris excelsa (GleicJteniaceai).
304. Part of the frond of Aspidium Lonchitis (Polypo306. Part of frond of Daval305. Bernhardia dichotoma (Lycopodiaceai).
diacece).
308. Part of frond of Aslia pyxidata (Polypodiacea).
307. Theca of the same.
310.
309. Theca of Bernhardia dichotoma (Lycopodiacea).
pidium exaltatum.
scale and theca of the same.
Lycopodium annotinum. 311.
pectinata (Osmundacece).
1 86.
fistular
Leafless branched plants with a striated

Equisetacea.
the
articulations
;
separable, and surrounded
stem
by a toothed
Spiral vessels very few.
sheath.
Inflorescence
consisting of peltate scales. Reproductive bodies in the inside

of the lobes of the scales.
Four clavate bodies, wrapped
round a naked spore.

USES.
The hard, flinty skin renders them
purposes, for which some are used under the
rushes.
TYPICAL GENUS.
1 87.
fluid,
for polishing
name
of
Dutch
Equisetum.
An axis, consisting of parallel tubes.
Characea.
gans of reproduction
and
fit
Or-
succulent globules, containing filaments

and axillary nucules, formed of short tubes, twisted
:
spirally.
USES.
Unknown.
TYPICAL GENERA.
Chara, Nitella.
Cellular plants, having a distinct

Bryaceee, or Mmci.
covered with minute leaves.
Reproductive organs of
two kinds viz. axillary, cylindrical stalked sacs, contain-
188.
axis,
ACROGENS.
193
ing a multitude of particles emitted upon the application of

water ; and thecoo or hollow urn-like cases, covered by a
calyptra, closed by a lid, within which are rows of processes,
called the peristome ; the centre of the theca occupied by a
columella.
filaments,
USES.
Sporules,
when germinating, protruding
which afterwards ramify, and form an
confervoid
axis.
Unknown.
TYPICAL GENERA.
Hypnum, Bryum.
313. Peristome of Tortula

312. Jungermannia bicuspidata (Jungermanniacece).
mralis (Muscaceae).
315. Supposed
314. Theca of Ceratodon purpureus (Muse.)
316. Bryum roseum
representatives of sexual organs in Meesia longiseta (Muse.)
319. Apophysis and
318. Peristome of Octoblepharum albidum (Muse.)
(Muse.)
theca of Splachnum luteum.
189.
Andraacea.
bricated leaves.
Branching moss-like plants, with imwith a calyptra, splitting longi-
Thecse
tudinally into four valves.

to a central columella.
USES.
Peristome
0.
Spores attached
Unknown.
TYPICAL GENUS.
Andrsea.
190.
Jungermanniaceee.
Creeping moss-like plants, either
with imbricated leaves, or with the leaves and axis all fused
into one.
Thecse without an operculum, 4-parted, or 2-4valved.
USES.
Spores mixed with elaters.
Unknown.
TYPICAL GENUS.
Jungermannia.
DE CANDOLLE
194
SYSTEM.
Marclantiacea or Hepatica. Plants composed encellular tissue, emitting roots from their under side,
of
tirely
and consisting of an axis, bordered by a membranous expan191.
sion,
which sometimes forms a broad lobed
thallus.
Repro-
ductive organs consisting of a peltate stalked receptacle, bearof sessile naked thecse, iming theca3 on its under surface ; or
mersed, or superficial.
Unknown.
USES.
TYPICAL GENERA.
Lichenacea. or Lichenes.
192.
in the
kinds
form of a lobed
thallus.
sporules lying in
1,
shields
Marchantia, Riccia.
Perennial plants spreading
Reproductive matter of two
membranous
separated cellules of the
2,
tubes,
immersed
in
medullary layer of the
thallus.
USES.
Several are bitter,
and some have been used as
as Variolaria faginea, and Parmelia parietina. Others

are nutritious, as Iceland Moss, Cetraria islandica.
Roccella
tonics
Orchal, and Lecanora Perellus, Cudbear, used ex-
tinctoria
is
tensively
by
dyers.
TYPICAL GENERA.
Parmelia, Lecidea, Peltidea.
328. Shields of Variolaria amara.

329.
portion of the thallus of the same plant.
330.
piece of the thallus of Sticta pulmonacea with lacunae and soredia.
331.
Thallus of the same,
332. Shield of Opegrapha
333. Thalbearing shields.
scripta.
lus of the same.
334. Shields young and old of Lecanora Perellus.
335. Shields of
Bseomyces rufus. 336. Part of thallus of Peltidea canina.
337. Section of a shield
oi hticta pulmonacea.
338. Podetia of Cenomyce coccinea.
339. Section of shield
ol
Baeomyces rufus. 340. Shields of Endocarpon miniatum. 341. Thallus of the
same.
Chiefly from Greville's Flora Edinensis.
ACROGENS.
195
Algacea or Alga. Leafless plants, with no distinct

growing in water, consisting either of simple vesicles,
193.
axis
or of articulated filaments, or of lobed fronds.

Reproductive
matter either wanting or in the joints of the filaments, or
in thecse of various forms.
in
two opposite
USES.
Spores in germination elongating
directions.
is obtained from
Chondrus crispus, sometimes called
Helminthochorton has been em-
gelatinous matter
nutritious
certain Gracilarias, and

Irish Moss.
Gigartina
ployed as an anthelmintic. They are generally collected

under the name of Wrack for burning for Kelp, formerly the
source of Carbonate of Soda.
The substance sold in the
name of Laver is the Porphyra

and
the Ulva latissima.
vulgaris,
TYPICAL GENERA. Fucus, Conferva.
shops under the
laciniata,
and
321. Vaucheria geminata,

Reproductive organs of 320. Lawrencia pinnatifida.
324. Aspe323. Bonnemaisonia asparagoides.
322. Dictyosiphon foeniculaceus.
326. Lichina confinis.
327. Fucus
rococcus echinatus.
325. Odonthalia dentata.
All from Greville's Algae Britannic*.
vesiculosus.
Fungacea or Fungi. Plants consisting of cellules,

which
filaments are occasionally intermixed, increasamong
194.
ing in size
by addition
going no change after
to their inside
their outside under-
its first
formation, frequently ephemeral.

the tissue, or enclosed in
either
loose
among
Spores lying
sporidia.
o2
196
USES.
Agaricus campestris, the common Mushroom, and
some other species of the same gemis, Tuher cibarium, the
Others
Truffle, and many others, are eatable and nutritious.
Amadou is made from Boletus

dangerous poisons.
Great numbers are mischievous parasites, infesting
both live and dead organized matter, and even attacking
are
igiiiarius.
living insects.
the
name
Vast damage
is
committed by them under
of Mildew, Ilust, Brand, Smut, and Dry-rot.
TYPICAL GENERA.
Agaricus, Geastrum, Mucor,
Hypoxy-
lon.
342. Arcyria flava.

343. Geastrum multifidum.
344. Mucor caninus.
345.
Basidia and cystidia of an
346. Agaricus cepjcstipcs.
Agaric.
347. Vcrmicularia
tnchella.
348. Vertical section of
349.
sinuHypoxylon
osum.
From
punctatum.
Greville's
Cryptogamic Flora.
Angioridium
197
THE ALLIANCES OF PLANTS.
V.
THE
ment
following pages explain the author's own views of arrangeand serve as a key to the Natural System of
in 1836,
Botany (Edition 2, London 1836). Although his opinion is much

modified by subsequent consideration, yet he knows from experience that these short characters are of considerable value to
students.
CLASSES.
The whole
which
may
vegetable kingdom
is
divisible into five principal classes,
be characterised as follows
/Êxogens with their seeds

\
in an ovary
naked
'having spiral/ Exogens with
.
vessels
Propagated
by
sexes
EXOGEIXLE.
II.
GYMNOSPERMJE.
III.
ENDOGEN^l.
.....
....
without spiral vessels, or with scarcely
any
Propagated without sexes
They
seeds
VEndogens
I.
are further
known by a
all their principal organs,
thus
IV. RHIZANTH^.
V. ACROGENÊ.
separate consideration of the nature of
ALLIANCES OF PLANTS.
198
CLASS
The
I.
EXOGENÊ.
Subclasses are
their calyx and corolla perfect ; or at
with the calyx highly developed, if the petals are absent
COMPLETE PLANTS ; with both

least
these divide into
POLYPETAL.E, with the petals distinct.

MONOPETALJE, with the petals united into a tube.
INCOMPLETE PLANTS; in which there is no corolla; their calyx
1.
3.
2.
generally either but
little
is
developed or altogether absent.
No division of Exogens has been discovered more in accordance with natural affinities,
than that which depends upon the different degree of developement of the flower ; it is
true, indeed, that its characters are not always constant, and that practical difficulties
arise from the circumstance of some genera belonging to polypetalous orders having no
so on.
petals, while a portion of some monopetalous orders are actually polypetalous, and
Nevertheless the arrangement founded upon the distinctions above recorded appears to be
natural, if the latter are rightly considered.
As understood by me, all those orders in
which the floral envelopes are herbaceous, and

imperfectly developed, belong to Incompletae, whether there are two rows or not, as Me:
nor
as
nispermaceae
ought others,
Euphorbiaceae, to be removed from Polypetalae ; because, although the mass of such orders is polypetalous, certain European genera, with
which we are best acquainted, have no petals. With regard to those polypetalous orders,
in some genera of which the petals cohere by their edges, so as to resemble a monopetalous corolla, the only means of recognising them is by observing that their petals are
scarcely joined at the base ; there is this, however, which assists in removing the diffi:
in true monopetalous orders the
style is scarcely ever divided, except just at the
point, and their fruit is therefore, in all cases, syncarpous ; while, in those polypetalous
which
take on a monopetalous appearance, the fruit is in reality apocarpous, as is
genera,
the case with Anonaceae, Crassulaceae,
The two
Meliaceae, Rutacese, &c.
culty
Leguminosse,
latter,
although syncarpous
when young, yet become
truly apocarpous as their fniit ripens.
SUBCLASS I. POLYPETAL.E.
These comprehend the
following groups
:
1.
Albuminosa:.
Embryo very
considerably shorter
and smaller than the
albumen.
2. EpigynoscB.
disk.
3. ParietostB.
Ovary
Calycosa.
5.
being exterior.
None of the
SyncarposcB.
l-^J*J-t_J_l
1
and
with the carpels
6.
7.
Calyx incompletely whorled; two of the sepals

characters
T
of the other groups,7
OJ."
compactly united.
GynobaseoscB.
Carpels not exceeding five, diverging at the
base, arranged in a single row around an elevated axis, or
Stamens usually separate from the calyx.
gynobase.
None of the characters of the other groups,
Apocarposa.
but with the
their faces
carpels distinct ; or
by
separable
or
third column
is
solitary.
-In the
succeeding pages the first column contains a
der; the second the name of the Order; the third
with some officinal
example in italics within brackets, when any
J
epigynous
Placentae parietal.
4.
II
C gn
usually having an
inferior,
blank, nothing
is
known
brief character of the

sensible properties,
its
is to
of the sensible
property.
be found.
When
GROUP
Alliance
1.
i.
Herbaceous
Ranales.
199
plants, either apocarpous,
or with parietal placentae.

Floral envelopes in threes
1. Ranunculacese
or fives. Sap transparent.
Sap usually milky
Embryo
enclosed in a vitel-
poisonous
(Black Hellebore,
Aconite).
Cathartic.
Podophylleae
2. Papaveraceac
Floral envelopes in twos or

fours.
Acrid,
Fumariese
Narcotic (JPoppy).
and
Diaphoretic
3.
Nymphseaceas
Slightly astringent.
4.
Nelumbiaceae
aperient.
lus.
Ovaries
Floaters.
Hydropeltideae.
concealed
fleshy receptacle.
in
Wholesome.
Float-
ers.
Stamens perigynous
Alliance 2.
5. Cephalotaceae.
Anonales. Apocarpous
Flowers unisexual, threelobed.

Stamens colum-
6.
woody
plants.
Acrid, aromatic
Myristicaceae
(Nutmeg}.
nar.
Leaves with
with-
7.
Magnoliaceae
Bitter, tonic.
Leaves with stipules and
8.
Winteraceae
Aromatic,
stipules,
out dots.
lant
transparent dots.
Flowers
9.
hermaphrodite,
Bark).
Aromatic (Piper
Anonacese
Stamens
three-parted.
stimu-
( Winter's
(Ethiopicum).
usually distinct.
Leaves without stipules. 10. Dilleniaceae

Flowers pentapetalous.
Alliance 3.
Astringent.
Umbettales. Flowers epigynous, arranged in

bels.
Stems usually hollow.
Carpels two
11. Umbelliferae
Apiaceae.
or
um-
Herb poisonous
(Hemlock) some;
times stimulant
and eatable (Parsley,
Parsnip)
fruit
aromatic
(Anise).
Carpels more than two
12. Araliaceae
Slightly stimulant
(
Ginseny).
200
Flowers epigynous, arranged in
Grossales.
Alliance 4.
Stems
cemes.
Tonic, or harmless
13. Grossulacese
Placentae parietal
ra-
solid.
(BlackCurrants).
Placentae
central,
many-
14. Escalloniaceae.
seeded.
Placentae central few-seeded

,
Alliance
Br uniaceae.
Berberales. Apocarpous, with the valves of the
5.
anthers curved backwards.

Acid, astringent
16. Berberacese
(Berberry').
Nandinese.
Alliance
6.
Pittosporales.
Dye
yellow.
Syncarpous,
stamens, and the placentae
with
hypogynous
in the centre of the
fruit.
Seeds
Fruit two-celled.
few.
Fruit with more than two
17. Vitaceae
Acidity and sugar

( Vine),
18. Pittosporaceae.
Seeds numerous.
cells.
Stamens
Petals split.
all perfect.
Flowers un-
symmetrical.
Fruit with more than two
cells.
Seeds numerous.
Stamens half sterile.
Stigma
19. Olacaceae.
20. Francoaceae.
21. Sarraceniaceae.
leafy, peltate
group in appearance natural, and agreeing with its technical character in all respects,
with the exception of Nelumbium, which has no albumen ; and the genus Berberis, in
which the embryo is much larger in proportion to the albumen than in any other instance.
Some connecting links are obviously wanting in this group ; and, until it is well
considered, it will appear less natural than it really is, especially if we compare such
Nevertheless, it is to
plants as the Vine with the Crowfoot, or either with Sarracenia.
be observed, that it very nearly agrees with De Candolle's Thalamiflorous subclass, and
that the mutual affinities of the alliances may be demonstrated.
Take Anonales and
Ranales for the centre of the ciisumference of a circle composed of the six foregoing
alliances
Then Anonales
pass into Pittosporales through Cheiranthera ;

Grossales
Ribes ;
Berberales
Berberis ;
Berberales
Umbellales
Nandinea? ;
Pittosporales
Grossales
Umbellales
Ranales
and the
Ranales
Anonales
Thalictrum
Magnolia
relative position of the alliances will
Anonales
....
be thus:
Ranales
Umbellales
....
Berberales.
Pittosporales
Grossales
201
There is no difficulty in pointing out the various gradations that connect the genera
The most paradoxical
belonging to the orders comprehended in the Albuminous group.
but even
part of the combination is the union of baccate-fruited with dry-fruited plants
Vitacese pass into Umbelliferae through Leea ; and the petals of the genus Vitis itself are
inflected at the points, in the way of Umbelliferae.
:
GROUP
Alliance
II.
EPIGYNOSvE.
.Estivation of corolla not valvate.
1.
Onagrales.
Placenta} central.
Every part of the flower

some regular multiple of two.
None.
22. Onagraceae
Harmless.
Circaeeae.
None.
Halorageae
Alliance
Êstivation of corolla not valvate.

Myrtales.
Placenta} central. Number of parts of the
2.
flower uncertain.
Carpels single. Petals broad
23. Combretacese
Astringent (Myro-
24. Alangiacese
Hydragogues.
25. Rhizophoraceae
Astringent
balan).
Carpels single.
Petals very
narrow.
Stipules between the leaves
(Man-
grove).
Stamens bent downwards.
26. Memecylaceae.
Leaves one-ribbed.
Stamens bent downwards.
Leaves three- or more-
27. Melastomaceae
28. Myrtaceae
Aromatic stimulant
ribbed.
Leaves dotted, with an intrarnarginal vein.
Cajeputi, Cloves) ;
bark astringent.
Flow-
Leaves alternate.
29. Lecythidaceae
Leaves not dotted.
mens
Fruit eatable (Brazil nut).
ers irregular.
Sta-
30. Philadelphaceae.
straight.
Alliance
3.
Cornales.

.
.
Parasitical plants, bearing

their stamens on their
petals.
Êstivation of corolla valvate.

SI. Hamamelaceae.
32. Cornaceae
Tonic.
33. Loranthaceae
Astringent.
202
Placentae parietal.
GucurUtales.
Alliance 4.
Flowers unisexual
34. Cucurbitaceae
Purgative (ColocyntK); or eatable
of
35. Loasaceae
Stinging.
nume-
36. Cactaceae
(Melon, Gourd).
a
with
Flowers
ring
abortive stamens.
Petals
extremely
Subacid; wholesome.
rous.
Sepals
and
37. Homaliaceae.
alike.
petals
Glands between the stamens.
Petals extremely narrow and nume-
Ficoidales.
Alliance 5.
rous.
38. Mesembryaceae
Alliance 6.
Wholesome.
Flowers unisexual.
Begoniales.
Placentse cen-
tral.
39. Begoniacese
connected by a general natural relationship ; and yet it is

with
extremely difficult to fix the limits of their alliances. They appear to be connected
Melastoma
and Lythraceae, and with the Albuminous group
the Syncarpous group through
by the genus Eupomatia, and even by Caetacese, which evidently touch upon Grossulaceae.
They also pass into Monopetalae by Melastomacese, which join them with GenI entertain no doubt about this being nearly the true position of Begoniaceae.
tianaceae.
These plants seem to be
all
GROUP
Alliance 1.
Cruciales.
Stamens tetradynamous
III.
PAKIETOSJE.
Embryo
Albumen
curved.
40. Cruciferae or
Pungent, stimulant
(Mustard).
Stimulant, sometimes poisonous.
Brassicaceae.
Stamens
Fruit
indefinite
composed
41. Capparidaceae
of three
42. Resedaceae
absent.
None.
carpels.
Alliance
2.
Violales.
Stamens few, with no coronet
to the
flower.
43. Violaceae
Roots emetic ( White

Ipecacuanha).
Leaves dotted
-\ .
44.
Fruit siliquose
.
.
45.
Lea vescircinate when young 46.
Calyx ribbed
.47.
.
Samydacese.
Moringaceae
Pungent, aromatic.
Droseraceae
Subacrid.
Frankeniaceae.
Alliance
Passionales,
3.
sterile
203
Flowers with a ring or coronet of
stamens.
Petioles generally glandular.

Flowers unisexual .
48. Passifloraceae
49. Papayacese
Subacid.
spread over all

the lining of the fruit.
absent.
Stipules
Ovary
50. Flacourtiaceae
Suspicious.
Placentae
Vermifugal.
52. Malesherbiaceae.
stalked.
Stipules
sessile
absent.
Ovary
53. Turneraceae.
(Coronet 0).
Alliance 4.
Bixales.
Leaves dotted.
Polyandrous.
54. Bixaceae
Purgative and sto-
machic (Arnotlo).
connected with the Epigynous group by Passiflora, and with the Calycose by
Turnera, which passes into Cistaceae. Otherwise its external relationships are not well
marked. The orders themselves are intimately related.
This
is
GROUP
Alliance
Guttales.
1.
IV.
CALYCOSE.
Polyandrous. Albumen absent.

number to the sepals.
Petals
equal in
Leaves simple.
Seeds few.
55. Guttiferae or Clusiaceae.
Fruit sometimes
eatable (Mangostan) ; purgative,
acrid (Gamboge).
Leaves compound.
Seeds
56. Rhizobolaceae
Flow-
57. Marcgraaviaceae.
Seeds eatable (Sa-
few.
pocaya nuts).
Leaves alternate.
ersunsymmetrical. Seeds
numerous.
Seeds nuStyles several.
merous.
Alliance 2.
58. Hypericaceae
Slightly purgative
and
febrifugal.
Polyandrous. Albumen absent.

unequal to the sepals in number.
59. Ternstrbmiaceae
Subnarcotic and astringent
Alliance 3.
Petals
Theales.
Acerales.
Stamens
definite.
Tea).
Flowers unsymme-
trical.
Petals without appendages.

Fruit indehiscent, winged, consisting of two carpels.
60. Aceraceae
Saccharine {Sugar
maple').
204
Petals
having
scales
in
Leaves and branch-
61. Sapindaceac
es poisonous,
Fruit indehiscent,
consisting of three car-
front.
pels.
disk.
(Litchi).
Petals without appendages.

Fruit dehiscent.
Flowers papilionaceous
Flowers spurred
Alliance
Stamens
fruit eatable
4.
num-
astringent,
febrifugal
Flowers regular.
(Horse-
chestnut).
Bitter, emetic, &c.
63. Polygalaceas
64. Vochyaceae
Cistales.
equal to the
Bark
62. Êsculaceae
Astringent (Ratanhia root}.
Albumen
present.
65. Elatinaceae.
ber of sepals.
Decandrous,
without
sti-
66. Linaceae
Mucilaginous, tough
(Flax).
pules.
Decandrous, with stipules

Polyandrous, with an in-
67. Hugoniacese.
68. Chlenaceae.
volucre.
Balsamic (Labda-
Polyandrous. Style simple.

Radicle remote from the
hilum.
69. Cistaceae
Polyandrous. Styles many.

Seeds hairy.
70. Reaumuriaceae
nurri).
Saline.
The characters of this group require careful consideration. Many gynobaseous plants
have a calyx imbricated in a similar way, but they are removed by their gynobasic
structure.
The imbricated character of the calyx depends upon this ; that the whorl of
floral leaves is broken, so that about two of the
sepals are out of the place of the others,
and are, consequently, altogether external.
The Calycose passes into the Parietose group

Hugoniaceae.
GROUP
Alliance
1.
Malvales.
by Turnera, and
into
the Syncarpous
by
V. SYNCARPOSÊ.
.Êstivation of calyx valvate
carpels
four or more.
Stamens
monadelphous.
Anthers two-celled.
Stamens
monadelphous.
Anthers one-celled.
Anthers bursting by pores.
71. Sterculiaceae
Mucilaginous.
72. Malvaceae
Mucilaginous
(Marsh mallow).
73. Elaeocarpaceae.
Petals lacerated.
Stamens
monadelphous.
74. Dipteraceae
Resinous (Cam-
irregular and enlarged in the fruit.
Calyx
Stamens distinct, separate

from calyx.
Stamens distinct,
growing
on a tubular calyx.
phor).
75. Tiliaceaj
76. Lythraceae
Mucilaginous.
Astringent, acrid.
205
Alliance
2.
Meliales.
Êstivation of calyx imbricated
pels four or more.
Stamens combined
tube.
into a
77. Meliaceae
Seeds wingless.
Stamens somewhat mona-
78.
delphous. Seeds winged.
Stamens
monadelphous,
with a dilated connective.
Leaves dotted. Fruit sue-
79.
80.
culent.
Stamens
calyx.
growing to the
Disk very large.
81.
car-
206
Alliance 5.
Silenales.
men
Embryo
or
round
rolled
herbs with leaves
mealy albuhaving tumid
joints.
two
93. Portulacacceae
Insipid, eatable
Sepals four or five, united

into a tube.
94. Silenacea?
Inert.
Sepals four or five, distinct

Dehiscence of fruit loculicidal.
Seeds hairy.
95. Alsinaceae
Inert.
Sepals
(Purslane).
9G. Tamaricaceae
97. Illecebracese
Ditto.
All these orders correspond in so intimate a manner as to leave little doubt of their
Malvales and Meliales are the highest form of the group, Sibeing correctly associated.
lenalcs the lowest ; while Rhamnales on the one hand, and Euphorbiales on the other,
form the connection. The Syncarpous group passes into Epigynosse by Lythracese, and
into Gynobaseosae
by Aurantiaceae.
GROUP
Alliance
Rutales.
1.
VI.
GYNOBASEOS.E.
Style single (or at least
the leaves
dotted).
Gynobase
fleshy.
Carpels
98. Ochnaceae
Tonic, stomachic.
99. Simarubaceae
Bitter
distinct.
Leaves alternate. Stamens

arising from scales.
Stipules 0.
Fruit capsular. 100. Kutaceae
(Quassia).
Bitter, anthelmintic
(Rue); antispasmodic
(Bucku) ; febrifugal
(Angostura Bark).
Stipules present, leaves op-
101. Zygophyllaceae
Sudorific, alterative
Aromatic, pungent.
posite.
Flowers unisexual
.102. Xanthoxylacese
Alliance Z.Geraniales.
point.
Fruit
beaked,
separating
Styles distinct ; at least near the

Carpels combined.
103. Geraniaceae
into five cocci.
Fruit not beaked.
Flow-
ers irregular.
Fruit not beaked.

ers regular.
104. Balsaminacese
Tropaeoleae
Flow-
(Guaiacum).
105. Oxalidaceae
Astringent.
Diuretic.
Pungent (Nasturtium).
Acid.
Alliance 3.
207
Styles several, and carpels quite dis-
Coriales.
tinct.
Ovules pendulous.
bryo straight.
Ovules ascending.
bryo bent double.
Alliance 4.
Em-
106. Coriariaceae
Em-
107. Surianaceae.
Dyes
FlorJceales.
deep
Fruit poisonous.
Style
Fruit
simple.
divided
into
lobes.
108. Limnanthaceae
This
black.
apparently a natural group
Pungent.
but the student will be likely to confound it with

other groups, unless he pays great attention to its distinctions.
In addition to the remore
or
less
between
the carpels, so as to make them diverge from each
ceptacle rising up
other at the base, it is to be remembered that they fonn only one single whorl, and do
not exceed five in number. If this is neglected, they may be confused with some RoThe group is very incomplete, and may be expected to be much
saceae, Malvaceae, &c.
is
and increased before its orders are finally settled.

Rutales connect this with the Syncarpous group through Luvunga, a genus belonging
to Aurantiacese.
Flb'rkeales distinctly pass into Resales through the genus Florkwi.
Geraniales join this to the Parietous group through Violales, and it is probable that Ru-
altered
tales also lead to the Calycose group.
GROUP
Alliance
Rosales.
Flowers quite regular
VII.
APOCARPOS.E.
Albumen wholly
109. Rosaceee
absent.
Astringent.
Fruit eatable {Ap-
Pomese
ples).
Bark tonic; Prussic

acid
(Lau-
Amygdaleae
rel)
fruit eatable
(Peach).
Astringent (Bur-
Sanguisorbese
net).
Legume-bearing, with the

radicle next the hilum.
110. Leguminosse
or
Leaves and
eatable (Pulse).
Csesalpinieae
Purgative (Senna).
Astringent (Catechu) ; gummy
Mimosese
(Gum
Legume-bearing, with the
radicle remote from the
hilum.
Style from the base of the
2.
Chrysobalanaceae
Fruit eatable.
carpels.
Petals very
numerous
Arabic).
111. Connaracese.
fruit
Fabacese.
113. Calycanthaceae
Fragrant.
208
Alliance l.Saxales.
Carpels two,
diverging.
Seeds very
numerous with albumen.

Anthers opening by pores.
1 1
4. Baueraceae.
Polyandrous.
115. Cunoniaceae
Leaves opposite. Stipules

between the petioles.
.
Leaves alternate
116. Saxifragaceae
Astringent.
Seeds very numer-
Carpels several.
albumen.
with
ous
Crassales.
Alliance 3.
Succulent plants
117. Crassulaceae
Astringent.
Refrigerant, abster-
gent (Houseleek).
Balsamales.
Alliance 4.
Leaves dotted.
Carpels so-
Abounding
1
8.
in balsamic juice.
Amyridaceae
Fragrant,
resinous
(Gum
Elemi}.
Resinous, poisonous
( Cashew}.
litary.
Leaves not dotted
119. Anacardiacese
This group passes into Albuminosae by Rosacese and Ranunculaceae, and also by Calyand Magnoliaceae ; and into Gynobaseosse by Florkea. It is probable that
the divisions into alliances require much re-examination ; but there can be no doubt about
the close relationship of all the orders comprehended in the group. An unpublished
genus of Cunoniaceae connects this group with Cinchonaceae in Epigynous Monopetalae.
canthaceae
It is obvious from the notes appended to each of the

foregoing groups, that their
mutual relations may be expressed as follows
1. Albuminosae pass into Epigynosae through Eupomatia.
:
2.
Parietosae
Epigynosae
3. Parietosae
6.
Passiflora.
Turnera.
Calycosae
4. Calycosae
5. Syncarposae
Syncarposae
Gynobaseosae
Apocarposae
Hugoniaceae.
Luvunga.
Florkea.
[thaww.
Ranunculaceae and CalycanTheir true relations will therefore be better expressed as follows :
Albuminosae .... Apocarposae.
7.
Gynobaseosse
Apocarposae
Albuminosae
Epigynosae
Parietosae
This subclass
With
is
Gynobaseosrc
.
Calycosae
otherwise allied as follows
Syncarposae.
Incompletae through Rhamnales
With Monopetalae through
to Daphnales.
Euphorbiaceag
Loranthaceae
Empetracse.
Guttiferae
Lauraceae.
Ebenaceae.
Umbelliferae
Galiaceae
Rhamnaceae
Myrsinaceae.
Myristicaceae
Rutaceae
Cunoniaceae
Melastomaceae
>V ith Endogenae
Ranunculacea;
through
Nymphaeaceae
ProteaceaB.
and
Caprifoliaceje,
Ericaceae.
Cinchonaceae.
Gentianacea?
Alismaceae.
Hydrocharacece.
209
SUBCLASS
INCOMPLETE.
II.
These comprehend the following groups

Rectembryosce.
Calyx very imperfect. Embryo straight.
Acklamydosce.
Calyx and corolla altogether absent.
TMferoscB. Calyx tubular, often resembling a corolla (and with
none of the characters of the other groups).
ColumnosfB.
Stamens monadelphous, and ovary many-(six-)celled ;
or, at all events, the latter character combined with an epigynous
:
2.
3.
4.
flower.
5.
Curvembryosce.
of a horseshoe
or spiral (calyx rarely tubular).
GROUP
Alliance 1.
Female flowers surrounded
RECTEMBRYOSyE.
I.
Flowers
Amentales.
1
cupule.
Female flowers arranged in
scaly catkins.
Urticales.
Carpels several.
in catkins.
20. Corylaceae or
by a
Alliance 2.
or having the form
Embryo curved round albumen ;

;
Cu- Bark astringent

(Oak).
puliferae.
121. Betulacese
Ditto,
Carpel solitary,
or
several.
Stems
continuous, without sheaths.

Leaves opposite. Calyx su-
122. Garryaceae.
perior.
Leaves opposite. Calyx in-
123. Hensloviaceae.
ferior.
Leaves rough.
Anthers
124. Urticaceae
Narcotic, tough
(Hemp).
bursting longitudinally.
Morese
Fruit eatable (Mul-
Artocarpeae
Milky, juice poisonous ( Upas) ; fruit
berry).
eatable (Fig).
Ceratophylleae.
Anthers bursting trans-
125. Stilaginaceae.
versely.
Insipid plants with hypo-
gynous flowers.
Aromatic plants with hypogynous flowers.
Balsamic plants with epi-
gynous
Slightly acrid.
127. Myricaceae
Aromatic, tonic.
128. Juglandaceae
Fruit eatable, laxative (Walnut).
flowers.
N.B. The
to
126. Empetracese
stigma of
show that the
Euphorbiaceae.
Empetrum and
its
true affinity of that plant
hypogynous
is
scales seem,
with Myrica.
It
is
among
other things,
a sort of transition
to
210
Alliance 3.
Casuarales.
Carpels
Stems jointed
solitary.
and furnished with sheaths.

129. Casuaracese.
Alliance 4.
Leaves rough.
Carpels two.
Ulmales.
130. Ulmaceae
Bitter,
astringent
(Elm).
Alliance
5.
Flowers epigynous
Flowers hypogynous
Of
Seeds numerous.
Datiscales.
131. Datiscaceae
132. Lacistemacese.
Leaves alternate.
Bitter.
the orders in this natural group, Garryacese point to Gnetacese through Chloranand so establish a connection with Gymnospermous Exogens. Their approximaCurvemhryosas by Urticaceae is pointed out under that group. Their relation to
thaceae,
tion to
Achlamydosse
is
demonstrated
by
Ceratophyllese,
Lacistemacese,
Podostemaceae, and
Callitrichaceae.
GROUP
Alliance
1.
II.
ACHLAMYDOSJ3.
Flowers
Piperales.
in spikes.
Leaves opposite, with inter-
133. Chloranthaceae
petiolar stipules.
Leaves alternate. Carpels
several.
134. Saururaceae.
Leaves alternate.
135. Piperaceae
Apocarpous.
Aromatic, stimulant.
Carpels
solitary,
Stimulant, pungent,
aromatic (Pep-
per).
Alliance 2.Salicales.
Flowers
Polyspermous, with comose
in catkins.
136. Salicaceae
Apocarpous.
Bark
* eeds -
Monospermous
febrifugal
(Willow).
.
137. Platanaceae.
138. Balsamaceae.
Polyspermous, with naked

seeds.
Alliance
3.Monimiales.
Flowers
in
an involucre.
Anthers bursting lengthwise .139.

Monimiaceae
Aromatic.
Anthers bursting by re140. Atherospermaceaa Ditto,
curved valves.
Alliance 4,Podostemales.
Carpels two, united.
definite.
141. Podostemaceae.
Seeds
in-
Alliance
5.
Cattitrichales.
211
Carpels several.
142. Callitrichaceae.
Probably the two last alliances ought to be combined. But it is evident that the
whole group is so
incomplete, that no distribution of the orders is likely to be worth
e P resent
Achlamydosae join Rectembryosse by Garryaceae, Podostemese,
"f o Y?
and
Callitrichaceae ; and Tubiferosfe
by Monimiales.
'
GROUP
Alliance
1.
III.
TUBIFEROS.E.
Flowers epigynous.
Santalales.
143. Santalaceae
Sedative
(Sandal
Wood).
Alliance
Stamens
2.
Daphnales.
Calyx with an imbricated
aestiva-
tion.
Carpels solitary.
distinct.
Leaves
144. Elaeagnaceae
Harmless.
distinct.
Leaves
145. Thymelacese
Caustic bark.
146. Hernandiaceae
Purgative.
147. Aquilariaceae
Fragrant, resinous.
scurfy.
Stamens
smooth.
Flowers unisexual.
Coty-
ledons lobed.
Stamens monadelphous
Alliance 3.
Proteales.
Êstivation of calyx valvate.

148. Proteaceae
Alliance 4.
Laureates.
None.
Valves of the anthers curved back-
ward.
Leafy, arborescent, aromatic
plants,
with
cotyledons.
Leafy arborescent
Aromatic, stomachic
149. Lauraceae
(Cinnamon).
fleshy
plants,
150. Illigeraceae.
with leafy crumpled cotyledons.

Leafless, herbaceous, insipid
151. Gassy thaceae.
plants.
Alliance 5.
Penaales.
Carpels several.
152. Penaeaceae
nauseous,
Sweetish,
gummy,
resinous
(Sarcocol).
Their tubular calyxes distinguish them at once from all the other groups, except
Columnosae
and the latter are in general clearly characterised by their stamens united
into a column.
Tubiferosae touch Achlamydosae by Lauraceae, and Columnosae by Aris;
tolochiaceae.
They
are also strongly related to Curvembryosae
by
Elasagnaceai.
p-2
212
GROUP
Alliance
1.
IV.
COLUMNOSJ2.
Flowers hypogy nous.
Nepenthales.
153. Nepenthaceae.
Alliance 2.
AristolocMales.
Flowers epigynous.
154. Aristolochiaceae
GROUP
Alliance
1.
V.
Chenopodales.
the hilum.
Tonic, stimulating.
CURVEMBRYOSJE.
Albumen
Radicle next
present.
Flowers dry, with nume-
155. Amarantaceaj
rous bracts.
Flowers herbaceous.
Car-
156. Chenopodiacese
Ditto (Spinach).
Carpels
157. Phytolaccaceae
Emetic.
pels solitary.
Flowers coloured.
Wholesome,
insipid.
several.
Alliance
2.
Albumen present.
Polygonales.
from the hilum.
158. Polygonaceae
Eadicle
away
Acid (Sorrel) ; purgative and tonic

(Rhubarb).
Alliance
3.
Petivales.
Albumen
absent.
Cotyledons
spiral.
159. Petiveriaceae.
Alliance 4.
Sclerales.
Border of the calyx herba-
Tube of
the calyx hardened.
160. Scleranthaceae.
ceous.
Border of the
calyx peta-
161. Nyctaginaceae
Roots purgative.
loid.
Alliance
5.
Cocculales.
Albumen
upon a ternary
present.
Flowers formed
plan, dichlamydeous.
162. Menispermaceae
Root
tonic
bitter,
(Calumbd)
narcotic
seeds
(Coccu-
lus).
vemn
ver, much
relation to them,
and the resemblance in
their calyx is
; they have not, howovercome by the struc-
213
ture of the seed.
Nyctaginaceae require a
much more
have received.
careful examination than they yet
Menispermaceae have, strictly speaking, both calyx and corolla ; but

their organs are so small and so much
alike, that I place the order here ; it has but b'ttle
apparent relation even to Schizandreae
the circumstance of the
among Anonales, beyond
parts of its flower being ternary, while it seems closely allied to Aristolochiaceae.
Menispermaceae must be considered one of the natural orders
Exogens which tend
towards Endogens.
The passage
podiaceae on the one hand,
among
of Curvembryosae into
Rectembryosae through Chenoother, is obvious.
and Urticaceae on the
The mutual
relations of these groups

may be expressed as follows
Rectembryosae pass into Achlamydosae through Garrvaceae &c.
2. Achlamydosae
Tubiferosae
Monimiaceae.
3. Tubiferosae
Columnosae
Aristolochiaceae.
4. Columnosae
Curvembryosse
Menispermaceae.
5. Curvembryosae
Rectembryosae
Chenopodiacese.
Their true relations will therefore be thus
:
1.
Rectembryosae, Curvembryosae,
Achlamydosae,
Columnosae,
Tubiferosae.
The
subclass of Incompletae
the following manner, viz.
With
Polypetalae
may
be considered
through
allied
with other parts of the system in

to
Daphnalea
Proteaceae
Lauraceae
Loranthaceae.
Myristicaceae.
Euphorbiaceae.
Empetraceae
? Nyctaginaceae
With Monopetalae
With Gymnospermae
With Endogenae
Solanaceae.
Gnetaceae.
Chloranthaceae
SUBCLASS
Rhamnales.
Menispermaceae
Smilaceae.
Aristolochiaceae
Araceae.
III.
MONOPETAL^:.

Polycarposa. Flowers hypogynous (rarely epigynous).
:
1.
posed of many carpels.

2. Epigynosce.
Flowers epigynous.
Ovary com-
Ovary composed of two
or
many
carpels.
3.
4.
5.
Ovary consisting of but one perfect carpel.

Nucamentosa. Ovary composed of two carpels, which are separate,
nut-like, and often divided into two parts.
Dicarposce.
Ovary composed of two carpels. Fruit capsular.
Aggregoste.
GROUP
Alliance
1.
Brexiales.
I.
POLYCARPOSJS.
Albumen
absent.
Carpels
five.
163. Brexiaceae.
Alliance 2.
Seeds winged.
Brown,
Anthers opening by pores.

from four to five, or more.
Ericales.
Herbs
leafless, parasites
164. Pyrolaceae
165. Monotropaceae.
Carpels
Diuretic, tonic.
Anthers two-celled.
Seeds
AnThersTwo-celled.
Ovary
6 C. Ericaceae
167. Vacciniaceae
Ditto, ditto.
inferior.
Anthers one-celled
168. Epacridaceae.
Anthers
Alliance S.P-rimulales.
five.
four
Carpels
mens
169. Primulacea.
Sta-
Herbaceous plants.
bursting longitudinally.
narcotic
j
Slightly
~o
(Cowslip).
opposite petals.
Woody
Stamens
plants.
170. Myrsmacese.
opposite petals.
sweet, eatable; bark febri-
and
171. Sapotaceae
Fruit
with twice
stamens as pe-
172. Ebenacese
Astringent.
Calyx
plants.
corolla double.
Milky
fugal.
Watery
as
plants,
many
Fruit
eatable.
tals.
Resinous, astringent, aromatic
Styraceae
(Storax,
Ben-
zoin).
Watery
plants,
same number
with
the
Astringent, tonic
173. Aquifoliacese
(Holly).
of stamens
as sepals.
Alliance 4.
Nolanales.
Fruit divided into deep lobes.
Car-
pels five, or more.
174. Nolanaceae.
Alliance
Leafless
5.
plants.
Volvales.
Embryo
Carpels from two to four.

175. Cuscutaceac, m.
spiral.
176. Convolvulaceae
Erect plants, with an imbricated corolla and three
177. Polemoniaceae.
Twining
plants,
plaited corolla.
with
Roots purgative
(Jalap, Scammany).
carpels.
Styles numerous.
Seeds
178. Hydroleaceee
Bitter,
indefinite.
Ebenaceae
Nolanaceae adjust these to Dicarposae, and Primulaceae to Epigynosse.
touch upon Guttiferae, and Myrsinaceae upon Rhamnaceae through the genus Choripetalum.
Ericaceae moreover have an evident affinity with Rutaceae, first through Ledum, which
may be compared with Phebalium, and secondly through Andromeda, which simulates
Corraea.
215
GROUP
Alliance 1.
.182.
Alliance 2.
Stamens
179. Lobeliaceae
180. Campanulacese
181. ? Belvisiacese.
distinct.
indefinite.
Acrid, poisonous.
Inert.
Columelliacess.
Seeds
183. Stylidiaceae.
184. Goodeniaceae.
Seeds
185. Scaevolaceae.
Seeds
Stigma with an indusium.
Goodeniales.
Flowers gynandrous
EPIGYNOSJE.
Stipules absent.
Campanales.
Anthers united
Anthers distinct
Polyandrous
Diandrous
II.
indefinite.
Stamens
distinct.
definite.
Alliance 3.
Stipules between the leaves.
Cinchonales,
186. Cinchonaceae
Bark febrifugal (Jesuits'
bark}
root emetic
(Ipecacuanha).
Alliance 4.
Stipules
Caprioles,
Seeds
none.
definite
in
number.
188. Caprifoliaceae
Alliance 5.
Stellales.
no
Fruit double.
Bark
astringent.
Leaves whorled, with
stipules.
189. Stellatae or
Ga-
Astringent,
liaceae.
dying
(Madder).
It is evident that, in this group, Galiacese have a close relationship with Apiaceae ; and
is participated in by Caprifoliaceae, through the genera Viburnum
and Sambucus. Some Primulacese seem to approach Cinchonaceae ; and the Goodenial
that this approximation

alliance,
by means
of Scaevolaceae, passes directly into Brunoniaceae
GROUP
Alliance 1.
Albumen
Asterales.
present
in
the
III.
among Aggregosae.
AGGREGOS^:.
Anthers syngenesious.
190. Calyceraceae.
seeds.
Corolla bilabiate
Corollas all ligulate. Milky.
Involucre
hemispherical.
Florets of ray ligulate.

Involucre rigid or spiny, coFlorets of ray
nical.
tubular and inflated.
191. Mutisiaceae.
192. Cichoracese
193. Asteraceae
194. Cynaraceac
Narcotic (Lettuce).
Bitter, tonic (Cltamomile), diuretic.
Bitter (Thistle).
216
Anthers
Alliance 2.Dipsales.
Flowers epigynous.
distinct.
.
.195. Dipsacess
Carpel solitary
196. Valerianaceae
Carpels triple; two of them
None.
Bitter, antispasmo-
abortive.
die,
vermifugal
( Valerian).
Alliance 3.
Brunoniahs.
Stigma with an
Style single.
in-
dusium.
197. Brunoniaceae.
Alliance 4.
Fruit
Plantales.
spuriously
Style single.
Stigma naked.
198. Plantaginacese
Bitter, astringent
199. Globulariaceae
Bitter,
double-
celled.
(Plantain}.
Flowers unsymmetrical
tonic,
pur-
gative.
N.B. The situation of the dissepiment in Plantaginaceae

part to be spurious, and that the fruit is in reality quite simple.
Alliance 5.
Plwmbales.
Styles
five.
sufficiently
shows that
Flowers formed upon
a quinary plan.
200. Plumbaginaceae.
Some
tonic, astrin-
gent
others
acrid, caustic.
GROUP
Alliance
1.
IV.
Phaceliales.
NUCAMENTOS.E.
Fruit capsular.
Inflorescence gy-
rate.
201. Hydrophyllaceae.
Alliance
2.
EcMales.
gyrate.
Fruit
deeply lobed
Fruit nucamentaceous.
Inflorescence
Flowers symmetrical.
202. Boraginaceee
Mucilaginous (Borage) ; roots dyeing (Alkanef).
.
byncarpous, style bifid
Syncarpous, style dichoto-
mous
203. Ehretiacese.
204. Cordiacese
Emollient (Selesten
Plum).
Alliance 3.
Labiates.
Fruit nucamentaceous.
divided
into
four
Inflorescence
gyrate.
Fruit
217
Tonic, stomachic
205. Lamiaceae or
lobes."
Labiatae.
(Thyme, Mint,
&c.)
Fruit consisting of about 4

cells.
Radicle inferior.
Fruit consisting of about
four
cells.
206. Verbenacese
Slightly bitter.
207. Myoporaceae
Tanning.
Radicle supe-
rior.
Fruit two-celled.
Ovules
208. Selaginaceae.
pendulous. Anthers onecelled.
Fruit two-celled.
erect.
Ovules
209. Stilbaceae.
Antherstwo-celled.
GROUP
Alliance
1.
Bignoniales.
V.
DICARPOS.E.
Neither albumen nor hooks to the
seeds.
.210. Bignoniaceae.
.
Seeds winged
211. Pedaliaceae
Fruit hard and like a nut .
212. Cyrtandraceae.
Placentae 4. Seeds wingless
.
Alliance 2.
Seeds numerous, with albumen.
ScropJiulales.
Leafy plants with a superior
Emollient.
213. Scrophulariaceae.
ovary.
(Digi-
talis).
Leafless plants with a mi-
214. Orobanchaceae.
nute embryo.
Leafless plants with a one-
215. Gesneraceae
celled
Suspicious
Harmless,
ovary, partly in-
ferior.
Alliance 3.
AcantJiales.
Seeds without albumen, with hooks
to the seeds.
Calyx remarkably imbricated.
216. Acanthaceae.
Alliance 4.
Lentibales.
free central placenta.
217. Lentibulaceae.
218
Flowers
Alliance 5.Gentianales.
standing right and

rescence.
Corolla
fruit
on the
withering
in aestivation
Carpels
symmetrical.
of the axis of inflo-
left
218. Gentianaceae
Bitter (Gentian).
Anthelmmtic.
Milk and
im-
bricated.
Estivation of corolla val-
219. Spigeliacese
vate.
Estivation contorted. Sta-
mens
220. Apocynacese
distinct.
fruit
poisonous
(Nux
vomica)
bark
febrifugal some-
times.
Anthers grown
to the stig-
221. Asclepiadaceae
Emetic,
Acrid.
Oil eatable (Olive).
ma.
Alliance
6.
Oleales.
Estivation of corolla val-
Diandrous.
222. Oleaceae
vate.
Estivation of corolla im-
223. Jasminaceae.
bricate.
Alliance
7.
Flowers unsymmetrical, with seveLoganiales.

ral stamens.
Leaves furnished with
sti-
224. Loganiacese.
pules.
Flowers somewhat pentan-
225. Potaliacese
Emetic.
Acrid.
drous.
Alliance 8.
Embryo
curved.
Solanales.
Flowers
standing
fore
rescence.
Cotyle-
and
symmetrical.
of the axis
aft
226. Solanaceae
Carpels
of inflo-
Poisonous.
dons cylindrical.
cotic
Nar-
(Belladon-
na, Stramonium,
Tobacco).
Embryo
straight.
Cotyle-
227. Cestraceae.
dons leafy.
It appears that the connection
nature
between the foregoing groups
is
of a most decisive
for,
1.
Polycarposae pass into Epigynosae
2-
Aggregosse
3.
Epigynosae
Aggregosae
Nucamentosoc
Dipsaceae.
4.
Nucamentosce
Dicarposae
Scrophulariacese.
5.
Dicarposae
Polycarpos;c
Boraginaceae.
through Primulales.
Scaevolacese.
The
relations of the groups
may
therefore be expressed thus
Polycarposae,
Epigynosae,
219
:
Dicarposae,
Nucamentosae,
Aggregosae.
regard to the connection of Monopetalous Exogens with other parts of the
system, they appear to have only the following strongly-marked affinities
With Polypetalae through
to
Gentianaceae
Melastomaceaj.
Ebenaceae
Clusiaceae.
With
Galiaceae
Apiaceae.
Caprifoliacese
Myrsinaceae
Rhamnaceae.
Ericaceae
Rutaceae.
Cunoniaceae.
Cinchonaceae
With
Incompletae
It also results
Solanaceae
Nyctaginaceae.
from the previous investigations, that true Exogens are only connected
immediately with other classes by the following points

With Endogens
Ranunculaceae
through
Nymphaeaceae
Menispermaceae
:
Alismaceae.
Hydrocharaceae.
Smilaceae.
Aristolochiaceae
With Gymnospermae
CLASS
Stem
with
articulations.
Araceae.
Gnetaceae.
Chloranthaceae
II.
GYMNOSPERMAE.
228. Gnetacese.
Fruit in spikes.
Stem bearing many buds.
229. Taxaceae
Leaves deleterious
Fruit single.
(Yew).
Stem terminated by a
gle bud.
sin-
Wood
230. Cycadacese
Leaves gyrate
contains
starch.
before developement.
Stem bearing many buds.
231. Pinaceae or Co-
Fruit in cones.
Terebintaceous
niferse.
( Turpentine,
Pitch, &c.)
These plants are connected by close affinity ; but some links

They are in alliance with other parts of the system, thus
to
With Exogens
Gnetaceae
through
With Endogens
Cycadaceae
With Acrogens
Pinaceae
in the chain are wanting
III.
Lycopodiaceae.
Filicales.
Cycadaceae
CLASS
Chloranthaceae.
Palmaceae.
ENDOGENS.

Anthers distinct. Flowers complete. Ovaiy inferior.
Epigynosce.
Flowers complete.
Gynandrosce. Stamens united with the styles.
:
1.
2.
Ovary
3.
inferior.
Hypogynosce.
Flowers coloured, with
its
parts
in
superior.
4. Retosce.
Leaves netted,
threes.
Ovary
with a taper footstalk articulated with the

Floral envelopes complete.
5. Spadicosce.
Flowers herbaceous, or imperfect. Perianth often absent.
stem.
Embryo with a
6.
Glumosce,
lateral
slit.
Bracts scalelike in the room of a perianth.
220
GROUP
Alliance 1
EPIGYNOSÊ.
Leaves with the veins diverging from
Amomales.
I.
the midrib to the margin.

Monandrous. Anther two-
232. Zingiberaceae
Aromatic, stimu-
233. Marantaceee
Amylaceous,
latin
celled.
Monandrous.
Anther one-
.234.
Musaceae
insi-
pid (Arrowroot).
Fruit nutritious
celled.
Several anthers
(Ginger}.
(Banana).
Narcissales.
Alliance 2.
hexandrous
Hexapetaloideous
plants.
Texture
Flowers large.
smooth.
Plant
Leaves equitant.
woolly.
Leaves equitant.
Fruit
Acrid.
235. Amaryllidaceee
Poisonous.
236. Heemodoraceae.
237. Burmanniaceae.
winged.
Fruit
-celled.
Placentae
238. Taccaceae.
Ixiales.
Triandrous.
parietal.
Alliance
3.
239. Iridacese
Alliance 4.
Bromeliales.
Purgative.
Tripetaloideous scurfy plants (with
albumen).
240. Bromeliacese
Sap sugary (Pineapple).
Alliance 5.
Tripetaloideous smooth plants.
Hydrates.
mens more than
six.
(Albumen
Sta-
absent.)
241. Hydrocharacese.
Both Hydrocharaceae and Bromeliaceae pass into Spadicosae by Pandanaceae. Iridaceae,
particularly the genus Gladiolus, offer a very near approach in structure to Gynandrosae.
GROUP
Ovary
one-celled
II.
GYNANDROS.E.
242. Orchidaceae
Aromatic, viscid,
nutritious (Salep, Vanilla).
The
flowers of a Gladiolus would become those of an Orchis in

calyx and corolla and
if the latter were consolidated with the
style ; here there is a transition to Epigynosse.
Apostasiaceae have the nearly regular flowers of Liliacete, and through them
stamens,
connect this group with Hypogynosae.
221
GROUP
Alliance
1.
HYPOGYNOSÊ.
III.
Palmales.
Hexapetaloideous
Vague embryo.
243. Palmacese
with
plants,
Amylaceous. Saccharine (Cocoa-
nut, Sago).
Alliance 2.
Hexapetaloideous plants, with an embryo in the axis of the albumen.
Liliales.
Petals rolled inwards after
244. Pontederaceae.
flowering.
Hexandrous. Anthers turned outwards. Styles dis-
245. Melanthacese
Cathartic
cotic
tinct.
Flowers irregular, with appendages on the outside.

Hexandrous. Anthers turned inwards. Styles con-
246. Gilliesiaceee.
247. Liliaceae
nar-
diuretic
White Helle-
bore, Colchicum).
Unimportant.
Bitter, stimulant
Asphodelese
solidated.
Alliance 3.
(Squill, Onion, &c.)
Tripetaloideous plants, with the
Commelynales.
carpels three
and consolidated.
248. Commelynacese.
Alliance 4.
Alismales.
pels
Tripetaloideous plants, with the car-
more or
Placentae spread over the

dissepiments.
the
Placentas
occupying
margin only of the dis-
less distinct.
249. Butomacese
Acrid,
250. Alismaceae
Acrid,
sepiments, or their equivalent.
Alliance 5.
Juncales.
.
Flowers regular
Flowers irregular, with a
two-leaved calyx.
.
Here we have a marked
Flowers somewhat glumaceous.

251. Juncaceae
252. Philydraceae.
transition to
Unimportant.
Exogens on the part of Alisma, which is hardly

by its embryo. Liliaceae connect the group
Juncaceae with Glumosae through Restiaceae.
distinguishable from Ranunculaceae, except
with GynandrosEe through Apostasiaccne,
222
GROUP
IV.
RETOSÊ.
253. Dioscoreaceae
Flowers unisexual. Ovary
Nauseous
some-
times eatable
inferior
(Yam).
254. Smilaceae
Flowers hermaphrodite.
Ovary
Diuretic; demulcent (Sarsapa-
superior.
rilla).
255. Roxburghiaceae.
Flowers binary, highly developed.
GROUP
Alliance 1.
V.
SPADICOSÊ.
Flowers on a spadix.
Pandales.
Fruit drupa-
ceous.
Flowers
spiral.
ternately
256. Cyclanthaceee.
Spires al-
male and
fe-
male.
Flowers achlamydeous and
257. Pandanacese
Fruit eatable,
apocarpous.
Alliance 2.
Arales.
Fruit
either
berried or capsular.
Flowers unisexual
.
Alliance 3.
.258.
.
Araceae .
259. Acoracese
Alliance 4.
Aromatic.
Anthers clavate.
Flumales.
Ovules pendu-
Floaters.
Acrid.
Typhales.
260. Typhaceae
Poisonous.
Of no
Flowers in spikes, or
261. Naiadacese
262. Juncaginaceae.
263. Pistiacese
Sepals three.
importance.
solitary.
Unimportant.
lous.
Ovules erect
with none, or
Terrestrial.
Floaters,
scarcely
any,
axis
Acrid (Duck-weed).
of
growth.
we find a transition to Rhizanthae in the case of the

genus Lemna,
vascular system, and is the lowest known form of Endows.
Tyconnect
this
phaceae
group with Glumosae, and Pandales with Epigynosse.
It is here that
which
is destitute of
GROUP
Stems
fistular
VI.
223
GLUMOSÊ.
264. Graminaceae
Fruit floury (Corn).
Herbage sweet
(Sugar-cane,
Grass, &c.)
Stems
solid.
Carpels single
265. Cyperaceae
Un-
Diaphoretic.
important.
Flowers naked.
Carpels
266. Desvauxiacese.
several.
Flowers with a calyx. Seeds
267. Restiacese.
few.
Flowers with a
Seeds numerous.
corolla.
268. Xyridaceae.
United to Spadicosae
The
by- Cyperaceae, and to Hypogynosae by Restiaceae.

Endogens with other parts of the system seems to be,
With Gymnospermas through Palmaceae
to
Cycadacese.
With Exogens
Alismaceae
Ranunculaceae.
relation of
With Rhizanthae
With Acrogens
Hydrocharaceae
Retosae
Araceae
through Araceae
Placentae
several,
parietal.
Sepals four.
Aristolochiaceae.
Cynomoriaceae.
Pistiaceae ?
CLASS
Sepals
Nymphaeaceae.
Menispermaceas.
Placentae pa-
IV.
Marsileaceae ?
RHIZANTHÊ.
269. Rafflesiaceae
Astringent.
270. Cytinaceae
Astringent.
271. Cynomoriaceae
Astringent (F^m-
rietal.
Placentas central
gus melitensis).
These singular fungoid plants are neither Exogens nor Endogens, because they have no
vascular system, and their sexual apparatus is imperfect ; they are not Acrogens, because
they have flowers and sexes. They are connected
With Endogens through
With Acrogens
CLASS
Filicales.
Alliance 1.
V.
Araceae.
Fungaceae.
ACROGENÊ.
Stems
fistular,
tive organs borne
vascular.
upon the
272. Polypodiaceae
Ring of the thecae vertical
Gleicheniaceae
Ring of the thecae transverse 273.
Ring wanting. Thecae one- 274. Osmundaceae
.
celled, ribbed.
Ring wanting.
if
Reproduc-
leaves.
v
Astringent.
275. Danaeaceae
Thecae as
many-celled.
Thecae one-
Ring wanting.
ral.
Pecto-
Some eatable.
276. Ophioglossaceae
celled, veinless.
Thecae in cones
277. Equisetaceae
Epidermis
siliceous.
224
Alliance 2.
Lycopodales.
tive organs
Thecae naked
Thecae enclosed in involucres of the same form.
Thecae enclosed in. involu.
Stems
solid, vascular.
Reproduc-
growing on the stem.
278. Lycopodiacese
279. Marsileaceae
Emetic.
280. Salviniaceae
None.
None.
cres of two different forms.
Alliance 3.
M&scales.
Ger-
Without a vascular system.
minating processes uniting into a heterogeneous

body.
Thecae valveless, with
an
operculum.
Thecae opening into valves,
with an operculum.
Thecae opening into valves,
without an operculum.
Thecae valveless, without
Sporules in distinct thecse.

281. Bryaceae
282. Andraeaceae.
283. Jungermanniaceae.
284. Hepaticaceae.
an operculum.
Alliance 4.
Charales.
Germi-
nating processes uniting into a heterogeneous
body.
Reproductive organs axillary globules.

285. Characeae
Alliance 5.
Fungales.
Fo3tid.
Ger-
minating processes either wholly distinct or

confluent in a homogeneous
body.
Born from a matrix which

veils
286. Fungaceae
them when young.
Stimulant ; nutritive.
Often poisonous (Ergot,
Mushroom,
Born
without
Living in
a matrix.
air.
Cellular,
rarely filamentous,
reproductive
bursting
Truffle}.
287. Lichenaceae
Orchal) ; nu(Iceland
tritive
with
Moss).
nucleus
through
Dye
their
surface.
Born without a matrix.

Living in water.
mentous
either
glued
Fila-
the filaments
solitary or several
together,
sporidia
having
and viviparous.
288. Algaceae
Nutritive.
225
This group touches Rhizanthese
Gymnospermae
through Fungaceae.
Lycopodales.
Filicales.
Characeae.
If the affinities that have thus been explained are correctly stated, a mutual connection
of the five great classes in the vegetable kingdom may be expressed by a circle, in the
middle of whose circumference stand Exogens and Endogens, side by side ; the common
point of all the classes is formed by Acrogens ; which are connected on the one hand with
Exogens by Gymnosperms, and on the other with Endogens by Rhizanths.
The following scheme will place this idea in a more distinct point of view
:
Aracets to Cynomoriaoea.
C'/Jvrant/taceee to Gnetacete.
226
VI.
SKETCH OF A NEW DISTRIBUTION OF THE

VEGETABLE KINGDOM.
SOME remarks have already been made upon what apand, howpear to be the true principles of classification (635)
1.
ever imperfect the attempt may be, this seems a proper place
to sketch out the way in which it may possibly be executed.
In Exogens there are two totally different modes in

2.
which the influence of the pollen is communicated to the seed.
The
larger part of this primary group consists of plants provided with the apparatus called style and stigma, through
which the pollen-tubes are introduced into the ovary in the
act
of fertilization.
But others are
so
constructed that the
upon the ovules, without the introduction of any intermediate apparatus ; a

peculiarity analogous
to what occurs among reptiles in the Animal
Kingdom and,
as was to have been anticipated, the
in
which this sinplants
gular habit occurs prove, upon being collected together, to
pollen falls immediately
form a group having no direct

which
affinity with those among
they had been previously associated. Hence Exogens have
been broken up into 1.
Exogens proper, or those having an
ovary, style, and stigma
and
2.
Gymnogens, which have neither.
Endogens, in like manner, two modes of propagation have been discovered, essentially different from each
other.
In the major part of them the result of the fertiliza3.
Among
tion of their seed is the

production of an embryo, having one
point upon its surface predestined to become a stem, and an-
other to become a root ; besides which their

elementary organization includes vascular tissue in abundance.
But
others,
although in a high state of developement, are wholly or nearly

destitute of vascular tissue; and when their
seed is
fertilized,
instead
of an
embryo being formed,
the issue
is
a mass of
NEW
DISTRIBUTION OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM.
227
sporules, or reproductive bodies, analogous to those which Aerogens have instead of seeds. The old class of Endogens required therefore to be replaced by 3. Endogens proper, whose
organs of propagation are seeds, and 4. Sporogens, commonly

called Rhizanths, whose reproductive bodies are
spores.
4.
Among Acrogens also two modes of growth occur, so
essentially different from each other that they evidently represent different kinds of vegetation.
In some of them there is
a distinct axis of growth, or stem and root,
symmetrically
they are irregular cellular expansions, destitute of true leaves ; in the former we find a
trace of something equivalent to the sexes of
Exogens and
Endogens, in the latter all indications of the kind disappear.
Thus are formed two groups, which may be called 5. Cormogens,
where there is a stem and leaves, and 6. Thallogens, where
clothed with leaves
in others
no separation of those parts.

extent dismemberments of the three classes of
Jussieu may be further carried, there is no evidence to show
there
5.
is
To what
however, probable that they are capable of much

further increase
for, with a few exceptions, the affinities of
it
is
not,
the six primary groups now indicated are too continuous and
complete to allow us to suppose that any great physiological
or fundamental differences of organization exist among them.
Some
6.
exceptions, however, do exist.
Among
Angiospermous
AristolocMacea,
Piperaceae,
Exogens
the
Nepenthacea, Lardizabalacea,
and some others
Natural
orders
Menispermacea,
allied to the latter, stand isolated,
were, in whatever part of the group they are stationed,

having no obvious affinity with any other orders; for we can
only regard the approximation of Menispermaceae to Anonacea,
as
it
Now
&c. as the result of altogether artificial considerations.
these orders appear to agree in one remarkable circumstance.
Instead of their wood being formed by zone deposited over
zone, season after season, as
is
the case in the great mass of
Exogens, they never have more than one zone of woody matWhether their
ter, to whatever age they may have arrived.
wood itself is formed exactly in the same way as that of other
Exogens, namely, by a gradual external addition of stratum

upon stratum, is doubtful ; it is probable that they have a
mode of growth
of their own, analogous to
that
of Aristolo-
NEW
228
DISTRIBUTION OF
which the wood when young is augmented by the sucbetween

cessive introduction of wedge upon wedge of wood
a
around
medullary
wedges originally placed concentrically
Such plants as these agree with Exogens in their Diaxis.
chia, in
in general appearance, but their

cotyledonous embryo, and
of growth is an approach to that of some Endogens to
mode
be presently noticed, and it therefore appears they ought to be

which from the homogeregarded as a fundamental group,
of
called
be
wood
of
the
Homogens, for the sake
may
neity
their structure with the concentrically zoned growth
contrasting
of other Exogens, to which the collective
might be applied.
three classes,
1.
name of Cyclogens
In this manner Exogens are composed of
Exogens proper,
2.
Gymnogens, and
3.
Homo-
Among Endogens we
find a group of exactly the same

and differing from the mass of the order in
The peculiar habit of Smilax and
nearly the same manner.
some other Endogens, which no one would suppose from their
7.
nature as the
last,
general appearance to belong to that class, led me formerly to

propose the separation of them into a group which was called
the Retose.
But as no better character could be found for it
than the reticulated leaves, nobody adopted it, and it has been
regarded as an unnecessary separation of plants essentially the
same ; an opinion to which, in the absence of evidence, there

has been nothing to oppose beyond the conviction that the
Retose group is in nature well founded, although its true characters may have been undiscovered.
It now, however, appears that Smilax and its allies have the wood of their axis
arranged upon a plan wholly or in part similar to that of Homoand consequently they will constitute, not a subdivision of
;
gens
Endogens as was formerly supposed, but a new class or priIf the annual branches of a Smilax are exa-
mary group.
mined, there is nothing in their internal structure at variance

with that of a stem of Asparagus ;
they are exactly Endogenous ; but in the rhizoma of the whole
genus (take the Sarsaparilla of the shops for instance) the wood is disposed in a
compact circle, below a cortical integument, and surrounding
a true pith
so that the rhizoma or
of the stem
;
permanent part
that of a
Homogen. In Dioscorea alata the stem is formed
of eight fibrovascular
with their backs
wedges placed in
is
pairs,
THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM.
229
the bark, surrounding a central pith and having

wide medullary plates between them in fact, when the stems
of this plant are in a state of decay, the eight fibrovascular
touching
wedges may be pulled asunder, like those of a Menispermaceous plant.

In Testudinaria elephantipes the structure of the
stem is of nearly the same kind ; several bundles of fibrovascular tissue form a circle surrounding a pith, and pierced
with broad medullary processes. Lapageria and Philesia have
each a zone of wood below their bark, and a central pith
which the common fibrovascular bundles of Endogens are

disposed ; a tendency to which is also observable in Smilax.
8.
It seems therefore clear that what I have elsewhere
in
composed of plants whose mode of

from that of Endogens in general
growth
and that the species composing it stand in the same relation to
the mass of Endogens, as Homogens to the mass of Exogens.
For these reasons it appears that Endogens contain three distinct types of organization, namely, Spermogens and Sporogens,
or Rhizanths, the former of which consists 1 of true Endogens
with striated inarticulated leaves, and 2. of false Endogens with
called the Retose
is
group
is
essentially different
reticulated disarticulating leaves, or Dictyogens.

From these considerations we learn that of the
9.
three
primary divisions of the Vegetable Kingdom, recognized by

Jussieu, two require to be broken up into three each, and the
other into two ; making eight in all ; the mutual relations
of which with each other and the Animal
expressed thus
Kingdom may be
Exogens.
Homogens.
Gymnogens.
Dictyogens.
Endogens.
Sporogens.
Cormogens.
Thallogens.
(Animal Acrita Kingdom.)
The
following analytical arrangement will

more plainly into view.
tinctions
bring
these
dis-
DISTRIBUTION OF
NEW
230
STATE
I.
SEXUAL OR FLOWERING PLANTS.
Division 1. Exogens.
Cyclogens.
j Class
I.
1 Class
II.
Class
III.
( Class
Division 2. Endogens.
Class
Class
<^
Exogens.
Gymnogens.
Homogens.
IV. Dictyogens.
V. Endogens.
VI. Sporogens
{Rhizanths).
STATE
II.
ESEXUAL OR FLOWERLESS PLANTS.

(
The
following
is
Class
VII. Cormogens.
\ Class VIII. Thallogens.

view
of
the orders that have to be
tabular
a
limited.
arranged in the classes thus
class divides into two series
each
that
It is assumed
the
the
one having albumen as a necessary part of the
structure,
other either wholly or almost destitute of that
substance (see
652).
have also adopted the principles before spoken of as ap-
pearing well suited to the construction of subordinate

(see 655) ; and, with reference to this, the following
are employed in the sense now assigned to them.
1
Consolidated
when
the floral envelopes are united
series
terms
both
with each other and the stamens, and with the ovary.
2. Separated; when the floral envelopes and stamens are
united with each other, but the ovary is consolidated and free.
3. Adherent ; when the petals and sepals adhere to each other
and the stamens and ovary, but have their parts disunited.
4. Disunited ; when the sepals and
petals adhere to each
other and the stamens but have their parts disunited, and do
;
not adhere to the consolidated ovary.

5. Dissolved; when the
sepals and petals are distinct from
the stamens, and also from the
ovary, whose carpels are disunited either wholly or by the styles.
These five gradations seem to

comprehend all the material
degrees of union, from complete consolidation, as in Composite,
to complete separation, as in Rammculacese.

CLASS
SERIES
I.
I.
EXOGENS.
CONSOLIDATED.
Exalbuminous.
1.
Albuminous.
Asteraceae.
1.
Valerianaceae.
Calyceraceae.
Dipsaceae.
2.
Campanulaceae.
Lobeliaceae.
Stylidiaceae.
Goodeniaceae.
Scaevoleae.
3.
Cinchonaceae.
Galiaceae.
Caprifoliaceae.
Columelliaceae.
SERIES
II.
SEPARATED.
Albuminous.
Exalbuminous.
Brunoniacese.
1.
Globulariacese.
Convolvulacese.
Plantaginaceae.
Nolanaceae.
Plumbaginaceaj.
Salvadoraceae.
Boraginaceae.
Lamiaceaa.
Verbenaceae.
Lentibulaceae.
Cyrtandraceae.
2.
Hydrophyllaceae.
Bignoniaceae.
Primnlaceae.
Pedaliacese.
Acanthacese.
Myrsinaceae.
Ebenaceae.
Myoporacese.
Jasminaceae.
Papayaceae.
Sapotaceae.
231
NEW
232
DISTRIBUTION OF
3. Cestraceae.
3. Ehretiaceffi.
Solanacese.
Cordiacea;.
Scrophulariaceae.
Gesneraceae.
Stilbaceae.
Selaginaceae.
Oleacese.
4. Retziaceae.
Loganiaceae.
Apocynaceae.
Aselepiadaceae.
Spigeliaceae.
Gentianaceaa.
Orobanchaceae.
5.
Polemoniaceee.
Diapensiaceae.
Hydroleacese.
SERIES
III.
ADHERENT.
Albuminous.
Excdbuminous.
1.
Combretaceae.
Corylaceas.
1.
Aquifoliaceae.
Cornaceae.
Garryaceaa.
Araliaceae.
Apiaceae.
Alangiaceee.
Hamamelacea;.
Helvingiaceae.
2. Chailletiaceae.
Penaaaceae.
Lauracese.
Hernandiaceae.
Proteaceaa.
Thymelaceae.
Elseagnaceas.
2. Santalaceaa.
Loranthacese.

3.
Rosaceae.
3.
233
Grossulaceae.
Calycanthaceae.
Homaliaceae.
Chrysobalanaceae.
Fabacese.
Malesherbiacese.
Connaraceae.
Loasacese.
Turneraceae.
Amyridaceae.
Anacardiaceae.
4.
Onagraceae.
4.
Ficoidaceae.
Scleranthaceee.
Lythraceae.
Melastomaceae.
Nyctaginaceaa.
Begoniaceae.
Memecylaceae.
Lecythidaceae.
Myrtaceae.
5.
Cactaceae.
5.
Rhamnaceae.
Passifloraceae.
Celastraceee.
Cucurbitaceae.
Bruniaceae.
Datiscaceae.
6.
Philadelphaceae.
Hydrangeaceaa.
Saxifragaceae.
Cunoniaceae.
Baueraceae.
Escalloniaceae.
Vaccinaceae.
SERIES IV. DISUNITED.
Albuminous.
Exalbuminous.
\.
Resedaceae.
1.
Ericaceae.
Capparidacese.
Epacridaceae.
Brassicaceae.
Empetraceae.
Moringaceae.
2.
Spondiaceae.
Brexiaceae.
Aurantiaceae.
2,
Pittosporaceae.
Fouquieraceas
Vitaceae.
NEW
234
DISTRIBUTION OF
Humiriaceae.
Meliacese.
Tremandraceae.
Cedrelaceee.
Burseraceae.
3.
3.
Clusiaceae.
Tiliaceae.
Marcgraaviaceee.
Elseocarpaceae.
Rhizobolacese.
Trigoniaceae.
Chlenacese.
Dipteracese.
Ternstromiaceae.
4.
Vochyaceae.
Krameriaceae.
4.
Papaveracese.
Nymphaeaceae
Sarracenniacese.
Sapindacese.
5.
Flacourtiaceee.
Bixacese.
Olacaceee.
Lacistemacese.
Samydacese.
Violacese.
Cistaceee.
SERIES V. DISSOLVED.
Albuminous.
Exalbuminous.
Rutacese.
}.
1.
Portulacaceae.
Staphyleaceae.
Aceraceae.
Caryophyllaceae.
Malpighiaceae.
Amarantaceae.
Petiveriaceae.
Chenopodiaceae.
Coriariaceae.
Phytolaccaceae.
2. Myricaceae.
Frankeniaceae.
Zygophyllaceae.
Simarubacese.
Droseraceae.
Illecebraceae.
2. Urticaceae.
Platanaceee.
Stilaginaceae.
Casuaraceae.
Monimiaceae.
Betulaceae
Ulmaceae.
Salicaceae.
Tamaricaceae.
Atherospermaceae
Myristicaceae.

3.
Malvaceae.
Anonaceae.
3.
Nitrariaceae.
Schizandreaa.
Reaumuriacese.
Berberaceaa.
Hypericaceae.
Magnoliaceaa (Wintereee).
Elatinaceaa.
Dilleniacese.
Ranunculacese.
Podophylleae.
Hydropeltideaa.
Cephalotaceae.
Crassulaceee.
4.
235
Balsaminaceee.
4.
Geraniaceae.
Ledocarpeae.
Vivianiaceaa.
Surianaceae.
Oxalidaceaa.
Nelumbiaceae.
Linaceas.
5. Stackhousiaceaa.
Erythroxylaceaa.
Hugoniaceae.
Sterculiaceae.
Euphorbiaceae.
Scepaceae.
Putrangiveae.
CLASS
II.
GYMNOGENS.
Cupressaceae.
Pinaceae.
Taxaceae.
Gnetaceae.
Cycadaceae.
CLASS
III.
SERIES
Exalbuminous.
I.
HOMOGENS.
ADHERENT.
Albuminous.
Aristolochiacese.
NEW
236
DISTRIBUTION OF
SERIES
II.
DISUNITED.
Albuminous.
Exalbuminous.
Nepenthacese.
SERIES
III.
DISSOLVED.
Albuminous.
Exalbuminous.
1.
1.
Podostemaceae.
Callitrichaceee.
Saururacese.
Ceratophyllacese.
Chloranthaceee.
Piperaceae.
2.
Lardizabalaceae.
Menispermacese.
CLASS
IV.
DICTYOGENS.
Dioscoreaceae.
Smilacese.
Roxburgh] aceee.
CLASS
SERIES
V.
I.
ENDOGENS.
CONSOLIDATED.
Albuminous.
Exalbuminous.
1.
Apostasiacese.
1.
Musaceae.
Marantaceae.
Orchidaceae.
Hydrocharaceae.
Zingiberaceae.
2.
Iridacesa.
Bromeliaceae.
Burmanniaceae.
Vellozieaa.
Ha!modoracea3.
Amaryllidacese.
Taccaceae.

SERIES
II.
237
DISUNITED.
Exalbuminous.
Albuminous.
1.
Aspidistreae.
Liliaceae.
Pontederaceae.
Xiphidiaceae.
Gilliesiaceae.
Philydraceae.
Juncaceae.
2. Acoraceee.
Araceae.
3.
Commelynaceae.
Xyridaceae.
Eriocaulacese.
Desvauxiacea3.
SERIES
III.
DISSOLVED.
Albuminous.
Excdbuminous.
Naiadaceae.
1.
Melanthaceae.
Juncaginaceaa.
Flagellariaceaa
Alismaceae.
Palmae.
Butomaceaa.
2.
Pandanaceae.
Cyclanthaceaa.
Typhacese.
Pistiaceae.
3. Restiaceae.
Cyperaceae.
Graminacea?.
CLASS
VI.
SPOROGENS.
(RHEANTHS.)
Rafflesiaceae.
Cytinaceae.
Balanophoraceae.
CLASS
VII.
CORMOGENS.
Filicales.
Lycopodiaceae.
Isoetaceae.
238
NEW
DISTRIBUTION OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM.

Salviniaceae.
Marsileaceae.
Equisetaceae.
Characese.
Bryaceae.
Andraeaceae.
Jungermanniaceae.
Marchantiaceae.
CLASS
VIII.
TIIALLOGENS.
Lichen aceae.
Algaceae.
Fungaceae.
239
MEDICAL BOTANY.
III.
THE
is
following
which are known
list
of the principal medicinal plants
Europe. The numbers

Flora Medica, (London, 1838, Longman
and Co.) an 8vo. of 656 pages, in which full descriptions of
It will be useful for London
the plants will be met with.
in a living state in
refer to the Author's
students to
Chelsea,
know
marked
that the plants in the Apothecaries Garden,

with red figures on a black ground, are num-
bered to correspond with this
list.
RANUNCULACE.E.
CLEMATIS.
1
Erecta.
Acrid.
Used
in cachectic diseases.
Powdered leaves
escharotic.
2.
Flammula.
3.
Vitalba.
Leaves used as
vesicatories.
Fruit and leaves acrid and vesicant.
Leaves employed
as rubefacients in rheumatism.
ANEMONE.
Powder
6. Pulsatilla.
and vomiting.
9. Hortensis.
1
0. Coronaria.
11. Nemorosa.
12. Hepatica.
of the root causes itching of the eyes, colic,
Extract used in
ttcnia.
Acrid in a high degree.

Acrid in a high degree.
Acrid in a
less degree.
Bland.
HYDBASTIS.
14. Canadensis.
Rhizoma
narcotic, bitter,
tonic.
dye.
KNOWLTONIA.
15. Vesicatoria.
Acrid.
Leaves used as vesicants.
ADONIS.
1
G.
Vernalis.
Emmenagogue.
Gives a yellow
MEDICAL BOTANY.
240
RANUNCULUS.
1 7.
Bulbosus.
Very
Root
18. Thora.
acrid, causing blisters
very
acrid.
The
and inflammation.
juice
used
for
envenoming
weapons.
Acrid.
19. Sceleratus.
20. Acris.
acrid.
Very
Leaves used by beggars to produce ulcers.

By carrying it in the hand it has produced
inflammation.
22. Flammula.
Vesicant.
Distilled
water an excellent emetic.
HELLEBORUS.
23. Niger.
Narcotic acrid.
The
Drastic.
fibres of the
an emmenagogue and hydragogue.
as
employed
Black Hellebore.
Narcotic acrid.
25. Viridis.
Narcotic
26. Foetidus.
commended
rhizoma are
Produces
Drastic.
Leaves emetic and purgative.
acrid.
as a vermifuge against the
Re-
worm, Ascaris lumbri-
coides.
COPTIS.
rhizomata afford a tonic
Its
27. Trifolia.
bitter,
without astrin-
gency.
NIGELLA.
28. Sativa.
Seeds aromatic, sub-acrid
formerly employed instead of
pepper, and also as carminatives.
DELPHINIUM.
29. Consolida.
Seeds emetic, the leaves and stalks compose
Acrid.
cosmetics, which are injurious to the skin.
30. Staphisagria.
Seeds extremely poisonous, emetic, drastic, and
inflammatory
useful in scabies
for pediculi in the
and fungous ulcerations ;
also
head.
ACONITUM.
The
31. Anthora.
32.
33. Paniculatum
The
diuretic.
34s Napellus
root highly acrid.
Root highly acrid used to

destroy wild beasts.
Leaves bitter, acrid, narcotic, diaphoretic, and
Lycoctonum
roots are
Narcotico-acrid
proved fatal to
human
more dangerous.
;
life.
a spirituous infusion of the root has

Leaves sudorific and diuretic.
A.CTJEA.
36. Spicata
Fruit
astringent
Roots antispasmodic,
poisonous.
expectorant,
reported to have afforded relief in cases of catarrh.
MEDICAL BOTANY.
241
XANTHORHIZA.
Wood
37. Apiifolia.
and bark a pure
tonic, intensely bitter, said to
be superior to Calumba.
P/EONIA.
38. Officinalis.
Seeds emetic and cathartic.
39. Corallina.
Root antispasmOdic.
Seeds emetic and cathartic.
PODOPHYLLEÊ.
PODOPHYLLUM.
40. Peltatum.
Narcotico-acrid.
The rhizoma
is
an active
cathartic.
PAPAVERACEÊ.
PAPAVER.
4
1 .
Rhoeas.
Syrupus Rhoeados
Slightly narcotic.
is
prepared
froTii
the petals.
42. Somniferum.
Narcotic (Opium).
ARGEMONE.
Seeds narcotic, anodyne, and purgative.
43. Mexicana.
is
employed
and
in chronic ophthalmia
The
juice
siphilitic sores.
SANGUINARIA.
44. Canadensis.
Rhizoma
Narcotico-acrid, tonic.
emetic, escharotic,
used in cases of polypi.
CHELIDONIUM.
rific
Stimulating, aperient, diuretic, and sudo-
Juice acrid.
45. Majus.
also a deobstruent.
FUMARIEJS.
FUMARIA.
46. Officinalis.
Herbage
bitter, diaphoretic
and
aperient.
CORYDALIS.
47. Tuberosa.
48. Fabacea.
Root
bitter
and
Root bitter and
acrid.
acrid.
NYMPHÊACEÊ.
NUPHAR.
49. Lutea.
Rhizoma
50.
NYMPHÊA.
Rhizoma
Alba.
Odorata.
sedative and anti-aphrodisiac.
astringent, styptic,
and sub-narcotic.
Stems very astringent, used
in poultices.
MEDICAL BOTANY.
242
MYRISTICACE^.
MYRISTICA.
Seeds aromatic, act as narcotics in over doses.
53. Officinalis.
MAGNOLIACEÊ.
MAGNOLIA.
Bark
54. Glauca.
bitter
ful in chronic
and aromatic, resembling cinchona.
Use-
rheumatism.
LlRIODENDRON.
Bark
55. Tulipifera.
as a
warm
bitter, aromatic, tonic,
sudorific in chronic
and
diaphoretic.
Used
rheumatism.
WINTERACEÊ.
ILLICIUM.
56. Floridanum.
Bark and leaves aromatic and
APIACE^
OR
spicy.
UMBELLIFERE^.
ASTRANTIA.
Roots acrid and purgative.
67. Major.
ERYNGIUM.
The
68. Campestre.
root
is
sweet, aromatic, and tonic
diuretic
a reputed aphrodisiac.
Root sweet, aromatic, and tonic, but of
69. Maritirnum.
also
inferior
quality.
CICUTA.
The roots are a very dangerous poison.

Roots a dangerous poison, causing true tetanic con-
70. Maculata.
71. Virosa.
vulsions.
APIUM.
72. Graveolens.
Acrid.
Rendered bland by culture.
PETROSELINUM.
73. Sativum.
The
leaves are a
stimulating diuretic.
SlSON.
78.
Amomum
Fruit pungent and aromatic.
CARUM.
79. Carui.
Fruit carminative.
PlMPINELLA.
81. Saxifraga.
Root astringent, used to relieve tooth-ache.
MEDICAL BOTANY.
24-3
PlMPINELLA.
Root astringent.
82. Dissecta.
Used
as a
masticatory to relieve
tooth-ache.
83.
Used as a masticatory
Root astringent.
Magna.
to
relieve
tooth-ache.
84. Anisum.
Effects stimulant
and carminative.
Produces Anise.
(ENANTHE.
85. Crocata.
It
very dangerous poison.
has been considered the
most energetic of the narcotico-acrid Apiacese.
86. Phellandrium.
87.
dangerous poison, but rather less energetic.
Leaves poisonous
Cynapium.
also of
a nauseous smell.
FOENICULUM.
Leaves fragrant and stimulant.
Fruit carminative.
88. Vulgare.
Produces Fennel.
89. Dulce
Fruit carminative.
Leaves fragrant and stimulant. Pro-
duces Sweet-Fennel.
ATHAMANTA.
Fruit aromatic.
91. Cretensis.
MEUM.
92.
Roots aromatic and sweet, forming an ingre-
Athamanticum.
dient in Venice treacle.
Roots aromatic and sweet, forming an ingredient in
93. Mutellina.
Venice
treacle.
ANGELICA.
Root
94. Nemorosa.
acrid.
Employed
in cases of itch.
ARCHANGELICA.
95. Officinalis.
ed
Root fragrant,
disorders.
in pectoral
pungent. Stalks employLeaves, seeds, and roots aromatic
bitterish,
tonics.
OPOPANAX.
The
96. Chironum.
produces Opopanax, a
root
foetid
gum-resin,
similar to Asafcetida.
FERULA.
97. Asafcetida.
which are
foetid
is procured
by
and antispasmodic.
gum-resin
acrid, bitter,
slicing the roots,
Produces Asa-
fcetida.
93. Persica.
Like the
last.
R2
MEDICAL BOTANY.
244
FERULA.
Yields a gum-resinous secretion.

Yields a gum-resinous secretion.
101. Ferulago.
102. Tingitana.
103.
DOREMA.
Ammoniacum. The stem and
which is Ammoniacum.
PEUCEDANUM.
The juice
104. Officinale.
The
Montanum.
an acrid
of the root
is
fcetid
gum-resin,
antispasmodic and diuretic.
Leaves and stems are bitter and aromatic.
105. Oreoselinum.
106.
fruit yielding
Foetid, stimulant.
resin.
juice of the root bitter, foetid, hardening into

remedy in epilepsy.
IMPERATORIA.
107. Ostruthium
Root acrid and
bitter,
used as a masticatory in
tooth-ache.
ANETHUM.
109. Graveolens
Fruit carminative and stimulant.
Produces
Dill.
HERACLEUM.
110. Sphondylium.
Rind and root
acrid.
CUMINUM,
112.
Fruit
Cyminum.
Produces
carminative.
Used
in
veterinary surgery.
Cummin.
LASERPITIUM.
115. Glabrum.
and
116.
The
caustic.
juice of the root
is
gum-resinous, acrid, bitter,
Violent purgative.
DAUCUS.
Gummifer
Roots
bitter
and balsamic, yielding Bdellium
sicu-
lum.
117. Gingidium.
Roots bitter and balsamic.
1 1 8. Carota.
Fruit carminative and diuretic.
Root used as a cure
for ulcers.
ANTHRISCUS.
1
9. Sylvestris.
Narcotic.
120. Vulgaris.
Deleterious.
The whole plant highly poisonous.
121. Cfcrefolium.
Roots eatable.
Produces Chervil.
CONIUM.
124. Maculatum.
Powerfully narcotico-acrid.
Is
Hemlock.
SMYRNIUM.
125. Olusatrum.
Leaves slightly aromatic.
Fruit carminative.
MEDICAL BOTANY.
245
CORIANDRUM.
126. Sativum
Fruit carminative and aromatic.
ARALIACEÊ.
PANAX.
127. Quinquefolium.
mulant.
Roots aromatic, pungent, restorative, and
sti-
ABALIA.
128. Nudicaulis.
Alterative and tonic.
Tincture of the wood used against
130. Spinosa.
colic.
HEDERA.
Leaves and berries
131. Helix.
bitter,
aperient,
emetic, sudorific.
Is the Ivy.
GROSSULACE^;.
RISES.
1
33.
Rubrum.
The
134. Nigrum.
juice
juice of the fruit refrigerant.
Fruit, leaves,
is
and wood
and stimulant.
tonic
The
used against catarrhs.
BERBERACEÊ.
BERBERIS.
Bark
135. Vulgaris.
astringent.
drink
is
prepared from
the
fruit.
136. Lycium.
Extract useful in cases of ophthalmia.
VITACE^.
VlTIS.
Fruit cooling and antiseptic; diuretic and laxative
137. Vinifera.
in large quantities.
COMBRETACE.E.
TERMINALIA.
146. Benzoin.
147. Belerica.
tonic,
Juice concrete, used as incense.
The
kernels of the fruit intoxicating
and attenuant.
also astringent,
Produces Myrobalans.
MYRTACEÊ.
MELALEUCA.
150. Cajeputi.
Essential
Cajeputi
oil.
oil
irritating
and stimulating.
Produces
MEDICAL BOTANY.
PUNICA.
Bark of the
152. Granatum.
ers
and bark of the
root
fruit
Flowa powerful anthelmintic.

Produces
tonic and astringent.
Pomegranates.
MYRTUS.
Aromatic and astringent.
153. Communis.
CARYOPHYLLUS.
Stimulant and carminative.
154. Aromaticus.
Produces Cloves.
EUGENIA.
155. Acris.
The unripe
fruit is
oily, irritable,
and
is
used to allay
is
used to allay
tooth-ache.
The unripe fruit is oily, irritable, and

the tooth-ache.
Is the Allspice of the shops.
156. Pimenta.
EUCALYPTUS.
Bark astringent, yielding a juice resembling Kino.'
158. Resinifera.
159. Robusta.
Bark
astringent.
CORNACE.E.
CORNUS.
63. Florida.
Bark
with an astringent aromatic taste ; tonic

antiseptic, giving a scarlet dye.
1 64. Sericea.
Said to be amongst the best of tonics.
Useful in in1
bitter,
and
termittent fevers.
165. Circinata.
166. Suecica
Astringent.
Useful in diarrhoea.
Berries tonic.
CUCURBITACEÊ.
LAGENAHIA.
169. Vulgaris
Fruit poisonous.
CUCUMIS.
171. Colocynthis.
Fruit acrid.
duces Colocynth.
Poisonous to
human
beings.
Pro-
BRYONIA.
177. Alba.
Root acrid and

purgative.
removing bruises. Cathartic.
178. Dioica
Root acrid and
purgative.
removing bruises.
Cathartic.
Used as a
Used
as
discutient for
a discutient
for
MEDICAL BOTANY.
247
MOMOBDICA.
179. Elaterium.
Juice
It
poisonous.
a violent cathartic and
is
hydragogue.
180. Balsamina
Fruit a dangerous
poison,
acting
as a powerful
hydragogue.
BRASSICACEÊ
OR
CRUCIFERÊ.
COCHLEABIA.
189. Officinalis.
Antiscorbutic, stimulant,
when
but inert
1
dried.
and
diuretic, eaten fresh;
Produces Scurvy-grass.
Root stimulant, diaphoretic, and diuretic, and exProduces Horseradish.
90. Armoracia.
ternally rubefacient.
CARDAMINE.
191. Pratensis.
Stimulant,
flowers a
remedy
diaphoretic,
and
diuretic.
The
dried
for epilepsy.
SINAPSIS.
Seeds acrid, stimulating, and bitter.

Oil purgative,
rubefacient in paralysis.
Vesicant.
Produces Mustard.
192. Nigra.
194. Alba.
Seeds acrid and pungent.

Produces Mustard.
Used
as
stimulating
ca-
thartics.
ERUCA.
1
95. Sativa.
Seeds acrid and bitter.
RAPHANUS.
Seeds emetic.
196. Sativus.
Roots diuretic and laxative.
Produces
Radishes.
CAPPARIDACE^:.
CAPPARIS.
Flower-buds antiscorbutic, stimulant, and aperient.
197. Spinosa.
Produces Capers.
Fruit poisonous.
198. Pulcherrima.
Root acrid.
199. Cynophallophora.
An
infusion
recommended
in
dropsy.
VIOLACE^:.
VIOLA.
203. Odorata.
tive.
204. Canina.
205. Tricolor.
orders.
Petals used as a laxative.
Roots emetic and purga-
Flowers anodyne, producing faintness and apoplexy.

Leaves depurative. Roots emetic.
Bruised leaves used in the cure of cutaneous dis-
MEDICAL BOTANY.
248
IONIDIUM.
Roots
206. Ipecacuanha.
emetic.
Used
as
a .substitute for true
Ipecacuanha.
MORINGACEÊ.
MOBINGA.
216. Aptera.
Seeds acrid.
Employed
in fevers
and as rubefacients.
PASSIFLORACE^.
PASSIFLORA.
Root emetic.
218. Quadrangularis.
Powerfully narcotic.
in hysteria.
220. Fcetida.
serviceable
Emmenagogue,
PAPAYACEÊ.
CAEICA.
The milky
221. Papaya.
juice,
and powder of the
seeds, are
power-
ful vermifuges.
BIXACE.E.
BlXA.
224. Orellana.
Demulcent.
Produces Arnotto.
CANELLE^.
CANELLA.
231. Alba.
All parts of the tree are aromatic, hot, and

pungent,
fresh.
Distilled bark aromatic, carminative, and
when
stomachic
used in scurvy.
HYPERICACEÊ.
HYPERICUM.
232. Perforatum
and
Leaves astringent.
An
infusion used in
lotions.
ANDROS^MUM.
233. Officinale.
Leaves esteemed as
vulnerary.
TERNSTROMIACE.E.
THEA.
237. Viridis.
238. Bohea.
stimulant narcotic.
Stimulant.
gargle
MEDICAL BOTANY.
249
SAPINDACEÊ.
CABDIOSPERMUM.
Root aperient.
239. Halicacabum.
SAPINDUS.
Fruit detersive and acrid.
240. Saponaria.
employed
in chlorosis.
Tincture of the berries
Produces Soapberries.
^SCULUS.
Bark a
246. Hippocastanum.
in gangrene
and
its
febrifuge in fevers.
powder an
decoction used
errhine.
POLYGALACEÊ.
POLYGALA.
Root acid and acrid; sudorific and expectorant in
247. Senega.
small doses, but emetic and cathartic in large.
Root acid and acrid; sudorific and expectorant
and cathartic in large.
254. Chamaebuxus.
in small doses, but emetic
LINAGES.
LlNUM.
Seeds used for cataplasms.
The infusion
Produces Linseed.
261. Usitatissimum.
is
demulcent and emollient.

262. Catharticum.
Bitter, cathartic,
and purgative.
CISTACE^:.
ClSTUS.
Resin stimulant and emmenagogue.

Produces Ladanum.
264. Creticus.
Recommended
in chronic catarrh.
265. Ladaniferus.
Resin
stimulant
and emmenagogue.
Used
in
chronic catarrh.
Resin stimulant and emmenagogue.
266. Ledon.
Used
in chronic
catarrh.
267. Laurifolius.
Resin
stimulant
and emmenagogue.
Uved
chronic catarrh.
STERCULIACE.E.
KYDIA.
274. Calycina.
Bark
sudorific.
THEOBROMA.
275. Cacao.
Seeds nutritive, restorative.
Produces Chocolate.
in
MEDICAL BOTANY.
250
ADANSONIA.
278. Digitata.
Mucilaginous.
Fruit
Dried leaves useful in fevers.
sub-acid.
MALVACEAE.
ABUTILON.
Used
281. Indicum.
as
an emollient.
MALVA.
Mucilaginous and emollient.
284. Sylvestris.
Is the
Mallow.
ALTHAEA.
285. Officinalis.
Mucilaginous
and
Is
emollient.
the
Marsh
Mallow.
ABELMOSCHUS.
Mucilaginous, emollient, and demulcent.
used to form poultices.
287. Esculentus.
Leaves
Seeds cordial and stomachic.
288. Moschatus.
TILIACE^.
TILIA.
Flowers antispasmodic.
293. Europeea
The Lime-tree.
LYTHRACE^.
HEIMIA.
295.
and
Sudorific
Salicifolia.
Used
diuretic.
venereal
in
dis-
orders.
LYTHRUM.
296. Salicaria.
Astringent.
Recommended
in cases of diarrhoea.
MELIACEÊ.
MELIA.
297. Azedarach.
Root bitter and nauseous.
Used
as
mintic.
GUAREA.
301. Aubletii.
Bark emetic and purgative.
CEDRELACEvE.
SwiETENIA.
305. Mahagoni.
Bark
febrifugal.
Produces Mahogany.
an anthel-
MEDICAL BOTANY.
251
AURANTIACEÊ.
CITRUS.
316. Aurantium.
Peel of the fruit tonic and aromatic.
Produces
Seville Oranges.
317. Bigaradia. Peel of the fruit bitter and tonic.

318. Limetta.
Fruit fragrant.
Produces Limes.
319. Limonum. Juice of the fruit yields citric acid.
aromatic and stomachic.
The
peel
Produces Lemons.
SPONDIACE^.
SPONDIAS.
320. Mangifera.
Emollient.
RHAMNACEÊ.
ZlZIPHUS.
322. Jujuba.
Fruit pectoral.
Bark used
for
Produces
diarrhoea.
Jujubes.
Fruit pectoral.
323. Vulgaris.
Bark used
for diarrhoea.
BERCHEMIA.
Roots used in cachectic disorders
324. Volubilis.
said to be anti-
siphilitic.
CEANOTHUS.
Astringent and antisiphilitic.
325. Americanus.
RHAMNUS.
326. Catharticus.
Fruit
purgative
produces
colic.
An
hydra-
The Buckthorn.
gogue.
Fruit emetic.
327. Frangula.
Fruit emetic.
328. Infectorius.
329. Saxatilis.
Fruit emetic.
331. Oleoides.
Fruit emetic.
332. Buxifolius.
Fruit emetic.
EUPHORBIACEÊ.
Buxus.
350. Sempervirens.
Leaves and wood bitter and nauseous
and purgative.
sudorific
Produces Box -wood.
CICCA.
351. Disticha.
Leaves
sudorific.
Seeds cathartic.
Fruit sub-acid.
CROZOPHORA.
359. Tinctoria.
ties.
Plants with emetic, drastic, and corrosive proper-
Seeds cathartic.
MEDICAL BOTANY.
252
CROTON.
Bark aromatic and
360. Cascarilla.
Bark
361. Eleuteria.
fragrant.
aromatic, tonic, stimulant.
bitter,
Produces
Cascarilla.
Seeds drastic.
363. Tiglium.
Bark of the root aromatic and purgative.
Aromaticum.
369.
RICINUS.
374. Communis.
Seeds cathartic.
Produces Castor-oil.
JATROPHA.
375. Curcas.
emetic and drastic.
Seeds
and
Leaves rubefacient
discutient.
377
a.
The
Multifida
seeds are excellent emetics
and purgatives.
JANIPHA.
378. Manihot.
Expressed juice poisonous.

duces Cassava and Tapioca.
Pro-
Fecula nutritive.
MERCURIALIS.
384. Perennis.
385. Annua.
Very
poisonous, producing vomiting
and
diarrhoea.
Poisonous.
HIPPOMANE.
Juice caustic and venomous.
389. Mancinella.
Acrid.
Manchineel.
HURA.
390. Crepitans.
Milk very venomous, producing blindness.
a drastic purgative.
An emetic.
Seeds
EUPHORBIA.
393. Tirucalli.
Milk a remedy for siphilis; cathartic and emetic.

Bark of the root purgative. Produces Euphor-
395. Antiquorum.
bium.
Milk purgative.
396. Canariensis.
397. Heptagona.
398. Officinarum.
400. Nereifolia.
The milk
Produces Euphorbium.
a mortal poison.
Milk purgative. Produces Euphorbium.
Juice
is
of the
leaves
purgative, deobstruent,
and
diuretic.
401. Gerardiana.
402. Lathyris.
Bark of the root cathartic and emetic.

Seeds drastic.
Bark of the
root
and stems
cathartic
and emetic.
403. Esula.
A dangerous poison.
404. Cyparissias.
virulent poison.
405. Thymifolia.
Violent
406. Ipecacuanha.
purgative.
Vulnerary, anthelmintic.
Root powerfully emetic and cathartic.
MEDICAL BOTANY.
253
EUPHORBIA.
407. Peplis
408. Peplus.
All the parts purgative.

409. Falcata.
410. Corollata.
Emetic,
expectorant,
and
cathartic.
The bruised
root excites inflammation.
411. Linearis
Juice employed for siphilitic ulcers.
PEDILANTHUS.
412. Tithymaloides.
Antivenereal, emetic.
CELASTRACEÊ.
MAYTENUS.
Leaves stimulant.
415. Chilensis.
SILENACEÊ.
SlLENE.
Root anthelmintic.
418. Virginica.
SAPONARIA.
420. Officinalis.
Saponaceous.
GYPSOPHILA.
42 1
Struthium.
Saponaceous.
TAMARICACEÊ.
TAMARIX.
Bark
Manna.
422. Gallica.
bitter
and
astringent.
Branches yield a kind of
SIMARUBACEJG.
QUASSIA.
424. Amara.
Wood
bitter
and
tonic.
Infused flowers stomachic.
PlCRjENA.
427. Excelsa.
Wood
bitter, tonic,
and stomachic.
Produces Quassia
chips.
RUTACEJE.
RUTA.
Used as an
429. Graveolens.
emmenagogue, antispasmodic
and
anthelmintic.
BAROSMA.
436. Crenulata.
Leaves an excellent aromatic, stomachic, and

Produces Diosma leaves.
cious diuretic.
effica-
MEDICAL BOTANY.
254
BABOSMA.
'437.
Serratifolia.
cacious diuretic.
438. Crenata.
effi-

effica-
cious diuretic.
ZYGOPHYLLACEÊ.
ZYGOPHYLLUM.
439. Fabago.
Esteemed as a vermifuge.
GUAIACUM.
440. Officinale.
Wood
yielding a bitter, acrid, stimulant gum-resin,
as a diaphoretic
employed
and
alterative.
XANTHOXYLACE.E.
PTELEA.
442. Trifoliata.
bitter.
Young
shoots anthelmintic.
Fruit aromatic and
substitute for hops.
XANTHOXYLON.
444. Fraxineum.
Bark aromatic and pungent.
Used
as a
remedy
in chronic rheumatism.
Infusion antispasmodic.
445. Clava Herculis.
Tincture febrifugal.
Decoction antisiphilitic.
BRUCEA.
450. Antidysenterica.
Tonic, astringent.
GERANIACE.E.
GERANIUM.
Root
451. Maculatum
astringent, containing Tannin.
A remedy in
452. Robertianum.
nephritic complaints.
OXALIDACEvE.
OxALIS.
453. Acetosella.
Plant refrigerant, antiscorbutic.
CORIARIACE.E.
CORIARIA.
454. Myrtifolia.
Fruit a dangerous poison.
ROSACES.
POTENTILLA.
455. Reptans.
Root very astringent.
456. Tormentilla. Root very astringent.
255
MEDICAL BOTANY.
GEUM.
457. Rivale.
Stomachic.
458. Urbanum.
Stomachic.
459. Canadense.
Root and leaves a mild
tonic.
Useful in
Bitter.
diarrhoea.
AGRIMONIA.
460. Eupatoria.
Astringent, anthelmintic.
RUBUS.
Bark of the
461. Villosus.
root
astringent.
Useful
in
cholera,
diarrhoea, &c.
ROSA.
462. Canina.
Laxative.
463. Centifolia.
Laxative.
464. Gallica.
Petals astringent
and
tonic.
GILLENIA.
465. Trifoliata.
Roots emetic.
SPIRAEA.
467. Ulmaria. Aromatic, tonic.

468. Filipendula.
Aromatic, tonic.
AMYGDALEÊ.
AMYGDALUS.
Oil of the
470. Communis.
bitter
471. Persica.
Produces
seeds extremely poisonous.
almonds.
Oil, flowers,
and seeds extremely poisonous.
CERASUS.
472. Laurocerasus.
Leaves, bark, and seeds poisonous.
Produces
acid.
hydrocyanic
Leaves poisonous. Bark febrifugal.
473. Virginiana.
474. Padus. Abounds in the oil of bitter almonds, and
is
therefore
poisonous.
Bark
475. Capollim.
febrifugal.
PRUNUS.
The bark
477. Cocumilia.
478. Spinosa.
is
a remedy for the fevers of Calabria.
Fruit acid, astringent, and austere.
POMEJE.
PYRUS.
479. Aucuparia.
Leaves poisonous.
MEDICAL BOTANY.
2o6
CYDONIA.
Seeds demulcent.
480. Vulgaris.
SANGUISORBEÊ.
ALCHEMILLA.
Decoction slightly tonic.
481. Vulgaris.
FABACEÊ
TRIBE
OR
I.
LEGUMINOSÊ.
PAPILIONACEJE.
ANAGYRIS.
Seeds poisonous.
482. Fcetida.
BAPTISIA.
Roots and herbage
483. Tinctoria.
thartic,
antiseptic,
sub-astringent, ca-
and emetic.
GENISTA.
484. Tinctoria
Produces a yellow dye.
Bitter.
CYTISUS.
485. Laburnum.
Seeds poisonous, narcotico-acrid.
486. Alpinus.
Seeds poisonous, narcotico-acrid.
487. Scoparius.
Decoction of the shoots diuretic
Seeds emetic.
and
cathartic.
Produces broom-tops.
ANTHYLLIS.
488. Hermannia.
Root
One
489. Vulneraria.
diuretic.
of the best styptics.
TRIGONELLA.
490. Foenum Graecum.
Decoction of the seeds an emollient.
Used
in veterinary medicine.
MELILOTUS.
491. Officinalis.
Decoction emollient.
Used
in lotions
and enemas.
TRIFOLIUM.
492. Alpinum.
Roots sweet and demulcent.
INDIGOFERA.
The dye is a dangerous vegetable poison.

The dye is a dangerous vegetable
Powdered
poison.
494. Tinctoria.
495. Anil
leaf used in hepatitis.
496. Argentea.
The dye
is
a dangerous vegetable poison.
CLITORIA.
498. Tematea.
Roots emetic.
MEDICAL BOTANY.
257
Roots sweet, tonic, demulcent.
Produces Liquorice.
Produces an
GLYCYRRHIZA.
500. Glabra.
501. Echinata.
Roots
sweet, tonic, demulcent.
less
inferior sort of Liquorice.
AGATI.
507. Grandiflora.
Bark
bitter
and
tonic.
PISCIDIA.
508. Erythrina.
Tincture
of the
Bark astringent and
bark narcotic and diaphoretic.
irritating.
COLUTEA.
Leaves purgative.
509. Arborescens.
ASTRAGALUS.
512. Tragacantha.
Produces a kind of Tragacanth.
Emollient.
CORONILLA.
Leaves cathartic.
514. Emerus.
515. Varia.
Leaves diuretic and cathartic.
Juice poisonous.
ARTHROLOBIUM.
Leaves vesicant.
516. Scorpioides.
ALHAGI.
From
518. Maurorum.
branches exudes
the
substance of the
nature of Manna.
ERVUM.
Seeds poisonous.
519. Ervilia.
LATHYRUS.
Seeds narcotic, producing head-ache
520. Aphaca.
if
eaten in a ripe
state.
521. Cicera.
Seeds narcotic.
ABRUS.
Root
522. Precatorius
and leaves employed as a substitute
for
Liquorice.
MUCUNA.
526. Pruriens.
Hairs
irritating.
TRIBE
II.
Produces Cowitch.
CjESALPINIEjE.
ANDIRA.
533. Inermis.
gative,
Bark anthelmintic, mucilaginous,
and narcotic
drastic, emetic, pur-
poisonous in large doses.

8
MEDICAL BOTANY.
258
CASSIA.
An
536. Acutifolia.
excellent
purgative.
Produces
Alexandrian
Senna.
An excellent purgative.
539. Obovata.
Produces Black-leaved Senna.
Leaves purgative.
Leaves purgative.
544. Marilandica.
540. Tora.
CATH ARTOCA RPUS.

545. Fistula.
Extract of the pulp laxative.
an excellent
Seeds purgative.
Roots
febrifuge.
POINCIANA.
Root acrid and poisonous.
548. Pulcherrima.
emmenagogue
Leaves a powerful
also purgative.
HÊMATOXYLON.
549. Campeachianum.
Decoction used in
powerful astringent.
Produces Logwood.
and dysentery.
diarrhoea
BAUHINIA.
55 1
Toraentosa.
Astringent.
TAMARINDUS.
The pulp of the
552. Indica.
sub-acid
fruit is cooling and laxative.

Leaves
employed as an anthelmintic. Produces Tamarinds.
HYMEN JEA.
553. Courbaril.
Fruit purgative.
TRIBE
III.
Bark anthelmintic.
MIMOSEjE.
ACACIA.
557. Catechu.
558. Vera.
Astringent.
The bark
566
a. Mollissima.
566
b.
yields
Gum
arable.
Astringent.
Melanoxylon.
Astringent.
VACHELLIA.
567. Famesiana.
Bark yields a gum
like
Gum
SAXIFRAGACE.E.
HEUCHERA.
572. Americana.
Root a powerful
astringent.
CRASSULACEÊ.
SEMPERVIVUM.
573. Tectorum.
Leaves astringent
refrigerant.
arable.
MEDICAL BOTAXY.
259
SEDUM.
574. Telephium.
and
Refrigerant
Leaves
astringent.
useful
in
diarrhoea.
575. Acre.
Leaves
Recommended
acrid.
in
cancerous
cases
and
epilepsy.
ANACARDIACEÊ.
MANGIFERA.
584. Indica.
Gum-resin
slightly bitter
and pungent.
ANACARDIUM.
Gum
586. Occidentale.
Juice acrid.
astringent.
nuts abound in a caustic thick
The
coats of the
Produces Cashew.
oil.
RHUS.
589. Toxicodendron.
Yields a narcotic, acrid, milky juice, extremely
poisonous.
590. Glabrum.
Yields
narcotic,
acrid,
milky
juice,
extremely
poisonous.
SCHINUS.
595. Molle.
Acrid.
PlSTACIA.
596. Vera.
Fruit emollient.
Produces Pistacia nuts.
597. Terebinthus.
Yields Cyprus turpentine.

598. Lentiscus.
Produces a sweet, fragrant, stimulant resin, called
Mastich, used to preserve the teeth.
CORYLACE^:.
QUERCUS.
Bark astringent
haemorrhage and diarrhoea.
599. Pedunculata.
600.
Bark
Sessiliflora.
the powder employed in passive
From
astringent.
this the oak-galls are ob-
tained.
Feeds the Kermes
602. Coccifera.
Bark and leaves
603. Falcata.
insect.
astringent.
Employed
in cases of
gangrene.
BETULACEÊ.
BETULA.
604. Alba.
Bark
tonic.
Employed
as a febrifuge.
ALNUS.
605. Glutinosa.
Bark
tonic.
decoction employed as a gargle.

s 2
MEDICAL BOTANY.
260
URTICACE^:.
URTICA.
607. Dioica.
The whole plant
is
and
astringent
Is the
diuretic.
Nettle.
HUMULUS.
Ripe catkins
609. Lupulus.
narcotic
and
Infusion
bitter.
and
Produces Hops.
tincture aromatic, tonic.
Ficus.
Bark
611. Indica
tonic.
relieve tooth-ache.
Juice applied to the teeth and

Is the Banyan-tree.
gums
to
Yields Caoutchouc.
612. Elastica.
Seeds cooling and alterative.
616. Religiosa.
Fruit
617. Carica.
pectoral,
Produces
and laxative.
demulcent,
Figs.
CANNABIS.
an
very powerful, stimulating narcotic, used as
Produces
Hemp.
intoxicating drug.
618. Sativa
MOBUS.
619. Nigra.
Bark cathartic and anthel-
Fruit cooling and laxative.

Produces Mulberries.
mintic.
620. Alba.
Root said to be an excellent vermifuge.
DORSTENIA.
621. Contrayerva.
Root stimulant,
eruptive and other
Root stimulant,
622. Brasiliensis.
Root stimulant,
624. Drakena.
and tonic; used
sudorific,
in
diseases.
sudorific,
sudorific,
and
and
tonic.
tonic.
ULMACEÊ.
ULMUS.
626. Effusa. The inner bark demulcent and
and a
tringent
627. Campestris.
astringent
diuretic
slightly as-
feeble tonic.
The inner bark demulcent and

and a
diuretic
slightly
feeble tonic.
MYRICACEÊ,
MYRICA.
628. Gale.
Infusion used as a vermifuge
Hops
629. Cerifera.
leaves as a substitute for
in brewing.
Bark of the
root acrid
mulating and very acrid.
and
astringent.
Powder
sti-
MEDICAL BOTANY.
261
COMPTONIA.
Used
Tonic and astringent.
630. Asplenifolia.
in diarrhoea.
JUGLANDACE^;.
JUGLANS.
Inner bark of the root a mild and efficacious laxative;
631. Cinerea.
of the stem, rubefacient.
632. Regia.
The young
Produces Walnuts.
fruit purgative.
CHLORANTHACE^:.
CHLOBANTHUS.
633.
All the parts powerfully aromatic.
Officinalis.
Root an active
stimulant.
633
a.
Brachystachys.
All the parts
powerfully aromatic.
Roots
active stimulants.
PIPERACE^:.
PIPER.
Produces Round Pepper.

Produces Long Pepper.
Pungent and stimulant.

Pungent and stimulant.
634. Nigrum.
636. Longum.
Leaves and shoots discutient.
639. Amalago.
Root
sudorific, dia-
Fruit pungent.
phoretic.
642. Betel.
By chewing the leaf intoxicating effects are produced.
Stimulant.
SALICACEÊ.
SALIX.
648. Russelliana.
Bark
febrifugal.
Bark slightly febrifugal.

649. Fragilis.
650. Purpurea.
Bark febrifugal.
651. Alba.
Bark
652. Pentandra.
653. Caprea.
febrifugal.
Bark aromatic and
Bark
febrifugal.
febrifugal.
POPULUS.
Leaf-buds bitter, aromatic.
654. Nigra.
655. Dilatata. Leaf-buds bitter, aromatic.
656. Balsamifera.
657. Candicans.
659. Tremuloides.
Buds
Buds
diuretic
diuretic
and
and
antiscorbutic.
antiscorbutic.
Bark esteemed as a
febrifuge.
MEDICAL BOTANY.
262
BALSAMACEÊ.
LlQUIDAMBAE.
Bark pungent, bitter, expectorant. Produces Storax.
Almost inert.
662. Styraciflua.
661. Orientate.
THYMELACE.E.
DAPHNE.
All the parts excessively acrid, acting as an
666. Mezereum
irri-
tant poison.
All the parts excessively acrid, acting as an irritant
667. Laureola.
poison.
All the parts excessively acrid, acting as an irritant
668. Gnidium
poison.
DIRCA.
Bark
670. Palustris.
acrid, cathartic, vesicant.
Fruit narcotic.
HERNANDIACEÊ.
HEENANDIA.
671. Sonora.
Juice of leaves a
Bark, seed, and leaves purgative.
powerful depilatory.
LAURACEÊ.
ClNNAMOMUM.
Aromatic, stimulant.
674. Zeylanicum.
Produces Cinnamon.
CAMPHORA.
685. Omcinarum.
Yields Camphor.
PERSEA.
686. Gratissima.
astringent.
Leaves balsamic, pectoral, and vulnerary.

Yields the Avocado Pear.
Seeds
SASSAFRAS.
697. Officinale.
diuretic
Dried leaves mucilaginous.

Plant employed as a
sudorific.
Produces Sassafras.
and
BENZOIN.
699. Odoriferum.
Bark aromatic, stimulant, and
the twigs a vermifuge.
Fruit aromatic,
tonic.
oil
Infusion of
a stimulant.
LAURUS.
701. Nobilis.
Leaves and
fruit
aromatic.
Fixed
oil
a stimulant.
MEDICAL BOTANY.
263
ARISTOLOCHIACEÊ.
ARISTOLOCHIA.
704
a.
The root has a disagreeable smell, and a strong

Cymbifera.
bitter aromatic taste.
706. Trilobata.
sudden and powerful sudorific.

root has a penetrating smell and bitter
The
708. Serpentaria.
acting as a stimulant, tonic, diaphoretic.
antispasmodic and anodyne.

709. Pallida.
slight aromatic stimulant tonic.
Sudorific
ployed as an emmenagogue in amenorrhoea.

712. Sempervirens.
employed
A
713. Rotunda.
em-
Sudorific;
an emmenagogue in amenorrhoea.
as
ployed as an
714. Clematitis.
taste,
In some cases an
emmenagogue
Sudorific;
em-
in amenorrhcea.
Roots powerfully stimulating.
ASARUM.
Roots purgative, emetic, and diuretic.
716. Europaeum,
leaves used to provoke sneezing.
Rhizoma
717. Canadense.-
aromatic.
A warm
Powdered
stimulant diapho-
retic.
CHENOPODIACEÊ.
CHENOPODIUM.
719. Olidum.
Employed as an antispasmodic and emmenagogue.
721. Botrys.
Expectorant, employed in catarrh and humoral asthma.
The seeds yield an oil which is powerfully
722. Anthelminticum.
anthelmintic.
723. Ambrosioides.
Stimulant, corroborant.
ATBIPLEX.
724. Angustifolia. Seeds emetic.
Seeds emetic.
725. Hortensis.
SALSOLA.
726. Kali.
Yields Soda.
Yields Soda.
727. Sativa.
728. Soda.
Yields Soda.
729. Tragus.
Yields Soda.
PHYTOLACCACEÊ.
PHYTOLACCA.
730. Decandra.
Root emetic.
Said to cure psora and tsenia capitis.
MEDICAL BOTANY.
264
POLYGONACEÊ.
COCCOLOBA.
Leaves, wood, and bark are astringent; the decoc-
731. Uvifera.
Jamaica Kino.
tion forms
RHEUM.
732. Emodi.
Roots
tonic,
and
astringent,
purgative.
Furnishes
Indian Rhubarb.
Root
737. Rhaponticum.
bitter,
astringent,
Rhubarb
and aromatic
when
inferior.
chewed, mucilaginous.
Roots purgative and tonic.
738. Undulatum.
739. Caspicum. Roots purgative and tonic.

740. Compactum.
741. Palmatum.
742. Crassinervium.
All produce
Rhubarb
Nos. 741 and 735

the best.
RUMEX.
Root astringent
cure for the itch.
743. Crispus.
used in the form of ointment as a
Root astringent
744. Obtusifolius.
employed as a
Plant agreeably acid.

Produces Sorrel.
diuretic.
745. Acetosa.
746. Alpinus.
dentifrice.
Acting as a refrigerant and
Root purgative.
POLYGONUM.
Leaves so acrid as to act as vesicants.
747. Hydropiper.
ful diuretic.
748. Bistorta.
power-
Dyes wool yellow.
powerful astringent.
and leucorrhoea
Decoction employed in gleet
also in passive haemorrhages
and
diarrhoea.
Fruit emetic and cathartic.
749. Aviculare.
751. Amphibium.
Yields a false Sarsaparilla.
PETIVERIACE^].
PETIVERIA.
752. Alliacea.
All the parts acrid, sudorific,

emmenagogue.
remedy for tooth-ache.
roots used as a
NYCTAGINACEÊ.
MlRABILIS.
754. Jalapa
Root purgative.
755. Longiflora.
Root exceedingly
purgative.
The
MEDICAL BOTANY.
265
PYROLACEÊ.
CHIMAPHILA.
Leaves, stalks, and roots bitter-sweet, pungent.
Fresh leaves acrid, acting as vesicants and rube-
775. Corymbosa.
Diuretic.
Stomachic and
facients.
tonic.
ERICACEAE.
RHODODENDRON.
Maximum.
Acting as a poison.
Astringent, narcotic.
Reported to be deleterious.
Astringent, narcotic.
Leaves narcotic in a high degree ; useful in
778. Chrysanthum.
776.
777. Ponticum.
and venereal complaints.
chronic rheumatism
AZALEA.
779. Pontica.
Qualities of the plant deleterious.
LEDUM.
The
780. Latifolium.
delirium
leaves infused in beer produce head-ache
although they have been
in agues, dysentery,
781. Palustre.
and
and
used with advantage
diarrhoea.
Ditto.
KALMIA.
Leaves poisonous
782. Latifolia.
shoots poisonous to
to
them
man.
to
animals
narcotic.
Young
brown powder which adheres
acts as a sternutatory.
GAULTHEBIA.
783. Procumbens.
Fruit contains an aromatic, sweet, pungent, vo-
which
latile oil,
is
antispasmodic and diuretic.
tincture
useful in diarrhoea.
ARBUTUS.
784. Unedo.
wine
is
made from
the fruit, reported to be narcotic.
ARCTOSTAPHYLOS.
785.
Uva
ursi.
Leaves astringent and
and calculous
cases.
bitter.
Used
Diuretic.
LOISELEURIA.
786. Procumbens.
Useful as an astringent medicine.
in
nephritic
MEDICAL BOTANY.
266
VACCINACEÊ.
VACCINIUM.
The
Fruit narcotic.
787. Uliginosum.
berries yield
an intoxicating
liquor.
PRIMULACEÊ.
CYCLAMEN.
Root acrid
788. Hedersefolium.
acting as a drastic purgative,
em-
menagogue.
PRIMULA.
789. Veris.
Flowers sedative.
Produces Cowslips.
ANAGALLIS.
Prescribed in epilepsy and dropsy.
Acrid.
790. Arvensis.
SAPOTACE^;.
ACHKAS.
795. Sapota.
Bark a powerful astringent.
Seeds diuretic.
EBENACEÊ.
DlOSPYRUS.
Bark a powerful astringent and
798. Virginiana.
febrifuge.
STYRACEÊ.
STYRAX.
799. Officinale.
stimulating expectorant.
Produces Storax.
AQUIFOLIACE^].
ILEX.
801. Aquifolium.
Root and bark emollient, expectorant, and diu-
Leaves febrifugal.
retic.
PRINOS.
804-.
Bark a valuable
Verticillatus.
tonic.
Berries emetic,
tonic,
corroborant.
CONVOLVULACE^;.
IPOMÂ.
807. Macrorhiza.
matter.
809. Purga.
Roots
consisting
Roots purgative.
Produces jalap.
BATATAS.
815. Paniculata.
of saccharine
Laxative.
Roots cathartic.
and farinaceous
MEDICAL BOTANY.
267
PHARBITIS.
816. Nil.
Said to be a quick cathartic.
Seeds purgative.
CONVOLVULUS.
817. Scammonia.
Roots cathartic.
818. Althseoides.
Roots purgative.
Produces Scammony.
CALYSTEGIA.
819. Sepium. Roots purgative.
820. Soldanella. Roots purgative.
LOBELIACE.E.
LOBELIA.
823. Inflata.
An
asthma.
824. Siphilitica.
acrid narcotic, and powerful emetic.

Used in
In small doses expectorant and diaphoretic.
Root acrid and emetic.
Used as a remedy for
siphilis.
HlPPOBROMA. (ISOTOMA.)
Acrid, venomous.
825. Longiflorum.
TUPA.
826. Feuillsei.
venomous.
Acrid,
The
of the
smell
flowers said
to produce vomiting.
CINCHONACE.E.
HYMENODICTYON.
Bark
856. Excelsum.
and
bitter
astringent.
EXOSTEMA.
Juice of the capsules produces a burning itching in
Bark febrifugal and emetic.
lips.
857. Caribaeum.
the nostrils and
858. Floribundum.
Bark
febrifugal
and emetic
rather drastic.
MANETTIA.
Bark of the
862. Cordifolia.
dysentery, acting as
root a valuable
remedy
in dropsy
and
an emetic.
RANDIA.
864. Dumetorum.
Fruit narcotic, emetic.
GARDENIA.
865. Campanulata.
Fruit employed as a cathartic and anthelrnintic.
COFFEA.
876. Arabica.
Stimulating, aromatic.
Produces Coffee.
MEDICAL BOTANY.
268
CAPRIFOLIACEÊ.
TRIOSTEUM.
Bark of the root emetic and
896. Perfoliatum.
Leaves
cathartic.
diaphoretic.
SAMBUCUS.
Roots cathartic.
897. Ebulus.
Juice of the fruit cooling, laxative, and diuretic.
898. Nigra.
purgative
Flowers diaphoretic
emetic.
Bark
employed as ex-
Produces Elder- berries.
pectorants.
GALIACEÊ,
OR
STELLATE.
RUBIA.
Root used
899. Tinctorum.
Said to be tonic, diuretic,
for dyeing.
Produces Madder.
and emmenagogue.
ASPERULA.
900. Odorata.
Diuretic.
ASTERACE^.
LlATRIS.
Roots have a terebinthinous odour, and are diuretic
904. Squarrosa
and
antisiphilitic.
905. Scariosa.
Diuretic, antisiphilitic.
EUPATORIUM.
All the parts bitter.
907- Perfoliatum.
In
warm
valuable tonic stimulant.
infusion or decoction emetic, sudorific,
and
aperient.
TUSSILAGO.
The
913. Farfara.
leaves,
smoked
It is
against dyspnoea.
have been employed

bitter, and a slight tonic.
like tobacco,
demulcent,
ERIGERON.
914. Philadelphicum
Used
as a diuretic.
STENACTIS.
915. Annua.
Employed
as a diuretic.
SOLIDAGO.
9 1 6. Odora.
Leaves yielding a volatile
oil,
which
is
aromatic,
sti-
mulant, diaphoretic, and carminative.
INULA.
919. Helenium
and other
Tonic, diuretic,
diseases.
diaphoretic.
Used
Produces Elecampane.
in
dyspepsia,
MEDICAL BOTANY.
PULICARIA.
920. Dysenterica
Astringent, diuretic.
BIDENS.
The whole
921. Tripartita.
When
plant acrid.
chewed,
it
excites
salivation.
SPILANTHES.
The whole
923. Oleracea.
plant acts as a powerful stimulant of the
salivary organs.
ANTHEMIS.
925. Nobilis.
Produces Chamomile heads.
Tonic, stimulant, emetic.
MARUTA.
926. Cotula.
Every part
is
and
foetid
active bitter, producing vomiting
Its
acrid.
decoction
is
an
and sweating.
ANACYCLUS.
Root hot,
927. Pyrethrum.
acrid oil in the bark,
acrid,
and permanent, depending on an

it a rubefacient and sti-
which renders
mulant.
PTARMICA.
The whole plant
928. Vulgaris.
is
pungent,
stimulant.
Dried
leaves produce sneezing.
PYRETHRUM.
The whole
930. Parthenium.
plant
mulating, and anti-hysteric.
is
bitter
considered tonic, sti-
ARTEMISIA.
932. Maritima.
Bitter, tonic, aromatic.
936. Glacialis.
Bitter, tonic, aromatic.
Leaves pungent and stimulating.
941. Dracunculus.
Is
Tarra-
gon.
943. Abrotanum.
944. Moxa.
powerful anthelmintic.
Furnishes a kind of Moxa.
945. Absinthium.
Is
powerful
Is Southern-wood.
bitter, tonic; extolled as
a stomachic.
Wormwood.
TANACETUM.
946. Vulgare.
Every part
cordial nature.
Is
bitter.
The
qualities are of a tonic
and
Tansy.
ARNICA.
948. Montana.
virulent plant, acting as a narcotico-acrid agent.
MEDICAL BOTANY.
270
DORONICUM.
Narcotico-acrid.
919. Pardalianches.
CALENDULA.
Employed as a carminative.
950. Officinalis.
CYNARACEÊ.
CENTAUREA.
951. Calcitrapa. Bitter, febrifugal.
952. Centaurium.
Bitter, febrifugal.
954. Jacea.
Bitter, febrifugal.
SlLYBUM.
956. Marianum.
Leaves
sudorific
and
aperient.
LAPPA.
Root
957. Minor.
ter
and
tonic, aperient, sudorific,
acrid
and
diuretic.
Fruit bit-
also used as a diuretic.
CNICUS.
958. Benedictus.
Febrifugal.
CICHORACE^l.
LACTUCA.
959. Virosa.
Narcotic.
960. Sativa.
Sedative.
TARAXACUM.
The
961. Dens leonis.

are tonic
and
Produces Thridax.
infusion, decoction,
aperient.
and extract of the root
Diuretic.
CICHORIUM.
962. Intybus.
Root tonic and aperient. Used in decoction in chroand cutaneous diseases.
nic visceral
VALERIANACEJE.
VALERIANA.
964. Officinalis.
Roots
foetid,
as an anthelmintic.
stimulant,
and
narcotic.
Employed
Produces Valerian-root.
PLANTAGINACE^.
PLANTAGO.
968. Psy Ilium. Seeds mucilaginous, demulcent.
970. Cynops. Seeds mucilaginous, demulcent.
Leaves and roots bitter, astringent.
971. Lanceolata.
expectorant and vulnerary.
Used
as
an
MEDICAL BOTANY.
27 1
GLOBULARIACE7E.
GLOBULARIA.
A bitter, drastic purgative.

A bitter, drastic purgative,
972. Alypum.
973. Vulgaris.
employed as a resolvent
and vulnerary.
PLUMBAGINACEJE.
STATICE.
Root intensely astringent.
976. Caroliniana.
ABMERIA.
Flowers an active
977. Vulgaris.
diuretic.
PLUMBAGO.
978. Europaea
Very
acrid; used to remove tooth-ache.
An
effec-
tual emetic.
979. Rosea.
Acrid, vesicant.
981. Zeylanica.
Acrid, vesicant.
BORAGINACE^:.
BORAGO.
Root mucilaginous.
984. Officinalis.
Pectoral, emollient.
Is
Bo-
rage.
SYMPHYTUM.
986. Officinale
Reputed vulnerary, esculent.
CYNOGLOSSUM.
987. Officinale
Fffitid, narcotic,
LAMIACE^
antispasmodic.
OR
? ?
LABIATE.
LAVANDULA.
995. Vera.
Flowers carminative, stimulant, and tonic ; used with

Produces Lavender.
the leaves as sternutatories.
996. Spica. Yields oil of spike.

997. Stoechas. Considered expectorant and antispasmodic.
MENTHA.
999. Viridis.
Aromatic and carminative.
Produces Spearmint.
MEDICAL BOTANY.
272
MENTHA.
An
1000. Piperita.
dic.
aromatic stimulant.
Volatile
oil
antispasmo-
Produces Peppermint.
1001. Pulegium.
Aromatic, antispasmodic.
Furnishes a fragrant oil.
1002. Citrata.
Stomachic and emmenagogue.
1003. Rotundifolia.

1004-. Aquatica.
1005. Arvensis.
LYCOPUS.
1006
a.
Europseus.
febrifuge,
commended
as
an astringent.
SALVIA.
1008.
Officinalis.
Qualities aromatic, bitter,
1009. Grandiflora.
and stomachic.
Qualities aromatic, bitter,
and stomachic.
ROSMARINUS.
1010.
Officinalis.
Employed
as a cephalic medicine.
MONAEDA.
1011. Fistulosa
Bitter, aromatic, febrifugal.
AMABACUS.
Aromatic and
1013. Dictamnus.
tonic.
ORIGANUM.
1014. Vulgare.
Pungent, stimulant, and fragrant.
Produces Mar-
joram.
THYMUS.
1015. Vulgaris.
1016. Serpyllum.
HYSSOPUS.
1017.
Officinalis.
Stimulating, stomachic, carminative.
MELISSA.
1020. Calamintha.
Aromatic,
bitter, febrifugal.
SCUTELLABIA.
1021. Lateriflora
Reputed
to
be a remedy
for
hydrophobia.
NEPETA.
1022. Cataria
It acts as
a real aphrodisiac on cats.
Used
also in
amenorrhoea.
1023. Glechoma
Ivy.
Expectorant,
anti-hysterical.
Produces
Ground
MEDICAL BOTANY.
273
LEONURUS.
1024. Cardiaca.
Stimulant.
Formerly used against canine madness.
STACHYS.
1026. Betonica.
Root emetic and purgative.
Stimulating.
MABBUBIUM.
1027. Vulgare.
Herb,
lating
and
bitter,
tonic.
aromatic.
Expectorant.
Recommended
Is
as stimu-
Horehound.
VERBENACE.E.
VlTEX.
1030.
Leaves powerfully discutient.
Trifolia.
1031. Agnus castus.
Fruit acrid.
Fruit acrid, stimulant.
STACHYTABPHA.
The expressed
1036. Jamaicensis.
clysters,
and
as
juice purgative;
employed
for
an anthelmintic.
BIGNONIACEÊ.
CATALPA.
Leaves and bark
1037. Syringifolia.
bitter, expectorant.
BIGNONIA.
1038. Antisiphilitica.
Discutient, antivenereal.
ACANTHACE^;.
RHINACANTHUS.
Milk boiled on the roots
1039. Communis.
siacal
is
considered aphrodi-
also alexipharmic.
ACANTHUS.
1043. Mollis.
Leaves emollient.
ADHATODA.
1045. Vasica.
Flowers, leaves, and roots anti spasmodic, bitter, and
sub-aromatic.
ANDOGBAPHIS.
1046. Paniculata.
Stomachic,
dysentery.
used as a remedy
for
cholera and
Said to be alexipharmic.
SCROPHULARIACEÊ.
DIGITALIS.
1047. Purpurea
Diuretic, narcotic.
Is Foxglove.
MEDICAL BOTANY.
27-i
SCROPHULARIA.
Leaves and
1048. Nodosa.
roots purgative
and emetic, with a
bitter
taste.
Leaves and roots purgative and emetic, but less

1049. Aquatica.
so than the last.
HEBPESTES.
1
Antirheumatic.
050. Monniera.
CALCEOLARIA.
Leaves purgative and emetic.
1053. Pinnata.
LINARIA.
1054. Vulgaris.
Bitter, purgative, and diuretic.
a wash for chronic diseases of the skin.
Recommended
1055. Cymbalaria.
Flowers used as
as an antiscorbutic.
Diuretic.
EUPHRASIA.
1059.
Officinalis.
1060.
Officinalis.
Slightly bitter
and aromatic, ophthalmic.
GRATIOLA.
Bitter, acting as
a purgative and emetic.
Useful
in cases of hypochondriasis.
SCOPARIA.
1061. Dulcis.
-Febrifugal
Expressed juice mucilaginous, and used
as a cooling laxative.
VERSA SCUM.
1062. Nigrum.
Sub-narcotic.
SOLANACE^l.
HYOSCYAMUS.
1065. Niger.
powerful narcotic.
Is
Henbane.
ATROPA.
1066. Belladonna.
dangerous narcotic.
Every part of the plant
In medicine it is narcotic,
diaphoretic, and
poisonous.
Is
diuretic.
Deadly Nightshade.
CAPSICUM.
1067.
Annuum.
Fruit and seeds stimulant,

pungent.
Fruit and seeds
stimulant, more pungent.
Baccatum. Fruit and seeds
stimulant, very pungent.
1067
a. Frutescens.
1067
b.
DATURA.
1068. Tatula
violent narcotic
poison.
an anodyne and sedative.
Employed externally
as
MEDICAL BOTANY.
275
DATURA.
1069. Stramonium.
violent narcotic
nally as an anodyne
and
poison.
Employed exter-
sedative.
PHYSALIS.
1072. Alkekengi.
Diuretic,
employed in veterinary
practice.
NICANDBA.
1073. Physaloides.
Diuretic.
SOLANUM.
1074. Nigrum. Stimulating, narcotic.
1076. Dulcamara.
Berries bitter and poisonous.
Plant narcotic and
diaphoretic.
NICOTIAN A.
1081. Tabacum.
infusion as
stimulant narcotic, employed as an errhine ; in

an expectorant and sedative ; in vapour as an
Produces Virginian Tobacco.

antispasmodic.
stimulant narcotic, much more mild in
1082. Rustica.
tion.
1083. Persica
its
opera-
Produces Syrian Tobacco.
stimulating narcotic, less mild in
its
operation.
Produces Persian Tobacco.
CESTRACEÊ.
OESTRUM.
Febrifugal, used externally as an astringent.
1087. Laurifolium.
GENTIANACE^:.
GENTIANA.
1088. Catesbsei.
Bitter, tonic, febrifugal.
1089. Amarella.
1090. Campestris.
1091. Purpurea.
Root
1095. Lutea.
anthelmintic.
Pro-
duces the Gentian-root of the shops.
FRAZERA.
1097. Carolinensis.
Root
bitter, emetic, cathartic.
ERYTHRÂ.
1099. Centaurium.
Used
in rustic phar-
macy.
T 2
MEDICAL BOTANY.
276
MENYANTHES.
All the plant
1105. Trifoliata.
bitter.
valuable tonic, emetic,
diaphoretic.
VILLARSIA.
Stems
1106. Nymphseoides.
bitter, tonic,
and
febrifugal.
SPIGELIA.
1 1
Root and leaves are active anthelmintics
07. Marilandica.
also
Produces Wormseed.
purgative and narcotic.
APOCYNACEÊ.
CERBERA.
Kernels
1111. Manghas
emetic
and poisonous;
the milky
employed as a purgative.
1113. Thevetia. Bark bitter, cathartic, and a powerful
sap
febrifuge.
ALLAMANDA.
An
1125. Cathartica.
infusion
of the leaves a valuable cathartic.
In over-doses emetic and purgative.
NERIUM.
1128. Oleander.
Acrid, stimulating, poisonous.
APOCYNUM.
1130. Androssemifolium.
Every part
lactescent.
Root
bitter, tonic,
acting as an emetic.
1131. Cannabinum.
Emetic
in decoction diuretic
and
diaphoretic.
PLUMIERA.
1137. Rubra.
Milk
corrosive.
ASCLEPIADACE^:.
ASCLEPIAS.
1141. Tuberosa.
catarrh,
Root expectorant and

diaphoretic;
pneumony, and
pleurisy.
employed in
Useful as a tonic and
stimulant.
1143. Curassavica.
Roots purgative and emetic.
CALOTROPIS.
1144.
Gigantea.The juices
tives
1145. Procera
of the root and bark are used as altera-
and purgatives.
Produces Mudar.
Juice acrid; also a

powerful depilatory.
CYNANCHUM.
1148. Vincetoxicum.
Emetic and purgative, celebrated as an an-
tidote to poisons.
MEDICAL BOTANY.
277
OLEACE.E.
OLEA.
1157. Europsea.
The
emollient,
fruit
and
duces Olive
yields
an
Bark
laxative.
which
oil,
bitter
and
is
demulcent,
astringent.
Pro-
oil.
OBNUS.
1158. Europaea.
The branches yield true Manna. A gentle laxative.
1159. Rotundifolia.
The branches yield Manna of a better quality.
FBAXINUS.
1
160. Excelsior.
Leaves cathartic.
Bark
tonic
and
febrifugal.
SYRINGA.
1161. Vulgaris.
Bark
tonic, bitter,
and
febrifugal.
CYCADACEÊ.
CYCAS.
1 1
62. Revoluta.
Farinaceous.
ZAMIA.
1
Yields a kind of Arrow-root.
169. Furfuracea.
:,
OR
CONIFERS.
PIN us.
1170. Sylvestris.
Terebinthinous,
resinous.
Produces Turpentine,
resinous.
Produces
Pitch.
1171. Pumilio
-- Terebinthinous,
Hungarian
balsam.
1
72. Pinaster.
Produces Bordeaux tur-
Terebinthinous, resinous.
pentine.
1173. Cembra.
Terebinthinous,
resinous.
Produces
Carpathian
balsam.
ABIES.
1174. Picea.
Terebinthinous,
resinous.
Produces Strasburgh tur-
pentine.
1175. Balsamea.
Produces Canada bal-
sam.
1176. Larix.
Produces Venice turpentine.
CALLITRIS.
1177. Quadrivalvis.
Resinous.
Produces Sandarach.
MEDICAL BOTANY.
278
JUNIPERUS.
1
78.
Fruit sudorific, carminative
Communis.
the
oil
a very pow-
Produces Juniper-berries.
The oil is a powerful stimulant, acting as a
1179. Virginiana.
In amenorrhoea it acts as an
rubefacient and vesicant.
erful diuretic.
emmenagogue.
Is Savin.
Diuretic.
Oil a powerful stimulant, acting as a rubefacient and

In amenorrhoea it acts as an emmenagogue.
vesicant.
1180. Sabina.
Is Savin.
Diuretic.
TAXACEÊ.
TAXUS.
Leaves fetid, very poisonous, acting like Digitalis.
1181. Baccata.
Berries harmless.
Is the
Yew.
ZINGIBERACE.E.
ZlNGIBEB.
1 1
82. Officinale.
valuable aromatic, carminative, stimulant, sia-
Produces Ginger.
lagogue.
CURCUMA.
Root aromatic, stomachic, carminative.
1186. Zedoaria.
Produces
Zedoary.
1189. Longa. Bitter, aromatic, stimulant, tonic.
Produces Turmeric.
Used
in
dyeing.
KÊMPFEHIA.
1 1
The
92. Galanga.
roots
have an agreeable smell, and
warm
have an agreeable smell, and
warm bitter
bitter
aromatic taste.
The
1193. Rotunda.
roots
aromatic taste.
MARANTACEjE.
MARANTA.
1204. Arundinacea.
mic.
Amylaceous.
Reckoned a powerful alexiphar-
Produces Arrow-root.
CANNA.
1
205. Edulis.
Amylaceous.
1206. Coccinea.
Amylaceous.
Produces Tous
les
mois.
AMARYLLIDACE.E.
CRINUM.
1207. Asiaticum.
Bulbs powerfully emetic, poisonous.
MEDICAL BOTANY.
279
OPORANTHUS.
1208. Luteus
Bulbs purgative.
BRUNSVIGIA.
1209. Toxicaria.
Juice of the bulbs a dangerous poison.
Used
to
envenom arrows.
NARCISSUS.
1210. Poeticus.
Bulbs emetic, poisonous.

Bulbs and flowers emetic, poisonous.
Emetic and poisonous.
1211. Pseudo-narcissus.
1212. Tazzetta.
PANCRATIUM.
1213. Maritimum.
Emetic.
ALSTR(EMERIA.
1214.
Salsilla.
Diuretic
and
diaphoretic.
IRIDACEÊ.
IRIS.
Rhizoma nauseous and
1216. Versicolor.
acrid
an active cathartic.
Useful as a diuretic.
Rhizoma acrid; possessing purgative and

emetic properties.
Rhizoma a sub-acrid, aromatic, bitter substance.
1218. Florentina
1217. Pseud-acorus.
Produces Orris-root.
CROCUS.
1219. Sativus.
Stimulant.
and emmenagogue.
Used
as
carminative,
antispasmodic.
Produces Saffron.
ORCHIDACEÊ.
ORCHIS.
Amylaceous, demulcent.
1221. Mascula.
Produces Salep.
BLETIA.
1225. Verecunda.
Bitter, stimulant, stomachic.
PALMACEÊ.
CARYOTA.
1232. Urens.
Amylaceous.
CALAMUS.
1233. Draco.
Astringent.
Produces Sago.
MEDICAL BOTANY.
280
ELAIS.
1234. Guineensis.
Palm
Produces
Oleaginous, astringent.
oil.
MELANTHACEÊ.
VERATRUM.
1236. Viride.
Roots an acrid emetic, stimulant, sedative.
White
1237. Album.
Produces
Hellebore.
small
acts as
dose
a large causes
an emetic;
Produces White Hellebore.
vomiting and purging.
Seeds acrid; used as anthelmintics.
1238. Sabadilla.
dangerous
stimulant.
HELONIAS.
Used
Plant a narcotic poison.
1241. Erythrosperma.
for destroying
flies.
1
242. Dioica.
Root in infusion anthelmintic
and
in tincture bitter
tonic.
GYKOMIA.
Root
1243. Virginica.
diuretic,
hydragogue.
TRILLIUM.
1244. Erectum.
Rhizoma
violently emetic
fruit suspicious.
COLCHICUM.
1246. Autumnale.
Sudorific,
thelmintic.
emetic,
purgative.
narcotico-acrid
poison.
Used
Is
the
as an an-
Meadow
Saffron.
LILIACE.E.
ERYTHRONIUM.
1247. Americanum. Root and
leaves emetic.
ALETRIS.
1249. Farinosa.
Very
machic.
bitter.
Used
in infusion as
a tonic and
sto-
Emetic.
SQUILL A.
1250. Maritima
Bulbs acrid, vesicant, emetic, diuretic,

expectorant.
Produces Squills.
ALLIUM.
1255. Sativum.
Bulbs stimulant,
expectorant,
as anthelmintics.
Produces Garlic.
and
diuretic.
1256. Cepa.
Stimulant, diuretic, expectorant, and rubefacient.
duces Onions.
Used
Pro-
MEDICAL BOTANY.
281
DRACAENA.
1258. Draco.
Tonic,
astringent,
resinous,
employed
in
diarrhoea.
Produces Dragon's blood.

Roots astringent, useful in dysentery.
1259. Terminalis.
1260. Ferrea. Roots astringent, useful in dysentery.
ALOE.
1261. Vulgaris.
1262. Socotrina.
Purgative.
Produces Barbadoes Aloes.

Produces
Purgative, bitter, aromatic.
Socotrine
and Mocha Aloes.

1263. Purpurascens.
Purgative,
aromatic.
bitter,
Produces Soco-
trine Aloes.
1264. Spicata.
Produces Cape Aloes and Horse Aloes.

Produces Cape Aloes and Horse
Purgative.
Purgative.
1265. Arborescens.
Aloes.
1266. Commelyni.
Cape Aloes and Horse
Purgative.
Produces
Purgative.
Produces Cape
Aloes.
1267. Mitriformis.
Aloes
and Horse
Aloes.
SMILACEÊ.
SMILAX.
1269. Aspera.
Emetic, diaphoretic, narcotic.
Produces Italian Sar-
saparilla.
1270. Sarsaparilla.
1272.

Siphilitica.
Produces
Lisbon
Sarsaparilla.
ARACE.E.
ARUM.
Tubers amylaceous, stimulant, diaphoretic, and
Produces Portland
expectorant; juice acrid, poisonous.
1280. Maculatum.
Sago.
COLOCASIA.
1282. Esculenta.
Acrid, sialagogue, amylaceous.
SYMPLOCARPUS.
Tubers
1285. Foetidus.
acrid, antispasmodic,
hydragogue.
DlEFFENBACHIA.
1289. Seguina.
An
parts an
exceedingly venomous plant.
indelible stain to linen.
The
juice
im-
MEDICAL BOTANY.
282
ACORACEÊ.
ACORUS.
Rhizoma aromatic,
1290. Calamus.
bitter, stomachic.
Adapted
to
Produces Calamus aromaticus.
cases of dyspepsia.
GRAMINACEÊ.
LOLIUM.
1292. Temulentum.
narcotico-acrid poison.
Used
as a sedative
Produces Darnel.
poultice.
TBITICUM.
1293. Vulgare.
Produces Wheat.
Amylaceous.
HORDEUM.
Produces Barley.
Nutritive.
1294. Vulgare.
SECALE.
Origin of Ergot.
1295. Cereale.
BROMUS.
1296. Mollis.
Narcotic.
Emetic.
1297. Purgans.
AVENA.
1300. Sativa.
Nutritive.
Produces Groats.
ANDROPOGON.
1302. Schoenanthus.
Leaves stomachic, aromatic,
bitter.
SACCHARUM.
1305. Officinarum.
Nutritive.
An
antidote to arsenic.
Produces
Sugar.
CYPERACE^:.
CYPERUS.
1
1
Stomachic.
306. Longus.
Stomachic.
307. Rotundus.
Tubers useful in cholera.
CAREX.
1308. Arenaria.
tive.
Creeping stems diaphoretic, demulcent, and alteraProduces German Sarsaparilla.
Creeping stems diaphoretic, demulcent, and alterative.

Produces German Sarsaparilla.
1309. Hirta.
1310. Intermedia.
terative.
Creeping stems diaphoretic, demulcent, and alProduces German Sarsaparilla.
MEDICAL BOTANY.
283
XYRIDACEÊ.
XYRIS.
1311. Indica.
Used against ringworm.
FILICALES.
ADIANTUM.
1315. Capillus Veneris.
Rhizoma
astringent
and aromatic, pectoral
the decoction emetic.
1316. Pedatum.
Rhizoma
astringent
and aromatic, pectoral
the
Used
as a
decoction emetic.
PTEBIS.
1317. Aquilina.
Rhizoma
astringent
and anthelmintic.
substitute for Hops.
NEPHKODIUM.
Rhizoma anthelmintic.
1318. Filix mas.
OSMUNDA.
Rhizoma
1319. Regalis.
rachitis.
tonic
and
styptic,
useful
in
cases
of
INDEX.
ACANTHACE.E, 154, 273.
Acanthales, 217.
Aceraceae, 109.
Acerales, 203.
Achenium, 5.9, 63.
Achlamydeous, 41.
Aclilamydosse, 209.
Acoraceae, 185, 282.
Acotyledonous, 67.
Acrogenous, 12.
Acrogens, 18, 68, 191.
Actinenchyma,
Acuminate, 29.
3.
Annulus, 69, 73.

Anonaceae, 92.
Anonales, 199.
Anther, 45, 46.
Antheridia, 71.
Anthocarpous, 59.
Antitropous, 67.
Apex, 54, 57.
Apiaceae, 134, 242.
Apocarpous, 50.
Apocynaceae, 146, 276.

Apophysis, 69.
Apothecia, 71.
Acute, 29.
Appendages
Acute-angled, 20.
Adherent, 230.
Adventitious leaf-buds, 23.
-ffisculaceae, 109, 249.
Araceae, 186, 281.

Arales, 222.
-(Estivation, 36.
jEtheogamous plants, 91.

Age of Exogenous trees, 1 4.
Aggregosae, 213.
of the axis, 9.
Aquifoliaceae, 144, 266.
Araliaceae, 133, 245.
Araneose, 9.
Arcuate, 66.
Aril, 63.
Aristolochiaceae, 162, 263.
Aigrette, 41.-
Aristolochiales, 212.
Air-vessels, 6.
Arrow-headed, 27.
Albumen, 65.
Alburnum, 15.
Articulated, 18.
Algaceae, 69, 195.

Algae, 195.
Alismaceae, 185.
Alismales, 221.
Alliances of plants, 197.
Alsineae, 104.
Alternate, 37.
Amarantaceae, 158.
Amaryllidaceae, 177, 278.
Amentales, 209.
Amentum,
38.
pitted tissue,
Artocarpeae, 167.
Ascending, 18.
Asci, 71.
Ascidium, 25.
Asclepiadacese,
46, 276.
Assimilating power, 32.

Asteraceae, 138, 268.
Asterales, 215.
Atractenchyma,
3.
Atropous, 55.
Amomales, 220.
Aurantiaceae, 106, 251.

Auriculate, 25, 26.
Amphigamous
Axis, 9.
plants, 91.
Amphitropous, 55.
Amplexicaul, 25.
Ampulla, 25.
Amygdalae, 123, 255.
Amyridaceae, 124.
Anacardiaceae, 119, 259.
Analytical method, 78.
Anatropous, 55.
Andraeaceae, 193.
Andrceceum, 45.
Angular, 27.
Aiuiular, 6.
Balanophoracege, 174.
Balausta, 62.
Balsamaceae, 262.
Balsamales, 208.
Balsaminaceae, 114.
Bark, 15.
Base, 57.
Basidia, 72.
Begoniaceae, 158.
Begoniales, 202.
Berberaceae, 94, 245.
4.
285
INDEX.
Berberales, 200.
Cedrelaceae,
Berry, 61.
Celastraceae, 117, 253.

Cellular, 2.
Betulaceae,
168,259.
111,250.
Bignoniaceae, 147, 273.

Bignoniales, 217.
Bijugute, 28.
Cellular plants, 91.

Cells, 47.
Central, 50.
Bipinnate, 28.
Centrifugal, 39.
Centripetal, 39.
Biserrate, 29.
Biternate, 28.
Cercodiaceae, 127.
BixaceJE, 100, 248.

Bixales, 203.
Boraginaceae, 150, 271.
Bothrenchyma,
Bourgeon, 20.
Bouton, 20.
4.
Cestraceae, 275.
Chalaza, 55, 65.
Chamaelaucieae, 126.
Channelled, 25.
Characeae, 192.
Charales, 224.
Bractlets, 35.
Bracteolae, 35.
Chenopodales, 212.
Chenopodiaceae, 156, 263.
Chloranthaceae, 164, 261.
Branched
Chlorophyll, 2.
Bract, 35.
cellular tissue, 3.
Brassicaceae, 97, 247.
Brexiales, 213.
Bromeliaceae, 179.
Bromeliales, 220.
Brunoniales, 216.
Bryaceae, 192.
Bud, embryo,
Buds, 20.
9.
Chromogen, 2.
Chromule, 2.
Chrysobalanaceae, 124.
Cichoraceae, 1 39, 270.
Cinchonaceae, 136, 267.
Cinchonales, 215.
6.
Cinenchyma,
Circaeeae, 127.
Bulbills, 21.
Bulblets, 21.
Bulbs, 21, 22.
Cistaceae, 100, 249.
Butomaceae, 183.
destines,
Cactaceae, 131.
Closed, 6.
Cloves, 21.
Caesalpinieae, 120.
Calcarate, 42.
Calceolate, 42.
Callitrichales,211.
Calycanthaceae, 124.
Calyciflone, 91, 117.
Calyptra, 70.
Calyptrate, 42.
Calyx, 40, 41, 54.
Cambium,
17.
Campanales, 2 1 5.
Campanulaceae, 142.
Campanulate, 42.
Campylotropous, 55.
Canellese, 248.
Cistales, 204.
Cladenchyma,
Clusiaceae, 108.
Cocci, 60.
Cocculales, 212.
Collar, 66, 73.
Colpenchyma,
Capparidaceae, 98, 247.

Capriales, 215.
Caprifoliaceae, 136, 268.
Capsule, 60, 63.
Carpel, 50.
Carunculae, 64.
Caryophyllaceae, 104.
Caryopsis, 60, 63.
Casuarales, 210.
Caudate, 60.
Caudicle, 48.
Cauliculus, 66.
3.
Columella, 58, 69.

Column, 46.
Columnosae, 209.
Coma, 64.
Combretaceae, 124, 245.
Commelynaceae, 183.
Commelynales, 221.
Commissure, 58, 61.

Compositae, 138.
Compound, 40.
Capillitium, 73.
Capitulum, 38.
3.
3.
organs, 9.
Compressed, 20.
cellular tissue, 3.
Cone, 63.
Conenchyma,
3.
Conical, 11.
cellular tissue, 3.
Coniferce, 171, 277.

Coniocysta, 72.
Conjugato-pinnate, 28.
Connective, 46.
Consolidated, 230.
Continuous pitted (tissue),

Convolvulaceae, 1 49, 266.
4.
INDEX.
286
Convolute, 37, 67.
Coralline, 11.
Cordate, 26.
Cordate-acuminate, 26.
Cordate-ovate, 26.
Cordiaceae, 150.
254.
Coriariaceae, 117,
Coriales, 207.
Corm, 19, 21.
Dicarposae, 213.
Dicotyledonous, 67.
Dictyogens, 12, 230.
Didynamous, 46.
Digitate, 28.
Dilated, 42.
Dilleniacese, 95.
Dioscoreaceae, 178.
Diploe, 26.
Cornales, 201.
Dipsaceoe, 137.
Dipsales, 216.
Dipteraceae, 106.
Corolla, 40, 42.

Coroniform, 42.
Disciform, 13.
Disk, 48.
Cortina, 73.
Dissepiments, 52.
Dissolved, 230.
Disunited, 230.
Cormogens, 230.
Cornaceae, 133, 246.
Corylaceae, 169,259.
Corymb, 39.
Divergent, 67.
Dorsal suture, 58.
Corymbiferae, 139.
Cotyledons, 66.
Coussinet, 25.
Crassales, 208.
Dotted ducts,
Double, 42.
Crassulaceae, 131,258.
Creeping, 18.
Droseraceae, 101.
Drupe, 59, 63.
Cremocarp, 61.
Ducts, 4, 5.
Crenate, 29.
Crisp, 29.
Cruciales, 202.
Duplicato-dentate, 29.
Cruciferae, 97, 247.
Echiales, 216.
Elaeagnacese, 160.
Cryptogamous
4.
Ebenaceae, 144, 266.

plants, 90.
Cucurbitaceee, 129, 246.
Elatinaceae, 104.
Cucurbitales, 202.
Cuneate, 27.
Cup, 48.
Elementary organs,
Emarginate, 29.
10, 65, 66.

buds, 23.
Empetraceae, 162.
Embryo,
Cupule, 61.
Cupuliferae, 169.
Curled, 29.
Curvembryosae, 209.
Cuticle, 7.
Cycadaceae, 170, 277.
Cylindrenchyma,
3.
Cylindrical tissue,
Cyme, 39.
3.
Endocarp, 57.
Endogenae, 173.
Endogenous, 12.
Endogens, 17.
Endophkeum,
15.
Endopleura, 64.
Endorhizae, 68.
Cynaraceae, 139, 270.
Endothecium, 48.
Cyperaceae, 188,282.
Cyrtandraceae, 147.
Cystidia, 72.
Cytinaceae, 174.
Entangled
Cytoblast, 2, 4.
Dasdalenchyma,
3.
Danaeaceae, 191.
cellular tissue, 3.
Entire, 29.
Epicarp, 57.
Epidermis, 15.
Epigynosae, 213, 219.
Epigynous, 46.
Epiphkeum, 15.
Decompound, 28.
Epiphyllous, 37.
Equisetaceae, 192.
Erect, 66.
Ericaceae, 143, 265.
Deformed, 18.
Ericales, 213.
Dehisce, 58.
Dehiscence, 47, 58.
Dehiscent, 58.
Dentate, 29.
Escalloniaceae, 133.
Etaerio, 61.
Daphnales, 211.
Datiscales, 210.
Diplecolobeae, 97.
Diachyma, 26.
Diadelphous, 46.
2.
Etiolated, 33.
Euphorbiaceae, 162, 251.

Euphorbiales, 205.
Excentrical, 66.
Excipulus, 72.
INDEX.
Exogenae, 91.
Exogens, 13.
Exogenous, 12.
Gesneraceae, 142.
Gland, 61.
Glandular hairs, 8, 9.
Gleicheniaceae, 191.
Exorhizae, 68.
Exostome, 55.
Expansion, order of, 37.
Extra-axillary, 37.
Globulariaceae, 154, 271.

Globuli, 72.
Glochidiate, 9.
Glomeruli, 72.
Glumaceae, 188.
Fabaceae, 119,256.
Glumes, 35.
False-bark, 17.
Fasciculate, 11.
Glumosae, 219.
Gongyli, 71, 72.
Goodeniaceae, 141.
Goodeniales, 215.
Female organs, 49.

Ferns, 69.
Ferula, 13.
Funiculus, 54.
Graminaceae, 189, 282.

Granada, 72.
Grossales, 200.
Grossulaceae, 132, 245.
Guttales, 203.
Fibro-cellular tissue, 3.
Ficoidales, 202.
Ficoideae, 131.
Fig, 63.
Filaments, 45, 46.
Filicales,
287
Guttiferae, 108.
Gymnogens, 230.
191,223,283.
Filices, 191.
Gynandrosae, 219.
Flacourtiaceae, 100.
Gynandrous, 46.
Gynobase, 49.
Gynoeceum, 49.
Gynophore, 50.
Gyroma, 71.
Flat, 67.
Flocci, 73.
Florkeales, 207.
Floral envelopes, 35, 40.
Floridae, 174.
Flower-bearing stems,
Flower-buds, 20, 34.
8.
8.
Half-terete, 20.
Flower-leaf, 35.
Halorageae, 128.
Hamamelaceae, 133.
Flowering plants, 90.

Flowerless plants, 68, 90.
Fluviales,
Hairs,
185,222.
Hastate, 27.
Heart- wood, 15.
Foliola, 28.
Heliacal, 66.
Hepaticae, 194.
Follicle, 59.
Hernandiaceae, 262.
Food
Heterotropous, 67.
Hilum, 64.
Foliaceous, 67.
of plants, 30.
Foramen, 55.
Forked, 46.
Hippurideae, 127.
Homogens, 230.
Humiriaceae, 112.
Hydrales, 220.
Frankeniaceae, 103.
Fruit, 57.
Fuchsieae, 127.
Fumarieae, 96, 241.
Fungaceae, 69, 72, 195.
Hydrocharaceae, 174.
Hydrophyllaceae, 151.
Fungales, 224.
Fungi, 195.
Fungous, 67.
Funnel-shaped, 42.
Fusiform cellular tissue,
Galbulus, 63.
Galeate, 42.
Galiaceae,
141,268.
Gamopetalous, 42.
Gamosepalous, 41.
Gemmation, 30.
Gemmule, 66.
Hymenium,
73.
Hypericaceae, 107, 248.

Hypha, 72.
Hypogynosae, 219.
3.
Hypogynous, 45.
Hypothecium, 71.
Illecebraceae, 130.
Imbricate, 37.
Impregnation, 56.
Indehiscent, 58.
Indifferent, 44.
Induplicate, 37.
Indusium, 69.
Gentianaceae, 148, 275.

Gentianales, 218.
Inenchyma,
Geraniaceae, 113, 254.
Inferior, 42, 54.
Geraniales, 206.
Inflated, 25.
3.
INDEX.
288
Inflorescence, 37.
Intercellular passages, 2.
Internodes, 19.
Interruptedly pinnate, 28.

Inverted, 66.
Involucre, 35.
Iridaceae, 179, 279.
Irregular, 43.
Irritability, 33.
Ixiales, 220.
Jasminacese, 146.
Jointed, 25.
Juglandacese, 170, 261.
Juncaceae, 182.
Juncaginaceae, 184.
Juncales, 221.
Jungermanniaceae, 193.
knotted, 18.
Labiales, 217.
Labiatae, 271.
Labiate, 42.
Lobes, 46.
Loculicidal, 58.
Loganiales, 218.
Lomentaceous, 59.
Loranthaceae, 135.
Lycopodales, 224.
Lycopodiaceae, 191.
Lymphatic
hairs, 8, 9.
Lyrate, 28.
Lythracea:, 124, 250.
Mace, 63.
Magnoliaceae, 95, 242.
Male organs, 45.
Malpighiaceae, 110.
Malvaceae, 105, 250.

Malvales, 204.
Marantaceae, 177, 278.
Marchantiacese, 194.
Marginal placenta, 50.

Medical Botany, 239.
Medulla, 3.
Medullary plates, 16.
rays, 16.
sheath, 13.
Labiatiflorae, 139.
Lacunae, 72.
Lamiaceae, 153, 271.
Lamina, 24, 25.
Lanceolate, 26.
Melanthaceaa, 181, 280.

Melastomaceae, 124.
Latex, 6, 16.
Meliales, 205.
Laticiferous, 6.
Menispermaceae, 93.
Lauraceae, 158, 262.

Laureales, 211.
Merenchyma,
Leaf, simple, 26.

Leaf-buds, 10, 20, 22.
adventitious, 23
deciduous, 21.
normal, 22.
Leafless, 18, 25.
Leaflets, 28.
Leafy, stem, 18.

Leaves, 23.
compound, 28.
Legume, 59, 63.
Leguminosse, 119, 256.
Lentibales, 217.
Lentibulaceae, 154.
Lenticular, 67.
glands, 6.
Leptospermeae, 126.
Liber, 4, 15.
Meliaceae, 112,250.
3.
Mericarps, 61.
Mesembryaceae, 131.
Mesophkeum,
15.
Mesophyllum, 26.
Mesosperm, 64.
Micropyle, 65.
Midrib, 26.
Mimoseae, 121.
Monadelphous, 46.
Moniliform, 11.
Monimiales, 210.
Monochlamydeae, 91.
Monocotyledonous, 67.
Monopetalous, 42.
Monophyllous, 41.
Monosepalous, 41.
Moringaceae, 248.
Mosses, 69, 70.

Mucronate, 29.
Lichenaceae, 194.
Lichenes, 194.
Mucus,
Lichens, 69.
Multiple, 59.
organic, 2, 4.
Multangular, 20.
Lignification, matter of, 2.
Muriform
Liliaceae, 180, 280.

Liliales, 221.
Loasaceae, 129.
Musaceae, 177.
Muscales, 224.
Musci, 192.
Mycelia, 73.
Myricaceae, 168, 260.
Myristicaceae, 160, 242.
Myrsinaceae, 145.
Lobeliaceae, 142, 267.
Myrtaceae, 126, 24
Limb, 41, 43.

Linacese, 114, 249.
Linnean Sexual System, 76.

Lirella, 71.
cellular tissue,
>.
6.
289
INDEX.
Myrtales, 201.
Myrteze, 126.
Naiadaceae, 185.
Naked, 41.
Narcissales, 220.
Natural System of
Nectary, 43, 49.
Nelumbiaceae, 95.
Nepenthales, 212.
Nervures, 26.
De
Candolle, 90.
Nodes, 19.
Nodose, 11.
Paleae, 35.
Paleaceous, 60.
Palmaceae, 183, 279.
Palmales, 221.
Palmate, 28.
Pandales, 222.
Panduriform, 28.
Panicle, 39.
Papaveraceae, 98, 241.

Papayaceae, 248.
Papilionaceae, 120.
Papilionaceous, 42, 43.
Nolanales, 214.
Pappose, 60.
Pappus, 41.
Normal
Parenchyma,
leaf-buds, 22.
8.
Notorhizeae, 97.
Parietal, 52.
Nucamentosae, 213.
Passifloraceae, 129,
Nuclei, 21.
Nucleus, 54, 71.
Nuculanium, 61.
Passionales, 203.
Patellula, 71.
Pedate, 28.
Nut, 61, 63.

Nyctaginacese, 157, 264.
Nymphaeaceae, 94, 241.
Pedicels, 36.
Peduncle, 36.
248.
Pelta, 71.
Peltate, 9, 26.
Oblique, 26, 42.

Oblong, 26.
Penaeales, 211.
Pepo, 62.
Obscurely triquetrous, 20.

Obtuse, 29.
Perianthium, 41.
angled, 20.
Ochreae, 29.
Octangular, 20.
CEnothereae, 127.
Oleacese, 145, 277.
Oleales,218.
Pericarp, 57.
Peridiolum, 72.
Perigonium, 41.
Perigynous, 45.
Perisperm, 65.
Peristome, 69.
Perithecium, 71, 73.
Onagraceae, 126.
Onagrales, 201.
One-lipped, 43.
Petals, 42.
Petiole, 24.
Operculum, 70.
Petivales, 212.
Petiveriaceae, 156, 264.
Ophioglossaceae, 191.
Oplarium, 71.
Opophora,
6.
Opposite, 23.
the leaves (inflorescence), 37.
Orange, 62.
Orbicular, 26.
Orbiculi, 73.
Orbilla, 71.
Orchidaceae, 279.
Organs, compound, 9.
elementary, 2.
Orobanchaceae, 152.
Orthoploceae, 97.
Petiolar, 37.
Pha?nogamous plants, 90.

Phaceliales, 216.
Phanerogamous plants, 90.
Philadelphaceae, 125.
Phragmata, 53.
Phycomater, 72.
Phyllodium, 24.
Physiological Botany,
Pinaceaa, 171,277.
Pine-apple, 63.
Pinnate, 28.
Orthotropous, 55, 67.

Osmundaceae, 191.
Pinnatitid, 28.
Ostiolum, 73.
Oval, 26.
Piperales, 210.
Pistil, 49.
cellular tissue, 3.
Ovary, 49, 54.

Ovate, 26.
Ovenchyma,
3.
Ovule, 48, 50, 54.

Oxalidaceae, 114, 254.
1.
Phytolaccaceae, 156, 263.

Pileus, 73.
Piperaceae, 164, 261.
Pistillidium, 71.
Pitcher, 25.
Pith, 13.
Pitted tissue, 4.
Pittosporaceae, 114.
Pittosporales, 200.
INDEX.
290
Placentiform, 11.
Piano-compressed, 20.
Plantaginaceae, 155, 270.
Plantales, 216.
Platanaceae, 166.
4.
Pleurenchyma,
Pleurorhizese, 97.
Plicative, 37.
Plumbaginaceae, 154, 271.

Plumbales, 216.
Receptacle, 39, 49.
Rectembryosae, 209.
Regular leaf-buds, 22.
Reniform, 26.
Replum, 59.
Resedaceae, 99.
Reservoirs of oil, 6.
Reticulated, 6.
Plumose, 60.
Plumule, 66.
Retosae, 219.
Retuse, 29.
Podetia, 71.
Rhamnaceae, 118, 251.

Rhamnales, 205.
Podophylleae, 241.
Podospenn, 54.
Podostemales, 210.
Polemoniaceae, 148.
Rhizanthae, 173.
Rhizanths, 230.
Rhizoma,
19.
Pollen, 46.
Ribs, 26.
Polyadelphous, 46.
Polycarposae, 213.
Polygakceae, 102, 249.
Polygonaceae, 159, 264.
Ringent, 42.
Root, 10.
Polygonales,212.
Polypetalous, 42.
Polypodiaceae, 191.
Polysepalous, 41.
Pome,
62.
Pomeae, 123, 255.

Pores, 47.
Portulacaceae, 130.
Potentilleae, 122.
Rootshaped, 18.
Rootstock, 19.
Rosacese, 122, 254.
Resales, 207.
Roseae, 122.
Rostrate, 60.
Roundish oblong, 26.

Ruminated, 65.
Rutaceae, 115, 253.
Rutales, 206.
Praefloration, 36.
Sac of the amnios, 55.
Prickles, 9, 19.
Sagittale, 27.
Primine, 54.
Salicaceae, 165, 261.
Primulaceae, 155, 266.

Primulales, 214.
Prismatical cellular tissue, 3.
Salicales,
Prismenchyma,
3.
Proper juice, 34.

vessels, 6,
Prosenchyma,
2, 3.
210.
Samara, 61.
Sanguisorbeae, 123, 256.
Santalaceae, 161.
Santalales, 211.
Sap, 33.
Sapindaceae, 110, 249.
Pulp, 2.
Sapotaceae, 145, 266.

Sarcocarp, 57.
Sarraceniaceae, 96.
Putamen, 57.
Saururaceae, 165.
Pyrolaceae, 265.
Pyxis, 61.
Saxales, 208.
Quadrangular, 20.
Scalariform, 6.
Scales, 35.
Proteaceae, 160.
Proteales, 211.
Raphe, 55, 65.

Raphides, 3, 9.
Saxifragaceae, 132, 258.

Scaevolaceae, 141.
Quadrilateral, 20.
Quadriquetrous, 20.
Quincuncial, 37.
Quinquangular, 20.
Quinquelateral, 20.
Scaly bulbs, 21.
Raceme, 38.
Sclerales, 212.
Racliis, 36.
Ranales, 199.
Sclerogen, 2, 3, 4.
Scrophulales, 217.
Scrophulariaceae, 152, 273.
Scutate, 9.
Scutellum, 71.
Ranunculaceee, 91, 239.
Scypha, 71.
Radicle, 66.
Rafflesiaceae, 173.
Ramentaceous,
9.
root, 19.
Scape, 18.
Scitamineae, 175.
Scleranthaceae, 130.
INDEX.
201
Secretions of plants, 30.

Secundine, 54.
Seed, 63.
Stellate cellular tissue, 3.

Stem, 11.
Semiterete, 67.
endogenous, 12.
exogenous, 12, 13.
Sterculiaceae, 249.
Semivascular plants, 9 1 .
Sepals, 41.
acrogenous, 12.
Separated, 230.
Septate, 6.
Septicidal, 58.
Stigma, 49.
Serrate, 29.
Seta, 70.
Stomates, 7,
Stroma, 73.
Setaceous, 60.
Seven-lobed, 28.
Strophiolae, 64.
Structural Botany,
Sexes, 35.
Sheathing, 25.
Struma, 25, 69.

Strumose, 46.
Shields, 71.
Silenacese, 253.
Style, 49.
Silenales, 206.
Stylidiaceae, 142.
Silenese, 104.
Styraceas, 144, 266.

Succulent, 18.
Superior, 42, 54.
Stipes, 73.
Stipules, 24, 29.
8.
1.
Stupose, 46.
Siliqua, 61.
Silicula, 61, 63.
Simarubaceae, 116, 253.
Simple, 40, 59.

Sinuated, 28.
Sinuous cellular, 3.
Ske*tch of a new distribution of the
Vegetable Kingdom, 226.
Smilaceae, 180, 281.
Solanaceae, 151, 274.
Solanales, 218.
Supervolutive, 37.
Suspensor, 66.
Suture, 58.
Syncarpous, 50.
Syngenesious, 47.
System, Natural, 85.
natural, of De Candolle, 90.
Linnaean Sexual, 76.
Systematical Botany, 75.
Solitary, 37.
and
axillary, 38.
Soredia, 72.
Son, 69.
Tamaricaceae, 101, 253.

Taper, 25.
Taxaceae, 170, 278.
Tela cellulosa, 2.
Tendril, 25, 40.
Spadicosae, 219.
Spadix, 38.
Spathe, 35.
Terete, 20.
Spermoderm, 64.
Terminal, 37.
Ternate, 28.
Sphaerenchyma,
3.
Spheroidal, 67.
cellular tissue, 3.
Spike, 38.
Spine, 19.
Spinescent, 25.
Spiny, 42.
Spirseeae, 122.
Spiral, 60.
vessels, 5.
Spondiaceae, 251.
Spongelets, 10.
Spongioles, 10.
Sporangia, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73.
Sporidia, 72.
Spofogens, 230.
Spojes, 69.
Spurious dissepiments, 53.
Stamens, 45.
Staminidia, 71.
Staphyleaceae, 117.
Stellales, 215.
Stellatae, 141, 268.
Stellate, 9, 60.
Ternstromiaceae, 106, 248.

Testa, 64.
Testiculate, 11.
Tetradynamous, 46.
Thalamiflorse, 91.
Thallodes, 72.
Thallogens, 230.
Thallus, 71, 73.
Theales, 203.
Theca, 69, 70.
Thecaphore, 50.
Thymelaceae, 161, 262.

Thyrsus, 39.
Tiliacese, 105, 250.
Tissu cellulaire, 2.
Tissue, 2.
cellular, 2.
laticiferous, 6.
muriform
cellular, 16.
pitted, 4.
vascular, 5.
woody,
'
Toothed, 46.
4,
3.
INDEX.
292
Vague, 69.
Toothed at the apex, GO.
Toms,
Valerianaceae, 138, 270.

Valvate, 37.
and involute, 37.
49.
Trachenchyma,
5.
Transverse, 58, 66.
Valves, 47, 58.
Transversely articulate, 25.

Triangular, 20, 27.
Vasa
contracta, 6.
expansa, 6.
Vascular, 2.
Trica, 71.
Tridentate, 29.
Trilateral, 20.
Tripinnate, 28.
Triquetrous, 20.
tissue, 5.
Vasiform, 4.
Veins, 25.
Velum, 73.
Tritemate, 28.
Truncate, 29, 60.
Ventral suture, 58.

Verbenacese, 153, 273.
Vermicular, 66.
Vernation, 30.
Tube, 41.
Tubercular, 11.
Tuberculum, 71.
Tuberous, 11.
Verticillate, 23.
Tubiferosae, 209.
Vesicate, 42.
Vesiculae, 72.
Tubular, cellular tissue, 3.

Turneracese, 130.
Two-edged, 20.
Two-lipped, 43.
Vessels, proper, 6.
Vexillary, 37.
Vitaceee, 113,245.
Vitellus, 66.
Typhacese, 187.
Typhales, 222.
Violacese, 102, 247.

Violales, 202.
Ulmacese, 260.
Ulmales, 210.
Volvales, 214.
Vrille, 25.
Tubers, 19.
Volva, 73.
Umbel,
38.
Umbellales, 199.
Umbelliferse, 134, 242.
Umbilicus, 64.
Unilateral, 66.
Unguiculate, 43.
Wedge-shaped, 27.
Winged, 25.
Winteracese, 95, 242.
Wood, 14.
Woody, 2.
Unguis, 43.
tissue, 16.
Unsymmetrical, 43.
Urn, 70.
Urticaceae, 260.
Urticales, 209.
Xanthoxylaceas, 116, 254.

Xyridacese, 283.
Urticeae, 167.
Utricle, 60.
Zellengewebe, 2.
Zingiberaceae, 175, 278.
Zygophyllaceae, 116, 254,
Vaccinacese, 143, 266.
THE END.
LONDON
PRINTED BY SAMUEL BENTLEY,

Bangor House, Shoe Lane.

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STRUCTURAL, PHYSIOLOGICAL, SYSTEMATICAL,

BEING A FOURTH EDITION OF

THE OUTLINE OF THE FIRST PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY.

VICE-SECRETARY OP THE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY OP LONDON;

UPPER GOWER STREET.

PRINTED BY SAMUEL BENTLEY,

THE work now laid before the public is a fourth edition of

That work was

to fix correctly in their

minds the more

important points which the teacher brings before them in an

with certainty the points upon which

him to fix his attention. That there existed a want of such

advice has been

The propositions which it contained were such

evidence which had at that time been collected by Botanists.

reader himself, who, for this purpose, was referred to the

and Physiological Botany depend

sketch of Systematical Botany, treated in the same manner.

made in the form of a series of tables, called

the Author to find that this too has been advantageous to

improvements have been introduced, without deviating from

planatory not only of the technical terms employed in Botany,

previous editions besides which, the whole of the Structural

physiologists, so as to present the reader with a view of the

hoped that these improvements will render the work

wherein all the principal topics which the teachers

more extensive works

for explanations of those

Note-book are merely adverted

University College, London,

STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL

PLANTS are not separable from animals by any absolute

multiplying by spontaneous or artificial division of their trunk

of a hygrometrical membranous transparent tissue, chemically composed of oxygen, hydrogen, and

STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.

Their component parts are held together by an organic

certain modifications, constituting the

CELLULAR TISSUE (Tela cellulosa, Lat. ; Tissu

the other forms are often either partially or entirely wanting.

and originating from a

primitive point or cytollast

11. Therefore the apparently simple membrane

12. If the adhesion of the contiguous cells be imperfect,

on their inner surface, of matter of lignification or

leading to the circumference.

grains of colouring matter

round or oblong ; when slightly and equally pressed together,

stretched lengthwise they

called in general terms

their plane faces,

their divisions inos-

and other appendages of the axis. Consequently it occurs in

destines are large

of Parenchyma, in which raphides (60 a) are often de-

confined to the bark and

only occasionally occurs.

leaving the fibres only to constitute

function of the cellular tissue

therefore permeable, although not in general furnished with

STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.

thickened by the deposition of

visible pores (9).