"

.,AV

Or

The

American

United
Warren

Indian

States, period
King

Moorehead

in

the

1850-1914

^J*-

M.A.ttK.lvmSa

c.\

UNIVERSITY

HARVARD

LIBRARY

THE

OF

PEABODY

MUSEUM

OF

ARCHAEOLOGY

Received

ETHNOLOGY

AND

GIFT

5iX

^"S
.

AMERICAN

OK

^
\

^^

Qboglc

-;!

;.

"
.

?*?

THE

INDIAN

AMERICAN
IN

THE

STATES

UNITED

PERIOD

1850-1914

BY

WARREN
"the

AUTHOB,
of

K.

the

stone

AGE

department

phillips

IN
of

academy,
the

MOOREHEAD,

states

American
the
of

science,

'

HIS

CONDITION
POLITICAL

etc.

OF

HISTORY

PLEA

THE
AND

FOR

AMERICAN
OTHER

JUSTICE

1914

THE

of

indian

of

for

advancement

PRESENT

mebiber

mass.*,

fellow,

association

CURATOR

archaeology,

board

commissioners;

THE

AMERICA,"

NORTH
american

andover,

united

A.M.,

ANDOVER
ANDOVER,

PRESS
MASS.

INDIAN;
TOPICS

A-/

'

'^"f'i

"

"

";.A,r.

:...":

Copyright
Warren

K.

1914

Moorehead

^'^' ./
.

RED

(MAKH-PIYA-LUTA)

CLOUD
War

Chief

of all the

Sioux

OF

TABLE

CONTENTS

Chapter

Page
Introduction

I.

Two

Points

II.

The

U.

III.

The

Indians

IV.

The

Ojibwa

V.

The

Legal

VI.

The

The

VII.

IX.

The

Sioux

X.

The

Dance

XI.

The

Agency;

XII.

The

Death

The

Five

XIV.

Captain

XVI.

31

"

57
66

Sickness

and

White

for

77

Earth

89

Craze

99
Ill

The

Louis

Government;

Shangraux

the

and

Bull

Sitting

of

Grayson's

Tragedy

Wounded^Knee

at

Barnard's

Property

in

Oklahoma

157
........

Chocktaw

System;

Chickasaw;

and

Final
164

Red

Cloud.

The

XVIII.

Red

Cloud's

Later

XX.

Bull

XXII.

The

Some

Apache,

XXIII.

The

Career

XXIV.

The

Navaho

AND

XXVI.

Years

Further

of

XXIX.

190

the

Health

of

the

The

Indian's

Buffalo

and

Sending

Children*to

School,

Education

on

The

Pueblo.

211

Desert

Indian

Geronimo

219
288
241

of

Irrigation

to

Comments

Papago

Indians

The

173
181

Irreconcilable

Object

Indians

Northwest
Indians
Rbligion;

Organizations
XXVIII.

of

Times

200

Why

XXVII.

Modern

Education

XXI.

XXV.

Indian

Greatest

The

"

148

Indian

of

128
.

Work;

Estates

XVII.

Sitting

118
.

138

Miss

Views;

Minors*

and

Tribes

Recommendations

XIX.

Troops
.

Leasing

The

Earth

Affidavits.

Messiah

the

and

White

Responsibility

Stories.

Is Left

What

Report

Justice

of

Civilized

The

Ayer

45

Testimony

Indian

E.

Scandal

Earth

Roll.

E.

at

Department

XIII.

Hon.

and

"5

Minnesota

of

The

1918

in

Compucations

VIII.

XV.

17

Office

Today

White

Some

View

op

S. Indian

Projects

258
1880

His

to

1912

Character;

265

Philanthropic
279
291
299

TABLE

XXX.

The

Plains

XXXI.

The

Indians

XXXII.
XXXIII.
XXXIV.
XXXV.
XXXVI.
XXXVII.

Indians

Farming

and

Table.

Years

Views

ago

by

Indian

XXXIX.

and

The

Life.

Communistic

XL.

Stories.

General

811

Men

and

Women

in

the

Fieu"

Fairs

.341
859
367

Indian

Recommendations

Two

Today

Books
of

Conditions

Suggestions
Indian

378
from

Men

MORAUTY
XXXVIII.

and

325

Prepared

Stock-raising.

Important

Four

Official

Fifty

CONTENTS

California

of

Statistical

OF

and

Field
Women

Workers
of

387

Prominence.
399

Unwise

Comments

Purchases
and

Suggestions

407
417

Conclusions

423

Index

435

OF

LIST

ILLUSTRATIONS
Page

(Makh-piya-luta).

Frontispiece. Red

Cloud

Arthur

C. Parker.

Iroquois. State Archaeologist of New

Indian

Home,

Map

Reservation,

Onondaga

showing Country,

Modem

Indian

Government

Map

Tewanima,

James

Thorpe.

School

Educated

Children

Government

No

Cabin
School

Farming.

Water's

Ghost

Dance

Catholic
in

Cherokee

Female

Chief

Shack

of

Chief

near

Ridge,

Red

Cloud

Jack

Red

and
Cloud

104

1909

Ridge,

108

1909

110

1890

114
122

1890

Knee

Battlefield,Pine

Big Foot

Massacre,

126

Ridge

181

Sioux

Talequah, Oklahoma

at

188

Opp.

Creek

Talequah, Oklahoma

near

Indian, Oklahoma,

1850-1890.

Keen-Fa-Chy

72
78

1900

Camp

of the Chief

Academy

Poor

Minnesota,

Cherokee.

addressing the Council

Professor

64
.

106

Wounded

Seminary

Old-style Cabin,

1909
Investigation,

92

Tent, Pine

Dancers,

Ridge,

Pine

Memory

Male

Earth

Minnesota

Minnesota

Plenty Coups

Cherokee

Force, White
Reservation,

Reservation,

Earth

Clay Creek, Pine

Water's

Mission

Monument

Earth

78

Summer

of Ghost

The"IndianGate".
The

58
61

Buildings

Buildings, 1909

No

at

White

55

Costume

Point, White

Earth,

and

White

Camp

Agency

52

Earth, Minnesota

Point, White

Qjibwa

Qjibwa Graveyard, White

Sioux

of

Lakes,

Full-blood

Sioux

Pine

constitutingLinnen-Moorehead

Indians, Twin

Modem

Point, Minnesota

Ojibwa in Tribal

Rear

at

48

Minnesota

Pine

in Uniform,

Thirty Persons

Ellis.

89
46

Earth,

White

Chief, Ke-way-din, Pine

Ojibwa

88

Carlisle

Trachoma,

35
37

Hopi Indian

Parker, Choctaw

E*

Dispossessed Qjibwa

Rose

0pp.

at

Bassett, Full-blood

Evicted

25

34

Montana

1913

Full-blood

Gabe

of

0pp.

Belknap Reservation,

Ft.

Buildings,Pine Point,

Group

19
21

30

Qjibwa, blind from

James

York

York

New

School, Chilocco, Oklahoma

Lewis

Indian

of all the Sioux

1879

showing Country,

Honorable

Chief

Home

Sawmill,

U. S. Indian

War

143

146

1918

155

Oklahoma

158

Opp.

Marsh

168
176

Opp.

180

LIST

The

Hide

Hunter's

The

Last

Arrow

Dr.

Voice

The

Indian

Dodge City, Kansas.

1876

182

Sioux

Agriculture,Chilocco

Home,

Buffalo Hides.

Opp.

Improved Indian Home

Pima

40.000

A. Eastman,

Charles

Class in

Work.

ILLUSTRATIONS

OF

20"

Indian

School

208

in the Southwest

216

Arizona

222

of the Water

Spirits

Opp.

Construction

Buildingsof Recent

231

Geronimo
Pomo

234

Woman

Navaho

Weaving

Silversmith

Goat

Red

and

Navaho

Pack

Train

Aged Woman

Perce

251

Fruits. Bead-work

and

Baskets

256
259

Warrior

262
266

nearly blind from Trachoma

269
272

Association

Indian

Hospital at Indian

Wells, Arizona

275

Dakota

Cabin. North

276

Coolidge. Arapaho

Navaho

Woman

Navaho

Home,

Weaving

278

Blanket

290

Mexico

New

Reservation, Mission

294

Indians, California

297

Cavalry attacking Black Kettle's Village

302

Rincon

The

246

Patient

Sherman

U. S.

1902

in the Mountains

Nez

now

A Tuberculosis

Rev.

244

School, Fort Lapwai, Idaho

Sanitorium

Indian

239

250

Vegetables and

Challenge.

National

Basket, California

House. Oklahoma

of Grain,

Indian

Twined

His Outfit

Hogan

Indian

Modern

and

Mother, Navaho,

His

Winter

Exhibit

The

Hide

Creek

Hunter

Church

306

and

Camp-meeting Ground

309

Oglala Woman

Opp.

Better Class of Full-blood

Blanket

Colored

Leupp

(titleon

Hall, Students'

Indians
Navaho

Indians

of

Thirty Years

Summer

Seminole

Indian

Indians

Commercial

Class in Domestic

320

plate)

Opp.

Dining Room.

Chilocco

Indian

Haskell

School, Oklahoma

364
365

Girl, 1888

Houses

and

370

Cyclone Cellar, Oklahoma

374

Department
Arts.

343
362

Institute,Kansas

Hogan

Sioux

315

328

Recei\4ng Instruction in Plumbing.

Full-blood

Ago

in California

LinguisticStocks

226
228

Ute. Colorado

Southern

188

Haskell

377

Indian

School, Kansas

...

382

LIST

OF

ILLUSTRATIONS

Mourning the Dead

385

Conference

of Indian

Creek

and

Man

Alaskan

Indian

Portrait of
The

Last

Y. M.

Woman

C. A. Students

cuttingWood,

at

Denver, Colorado

Sylvian,Oklahoma,

386
393

1913

Children

396

Bay-bah-dwun-gay-aush

Outpost

398

0pp.

Large Indian House

404

Carlisle Indian

School

Buildings

Carlisle Indian

School

Campus

Ojibwa Woman
President
MLss
Chief
The

Kate

406
412

Dying of Consumption

Grant's
Barnard

Medal

to Red

416

Ooud

419

of Oklahoma

Peo-peo-tolekt. Nez
Fading Sunset

403

Perce Warrior

426
.430

0pp.

433

INTRODUCTION

Comments

Additional
With

diffidence I present

some

the transition

two

seems

situation
A
than

that

than

at

Indian

all my
of

of him

Indian

the

during

he faced

history has

him

confronts

helpfulunderstanding
further

public addresses,

of this country,

in his

time

no

which

that

some

archaeologicalsubjects, and

with

of the

study

indicate

to

bulletins, and

three

or

dealt

publications have
past.*

during

period.

Excepting
the

Indian

the American

history of

recent

years,

critical

more

today.
his needs

and

is

vastly more

important

scientific

study.
writing this book it has been difficult to select that which should be
of material
A wealth
pubhshed.
relatingto the complex life of modern
tribes of
Indians
The
and their affairs was
offered.
comparisons between
today and a century ago present an absorbing field for study. I have freand pleasant
more
queiitly with difficultychecked
myself, as it was
easy
In

of the past rather

speak

to

It

is

comparatively simple
in

surviving
not

represent

book

aimed

of such
other

out-of-the-way
the
at

public the
A

how

the

changed
upon

change

him

serious

I have

the
the

life within

problems.

in his life,that

the

be true

not

bibliographyof these will be found

in "The

the

do
my

inclusion

life. It will be observed

to

will

to

before

suggest

the American
certain

acquaint readers with

into citizenship. We

hurried

been
space

of
have

existence
Stone

and

activities of modern

the

bring

is to

problem,

In fact, we

his very

today,

As

"

followingchapters
has

as

whole.

widespread Indian activities in

distorted
certainly the
perspective

generally described

Indian

Indian

Indians

such

of the

of the book

purpose

of the

the

still

customs

But

States.

Indian

of the

state

exclusion

pleasing)would

his entire

United

perspective of

while

that

existing Indian

of the

present

acuteness

perusal of

"

days.

record

correct

Indians, that the real

facts

corners

directions, might result in

readers, that

to

cultural

and

matter

picture (while more

by

of modem

than

and

few

mendations.
recom-

all the
have

forced

generations
brought about so stupendous

is threatened.

Age in North

America."

As

will be

Vol. II, pages

in-

408-410.

THE

10

dicated, much
While

INDIAN

AMERICAN

of the old life obtains

this is true, the

in

spiteof

all

of evidence

influences.
civilizing

our

indicates that the greater

preponderance
Whether
majority of our Indians have passed into the transitional state.
shall
become
A
merican
citizens,
they
upright,self-supporting,
intelligent
depends upon our attitude rather than upon them.
Since we have brought about the extinction of tribal and communistic
life among
the Indians, absolute responsibility
for the future of the Indian
In the olden days, under the general tribal life,
the Indians
rests with us
of
able
that
band
and
Now
to
themselves.
most
were
together
protect
reservations have been cut up, and the Indians placed upon
individual
our
self
for
farms, it is impossiblefor them to join in any movement
-protection.
of a tribe. Hence, it is quite
citizens,rather than members
They are now
While
for unscrupulous white persons
to take advantage of them.
easy
what
in
the
the
best
interests
of
Indian,
we
thought we were
we
acting
barriers which
to destroy natural
reallydid, was
formerly kept out the
enemy.

One
unless

should

not

object to,

oflFered a constructive

one

to destroy.
opinion,must

arts

been

modified

work

of the

diflFerent from

except

on

policyin

the

be done

would

and

we

save

Art

and

in my
the Indian.

Old

established

an

place of

I have, therefore,pointed out

Indian
The

find fault with

or

he

that which

policy,
sought

what, in

Conclusions

my

Industries

industries of the Indians

(barringa

exceptions)have

few

the beadwith the Whites.

As an illustration,
by contact
is very
others
and
Ojibwa, Malecite, Penobscot, Iroquois
the art of two
centuries ago.
Basketry still obtains, but

the Pacific coast

and

of the textile work

in the Southwest, much

is influenced

sideration
by European culture, and I have therefore omitted a conof Indian
art in general.
In the chapter on
there was
reference to the extensive
the Navaho
blanket industry of that people. There is no danger of the blanket industry
ing,
becoming extinct, although it may deteriorate because certain well-meanbut misguided persons
desire to superintend the Navaho
art.

The

basketry is

beadwork,
of the
With

moccasins

country,
the

but

threatened
and

has

Indian
become

scarcityof deer, elk and

with

extinction.

garments
modernized

The

continues
in

in various

design

buffalo, substitutes

manufacture

sections

manufacture.

and

are

of

now

employed.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
There

are

whom

to

many

year

the

Indian

history must
of school

of

the

confirming
all

When

the

good

period.
the

and

in

present

United

It

States

Institution, Indian

I intended

to

prepare

clear that

made

was

bad; that

and

arts

description

mere

industries, would

result

in

but

widespread opinion,
for, protected, and reallybecoming

erroneous,

properly cared

are

oflScials in the

to

Justice, Smithsonian

transition

in the

governmental Departments,
began the preparation of this

explained

progress

public

Indians

our

both
and

of

organizations that

other

of the

contain

activities

ago,

Association, and

history of

that

Office, Department

Rights

number

especiallyindebted.

am

manuscript nearly
Indian

and

persons,

self-supporting.
Great

credit

for their
handle.

to

that
a

the

Mr.

began

to

Sells, and

blame.

E.

B.

No

Honorable

was

Valentine,
this

Cato

me

greatly indebted

thanks

Mr.

of Dr.

of

Dixon's

Commissioner,
both

to

permission
fiftyyears

both

in the

the

in the

the

ceeded
pro-

of

and
AflFairs,

men

are

Honorable

under-officials

instructed

of

bureaucracy

group

of this book,

preparation

one,

Indian

evolution

the

ago,

present

that

regime

of

to

and

and

Dr.

Joseph

K.

Dixon,

I express

plates illustrating
Page " Co., publishers
good enough to make

reproduce photogravure

to

Doubleday
Vanishing Race", were
Messrs.

ago.

book, "The

through

up

administration

or

no

them

of them.

Wannamaker

Rodman

for the

Indian

of Indian

Sells,Commissioner

possible courtesy

every

and

one

grew

select the

particular administration,

Meritt, Assistant

To

the

and
under

citizens

for

clearly indicated

Indians

our

not

Leupp

"It

"

of

must

lose his

times.

present

the

We

of Messrs.
state

property." Beginning fiftyyears

until it terminated
regularly,but irresistibly,

to

am

that

was

private

delicate

into consideration, I have

of evolution.

or

officials and

subject

unsatisfactorycondition

process

Morgan,

various

to

The

cooperation.

present

under

afford

given

Taking everything

gradual

Mr.

be

must

earnest

impressions.
Mr.

George

permitted
of

me
a

to

Wharton

James

reproduce

weaver,

from

and

his

publishers,A.

fine, colored

"Indian

Navaho

Blankets

and

C.

blanket
Their

"

McClurg
and
Makers".

an

Co.,
tration
illusMr.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
J. Weston

Allen

of Boston

Carlisle School, Haskell

Chilocco, furnished

platesand
list on

sent

13

also rendered

Institute,and

thanked

the

next

The

assistance.

States

United

Indian

regarding their work, loaned

information

photographs. I have

this and

valuable

me

the

me

School,
several

Superintendentsin the

the

page.

of Oklahoma;
Kelsey of California; Mr. Grant Foreman
and
L.
V.
of
McWhorter
of
Oklahoma,
Washington,
Capt. G. W. Grayson
thanks
this
book.
have my
for
I also am
to
contributingpages
special
of Indian Commissioners,
indebted
F. H. Abbott, Secretary of the Board
to Hon.
Mr.

C.

E.

for information; Mr.

Miss

Kate

Barnard,

In addition
whom

contributed
Miss

Mr.

M.

L. Mott

the above

to

more

Caroline

W.

or

K.

M.

and

H.

indebted

am

of

C.
to

less information.

Andrus

for Alaskan

Sniffen

and

Phillipsfor suggestions.
other persons, all of
listof these follows:

many

The

Marshall

Va.; Mr.

Hampton,

notes,

C. AUaben

City; Mr. Edgar A. Allen of Chilocco, Oklahoma; Mr. Benjamin

Edward
of Albany, N. Y.; Hon.
E. Ayer of Chicago; Mr.
S. L. Bacon; Mr. A. F. Beard of New
York City; Dr. Carl B. Boyd; Major
of New

York

Arnold

W.

John

R. Brennan

of Pine

Ridge, So. Dak.; Hon.

John

B. Brown

of Muskogee,

Tulalip,Wash.; Rev. Eugene

S. Campbell; Rev.
A. Campbell; Mr. W.
Buechel, S. J.; Miss Gertrude
York City; Hon. P. P. Claxton
Aaron B. Clark; Rev. John W. Clark of New
of Washington, D. C; Miss Mary C. CoIHns; Mr. Charles E. Dagenett of
Washington, D. C; Mr. Ira C. Deaver; Rev. P. Flor Digman, S. J.; Dr.
Fred Dillon; Rev. George D. Doyle; Dr. Charles A. Eastman
of Amherst,
J.
E.
Mr.
R.
Mass.;
Farrell; Mr. E. R. Forrest of Washington,
Eddy; Mr. F.
Okla.; Dr. Charles

Pa.; Hon.
Mr.

A. N. Frost

H. V. Hailman;

Hermanutz,

M.

of Lawrence,

Hon.

O. S.B.; Dr. F. W.

H.

of White

Mrs.

Bella McCallum

Hodge of Washington,
Hood; Rev. Ebenezer

Earth, Minn.; Mr.

Gibbons;

of Washington, D. C; Rev.

Seth K.

D.

C;

Rev.

Aloysius
Roman

Hotchkin; Major John

Humphrey

of Boston;

Mr.

City, Okla.; Rev. Julius Jette, S. J., of Tanana,

William
Dana
H.
H. Kelsey of Muskogee, Okla.; Rev.
Alaska; Hon.
C. KohRev. Bruce Kinney, D. D., of Topeka, Kan.; Mr. Wm.
lenberg;
Ketcham;
Mr. J. T. Laffertyof Winfield, Kas.; Dr. A. D. Lake; Rev. Simon
Lampel, O. S. B.; Hon. Franklin K. Lane of Washington, D. C; Hon.
E. B. Linnen
of Washington, D. C; Mr. G. Elmer
rence,
E. Lindquist of LawKas.; Hon. O. H. Lipps of Washington, D. C; Rt. Rev. Arthur S.
Huson

of Oklahoma

of

Mass.:

C. F. Hauke

Homar, O.S.B.; Rev. Alexander

R. Howard

Buchanan

Charles

Mr.

York

City; Colonel J. S.
of Los Angeles; Mr.

of New

Lloyd, D. D.,

INDIAN

AMERICAN

THE

14

F. Lummis

L. Maxwell;

David

Lockwood
Arthur

of Boston, Mass.;
E.

McFatridge;

Mr.

of Nashville,

John
Mr. A. P. Miller;
M. Moore
Tenn.; Rev. S. L. Morris, D. D., of Atlanta, Ga.; Rev. George de la Motte,

Joseph

S. J.; Dr.

Mr.

D.

Arthur

C; Mr.

Herman

Mass.; Mr.

H.

B. Peairs

of

Randall; Mr.
F.

Bethlehem, Pa.; Mr.

Mr.

Theodore

Mr.

Ernest

Mr.

Edward

W.

M.

New

York

Mr.

E. M.

Wistar

H.

of

de

Fridolin

Schweinitz

of

Seger of Clinton, Okla.;

Sparhawk of Hyde Park, Mass.;
H.

Editors

of the North

A.

Strassmaier;

Bernard

Redew;

American

of Sacaton,

Ariz.; Mr.

F. Van

William

Weber, O. F. M.; Mr.

H. Wein-

of Atlanta, Ga.; Rev.

Charles

L. White, D. D., of

C. Wilson; Mr.

R. Wise

of Lawrence,

General

It is diflScult,
if not

Aside

Paul

of

Pinkerton; Mr.

John

Kan.;

Philadelphia,Pa.; Rev. C. A. Woody, D. D.; Hon.

Muskogee, Okla.; Mr. Robert M. Wright of Dodge

of

Omitted

Bibliography

almost

Indians

relatingto

C.

B.

Robinson; Rev.

Stevenson; Rev.

Frank

Anselm

Rev.

City; Mr.

George Wright
City, Kas.

W.

Thackery
Waerbergh; Hon. George Vaux, Jr.,
Chrystom Vermyst, O. F. M.; Dr. W. W. Wallace of

Welch

M.

J.

and

E.

Edward

of

land;

Frances
W.

John

E. Pierce

Charles

Mr.

C;

John

of

ton,
WashingHenry W. Parker
Peabody of Cambridge,

Schwarz; Rev.

Scott; Mr.

Thackara; Mr.

Philadelphia;Rev.
Farmington, N. M.;

D.

J. S. Murrow;

Rev.

N. Y.; Mr.

Charles

Reed; Rev.

L. Swartzlander; The

Harry H. Treat; Rev.

Mr.

W.

C;

E. C. O'Brien

Petzoldt; Rev.

Simon

Miss

Sharp;

A.

G. W.

Stecker; Rev.

Eliza W.

Miss

W.

Rev.

M.;

Albany,

Washington,

Flandreau, So. Dak.; Rev.

Schuster, O.

of

F. Parshall; Dr.

Rev.

D.

Washington,

A. S. Nichelson; Mr.

C. Parker

of Boston;

J. Harvey

of

Murphy

A.

A. F. Nicholson; Mr.

Mr.

ography
bibliimpossible,to compile a satisfactory

and

Indian

from

affairs between
from

the

years

1850

oflScialsand

Departments,
reports emanating
the largestbody of literature is that dealingwith the ethnology of existing
1914.

tribes.

Under

the science.
no

ethnology would be included several

the ethnologicworks, reports and papers

the term
Most

dates.
specified

of

Hence,

paper

may

cover

one

or

two

divisions of
fall within

centuries,or it

To comtimes.
pile
aboriginalactivityin modern
restricted
to
books
individuals,
a bibliography
governmental reports,
by
of Indian
addresses, specialarticles,etc., concerning the administration

might

be confined

to

some

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

15

affairs,and

omitting scientific books

quite incomplete. I therefore omitted
I cite
to

some

pursue

Handbook

books, reports and

150

the

subject further,

of American

Institution and

papers,

addresses.

I would

Indians, there

is

unsatisfactoryand
general bibliography,although

and

To

readers

suggest that
the

are

who

may

in addition

desire
to

the

sonian
publicationsof the Smith-

of Ethnology, Washington. A largenumber

by these scientific institutions the past forty
of our Indian tribes.
all activities of many
practically
years, and they cover
The American
Anthropologist(1888-1914) will be found to contain valuable
the language, folk-lore,religion,
nology
philologyand general ethpapers
upon

of reports have

of
a

been

modern

bibliographyof
Indian

attractive
described
Eastman's
These
and

songs
manner

by

Bureau

issued

tribes.
more

and

Miss

by

in addition

to

Indians

contains

forty-twopages
length.
are
presented in a large volume in a most
Nathalie
Curtis.
Basketry and blankets are

Mason

of Indian

of American

Handbook

in

music

Professor

books

The

than

and

life are

Mr.

G.

excellent

W.
"

the Smithsonian, Bureau

Anthropologistcited,will afford

readers

an

James.

and
of

there

Dr.
are

Charles

many

A.

others.

Ethnology, Handbook,

abundance

of material.

Corrections
After
that

me

through

irrigable
could
as

lands

of

these

Farming

and

general
Page

T.

Stock

the

fourth

from

to

sentence

phases

in

paragraph.

6,000,000

252,

center

of page:

gratifying
but

acres,

Chiefs

the

was

the

fifth

omit

line:

sions";
Divi-

of

devoted

special chapter
in

the

book

thought

best

omit

to

should

paragraph

the

the

culture
agri-

to

industries

Chapter

In

length.

many

dances".

different

places
at

"witnessed

"John

T.

Shelton"

Parquette,

should

be

bibliography.

read,

"These

should

be,

Paquette.

of

XXXIII,

cover,

education."

Shelton".

Page

of

acres

correction.

many

on

of

cultivation

bottom,

various

it

exceedingly

line, "under

"witnessed

in

600,000

notified

Divisions".

various

commented

all
Last

1 cite

be

Sells

the

27,

page

would

It
under

necessary

Raising,

last

way,

247.

be

that

were

the

Therefore,

was

on

had

paragraph

reason

Indians

modern

It

the

the

should

dances",

for

in

second

error

paragraph,

**in

be,

217.

Indians

Commissioner

printed,

6,000,000!

600,000,

last

25,

112,

Page

the

is but

should

Page

become

that

page

been

typographical

total

sum

On

had

I-XXX

had

claim

we

the

Chapters

"William

CHAPTER
The

Indian

American
that

points of view;

I.

TWO

OF

regarded from

be

may

POINTS

of the scientist,and

that

VIEW
wide

two

and

divergent

of the humanitarian.

Under

grouped all study of the Indian, past and present,

general science of anthropology, and its various divisions
sub-divisions.
This
includes
and
the study of the Indian
as
a
primitive
diflFerent
all
and
from
other
the
the
Red
Race,
races
on
man
belonging to
pology,
This
view
face of the earth.
comprises archaeology, physical anthroethnology, folklore, religion,etc.
all
includes
the general title of humanitarianism,
The
second, under
which
be
and
that
summed
education,
missionary endeavor,
progress,
may
the

former

up

these
The

the

title Civilization, or

much

After
from

the

the

under

be

should

fallingunder

two

as

the

to me
thought, it occurs
quite opposed angles

and

"

man

average

of view

or

of the

is not

woman

scientist.

This

have

modernists

that

must

we

it, "Social
view

the scientific,
the
interested
is

in

the

the

vice."
Ser-

Indian

philanthropic.
Indian

from

natural.

point
But, persons
quite
dividual.
intelligenceare interested in the Indian
as
a
strange and peculiar inHe appeals to their imagination. The
had
has
public
presented
of books, pamphlets and
articles
to it during past years,
great numbers
all dealing with the Indian, and
of them
him
from
what
is
most
regard
known
"the
as
popular point of view."
Having read, or glanced through
of
it
is
firm
conviction
have not properly
after all,we
these,
that,
scores
my
of

understood
The

the

Indian.

scientists have

made

him

the

subject of technical study, beginning

with
the generalitiesof two
and
centuries
the
to
continuing down
ago
minutest
of detail of modern
of
records
investigations. Through
our
sensational
and
have
been
articles, we
our
given the impression
wars,
in
that his days were
his
and
dances.
To
fighting,
nights in war
spent
the scientist he has appeared, not as a man,
but as a bit of life to be dissected
and
preserved; or a specimen duly catalogued, described, and placed in
exhibition
To
the average
influenced
man
an
case.
by senor
sational
woman,
shows, and that modern
books, and degrading wild-west
invention,
the motion
picture, he presents a figure as unreal as it is unhuman.
Indian
of today, with few exceptions, having lost his aboriginal
The
characteristics,the faith of his fathers and his whole life changed, is indeed,
fit subject for the educator, the philanthropist, and the social reformer.
a

THE

18

Would
one

this very
of red
peculiarrace
the
Indian of today. And
study bj''observing

his

begin

observation
Indian

desire to

one

should

should

cover

cold, unsympathetic
should

everyone

in

need

purely
studied

imply

the

character, activities and

He

should

regard him

but

in

largerand

merely through

not

of the American

today of protection and help than

scientific point of view, the Indian
the

his

of this
the

looks for survival of savage

broader sense.
To begin with,

realize that the survivors

This

past fiftyyears.

that there should

condition

men,

of the scientist,
who

eyes

primitivecustoms,

or

understand

times.

of modern

INDIAN

AMERICAN

be

race*

are

more

of scientific study. From

a
has been pretty thoroughly
of mine

statement

does

necessarily

not

Indian in
study of the American
the work of the scientist and that of

technical

no

these present days. But as between

the Indian
the humanitarian
is vastly more

in need

of the

latter

Indian

have

of

than

the former.
In

belief that

the
that

one

the

rather

the

American

ambitious

it has occurred
hence

task

Indian
to

me

of the American

consider the

now

may

studies

our

of

race

preparing a

in its

entiret3%I have

number

of volumes

so

gressed
pro-

myself
treatingof
set

of the present and past. After much

deliberation
that the Indian of today should be first considered
"

this volume.

generallyspeaking the
Indian
the
United
of his
States
throughout
although maintaining much
of his aboriginalcharacteristics, yet,
originalspeech, and in places some
as
a whole, he is in the transition period.
native
Our
Americans
and
have
been, a remarkable
people.
are,
Their
and
their
of life,their striking
manner
picturesquecostumes,
very
to have
peculiarcolor and their diversified languages seem
challengedthe
attention of explorers,
travelers, priestsand scientists. It is to be doubted
if there

which
as

is another

as

the

outset,

aboriginal race,

books, articles and

more

well

At

in America,

find

we

face of the

the

on

that

been

reports have
is celebrated

the Indian

the

period of his greatest activity (since the advent

very
to

short

1700, he

lived

compared

with

be said to have

may

has

domination

that

of other

controlled

States and

of the

tribes of

of the

Mississippiand west
a
largeportion of

From

down

west

We

1880

are

Americans

to

the

of Lake

West

of the United

to

and

1700

the

year

North

the West, South

has rapidlydeclined
present time, his sun

by adoption. The

real American

race

is the Indian.

is

1500

rapidly
largeareas save

any

Superior. Up

race)

From

suflScient extent

Canada, to doniinate it. His power

diminished, and in 1800 we find that he did not control

white

men.

after the year

he dominated

Europe,

story, yet since

and
diminished,
gradually

discovery of

his

In

and

in song

the

America

earth, concerning

published.

1865,
West.
and

he

I
20

THE

AMERICAN

INDIAN

be said todayto have passedout of the tribalestate,to have ceased to

be a factor in national lifeas a separaterace. He is rapidly
becomingmerged
thousands of Indians
into our largerbody of citizens,
and while some
(j"erhaps
45,000)live and think in the past,the great majorityof Indians,
likethe great majorityof foreign
belongto the body politic.
immigrants,
So, we consider the majorityin this studyof the Indian,rather than
the minority;
leavingthat fraction to the scientist.
If we are consistent in the statement that we shall begin with the
presentand work backward into the past,we must consider in this volume
Indian
the activitiesand the lifeof the modern Indian,and the modem
beingin the transitionj"eriod
presentsus very littlein the way of folklore
and traditions. A careful study,of the recent reportsof ethnological
sought
investigators
emphasizesthis truth. The writers have invariably
that they knew much
out the older Indians,for the very good reason
the past. The greater number of Indians
the middle-aged
concerning
and young, and the thousands of educated Indians
not able to
are
furnish material such as scientificinvestigators
seek. A confirmation of
my statement willbe found in that excellent memoir, "Chippewa Music,"
nology
This was published
by the Bureau of Ethby Miss Frances Densmore.
In
much
in 1913.
this worthy publication,
research.
denoting
is dependenton the older peoplefor her information.
Miss Densmore
Even these older persons, as theyappear in the photographs
accompanying
the book, are dressed in garments such as are worn
by white persons.
keep a few old war
Many of these Indians (asin the case of other tribes)
buckskin
embroidered
bonnets,
belts,
etc.,with
coats, moccasins,leggings,
which they adorn themselves on state-occasions,
but their natural dress
today,is European in character. Not only in Miss Densmore's book
but in the reports of other investigators
in the United States,where a
of
Indians
evidence of European
observes
are
more
assembled,one
group
than native American costumes.
It is frequently
n
(ifot usually)
necessary
to ask the Indians to put on their tribal costumes, and sometimes they
are
compelledto borrow a garment here and there among their friends in
order to make up properly.There naturally
arisesthe pertinent
question
that their opinions
Indians so saturated with civilization
are not modern
of tribal customs of past decades should be acceptedwith due reserve?
This importantquestion
should be considered by some
of our numerone
ous
writers on Indian topics.
The two maps presented
oppositepages 25 and 35, will bringhome
to readers the tremendous
shrinkageof Indian lands duringthe short
space of thirty-five
years.
may

"

"

"

POINTS

TWO
The

been

presented by

map,

contrasted
cut

be found

down

in small

by comparing

the

white

figureson
period of

also the

increased, and
The

Others

increases

INDIAN

many

numbers;
tribes

1879

to

Indian

now

growth

women.*

the

growth

save

in

or

of the

the

show

slightincreases.
plan,

values

the

NEW

Indian

rolls" and

factors

YORK

thus

increasing,I doubt

mixed-blood

to

lation
accumu-

all these

"

RESERVATION,

are

elements,

mixed-blood

allotment

The

"get on the
pure-blood Navahos
to

"

on

in property

ONONDAGA

HOME,

persons

while

show

as

It will be seen
the map.
have greatly
with 1913, that the Navaho
(formerly Indian
livingin Oklahoma

given

area

either diminished,
due

are

each

of tribal funds, the increase

induced

Sells in his report for 1913,

Commissioner

tribes

have

marrying

men

21

that the Indian reservations have

of 1879, shows
the map
The population in the year 1881 will
to at least one-third.

to

Territory).

VIEW

OF

element

swell the
if other

referred

to

above.

Certainly these two maps

present us with facts for serious study.
They indicate the rapiditywith which the Red Race's property is being
legislated
Many reservations have been abolished, and the Indians
away.
allotted land in severalty. If the Indians
held such lands as white men
hold their farms, the whole Indian
merly,
area
today would be as large as forabolished.
hold
lines
Some
do
their
even
though reservation
are
*

Exceptingthe

Navaho.

lands.

But

tell the
the

AMERICAN

THE

22

sad

of them

most

Table

of Indian
Indian

1.

"

Year
1850
1853
1855
1857
1860
1865
1870

sell,lease, or

the

truth, and

blottingout

INDIAN

of

erasure

mortgage;

the

after all,

maps,

governmental lines usually means

titles.

POHirLATiON

ok

the

United

States

fr"m

1850

to

191S

Authority
Report
Report
Report
Report
Report

of H. R. Schoolcraft

388,229

of United

States Census, 1850

400,764

of Indian

Office

314.622

of H. R. Schoolcraft
of Indian

379,264

Office

254,300

do

294,574

Report of United States Census

313,712

1875

do

305,068

1876

do

291,882

1877

do

276,540

1878

do

276,595

1879

do

278,628

1880

do

322,534

do

328,258

1881
1882

Report of Indian Office

326,039

1883

do

331,972

1884

do

330,776

1885

do

344,064

1886

do

334,735

1887

do

243,299

1888

do

246,036

1889

do

250,483

1890

Report

1891

Report of

of United

Indian

States Census

248,253

Office

246,834

1892

do

1893

do

249.366

1894

do

251,907

1895

do

248,340

1896

do

248,354

1897

do

248,813

1898

do

262,965

1899

do

267,905

1900

do

270,544

1901

do

269,388

248,340

1902

do

270,238

1903

do

1904

do

263,233
274,206

1905

do

284,079

1906

do

291,581

1907

do

298,472

1908

do

300,412

1909

do

1910

do.

300,545
.

1911

do

1912

do

1913

do

304,950

322,715
327,425
'.

380,639

TWO
Table

2.

POINTS

Indian

"

VIEW

OF
of

popul.\tiox

United

the

June

Alaska.

23

States,

exclusive

of

30, 1913

(Figurescompiled from reports of Indian School superintendents,supplemented

for localitiesin which no Indian Office representaby information from 1910 census
tive
is located.)
Grand
Five

total

330,639

Civilized Tribes, includingfreedmen

By blood
By Intermarriage

and

intermarried

whites

101,216
75,253
2,582

Freedmen
Exclusive
Grand

23,381

of Five Civilized Tribes

229,423

total

330,639
Indian

Population

States

by

Alabama

909

Arizona

41,505

Arkansas

Montana

11,331

3,890
7,756

Nevada

Hampshire
Jersey

16,513

New

Colorado

870

New

Connecticut

152

New

York

New

Mexico

Delaware
District of Columbia

1913

Nebraska

460

California

Territories,

and

34
168

6,029

21,725

68

North

Carolina

7,945

600

North

Dakota

8,538

Florida

Georgia
Idaho

4,089

127

Oklahoma

117,274*
6,414

Illinois

188

Oregon

Indiana

279

Rhode

Island

Iowa

365

South

Carolina

20,555

South

Dakota

20,555

Kansas

1,345

Kentucky

234

Louisiana

780

Maine

892

to the number

enumeration,

or

Wyoming.

from

1913

to

In the table
the Indians
23,381

have

of Indians.

is for the

reason

presentedby
made

freedmen

and

1850

is given as

estimatingrather

to

some

2,582

36

that between

in '87 the number

11,335

Wisconsin

313

It will be observed

26
539

1,253

Missouri

3,231

Virginia
Washington.
West Virginia

11,338

Mississippi

"Includes

Utah
Vermont

7,512

Minnesota

opinionas

216
702

Texas

688

Michigan

1898

Tennessee

55

Massachusetts

whereas

284

....

Maryland

of

Ohio

95

and

9,930

1,715

1887

In 1886
243,000.

there is wide difference

there

were

This must

than

counting. The
assigned,page 21.

Commissioner
progress

along

intermarried

whites.

334,000 Indians,

faulty
gradual increase
be due

to

Sells it will be observed

various

that

industrial directions.

THE

24

he has

As

AM.

grouped under a tota.

sheep raised b^

cattle,hogs and
this table with

those of 1879-188

pared long ago by the Board of In*

them February 1st, 1882.
It will hv
cultivation are about the same
1
thirtyIn 1881

there

value of

sheep would

were

would

raise it. Some

would

average

$15.

time.

Mules

would

head, and sheep,$2.

would

amount

to

2,000,000 heai

over

reduce
horses

an

average

might be

Cattle would
be
We

w("

li

range

higher,while hog"
might strike an a

$20,000,000.

In view

of

ti

livestock,the $22,000,000 worth

time cannot

amount

to

more

of property i
than 2,000,000 Ik

I think the

increase noted in the 1912

slight
of certain Indian tribes (notably the Navaho)
value

per

head

of stock.

It does

not

I.
.

tha

mean

"live" property today than they did in 1881.

All of this, it is understood, is no reflection
missioner
a

or

body, have

*Commis8iG
number

is given

his able assistants.

not

It

progressedto the

merely
extent

indica

that

wi

CHAPTER
The
the

held

of Indian

by Honorable
The

IN

1913

under
organized in 1824, and was
was
took
3, 1849, the Interior Department

Indians.

Affairs.

Since

The

1832,

longest

there

have

of oflSce

tenure

been

31

that

was

A. Jones.

Wm.

Commissioner

present

OFFICE

S. INDIAN

March

of the

management

Commissioners

U.

Affairs

On

Department.

the

THE

of Indian

Bureau

War

over

II"

is Honorable

Cato

Sells

of

Texas,

who

took

and
Sells has already inaugurated a new
Mr.
charge June 4, 1913.
is highly commended
progressive policy and his work
by every
person
having the welfare of the Indians at heart.
(1) A splendid tribute has
been
paid him by M. K. Sniff en, Esq., Corresponding Secretary of the
Indian
Honorable
Rights Association.
Edgar B. Meritt, who has served
for
Commissioner.
is
Assistant
faithfully
many
years,
missioner,
ComThere
in addition
Assistant
to these high oflScers,Second
are
Honorable
of the

as

I wish

and

Hauke;

Honorable

would

horrible

have
There

I have

considered

B.

Linnen,

Chief

in Minnesota,

Oklahoma

and

elsewhere

never

education, land and finance; Chief

schools, health, industries, irrigation,forestry and
struction.
con-

Chiefs

are

of

There
the Chiefs

names

scandals

the

occurred.

Supervisors
under

E.

vice
Inspection Serthat
we
satisfactory
very
Chief of the Division, a man
has had twenty-five years' exwho
perience
as
Inspector and former Secret Service oflScial. And right here,
that if the Inspection Service
had been
eflScient in past
to state

the

years,

the

F.

Inspection
always
most
important of all. It is therefore

the
have

C.

Service.

are

of Divisions

ten

Supervisors and

of Divisions.

of hundreds

in

The

roster

of conscientious

eight Special Agents

serving

of oflScers for this year contains

and
and
women
men
competent

scattered

throughout the entire West and in Washington, whose sole purpose

is to make
who
No
of these Indians
citizens.
one
good American
has investigated the Indian
do
situation
it presents itself today can
as
other than accord to all these persons
of praise. They labor
the full meed
under great disadvantages. If they are radical, they call down
their
upon
heads the wrath
of those who
Indian
covet
lands; if they are conservative,
the oflScials of various
of aiding
benevolent
them
organizations accuse
and abetting the grafters in their nefarious
is
work.
If a single mistake
made
it is pointed out
disgruntled
though unintentional
by some
The
livingin the Indian country.
complications, the situation,
person
"

"

(1)Cato

Sells" An

Appreciation.

Pamphlet; Philadelphia, 1914.

THE

26

and

the

oppositionwhich

of their critics to

many

INDIAN

AMERICAN

they are called upon to face might well cause

timidly decline to exchange places with them.

I am
Because
it has been
entirelysincere in the above statement.
needed
reforms
out
not
to
to
unpleasant
duty
use
a stronger
point
my
term
a few
good people have imagined that I criticised the personnel
of the Indian Service.
That
would
be not only unkind, but also unjust,
and in all that I have published,written or spoken, I have never
thought
those who were
to criticize any man
or
woman
save
engaged in defrauding
"

"

Indians.
As will be

chapter of this book, the Indian Office

and the personnel competent.
The only question
machinery is efficient,
and it is a great question
manufactured
is whether
product is
our
what it should be. Our machines
but do we run them properly?
are
perfect,
presentedin

the final

"

"

The

Commissioner

of Indian

8, 1913.
report December
In order that
30, 1913.

being done by

the

covers

may

it is necessary

us,

valuable

period from July 1, 1912, to June

of the work
the full significance
grasp
Office,and the magnitude of the problems confronting
It

we

the Indian

Sells, issued

Affairs, Mr.

to

present

taken
statistics,

some

from

this

report.
There

are

Indians.
and

who

have

pointed out

The
to

the

persons

I have
be

property

worth

on

Indians
married

Page

of these

included

are

Indian

claim

in value, it is my

Indians

the Indians
candid

great many

women.

This

330,639

mixed

bloods

swells the total,as

21.

nearly $900,000,000.

of Oklahoma

Service, and

6,000 employees in the Indian

some

Among

is estimated
As

have

competent

by

the

observers

Commissioner
in the

State

there

rising$500,000,000
property
opinion,after consideringthe Navaho, Crow,

Sioux, Yakima, Apache and all other lands, minerals, timber, etc., in the
United
There
is probably nearer
States, that the sum
$1,200,000,000.
is also in the United

States

$48,848,744 in cash.
Treasury some
There
has been appropriated since the year 1881, and includingthe
for the education, allotting,
1914, this generous
sum
protectionof
year
Indians and the maintenance
of the thousands
of employees in the Indian
Service, viz:
$263,623,004.01. This enormous
sum
properlyand wisely
from
the
the
to
expended
present time would have solved the
year 1881
Indian problem in the United States. But two great obstacles stood in the
in the East and the grafterin the West.
The Honorthe politician
able
way
"

"

Commissioner
influences
in the

that

our

in his report that it is due to these two

historyis,beyond question,the darkest page
is absolutelycorrect.
history,but such a statement

cannot

state

Indian

generalAmerican

niriitrnrlh^QOal

THE

28

AMERICAN

INDIAN

Commissioner

Sells very wisely emphasizes agricultural

work, stockwith
the
United
States
cooperation
Department of Agriculture.

raisingand
He
to

calls attention
white
One

is,to

mind, the table number

my

to

sold
to

what

allotted

not

Nov.

of lands

number

enormous

leased

by

agricultural
purposes.
most
interestingand illuminatingsections

of the

under
area

the

to

the Indians

for

men,

"General

7:

data

in

the report
Indian reservation,

for each

school, tribes occupying or belonging to it,

reserved, and authority for its establishment,
specially

agency
or

or

3, 1913."
of this table indicates

study

under

various

settlement

of

acts

acres"

1,449,268

All this indicates

that

that

of these

tracts

The

Congress.

"1,061,500

or,

acres

have

ment."
settle-

to

open

been

been

"Open

appear:
were

have

tracts

enormous

lands

statements

sold to settlers,

after the Indians had been allotted.

disposed of by the Government
This policy has been persistently
carried on
in the State of Oklahoma,
of Indian
although I have repeatedly urged not only the Commissioner
or

Affairs,but also the Commissioner

some

of these

lands.

I have

of the Five

contended,

Civilized Tribes

also, that

the

to conserve

Indians

are

not

of them are becoming

properlyprotected in their property rights,and many
that
reserved
of
land
should
be
tracts
large
by the Government
paupers;
in order that each dispossessedor pauperized Indian should be entitled to
small home
future time.
at some
The policy of disposingof enormous
a
of grazing and agricultural
tracts
land is extremely short-sighted.
I have
been
told, when
callingattention of Commissioner
Wright,
the Indian
of these surplus lands should
OflSce,to the fact that some
or
be conserved, that under

property,
ordered

or

by

sold.
it.

question

There
But

the law, this cannot

of

act

such

be done.

Congress on
always authority for
policycontinues, and to
and

is

the

such

these

The
date

land

is tribal

the lands

sales,and

no

one

were

can

pernicious.
Certain Indians on
of our
reservations have either disposed of their
some
If none
of the surplus lands are
holdings,or been swindled out of them.
will
there
be nothing available for these Indians, and they will
retained,
soon

become
There

evicted.
tracts

homeless
we

In recent

of
to

been

have

years

we

to

an

appears

very

illustration of that

fornia.
in Cali-

lose their property, or to be

have spent large sums
of money
purchasing
for the very
Indians
we
provide homes
mitted
per-

lose their homesteads.

progress

We

permitted the Indians

irrigatedland

unbusiness-like
The

paupers.

me

to

Certainlythis

is

the

in arts

very

and
short-sighted

policy.
of the

Indian

fairlysatisfactory.Most

past

of the

year

and

industries

Superintendents report

has

increased

INDIAN

29

1918

of tabulated

pages

have

IN

the part of their wards.

The
Commissioner
presents nearly
statistics coveringprogress and values.
The Indians

industry on
200

OFFICE

in the

worked

not

I shall set

reasons.

proportion as

same

forth

these

RESULTS

Indians

Exclusive

OF

op

have

in detail in

INDIAN

Five

white

people for various

subsequent Chapter.

LABOR

Civilized

Tribes

1881

Number

of

acres

broken

by Indians

Number

of

acres

cultivated

Number

of busheb

Number

of bushels of

com

Number

of bushels of

oats

of wheat

29,558
205,367

raised

451,479

raised

517,642

and

488,792

Number

barley raised
of busheb of vegetablesraised
of tons of hay cut

Number

of horses owned

188,402

Number

of cattle owned

Number

of swine owned

32,537

43,913

Number

of

I 863,525

977.017

11,634

12.893

Number

76,763

80,684

Number

sheep owned
of houses occupied

Number

of Indian

Number

of Indian

houses

343,444

during the year

apprenticeswho have been
built

{
learning

trades

1,409

436

Five
Number

of

Number

of bushels of wheat

Number

of bushels of

com

oats

Civilized

cultivated

acres

Tribes
348,000

raised

105,000

raised

616,000

and barley raised

vegetablesraised
of hay cut

305,000

Number

of busheb

of

Number

of busheb

of

Number

of

Number

of bales of

Number

of horses owned

Number

of mules

owned

6,150

Number

of cattle owned

370,000

Number

of swine owned

455,000

Number

of

At

the

tons

cotton

74,300

161,500

raised

sheep owned

64,600

33,400

conclusion

of Chapters upon
health, education, irrigation,
will obtain a good idea
presented bibliographies.Readers
made
various
directions
if
along
they will consult some
progress

etc., I have
of the

of the writers' reports, speeches, etc.

The

Red

published at Carlisle Indian School; the Chilocco

printed at Haskell, Pine Ridge, and Hampton
papers
all contain many
industries and kindred
arts and
practicalarticles upon
For
these
the
Indian
Service
oflScials
topics.
journals
frequently write
School

Many

Journal, and

30

THE

AMERICAN

INDIAN

and in them
articles,

speechesand addresses upon Indian topicsby prominent

often reproduced.
men
are
These journalsare creditable publicationsand do much
toward
lightening
enthe boys and girlsas to progress in other schools
thus acting
incentive to further effort. It is unfortunate
that the public at
as
an
Were
large is not familiar with them.
they generallycirculated,much
ignoranceof Indian education would disappear.
"

MODERN

INDIAN

HOUSE

Although on the Allegheny reservation,N. Y., this is the

of house occupied by better-class Indians in many

common

States

type

CHAPTER

III.
HON.

We

have

stand

the

at

of

employees.

of the entire
of the
to

the

very

REPORT

The

diagram

the

on

that

and

great Bureau;

under

following page

them
is

an

of the

Indian

educated, competent

into

published by Honorable
comprehensive table was
Superintendent of the Cheyenne and Arapaho Agency, in
The Carrier Pigeon^ in December,
1912.
should

We
of 1850

and

of 1879

and

the

body

of

first realize the

those

of 1914.

tremendous

difference

comparison

of the

F. E.
the

between

Indian

Farrell,

school

the

lication
pub-

Indians

reservation

map

of 1913 will give readers some

the map
idea of the tremendous
life in this country.
In the short space
in Indian
of fiftyyears,

changes

entire

man's

plan

citizens.

This

the

sands
thou-

are

outline

Service, beginning with that great body, the Congress

down
States, and passing through its various ramifications

amalgamation

American

in

AYER'S

E.

AND

TODAY

Indian

United

the

of

head

E.

INDIANS

of
preceding chapter that the Commissioner
assistants, Supervisors, Inspectors and Special Agents

seen

Affairs, his

Indian

THE

West

has
The

country.

been

from

transformed

problem

of these

Indian

an

Indians

is

citizenship and

it is

to

country

today,

not

so

white

much

an

humanitarian

a
ethnologic study, as
problem.
of Indians
the public
Although there are a few scattered bands
on
domain
than
(notably Papago and Navaho, and a few other bands) more
State
nine-tenths
of these people are
direct Federal
under
or
supervision.

As

I have

other

elsewhere,

remarked

still keep up tribal customs

but for the greater part, the

ancestors,
a

part

tribes,and
review

the

of

of the

great many

Indians

and

Navaho

continue

Indians

and

certain

in the faith of their

and

are,

should

be,

sidered
con-

of the larger
body politic. Before discussing some
should
we
phases of Indian history in the broad sense,
the
itself
in
United
it
situation
generally
as
presents

our

certain
Indian

States.

Beginning
native

at

with

the far East,

living in Maine

Several

hundred

Oldtown,

Maine,

These
some

Americans

Penobscot
and

on

the

should

we

and
and

New

glance

tribes.

of

the thousand

Passamaquoddy

St. Croix

River

and
all are
superior intelligence,
drunkenness, but it is not prevalent, as
are

at

or

more

Brunswick.

above

Indians

are

located

Princeton, Maine.

self-supporting. There
among

sonie

of

our

western

is

THE

82

AMERICAN
DIAGRAM

OF

INDIAN
THE

INDIAN

Congress of United
Statutes, United

SERVICE

States

States

President

The

Secretary of Interior
Regulations, Indian
Commissioner

Service

of Indian

District

Affairs

Supervisors

Non-reservation
Reservation

Schools

Agencies

Agent, Superintendent

The

Indians

Penobscots
and

Millinockett.

clerks

$2
and
are

own

to

and

rare.

good

of
jurisdiction

all the islands in the Penobscot

They

are,

lumbermen.

$5 per day. I
of

the

under

are

saw

character.

for the most

Many

of

them

the

River

evidences

of Maine.
between

The

Oldtown

part, guides,farmers, carpenters,

earn

excellent

The
of poverty.
is
not
Consumption
common,

no

State

wages

"

from

people are intelligent

and

trachoma

cases

THE
The

Indians

in

TODAY

splendid condition

for the

reason

maquoddy

INDIANS

should

of the

be lost upon

not

S3

and

Penobscot

oflScialsand

our

Passa-

Indian

mittees
Com-

authority in

Congress.
They have been surrounded
by a high class of white people,and have
been left alone to develop and progress.
While they have been protected
by the State of Maine, no discrimination has been made againstthem, as
in the

of Indians

case

in Oklahoma,

California

Minnesota,

elsewhere.

and

They enjoy the same

citizenshipas is conferred upon Whites, and it does
consist
of
not
"paper promises," but is real and effective. Theirs is no
story of dishonesty and disease.
The
while on
an
archaeologicalexpedition on the St.
past summer,
John River, I visited three villages
occupied by Malecite Indians, in New
Canada.

Brunswick,
the

All of them

Tobique River; another

While

these

Indians

there

than

of
(exclusive

States

well situated, one

and

at Edmunston;

poor,

is better

general health
United

are

are

is

third

Indians

I have

of

Woodstock.

near

general pauperism,and

no

the

among

the mouth

at

their

visited in

our

Maine).

oflScialsare superior
respect the plans followed by the Canadian
rather
the handling of the
in
and evince more
to ours,
(or
stability)
ability
these Indians, giving them deeds to valuable
Indians.
Instead of allotting
In

one

and

then

spending

graftersreturn
continued

by unscrupulous white
in an
in profitless
litigation,
attempt

to

the

The

Indians

of them

Most

village.He

be

cannot

sold

The

Indians

hold deeds, or trust

but do not

us,

form.

or

mortgaged;

thus

patents
the

centive
in-

is removed.

farmers, guides, carpenters and fishermen.

Catholics, and there is a priestlocated at the Tobique
serve

as

lives among

and

them

them

encourages

in various

arts.

census

are

four hundred,
kees in Swain

we

must

go down

and Jackson

was

Some
settlements

South

where

Counties, North

Tennessee, Georgia, and

North

modified

make
have

Indians, these Canadians

white

To

what

under

system

the lands

the

persons,
to

gives a few Indians as residingin our eastern states, but

color.
people in every way, save
than three or
discover the next
body of Indians exceeding more

The

they

are

from

with

of land, as

fraud

to

taken

reservation

therefore

same,

years

property

their tracts

own

swindled

to be

property, permitting them

Alabama

we

find

few bands

of Chero-

Carolina; and scattered throughout

there

are

1100

or

1200

residingon

of this great nation.

a part of the habitat
originally
New
of the Iroquoisstillreside in western
York, notably in
not

Carolina

far from

Buffalo.

Cherokees,

are

These

Indians,

as

in the

chieflymixed-bloods, have

case

of the

adopted

our

INDIANS

THE

TODAY

live in fairly
comfortable
houses
supervision. Among the Iroquois of New
customs,

and

other diseases

Government

recent

There

was

low

so

as

and

in

are

of Government

need

no

culosis
York, the percentage of tuber-

to be

reports it is

35

nil.
practically

but

over
given as
recently developed agitation seeking

has

their reservation.

This

is most

unfortunate,

In

fraction

as

the tracts

break

are

small; the

are
doing well and desire to be let alone. They deserve to
peaceful possessionof their old-time homes.
and south
All of the remaining Indians east of the Mississippi,

Great

Lakes

Indian

they

as

Florida

600, and

are

are

their ancient homes

to

make

for

of the

noticeable

York

of

number

in

Florida.

the

offshoot

to

of them

Save

remain

prominent
responsiblepositions
there is no Indian problem. We
concerned
may,
half of the United States,with the exception
eastern

have

we
an

discussion.

up

individuals,the bulk of them have ceased

Iroquois,in recent times, have made

some

New

therefore,eliminate the
of Wisconsin, Michigan and
In

our

in arts, and have produced

of them
A large number
serve

women.

far

so

of

The

progress

and

into

enter

case

real Indians.

creditable

and

not

color in the

to be

men

need

cent.

per

to

Indians
in

of the

one

one

in the

Creeks,

or

have

withstood

Indians

or

agency

Indians.

Leupp's administration,he proposed to me that I go

a winter
cultivatingthe friendshipof these Indians
possibleto persuade them to send their children to

all attempts
During Mr.

to Florida

and

see

school.

at

stillcling

These

Muskokis.

Everglades,and

either educated

Seminoles, estimated

of the

descendants

of the

and

if it
I

was

spend

were

not

unable

ernment
recentlythe Govof
the
number
a SpecialAgent
compelled a
well under
children to attend school. The drainingof the Everglades is now
of these people will be very
the hunting and fishing-grounds
way, and soon
and they merit
much
restricted. They have always been self-supporting
consideration,and should have our help. It is to be hoped that before the
ditching of the Everglades is completed, these Indians will be properly
to the attention of the
provided for. This is a subjectI would comimend

to

carry

this mission

into effect,but

Federal

that

has

authorities.

In Wisconsin

time, located
9,930, and
to the

on

have

we

quite a largenumber

reservations,or

Wisconsin

population.
East

I understand

there,who

sent

ranks

Wisconsin

ninth

West, wherein

we

find
to

the

Potawatomi,

about

of Indians
schools.

at

the present
number

These

in point of Indian
inspectiontour from the

in the entire country

is the first State, on

period. They belong

Menominee,

clustered

our

sition
largebody of Indians stillin the tranthe Ojibwa (Chippewa),
followingbands:
Oneida, Winnebago and a few others.

"

AMERICAN

THE

36

Ojibwa

The

by far the

are

INDIAN

most

numerous,

of the entire number.

two-thirds

Whether

amounting to, approximately,

all of these five tribes originally

nologist.
be deferred to the ethbelonged in Wisconsin, is a question which may
We are treatingof the State in recent times, as I have previously
the originof these
remarked
Therefore that great question
in this book.
"

and

Indians

They

their presence
located at

in the State of Wisconsin

here

are

fair progress.
Honorable

Edward

Ayer, of the Board

E.

"

presenttime, and, in

the

is not

concern.

our

general,are

of Indian

making

Commissioners,

ing
of the timber problem confrontinvestigation
with an
Mr. Ayer has kindly furnished me
advance copy of his report in order that I might present a synopsis.Seldom
been conducted
has an investigation
under more
auspiciouscircumstances.
with
berman
lumtook
him
number
of
Mr. Ayer
a
persons, includinga practical
of wide experience.As the Menominee
problem is one concerned
extended

last year, made

an
the Menominee

Indians.

with timber, rather than land values, it was

very important that the work
Mr. Ayer covered the entire reservation in his report.
be thoroughlydone.
"

originally
occupied the greater part of the
State of Wisconsin.
the site of Milwaukee
They ranged from what is now
shores
of
North
north
the
west
Lake
to
Menominee,
along
Michigan
Michigan, and west to the Wisconsin River and Black River. Along Green
their principalsettlements, and on
Bay and the Fox River Valley were
the white man,
the shores of Green Bay they first met
when
Father Marquette,
The

Salle and

La

settlement

Canada

at Keshena

is

Marquette

at

woods

"A
feet and
with

to

over

the first French

on

exploration
voyages

the

now

descended

Green

of

Lakes

the Great

from

the

earlydays. On the reservation

Mission estabUshed
by

of the first French

successor

Bay.

of generallysix
Indian, the Menominee
a striking
was
figure,
in height,a giant in strength.Few in numbers
when compared

other great tribes, his bravery and fightingqualities

enabled
him to
with surrounding tribes,Potawatomies
his own
the south, Sauk
on

hold
and

Indians

Menominee

Fox
west

Hurons
The

and
and

Winnebago
Chippewa

to the east

on
on

of them.

French, English and

all

southwest, the great Dakota

the

shore

Their
American

of

word

Superior to
once

or

the

Sioux

natives

north, and

given could be relied

nations, each in turn, made

the

upon.

treaties

faithfully
kept. The Menominee
was
peaceful
a
but
in
in
wrath,
mighty
once
justified
aggressor,
From
times
these
Indians
the
white
the
have
been
warpath.
early
taking
with

them

and

nation, seldom
man's

friend.

band, and

were

the

our

Civil War

here

exists the

In

today

many

only

soldiers
Indian

G.

were

recruited from

A. R.

Post

their

in America.

Digitize!

THE

INDIANS

TODAY

37

manufacture
of lumber
farming, lumbering and
pursuits are
industry,capitalized
products. At Neopit is the seat of a largemilling-plant
for one
million dollars. It has a sawmill with an
output of forty million
feet yearly,a planing-millof twenty million capacity and carries a stock
hand of forty million feet of lumber, also laths,shingles,
The town
etc.
on

Their

numbers
seen

about

the

one

advanced

thousand

men,

glimpse in

of the

one

rooms

home

enjoyments

comforts

for school

as

school furnish
to

and

his

his

white

education

home,

and

life and

of modem
brother.
to

the

his

modern

children,

Keshena

two

largeboarding-schools,Government

capacity

for 300

children.

as

Art.

of the Agency,
Scattered

out

'

with

Students

making Uniforms

and

use

partaking of the
day school
does

head
and

from

and

social

same
a

mission

day

tion
life social instruc-

town

mill industrial education

"At

is the seat

cottage

be

here may

surrounded

OKLA.

Department of Domestic

of the

other dresses

all the

children, and

CHILOCCO.

SCHOOL

U. S. INDIAN
A

and

women

livingin his modern

Indian

to

himself

and

of administrative

mission, with
Keshena

for

sons.

affairs,

combined
radius

of

LEWIS

TEWANIMA

In the 10,000-meter run

Tewanima
at the Olympic Games
in Stockholm
second place. He is a full-blood Hopi Indian and is
won
considered America's greatest long-distant
runner
Educated

at

Carlisle

JAMES
World's

THORPE

Athlete, Winner of the Pentathlon

the Decathlon, Stockholm, 1912
Educated
at Carlisle

Champion Ail-Round

and

THE

40

AMERICAN
of

miles

is

efforts

vary

from

various

stages of improvement.

twelve

scene

farms

tribal funds

INDIAN

agriculturalprogress,
of

80

to

farmers

Indian

cleared, fenced

acres,

whose
and

depositin the Treasury of the United States

toil and
approximately $2,000,000, gathered from fruits of their own
the sale of their timber products.
"The

"The

of this number

show

18
an

and

years

greatest value

Neopit
educationally,morally

value

Statistics show
Labor

over.

of 264

not

operationsis
and

about

575

are

in

able-

figures for the reserve

continuouslyemployed
includingsubsistence. The
school of industry. Its
a

adult Indians

$91,630.47,

wages

of the

souls.

1700

average

round, earningin

the year

and

about

tribe numbers

males, aged

bodied

on

in

as

be

civillycannot

in dollars

measured

cents."

had erected a sawmill at Neopit.

Ayer found that the Government
Indian timber exclusively.
there being
not satisfactory,
Some
ago the mill's operationswere
years
in management.
Nicholson
Since Mr.
was
appointed, all
extravagance
Mr.

This

mill sawed

of this has
the

mill shows

July, 1910

to

after liberal deductions

profitof $443,176.17

while

men,

to

He

September 30, 1913).

of Indian

number

and

remedied,

been

other

the

Menominee
the mill

found

Indians

for all expenses,

Indians
(from

found

employed a large
employment working

in the woods.
The mill served a double purpose.
loggingcrews
the Indians employed and earned
but they
Not
good wages,
only were
also received the benefits of the mill's earnings.
There is practically
no
poverty on the reservation,and littlesickness.
The houses are clean and well kept.
Mr.
Ayer's exhaustive study of conditions led him to make several
of which
I append herewith :
two
recommendations, one
or

with

the

"

"I

elected
"I

Neopit
a

would
and

to

make

two,

basis of 12J^

or

one

15

or

farms.

also recommend
branch

four

six of the

Indians
brightestyoung
the Reservation
be sent to Wisconsin
State College of Agriculture at
on
in forestryand scientific farming, that they
Madison
to take a full course
back to the reservation
come
equipped to teach the Indians who
may
have

that

recommend

at
per

that there be

Keshena

and

cent, which

company

or

tribal store

at

that the goods shall be sold say on

would
make
the stores
absolutely

would
the Indians
and
self-sustaining
get the necessities of life much
also
should
stock of the ordinary agriculThese
stores
a
tural
cheaper.
carry
tools that might be used and there should also be a bank, say with

THE

42

AMERICAN

INDIAN

of

surplus tribal land remain, authority for the allotment of which exists
of February 11, 1901
(31 Stats. L., 766), as amended
by the
Act
of March
2, 1907
(34 Stats. L., 1217). Nothing is said in these acts
about the allotment of timber lands and the remaining tribal lands within
this reservation are very valuable for timber purposes,
of the eightysome
tracts
acre
being estimated to yieldapproximately $30,000 for the timber
alone.
Other
tracts
containing but little timber are not desirable and
in the Act

an

equitable division

of the

lands

in

allotment

be

cannot

made

under

existingconditions.
"Two

factions exist in the tribe, one

in favor of

under existing
allotting
the proceeds
timber, distributing

laws

and the other in favor of selling

the
capita and thereafter allottingthe lands to the unallotted Indians
belonging on this reservation.
ment
"Appended hereto is the part of the Office file relating to this allotof
to the Department
correspondence,particularlythe submission
the request for authority to procure
the
allot
from
Indians
to
agreements
the lands under
the existinglaws with the understanding that the timber
should be cut and sold for the benefit of the tribe at large." (Fileomitted
per

in this

book.)

For
on

several

and

Fond

was

as

du

The

total amount

cut

on

lands of the Lac

Bad

River
A

as

been

extensive

cuttings of pine timber

Flambeau, Lac Courte Oreille,

du
cut

on

each

of these

reservations

River, 57,183,770 feet; Lac du Flambeau, 23,049,110

Oreille,4,268,050 feet;Fond du Lac, 13,128,775 feet. All

was

of Wisconsin

have

River, Lac

Bad

Courte

of this timber

Bad

at

Lac.

follows:

feet;Lac

there

years

the reservations

allotments

patented
except 12,068,620 feet cut from undu Flambeau
Reservation, claimed by the State

lands, and

swamp

56,955

feet cut

from

tribal lands

of the

Reservation.

number

of circular letters were

addressed
to persons
by me
living
of the Indians.
to the condition
as
requestinginformation
It is known
that not only is there vocational training in the schools, but
also more
less higher educational
or
training. One of my correspondents,
the view that there has been too much
a missionary,takes
higher education

in Wisconsin,

of Indian
work

to

children
the

teaching of

fundamentals.
this

He

point, is not
gentleman,

done,

sums

he resides

up
as

in his

State, and

it would

trades

give

and

no

be far better
book

to

instruction

thinks

confine

beyond the
beyond

that the average

Indian when
educated
take
his
to
willing
place as an ordinary workman.
while

expressing satisfaction with

particularIndian
"Too
red tape.*'
much

the situation in the

follows:

much

the

that

community

has
in

other
An-

been
which

THE
The

progress

INDIANS

of these

Indians

TODAY
while

43

do

slow, is satisfactory.They

suflBciently
problem for our study at the present
interesting
within
that
a
predict
generation,a full-blood Indian
indefinite
in Wisconsin
will be a rarity. They may
continue
to live an
but
of
where
time
various
communities
in
settled,
length
they are now
Government
reservation)
supervision (save possibly on the Menominee
be
in
the
future.
withdrawn
safely
near
may
In Michigan the larger number
of Indians
are
Chippewa (Ojibwa),
for a majority
with a sprinklingof Ottawa
Schools care
and Potawatomi.
of their children,and the adults are, for the most part, quiteself-supporting.
They may be dismissed from our pages.
have
to the headquarters of the Mississippi,
we
Proceeding westward
the great Minnesota
in
four
which
covered
is
chapters
generally
region
my
White
West
of the MississippiRiver, there are
Earth
reservation.
upon
few Indians in that great area
souri,
of Texas
(but 702), and in Iowa, Misvery
not

present

time.

It is safe to

Arkansas
These

and

Louisiana; the

be set aside

numbers

containingsuch

range

from

313

to

780.

of white

preponderance
extreme
minority. Of
the mountain
Colorado
but
contains
870
Indians,
1715,
Wyoming
states,
fore,
and the others 4,000 to 11,000. The great Indian populationsare, thereareas

may

population as

confined

to

render

to nine

as

those

of Indian

Ten

states.

blood

states

contain

an

from

800

to

8,000.

The

entire Indian
but
fraction
of the
a
remaining twenty-nine contain
white than Indian.
body, and they are now
more
in that but a handful
Texas, in spiteof its enormous
size,is interesting
considerable.
of Indians are in evidence.
In 1850 the Indian populationwas
Nelson
Lee's book of captivityamong
the Comanches(l)
gives an idea of
the extent
and Apaches infestingthe
of the roving bands
of Comanches
such that
State in early days. The
hostilityof the Texas people was
through the organizationof the famous Texas Rangers those Indians were
either driven out of the State or exterminated.
Very little consideration
shown
was
them, and I can find no evidence of any general effort being
put forward to protect these Indians in their rightsor place them
upon
them.
reservations or establish schools among
Our troops were
frequently
of Indians infested the
sent into Texas, and as late as 1875, roving bands

part of the State

western

stock

from

Texas

ranches.

and
As

carried
to

on

raids into old Mexico,

the number

of Indians

or

stole

in the State

of

reliable statistics.
to be no
just priorto the Civil War, there seems
tribes were
Texas
of the general Caddoan
stock, of which the
Comanche
These
been the largestand strongest branch.
to have
appear

Texas

The

(1) Three

Years

Among

the Comanches;

Albany,

1859.

AMERICAN

THE

44

Indians

ranged through
their conquests

to

the

the

to

INDIAN

valleys of

the land

the Brazos

of the

Apache, along

They were
essentiallybuffalo
presented the purest nomadic

west.

Indians

but
This

must

The

be misunderstood.

not

certain

extent, but their range

flocks and herds.
There is no

has

evidence

type

the Rio

and
found

Navaho

limited.

been

Colorado

and

are

tended
ex-

Grande,
not

were

culturalist
agri-

in the

west.
south-

nomadic

to

Moreover

that the Comanche

and

they
ever

possess

cated
domesti-

sheep, goats, and cattle, although they frequently obtained stock

As they were
continuallyon the move
against the Texans.
the
buffalo
in
its
following
migrations,or planning war
partiesagainst
stated
the white people and Mexicans
nomads,
alike, they were
as
pure
in their raids

above.

during the height of Indian troubles in Texas, a law was

from
that State.
Indians
passed expellingred men
entering the State
subjected to fine, imprisonment or expulsion. The feelingagainst
were
received
the
bitter, and Indians in Texas
race
was
never
just
very
Years

ago,

treatment.

A few of them
of the Comanches,
Texas

were

rangers

continued

were,

in later years,

it is safe to affirm,

superiorlyarmed

their warfare

from

taken
were

and

to Indian

Territory,but most
Although the
mounted, the Apaches

killed in action.
better

the earliest times

down

to

about

1870, when

their power
was
permanently broken.
They were very cruel and vindictive.
Nelson
Lee's narrative, to which I have referred,is one
esting
interof the most
Indian

captivities
ever

picture of the
war

with

Comanche

Mexico.

as

brought to my attention. It presents a vivid

during the period preceding our
they were

CHAPTER

IV.

OJIBWA

THE

OF

MINNESOTA

The

Ojibwa commonly known

Chippewa, constitute one of the great
as
shall have
of the Algonkin stock.
We
much
to say concerning
their ethnology, in a subsequent volume.
But following the scope accepted
for this book, we
shall treat of the Ojibwa as one
of the great Indian
tribes
"advanced"
much
(numerically), at the present time and one
along the
divisions

white

man^s
The

they
and

the

the

on

White

that

Red

1851

year

there

of Lake

are

Those

who

Lake

and

about

was

In

1905,

Ojibwa,
some

located
Chippewa, Indians
as
exceptions. A few in Wisconsin

or

Mountain
in North
at Turtle
Superior; some
at Leech
Lake,
livingin the State of Minnesota

of them

most

16,000.

the

time, with

present

shores

but

Earth,

in the

found

1850

year
at

are

Dakota,

as

trail.

Cass

28,000.

the

The

Lake.
In

"Handbook

of

number
the

1884

entire

American

of these

Indians

number

is

Indians"

given

estimates

States.
and 17,144 in the United
15,000 in British America
the migrations, and
wi3h to trace
study the interesting

people would do well to consult an interesting

The
W.
Warren.
manuscript
Ojibwa, Mr. William
of this work
Warren^s
and 1853.
mother
1850
was
was
prepared between
three-fourths
his
died
of
tuberculosis
and
father
He
white
a
Ojibwa
man.
June
Historical
1, 1853, and the Minnesota
Society did not publish his
the most
of
nation
until
the
Warren
1885.
history
Clearly,
was
prominent
of later-day Ojibwa;
the
he had
served
in
Minnesota
Legislature, and
he was
doubtless
have
made
his
and would
possessed of a brilliant mind
book

folklore of these

and

customs

written

by

in the

world

mark

an

had

he

lived.
of the fur

companies stilldid business

River
sight to see the "Red
carts"
Minnesota,
carrying loads
or
ox
bringing supplies into northern
of furs to the nearest
Hudson
Bay post, in the Red River valley to the
north.
with the French-Canadian
element
The
in
contact
Ojibwa came
the
had
little
in
activities
of
the
and
fur
with, or
trade,
during
common
In the

early '50's and

in northern

met

few

in the

Americans,
State

While

Earth,
not

be
The

hold

Minnesota.

'60's

It

was

few

no

until white

uncommon

settlers from

the East

increased

in numbers

of Minnesota.

this and

the succeeding chapter are

Lake
Red
and
description of Leech

confined
Lake

chieflyto White

reservations

should

omitted.

Ojibwa

their land

in

Indians
common.

living on
The

Red

Lake

pine timber

have

not

been

allotted,but

possessed by them

is valued

HONORABLE

GABE

E. PARKER,

Registrar of the United

States

CHOCTAW

Treasury

OJIBWA

THE
at

several million dollars.

of Red

OF

of the cabins

Most

Lake, and the Indians

while not

It has

not

been

where

the

Superintendent,Major
The

Indians.
The

at

reasons

Ojibwa

under

cut

White

for this

at

Leech

Government
Earth

Lake

been

live

avoided.

the shores

pauperism.

of White

last winter

Earth,
fed

762

succeedingpages.
pine,but this has been
dreadful scandals occurring

white

the
Leech

At

about

far from
case

Howard,

valuable

have

by working in

in the

as

forth in

set

grouped

are

R.

supervisionand

have

Lake, the Indians

John

are

47

well-to-do,are

ration them

to

necessary

MINNESOTA

Lake, Red

the lumber

Lake, and

Cass

agriculture,
fishing,
and
of industry. They have, however,
in other branches
some
serve
ment.
depended entirelytoo much upon interest payments made by the GovernMuch
of the educating,trainingand support of these Indians is
paid for by the interest accruingto the Indian on a fund of several million
dollars in the United
States Treasury and belonging to the Ojibwa of
Minnesota.
It has been pointed out by other observers, and emphasized
camps,

rather
elsewhere, that this fund is a curse
controlled
than a blessing. The
mixed-blood
element,
by a few shrewd
French-Canadians, wish to secure
possessionof it;attorneys are attracted
in addresses

by

at

Lake

its presence;

Mohonk

the young

and

dnd

men

in

women,

some

cases,

will not

work

since

they expect to be Supported out of the fund. It should be divided up

should control,or superThe Government
the Indians.
capita
per
among
vise,
the portionsbelongingto Indians known
ards,
to be incompetent or drunkand instead of paying them money,
give them groceriesand clothing
until their portion of the fund is exhausted.
Councils should be called
all
allotment
central
and the
reservations, or at
on
points,on
groups,
Indians

made

to understand

that with the payment

States ceases,

the part of the United

incompetents,referred to above.
on

With
it is

the dreadful

such

lesson of White

incomprehensiblethat

issued to the Indians.

result,and it

was

InspectorE. B. Linnen

"

Yet

Red

Lake

there

was

only through

of this money,
responsibility
the case
of

exceptingin

in the face,
Earth, staringeveryone
should be allotted,and the timber
a

determined

effort to

bring about

oppositionof the Indian

OflSce,and

others that the steal

was
prevented.
log dwellings. The birch-bark wigwam
is rare
for summer
residence.
save
Ordinary "store clothes" are worn
The birch-bark
still persists,
and there are
canoe
some
by all persons.
survivals of ancient customs.
Such a majority of the people speak English

The

Indians

and

live in frame

and

"

and

live like the lower

less Indian

The

photographs

classes of Caucasians, that the bands

than the Sioux, and much

this statement.
prove

may

be

sidered
con-

less primitive
than theNavaho.

THE

48

Let

us

look

AMERICAN

backward

and

INDIAN
conditions

compare

of the

'80's and

of

1905-'12.
a
Joseph A. Gilfillan was
missionary in northern Minnesota
became
He
guage
entirelyfamiliar with the Ojibwa lantwenty-fiveyears.
and spoke it fluently.He is a quiet,modest
The Indians told
man.
of numbers
of heroic actions on his part during the twenty-fiveyears
me
he labored in and about White
Earth
reservation.
During the spring of
the ice on the lake was
one
breaking up, two white men
were
year, when

Rev.

for

BUILDINGS
Built and

in

PINE

POINT.

formerlyoccupied by Rev. James

WHITE

Gilfillan as

MINNESOTA

EARTH,
a

school.

Now

used

as

Government

School

largerand stronger
periloussituation,and although there were
would
the lives of the
venture
out
to save
men
standing about, no one
unfortunates.
Gilfillan went
out
although he frequentlybroke through
the ice
and managed to bring both men
ashore.
On another occasion, he was
held up by several armed
sent
out
men,
French-Canadian
and
element, who
by the mixed-blood
opposed his
threatened
and
a
missionarylabors. In fact,one of the men
presented gun
if he continued
to shoot him
in his determination
to preach to the Indians
that Sunday.
could be related) give an
The above
incidents (and more
a

most

"

"

AMERICAN

THE

50

INDIAN

If they had wished

to raise a little more
only one resource
wages.
vegetables,as potatoes, corn, etc., they could have lived on the fat of the
in those
land.
days happy, peaceful,and contented
They were
munities.
com-

have

"

the' above-enumerated

To

that

mention

to

there

Episcopal mission,
in

children

their

more

$130,000

schools.

There

for all
for them

several

were

of theirs I omitted

for them,

in money

given by the
imaginable purposes
and
supporting

thousand

charitable

for them

of

hands

my

building churches

spectaclesto

from

"

passed through
than

of income

sources

dollars' worth

There

crime
was
people.
no
clothingsent me
by
there
there, although for many
during the twenty-fiveyears I was
years
There
instance
of
Indian
not
was
even
no
or
police.
holdup
was
robbery,
Life and property were
to speak of greater offenses.
not
absolutelysafe
white community I know.
None
would
far safer than in any
of them
of
in
those
have
molesting ajiyone.
They were
thought
days happy,
ever
with
peaceful,harmless people. As to how the present state contrasts
better than I.
that, you have been out there latelyand know
"As
there was
second question,whether
less swindling than
to your

"

at all. The
none
present time, I would
say that then there was
kind except their little
lands to sell; no property of any
had no
nothing to
patches of gardens, their little furs, wild rice, etc. There was

the

at

Indians

cupidity of the white

the

tempt

have

present, you
I

"But

ought

inclosed

will find
that

know

to

out

As

man.

there and

how

to

that

with

contrasts

better than

know

the

I.

qualify this by saying that for

sonie

in the

years

unwittingly pergreat deal of swindling from them

petrated
which
for
of
I
refer you
account
to my
an
by the Government,
in 1898, which
Conference
made
to Mohonk
printed statement

nineties there

you

been

was

Page

on

the statements

Commissioner

the then

13

of the
made

of Indian

inclosed
therein

pamphlet.

And

true, I may
Affairs, Hon. William
are

that

you

inform

you

Jones, who

may

that
went

endorsed
that statement:
ground and personallyinvestigated,
upon
herein made
*I find that the statements
by Mr. Gilfillan are in the main

to

the

correct.'
is
was

on

other
done:
at

This

indorsement

copies. To
it was;

$39

day, the Indians

does

not

appear

First, by billeting
upon

day

on

brieflyspecifythe heads
for the three, making

I send you,
the copy
but
which
this
under
swindling

them

three

with

Chippewa

sioners
commis-

their clerks,etc., $88

said; said commissioners

being mostly politiciansout

sinecures.
their positionsalmost
of a job, and
Secondly, by repeated
estimations
farcial estimating'of their pine; three several
(pretended),
covering a period of perhaps nine years; two of said estimations costing
$360,000, and then done dishonestlyin the interests of those who bought
*

'

OJIBWA

THE

OF

MINNESOTA

51

the

pine, whereas the real worth of the work, done honestly, was
only
Thirdly, by cutting green pine, but paying for it as 'dead and
down'
instead of
pine, so getting for it seventy-fivecents a thousand
five dollars a thousand.
But
destructive
the swindling
of all was
most
done by fire;the timber being fired to allow of its being cut as *dead and
down
and paid for at seventy-five
instead of five dollars.
cents a thousand
It was
those
where I used to
to
a pitiful
forests,
sight see
magnificentpine
ride for seventy miles on
stretch
a
through great pine woods, shapely
and tall,the trees reaching up, it seemed, 100 feet,that, like the buffalo,
could never
be replaced,now
all blackened
and scarred, killed and dead.
of
The
the State of Minnesota
when
in the nineties her
glory
was
gone
of her northern
magnificent pine forests that covered so large an area
fired to get the Indians' pine for seventy-five
cents
a thousand.
part were
there was
"Now, as to your next question,whether
more
drinking
the Indians then than now.
I am
glad to say that for many
among
years
after 1873, when
I first knew
them, there was, one may
no
drinking
say,
the Indians.
The mixed-bloods, who were
mostly French-Canadian
among
mixed
bloods, always drank
little,but the Indians were
a
remarkably

$6,000.

'

free from

it.

railroad,the
that

The

distance
hundred

one

Leech

Lake

secluded

from

the nearest

miles

from

of the
dreadful
of the
on

state

Gospel

the White
that

to

The

Red

The

influence

say

them

Cass

Lake

they

had

firewater,'both

men

of

"

and
that

signallyshown

than

more

Earth

reservation.

thought

had

tasted

never

were

any

white

So

they

men,
were

of their
the great reason
of the Gospel and the church
But

women.

in their
a

on

the White

they had been removed

minion
dreadfullyunder the doin a most
They were
was

the power

cleansingand

renovation

But

cause.

saw

reflection

no

which

fallen most

degradation from

were

hundred, the

one

far from

as

the

almost

Indians

missionaries.

It is

safe.

place from

Lake

from

never

drunken

had

become

Indian

nor

even

communicants
liquor. They
of the church, had
their family prayers,
their weekly prayer
meetings
from
house
to house, where
they exhorted each other to steadfastness
in the Christian life. What
had such a people to do with liquor? Some
of them, who at Crow
Wing had been in the lowest depths, told me that
they had not tasted liquorin twenty years, others for other periods;and
I know
they told the truth. Among all the chiefs,numbering perhaps
one

his vices.

that in the

Wing
*

and

miles

get liquor;they

men.

railroad, the

positionkept

Crow

"

man

the missions.

was

Indians

in 1868

could

almost
They were
employees and the

the white

in their secluded
Earth

they
white

the

lived twenty-two

Indians

place where

Government

from

immunity

Earth

seventy miles.

the

except

White

nearest

OJIBWA,
WHITE

BLIND,
EARTH

FROM

TRACHOMA,

RESERVATION,

PINE

POINT.

MINNESOTA

OJIBWA

THE

twenty,

he, I

White

on

in payment,
got him to
"But
into this fair
toward

and
found
soon

grew

into

liquorsuppUed to
swing the Indians to
garden of temperance

Congress, as
or
given to Indians.
in that; they arrested
was
them

to

St. Paul

just one who drank, and

by a mixed-blood, who,

his schemes.
Satan

most

5S

his

drew

shiningtrail

residence there sadly marred

it. It was
of my
could be made
of Indians drinking,and it
out

sold

took

him

profitable
industry.
everybody knows, passed a law

up

of

set

or

men

It

arose

about

came

in this way:
be
not

that

liquor should

who

saw

the money

there

drink, or as witnesses,
Duluth, fiddled with them a little,and then
for each Indian,
believe, to the Government

Indians

bill of $400, I

presented a

was

the

the last years

much
money

that

MINNESOTA

Reservation, there

Earth

infonned, had

am

OF

who

had

taken

them.
The Indians
was
paid, and they divided it up among
while under
the care
of these deputy
whisky they wanted
marshals, as they were
called;they kept drunk while with them, and they
of
brought plenty
liquorhome with them to the reservations when they
retimied.
did
want
not
to
couraged
They
drinking;they enstop the Indians
for
and
the more
it; the more
cases
drinking the more
money
This was
them.
found so profitable
that it grew
to a monstrous
height.
Earth
Once they had, it was
adult male Indian on the White
said, every
Reservation
in St. Paul in whisky cases,
distance of, say 240 miles, and
a
for every
of these men
one
they got perhaps $400. The most of the deputy
which

money

all the

had

marshals
lowest

who

made

the arrests

though
a
high

made

salaries of the members

many
out

got

French-Canadian

openly

and

mixed-bloods

of the

themselves,
they arrested; and

frankly drank

in the eyes of the law Indians like the Indians

oflScial of the United
States
told the writer that
Government

of those halfbreeds

How

were

character, nearly all of whom

$5,000

year

of the Cabinet

hundreds

of thousands

of the Government

by

out

of it,as

of the United

of dollars

this swindle

or

under

how

one

much, perhaps, as the

States

Government.

many

millions

the form

they

of law it would

worked
that gold
Some
of those mixed-bloods
interestingto know.
for eighteen years.
the
Government
The loss of so much
to
money
of the
but not half so pitifulas the terrible demoralization
was
pitiful,
intentions
Here
Indians by the operationsof those men.
the
good
again
in passing that law, that liquormust
of the Government
be given or
not

be

mine

sold to

Indians,

most
to

enrich
"So

more

then

turned

was

bitter

gallin

its

into death

and

carryingout by

destruction

to

them, and

came
be-

the agents of the Government

themselves.
the
or

to

answer
now

must

your

question as to whether the Indians

in the early years
after 1873, when

be that

drank
there

AMERICAN

THE

54

just one
practicallynone
was

honest

of them

the

named

Nichols, they drank

tastingit for years;

deputy marshals arose,

but

never

of mixed-blood

swarm

drinking under

much

marshal

deputy

all,most

at

later, after the

white

INDIAN

manipulation

of those

there

that
was

restrained,however,

men,

their very great lack of money,

of them had got any.
for at that time none
"As to your
other question,namely, the relative healthfulness of the
Indians then and now,
I would say that there was
always much tuberculosis

by

them,

among

hot

in the

owing

to

their

crowding

into

cabins, heated

one-room

ventilation; and

winter, without

if there

was

one

very

tubercular

one
was
everything,so that if there was
spittingover
patient,that one
sick in a family he or she almost necessarily
communicated
the infection
who was
infectible. They say that formerly,when
to everyone
they lived
in
in
their
the
winter
and
birchbark
air,
practically
wams,
wigsummer,
open
in winter, and
though in a 40-degrees-below-zerotemperature
flesh diet, that consumption was
unknown
lived on
a
them; but
among
shut up in the one-room
in the transition state, when
cabin, livingon salt
other unsanitary ways,
the ravages
pork and heavy bread, and in many
of consumption have been serious. Whether
than in the days
now
worse
I do not know.
from 1873
I only remember
few who
had sore
to 1898
a
I suppose
trachoma, in those days.
was
eyes, which
"Believe
respectfully
me,
very
yours,

"J.
There
bloods
dates

has

always

of Minnesota,
from

the

been
and

migration

conflict between

especiallyat

White

of mixed-blood

number

French-Canadian) from Canada.

They
and by clever manoeuvering dominated
favorite

The
He

became

day,

and

will be
The

the
found

chief of the

chief in 1846.

war

the full-bloods

of

entire
The

have
the

Ojibwa

Indians

Gilfillan"

A.

Earth

caused

and

mixed-

reservation.

This

Indians

(chiefly

end

no

of trouble,

councils.
nation

story of Ojibwa, presented towards

Hole-in-the-Day.

was

talk of him
the

even

end

at the

present

of this book,

of interest in this connection.

Indians

told

me,

investigation of 1909, who

were
of this fine old chief,but they were
unwilling

during

the

responsiblefor the murder

to testify,
of the French-Canadian
element.
The
fearing the vengeance
in
from
clears
the
followinginterestingcommunication,
one
authority,
up
murder
of Hole-in-the-Day,and explainsthe hostility
the schembetween
ing
mixed-bloods, and the honest, although ignorant full-bloods.
of 1912 Mr.
T. Shearman
James
detailed
"During the summer
was
by the Honorable
Secretary of the Interior to secure
testimony concerning

THE

OJIBWA

MINNESOTA

OF

55

Earth
Indians
eighty-sixmixed-blood
suspended from the White
of
interest
be
certain
that
was
hearing
testimony
given
may
to you, as it explainsthe assassination of the then head chief of all the
killed at Crow
Chippewas, Hole-in-the-Day,who was
Wing by a party
of Leech Lake Indians in 1886.
tified
At this hearing an old, blind Indian tes-

the

rolls. At this

that
uncle
and

other

Beaulieu, father of Gus. Beaulieu, Albert Fairbanks,

Fairbanks, and certain other mixed-bloods
employed him

Clement

of Ben

Indians

INDIAN

livingat Leech

then

SCHOOL
WHITE

CHILDREN

EARTH,

IN

Lake

to

UNIFORM,

go

PINE

to

Crow

Wing

and

POINT

MINNESOTA

kill Chief

Hole-in-the-Day,agreeing to pay the Indians $2000 for the

They went to Crow Wing and killed him according to agreement.
Later, when the mixed -bloods refused to pay the priceagreed upon, they
lieu
to White
Earth, intendingto kill Beauorganizedanother party and came
and certain other mixed-blood
families. Upon their arrival here they
induced
who was
were
Chief, Me-zhuck-ke-ge-shig,
by the present Head
deed.

related to one
of the party, to return
Lake.
to Leech
Indian
finished his story, Me-zhuck-ke-ge-shig,
now
of age, went
the stand and confirmed
the
upon
Mr.
witness.
Shearman's
report is probably on

After this old, blind

about

ninety

years

testimony of the former

file in the Secretary's

office,and

informed

am

E. C. O'Brien
a

AMERICAN

THE

56

of the

copy

"Since
been

that

of the Department

INDIAN
brief of the

testimony

of Justice,and

was

can

you

made

by Mr.
probably obtain

same.

Mr.

Shearman

here

was

additional

furnished

on

the

referred

matter

the

testimony concerning

kilHng

to, I have
of Hole-in-

Lake
under the pretext
that the party left Leech
the-Day. It appears
of going hunting,there being nine in the party, and that only four of them
in the plot to kill Hole-in-the-Day. When
they got to the Crow
were
said:
"Hole-in-the-Day dies today."
Wing country May-dway-we-mind
him
half
from the Crow
about
mile
and
a
Later, they met
Wing Agency
a
at

branch

done,
been

of the two

of the party
killed. The answer
one

reward

was

to

take

for

dollars and

roads, where
named
was

him,
killing
a

nice house

he

killed.

was

of the party was

who
built for him, and the one

that each

one

Hole-in-the-Day'splace as Head Chief.

question also asked who ofiFered the reward

first

Clement

Beaulieu

of Ben

(father of Gus.
Fairbanks),

L.

After

the deed

was

Ay-nah-me-ay-gah-bow asked why he had

told to do it and that there
that they were

H.

The

he

with

sand
thou-

was

asked

others,

were

the

told that

Fairbanks

Beaulieu), Albert
*

get

shot iSrst was

who

man

and

to

(uncle
the

men.

nee,

*'Me-zhuck-ke-gwon-abe or Jim Bassett also stated that about four

with May-dway-we-mind, Num-ay-we-neafter the killing
he came
Way-zow-e-ko-nah-yay, 0-didh-quay-ge-shigand Day-dah-tub-aun-

gay

to

years

which

White

"It

is

admission
at

their

Indians

Name

earth
did not

they
a

matter

for the money

obtain.
of

ever

omitted.

since."

been

offered

historythat Hole-in-the-Day was

of the mixed-bloods
and
instigation,

that had

to

this reservation

there has been

and

as

reward

opposed

that

friction
irrepressible

he

was

between

and

to

the

killed
these

JAMES

BASSETT,

FULL-BLOOD

OJIBWA

L\

TRIBAL

COSTUME

LEGAL

COMPLICATIONS

59

example, and omit the discussion of similar troubles elsewhere.

about

fourth

I present

of his address.

In 1869, the Nelson Act

of scattered Ojibwa from ten

passed. This provided for the collecting

concentratingthem at White
cussion
Earth, Red Lake and Leech Lake.
Judge Burch enters into a lengthy disof how the Nelson Act was
followed by a bill introduced by Senator
Clapp, and that in January, 1904, RepresentativeSteenerson of Minnesota
introduced
another bill. Of this the Judge says:
was

localities and

"

"Under
an

the terms

allotment

should

the

on

have

of this Steenerson
White

Earth
allotment

additional

who

Act each Indian

Reservation

or

sufficient to

had

received

entitled

was

make

thereto

originaland
be enough
provided
acres,
land for 160 acres
each, the additional allotments should contain only so
much
land as could be allotted by dividingthe total remaining allotable
land by the number
of eligible
allottees.
additional

"We
an

an

total

of lake

area

claimed

as

surface
land

swamp

that of this White

show

to

expect

made

Act

The

acres.

of lake

land

and

State

not

Reservation

there

one

land

swamp

additional

allotments

Michelet, the White

Simon

were
by
Superintendent,or Agent, at that time.

Indian

there

Earth

the

should

was

also that there is

aggregating 59,731.24 acres;
its
of
the
State
to
as
going
part
quota under the

organic law of Congress 26,658.15

the Steenerson

if there

that

160

By omitting the

under
Earth

two

items

consideration, he figured that

from

territorypracticallyto furnish each allottee the full

of land, and thus he proceeded to allot to those who first came
160 acres
of course,
to be served the total of 160 acres;
includingall the valuable
pine upon the reservation.
"We
thus favored by these complete
expect to show that those who were
additional allotments
were
largelycomposed of persons who could
be handled in the matter
of purchase of the timber by the representatives
of the lumber
companies that had procured the greater portion of the
timber in the four townships. Large numbers
ditional
of persons
to adeligible
sufficient

was

allotments, but
there

was

will thus
was

land

no

be

fraud

seen

upon

left out
allotments
the fraud
allotments.

made
upon

The

who

came

denied

later, were

the

because

same

left for them, there being 31,516.88 acres

lacking. It
under Michelet
that the so-called additional allotment
the

rightsof from

in the cold.

400

In addition

to

to

500

Indians

this,it would

who
seem

were

lutely
abso-

that

the

the 59,000 odd acres

of lake land, thus increasing
with pine in these additional
who were
not favored

included
those

allotment

Act itself. It is a matter

was,

of

of course,

son
in direct violation of the Steener-

questionwhether

those who

had

knowledge

THE

60

of and

participatedin

by

INDIAN

benefits

the

be yet reached

not

can

AMERICAN

of

court

arisingfrom these illegalallotments

equity and they compelled to account

for their misdeeds.

"

."No

machinery

provided therein,and
not

result

mortgages

full-blood

they

mixed

making

the

were

to the deed

the

which

the Indians.

minors

of the

would

of the

The

what

Indian,

purported

adult

an

all

of

Indian

with

deed

the

in the proper
ing
county recordshall be able to strate
demonwe

in

and

from

the

remove

of Justice

from

the

to

of law
in the

full-bloods eventuated

clouds

and

resorted

in violation

requiringthe Department

to

schemes

every

taking of these deeds

mixed-blood

Government

competency
was

In

of the

variety of fraudulent
was
naturally to acute minds

that

occur

1,200 bills in equity

and
and

with these transactions

committee

defraud

recording

deeds

mixed-blood.

ordinarilypassed

were

in

or

to alienation.

as

of the mixed-blood

that the allottee

persons

was

who

and

were

obtained

they usuallysecured

case

aflSdavits

conveyances

devices

recite the

amendment

who

restraint

of the

adults

as

to

in each

blood, which
mesne

same

accustomed

office. In connection
to

freed from

and

rushed
designing persons
that is, from children
indiscriminately;
was

attached

the

Clapp

to be determined

in and

be the aflSdavit of two

to

in

thus it remained

effect the

that

of the

of these
and

carrying into

adults of the mixed-blood

were

The

adults

"""""

for

action

file about

to

titles to

to

from

lands

thus

obtained.

unlawfully
"Following
white
we

children

expect

ran

to

to

handle

of tender

demonstrate

stain upon
wide
open.

the sudden

upon

respects less fitted

years,
to

and

and

same

there

money

make

came

the committee

the fair fame

Cheap

acquirement of

the

a
as

by

proper

condition
most

persons
use

in

some

of it than

of affairs which
ful,
shame-

deplorableand

Saloons
great and enlightened State.
sold
articles
at
were
tawdry
extravagant
of

overreached, and the money

prices. The Indians were
they had obtained
coaxed
from
in
them
sellingor mortgaging their lands or timber was
for
of
such
of
little
but
value,
exchange
or
no
objects
supposed utility
as
decrepit horses, defective vehicles, unmanageable sewing machines,
and even
A perfectfrenzy of drunkenness
terized
characpianos of little worth.
took
who
their
of
the
to
town
Detroit, and
neighboring
many
way
in
the same
its vicinity,
conditions occurred in
and practically
encamped
the hamlets along the Soo Road.
The
land-shark, passing under the more
dignifiedtitle of real-estate agent, was
everywhere in evidence, and the
money-loaning shark, posing under the more
dignifiedbusiness appellation
of banker, was
engaged in over-reachingthe Indian rightand left.
from

"

LEGAL
"From

COMPLICATIONS

isolated transactions were

going
debauchery had subsided, tillthe summer
of 1909 a condition like that of the quiet which succeeds a prolonged intoxication
The
Indians had mainly, in one
occurred.
form or another,
instances, had suffered severely
parted with their heritage and in most
from
the result. Poverty, sickness,a sense
of mortification and loss at the
of
hands
the white men
pervaded their minds and depressed their spirits.
The pine again,as in the case
of the four townships,by clean-cut lines of
apparent division had shown
up in the ownership and possessionas to
certain territory
(and this the largestand most valuable part)of the Nicholsof
Chisolm
Lumber
Co.
to be of the amount
pine reputed in extent

on,

the close of 1906

61

the fiercest of the fraud

or

1907, when

and

"

150,000,000 feet.

DISPOSSESSED

OJIBWA
Rice

"Pine
amount

under

to

the

in

another

about
control

AT

clean-cut

50,000,000 feet,
of the

REAR

River, White

Park

OF

AGENCY

BUILDINGS

Earth, Minn., 1909.

and
was

well-defined
found

to

territory,reputed to
possessionand

be in the

Co.; and in still another

Rapids Lumber
boundary line,a reputed 50,000,000 feet

section, equally well defined in its

was

controlled

by

the

Wild

Rice

Lumber

Co.

Likewise

the

best

of the

THE

62

AMERICAN

INDIAN

fallen into the

lands had
agricultural

of, or under the control of,

the so-called bankers
before mentioned, and certain men
at the hamlets
of great wealth and influence resident in the city of Duluth, as well as in
St. Paul

and

hands

Minneapolis.
"

"""""

**The firstresult of the treaties of 1889

saddlingupon the Chipand a large retinue

an
pewas
The expense
of this commission
of subordinates.
$88 a day, and the
was
work that the commission
and its subordinates
less
accomplished could doubthave easilybeen done by an allotting
clerk at $1,000 a year.
Besides
of

allottingcommission

this commission

ostensiblyto

other

many

supervisethe

for all of which

white

the

was

of three

members

oflScials were

cutting of the timber

the

Indians

had

to

pay.

sent

to

the reservations,

and

on

many

corps

other

texts,
pre-

of estimators,

was
drawing $6 a day of the Indians' money,
appointed to estimate
Red
the
Lake
Reservation.
Fraud
pine on
having been discovered in
making this estimate, a new
corps of estimators, numbering about twentysix,was
appointed to do the work over again. Each of the new
corps also
received $6 per day of the Indians' money.
"The
new
always
corps proved to be grosslyincompetent. They were
well supplied with whiskey and drank heavily. They spent most
of their
fifteen or twenty miles distant from the pine they were
time in towns
sent
of the interlopers
Some
members
to estimate.
of this corps of examiners,
were
for long periods of time,
and, though they absented themselves
It has been asserted that the total cost to the
they stilldrew their pay.

each

the

Indians

of these

two

value of their work

underestimated

corps

was

$350,000
was
$6,000; that in many
cases

interest of the

and
the

that

the

pine had

real
been

purchasers. The second corps of

discharged and a third corps appointed to go
Like the celebrated case
of Jarndice v.
the work
over
previously done.
that after all the proceedings were
Jarndice, it seems
although the
over,
vation,
pine alone on the reservations,exclusive of that on the White Earth Reserbe
from
worth
to
to
was
$50,000,000, there
$25,000,000
supposed
would
be little or nothing left but heirs. Although an Indian entitled to
value of these lands and forests might be starving
a share of the immense
two
cents
from his great wealth to buy a
to death, he could not
procure
pound of flour.
"While
the proceeds from the sale of the pine was
thus being squandered,
also being defrauded
the Indians were
the
by
loggersand lumbermen
who were
sale
purchasing the timber. By the conspiracyat the Crookston
in 1900, the Indians doubtless lost several thousand
dollars,and by the
estimators

were

in the

of estimators

about

likewise

COMPLICATIONS

LEGAL
fraudulent
even

operations under

greater

"Another

are

of

the immediate

was

resultingin
and

Army,

down'

and

persons

act,

they

lost

of Minnesota

Indians

contend

not

names

no

United

six soldiers of the

and

others,

of many

the wounding

the

major

the

are
properly upon
rightsthereto.
real Indians bitterlycomplain and
outbreak
of the Pillagersin 1898,

of the

cause

killingof

the

which

whom

whose

consequently had

who

grievance of

Another

which

to

of their tribe, and

the tribal rolls,and

**

*dead

the part of the real Indians

complaint on

of annuities

payment

members

not

so-called

the

sum.

source

is the

63

States

of certain mixed-

the conduct

was

it is claimed
by the Indians were
deputy marshals, several of whom
had
their
tribal rolls. These
been
who
placed upon
improperly
persons
deputy marshals originatedand developed, as we shall expect to show,
a
system of arrestingand transportingto St. Paul, Duluth, and Detroit
either with bringingwhiskey
of the tribe, charging them
various members

blood

the reservation

upon

as

until

was

walk

in this

arrested

without

arrived

to the

food

he

at the reservation

"An

of the

the

instruments

through Congress,
who

have

been

in

up

1854

Duluth.

to

He

show

of

nearlydead

was

than

more

from

left at Duluth

was

buy transportationhome,
distance

in

manner
or

which

causes

secured

was

Mille

by

them

the Mille

Lac

made

this way

"In

to

expect

200

exposure

and

compelled to

miles.
and

the

for

When

he

starvation.

Indians

Minnesota

defrauding

the

these
interests of attorneys, and
suggested, is the Mille Lac Indian

often

so

relief of the

improvements
came

We

Lac

through

Indians

upon

as

act

an
a

of

payment

the Mille Lac

have

Government

the

of $40,000
for the

like offense.

""*""

instance

made

to

or

reservation,
"

been

taken

and

manner

buy

to

money

back

other

some

fees
to secure
deputy marshals was
and for bringing other Indians to the said cities
arrests
The practicecontinued
for some
against the Indians accused.
of the PillagerBand
as
we
iSnally,
expect to show, a member

witnesses

years,

with

or

of these mixed-blood

that the purpose

for making such

same
case.

parties
An

propriation
ap-

Congress ostensibly
for certain alleged

Reservation.

The

matter

ceded

their reservation

to

the Government.

Chief Hole-in-the-Day advised

combination
with
a
these Indians refused
uprisingagainst the Government,
of their ancient
To
to participateon
account
enmity with the Sioux.
reward
them
for their loyalty the President
promised them they might
stillremain
their reservation as long as they did not interfere with the
on
In

the Sioux

Whites.

1862,

for

an

when

Band

the Nelson

"Under

INDIAN

AMERICAN

THE

64

Act, in the treaty of 1889, they ceded this privilege

portions of them refused to

never
reallyceded anythey
thing
these
for
As an
inducement
to the Government.
partiesto leave.
thereof as
persuaded to appropriate $40,000, or so much
Congress was
for
the
these
the
be
for
to
ments
improveparties
might
pay
purpose,
necessary
of the reservation. (32 Stat.
they had made during their occupancy

of occupancy

L. 268.)

to

the

Government,

White

Earth,

Michelet

and

to

remove

GROUP

OF

THIRTY

ment
none

to
"

eat

up,

this

some

had

*went

same

PERSOxNS
WHITE

but

claiming that

CONSTITUTING
EARTH

over

for the Govern-

LINNEN-MOOREHEAD

INVESTIGATIOxN,

FORCE

1909

investigateand appraisethe improvements, and found practically

Indian
nothing but the charred remains of some
tipis;but to
that

is, to

cover

the

entire $40,000, these

charred

remains

were

inserted in
appraised at the originalcost of the tipis,and items were
improvements, such as the profitan Indian would make gathering
wild rice for a year, for gathering wild honey for a like period,and other
like items.
been
to have
Now, the real dispositionof the money
seems
the listof

as

'

follows

Name

omitted.

CHAPTER

VI.

THE

WHITE

EARTH

SCANDAL

in
that the Indians
Judge Burch's research led him to conclude
were
better
The
than
the
time.
at
shape forty years ago
vastly
reading
present
of Warren's
establishes
book, Gilfillan's testimony, and other evidence
it beyond question that the Indian
suffered to any
does not seem
to have
in
either
health
older men
of
The
morals
extent
or
prior to 1880.
great
the tribe, who
keen
I visited
were
mentally in spite of great age, when
those Indians
in 1909, told me
much
regarding their past. I visited them
under
most
auspicious circumstances,
being empowered
by the Indian
Office to conduct
Earth, and having at
investigationsof affairs at White
command
and
The
old shaman,
assistants.
interpreters
numerous
my
Bay-bah-dwun-gay-aush,
Me-zhuck-ke-ge-shig, Ojibwa,* Mah-een-gonce,
and

others

with

I talked

whom

deplorable condition
.element,

as

well

covetous

as

great deal, laid the blame

for their present

mixed-blood
unscrupulous French-Canadians,
land.
white
timber
and
who
men
sought

the

on

Gilfillan has pointed out in his letter the increase of drunkenness

due to
in pursuing a mistaken
large financial rewards offered by the Government
policy.
Father
has been
since 1878.
White
Earth
at
Aloysius Hermanutz
In his testimony before the Graham
he stated
Investigating Committee,
that the full-blood Indians
in good condition.
at that time
were
Nearly
of oxen,
of
owned
and cultivated
fields. Many
team
a
a
cow,
everyone
them
raised vegetables and
there was
much
weaving of rugs and small
kind to them
was
carpets. They had an Agent, Mr. Charles Ruffey, who
but

very

Indians
"I
Indian

strict.

farmer

The

was

competent

man

and

knew

how

to

make

work.
met
"

to

him

one

that

farm

day
"

on

the
met

road
him

on

there

horseback.
and

asked

He
him

went

where

to

he

that
was

going, and he said: There are two Indians, Father, up beyond that church.
They didn't plow their field in order to put the seeds in, and the Agent
ordered
if they don't plow their fields now
in April)
to tell them
(itwas
me
will be taken
that the team
from
them.'
of course
And
they were
away
old-timers.
That
was
them, and on Sunday morning
Saturday when I saw
scared
and
they plowed their fields.
they started to plow. They were
in very good condition, and then afterwards
At the time the Indians
were
down
it changed and they went
again."
According to Miss
spelledthe names

Densmore*s
as

pronounced.

have
I
spelling: "Odjibwe**; "Maingans"; **Meja-kigi-jig'\

THE
The

WHITE

EARTH

SCANDAL

67

illustrationsaccompanying these chapterswere

of 1909

So much

has been

and

said and

taken during the investigation

obtainingat that time.

idea of conditions

give some
written

regardingthe situation of the Minnesota

and conditions
adopted heroic measures,
to a great extent
are
ameliorated, but they are stillfar from satisfactory.
Omitting the racial traits of the people the past sixty years, let us
consider their present condition and the causes
leadingup to it.
The
bill (Congress) was
1889
known
"For
the Relief and
officially:
Civilization of the Chippewa Indians."
There is both sarcasm
and irony
in that phrase,which only those of us who know
what kind of "relief and
civilization" the Chippewas have received since the bill was
passed, can
appreciate.
Ojibwa, that the Government

the time

At
with

the

intention

White

Earth

reservation

Ojibwa bands, March

19th,

was

created, a treaty
It

1867.

was

the

was

made

Government's

the time

this solemn treaty was

signed,to encourage
progress
permanently locate the Ojibwa upon farms. With so
laudable a purpose
in view, one
of the provisionsof this treaty was
as
follows: Any Indian
who
of land,
brought under cultivation ten acres
entitled to a fee simple patent, or deed, for forty acres
was
additional,and
to
160
This
Indians
trious
indusbecome
to
so
acres.
encouraged
9n up
many
and they brought under cultivation many
In 1887,
tracts of land.
under
the Dawes
land were
limited to
Act, the holdings of agricultural
After
the
"Relief
and
Civilization
Gus
of
act
acres.
eighty
Beaulieu,
1889,
French-Canadian-Indian
and others became
active in
a
politician,
very
and about White Earth reservation.
A Mr. Darwin
S. Hall was
appointed
and became
interested in Mr. Beaulieu's projects.
Chippewa Commissioner
Whatever
the originalpurpose
of this act, it was
used by venal white
to get hold of the Indians' land.
men
Previouslythe land had all been in
reservation and could not be touched.
Now
it was
a
coming under the
control of individual Indians and might be sold.
in

at

industry,and

to

"

The

Indians

although I
would

could

suppose

not

be thrown

certain

neck-and-heels

interested

persons

have

of

off their reservation,

Minnesota

northern

it possible. Some
kind
adopted that happy expedient were
of legislation
be enacted whereby the wolves could enter the flock,if
must
not
entirelydisguised,at least so covered that the shepherd of the flock
in differentiating
the sheep and the
between
might have some
difficulty
wolves.
So it came
about that the "Clapp Amendment"
was
passed as a
rider to the general Indian appropriationbill. The Clapp amendment
in
that
mixed-blood
Indian
could
of
his
substance, provided
dispose
any

property, but

full-bloods and

minors

could

not.

AMERICAN

THE

68

INDIAN

Congressman Steenerson ever endeavored

of this legislation
end to the abuses resultingfrom the passage
to put an
heard that anyone
their efforts have failed to accomplish results. I never
of these bills.
in Congress tried to remedy the evils followingthe passage
Two
of the missionaries,Rev. Felix Nelles of Pine Point and Rev. Aloysius
Hermanutz
of White Earth, wrote
to the Indian
OflBce, protestingthat the
But
Felix
Father
Indians
were
being swindled out of their property.
the
is
he
neither
letter
that
far
to
aware
me
as
so
by
protest of
reports
himself nor
his superior,Father
Aloysius,had any effect.
When
the Act
Earth
of 1867, establishingWhite
reservation, and
of Indians
which Judge Burch has discussed, was
into
effect,a great number
put
by hard work, notably the chief of the entire five living bands of
is Me-zhuck-ke-ge-shig,took
whose
name
Chippewa, a grand old man,
looked
This chief was
of land.
acres
advantage of this and earned many
his
friends
of
the
and
to
was
himself,
Indians,
man
by
a
good
many
up
hundred
followed his example, worked
hard and earned forty,eighty or one
and sixty acres.
Imagine the surpriseof these Indians when, at the time
the pine lumber
that
in Washington announced
allotted, some
was
one
the Indians
who had received farm lands could not participatein the pine
and
allotting. In other words, the French-Canadians, the mixed-bloods
If either Senator

full-bloods

such

pine

tracts

as

valued

had

the

Clapp

had

or

worked

not

from

few

to

many

the

and

not

were

industrious, received

of dollars, and
advanced
Office, had

thousands

Indian

those

who
hard

by
obeyed
debarred
from participation.
along the "road to civilization,"
were
It was
preciselyas if a collegepassed its drones and conditioned its honorwishes

of

work

roll

men.

No

wonder

these

White

Earth

Indians

do

not

care

to

work,

and

If whoever
understand
was
sponsible
rethey "cannot
Washington."
say
for such a ruling had sat down
tried to figure
and deliberately
the most
certain way
of injuring the Ojibwa Indians, he could not
out
have conceived a better plan.
sioners,
Immediately after I was appointed on the Board of Indian Commisthat the Ojibwa Indians
from Wisconsin
a correspondent wrote
me
in bad condition.
Earth were
at White
The Indian Rights Association had
made
Charles Wright, Episcopal missionary at
a similar complaint. Rev.
Cass Lake, shortly after the scandals began to develop, on
his own
sponsibility
reborrowed
and in spiteof the oppositionof the Indian
money
to Washington to lay the grievances of
Agent, Simon
Michelet, he went
the

Indians

Governor
The

lumber

before
John

A.

the

President.

Johnson

companies,

it

and
was

He

bore

United

supposed,

letters of introduction

States
wired

Senator
the Indian

Knute

from

Nelson.

Commissioner

WHITE

THE

SCANDAL

EARTH

69

He
did not find favor at Washington, never
ceeded
sucWright's mission.
in seeing the President, and sorrowing and sick at heart he was
compelled to return to Minnesota.
of Indian
Commissioners
Board
The
having no funds, I asked the
and send
Indian OflBce to appoint me
Special Agent with full powers,
as

of

White

to

me

Earth.

This

Point, and

returned

to

the

B.

about

March

southern

Washington
E.

first of

done

was

in

investigatingconditions

Linnen

the

part

I spent five weeks

1st.

of

the

latter part of

and

reservation. Pine

April, 1909.
White

The
Earth

myself were
July,Inspector
authority. We employed a total force of thirty-sevenpersons
and made
a
complete investigation.
for local employees,
During the first five weeks at White Earth, save
I was
entirelyalone. The investigationsoon
developed that millions of
of pine timber
dollars' worth
lands had been stolen from
the
and farm
Indians.
it was
ascertained that I was
As soon
working in the interests
as
of the Indian, the lumber
and Frenchcompanies and the mixed-blood
Canadians
attempted in every possibleway to end the investigation.They
first tried bribery,and later intimidation.
They lured away several of my
of the Government
witnesses, and even
employees informed me that
some
it was
hopeless to fight the great land and timber interests back of the
from bad to worse.
Some
Matters
went
despoilationof 5,300 Indians.
idea of the physical strain may
the statement
that I lost
be had from
As the other Inspectors and Special
fifteen pounds weight in five weeks.
Earth
conditions, the Indian OflSce
Agents had not reported on White
could not, at first,believe my
story. At last,I received a telegram asking
and three
I had at that time one
hundred
to come
to Washington.
me
affidavits representingmore
than a million dollars worth
of property, and
and presidents of national banks.
involving county officials,lumbermen
Ill feelinghad developed in the local towns.
The nearest
railway station,
Park
distant eighteen miles.
Rapids, was
Ogema, on the "Soo Line,"
miles to the north.
would
lay forty-five
Knowing that the enemy
attempt
the affidavits going East, I started Doctor
to prevent
Isaac Stahlberg,
He
Government
arrived there about
physician,for Park Rapids at noon.
three
volunteered
information
o'clock
and
the
that I would
half-past
o'clock
take
the
5
train
East.
probably
Meanwhile, at 7 o'clock that same
morning, in three vehicles,nine of
Indian policemen, started for Ogema to the north.
us, includingfive armed
with

We
to

sent

to

full

reached

our

Commissioner
Honorable

destination
Valentine
Robert

G.

without
in

incident, and I delivered the affidavits

Washington

two

Valentine, then

days later.
Commissioner,

took

great

THE

70

INDIAN

AMERICAN

interest in the White

Earth

contentions, and at his

suggestion a very experienced man,
Inspector Linnen, returned with me
to the scene
of action, as has been stated.
We
had the hearty cooperation
of Superintendent John
R.
Howard, who
appointed early in 1908
was
and

succeeded

affair,supported

Michelet.

Simon

filled

has

Howard

Major

difficult positionsin the entire Indian

most

my

Service.

He

of

one

has been

the

bitterly

element
opposed by the mixed-blood
through Beaulieu's
newspaper.
have
towns
Boards
of Trade, and these have
Neighboring
organized
pealed
apand through the press to Congress, allegingthat the
by committee
Interior Department
and
Department of Justice have interfered with
business.
Howard's

troubles, he
person,

Earth

who

was

positionhas been
given a chief

had

caused

sinecure, and

no

clerk

trouble

in

who

in addition

happened

California, and

to
on

be

to
a

his other

disputatious

arrival

at

White

became

of those who
This
were
friendlywith some
opposing him.
not
was
brought to an end until vigorous protests were
of us at Washington.
lodged by a number
The
beginning of the great scandal at White Earth is interestingas
I have
well as dramatic.
What
in succeeding pages
is not in the
to say
oflScial language of the report made
is drawn
Linnen
and
but
by
myself,
from
departmental sources.
I make
this explanation,for I am
follows will
that what
well aware
sound to some
readers as a page
from Russian, or Turkish, history,rather
than a leaf from the history of one
of our
in our
states
own
own
great
situation

tense

and

and

free country!
The 24th of April,1905,
other

Earth.

valuable

The

word

Canadians, who
very

blood

are

pine
was

set

was

tracts

as

would

the date

on

which

the white, Norway

be allotted to the Indians

of White

passed throughout the reservation, and the French-

there in considerable

slighttrace

of Indian

blood,

Indians

also arrived

some

were

numbers

and

the first to appear.

most

of whom

Educated

show
mixed-

formed
near
days previous. A line was
the United
noon.
afterStates Government
time
door
Saturday
building
some
The
to begin Monday
allottingwas
morning. It is interestingto
that first in the line was
note
white girl,whose
Margaret Lynch, a young
father and mother
white people,and who, the Indians properly maintained,
were
had no right to an allotment.
number
The girlreceived allotment
for which her father refused $22,000 cash the next day.
one,
The Agent at this time was
Simon
Michelet.
He
was
possessedof a
violent temper, according to the sworn
testimony of a policeman employed
at the White
Earth
Michelet
was
friendly
Agency for nearly ten years.

THE
with

Gus

who

were

equally interested
It

bad

was

What
occurred

form,

said

behind

the time

of the

chief clerk

to

the least,for the United

say

others
Earth

States

Agent
with the representatives

long conferences

of agent

the

closed

doors

allottingsheds

Michelet

positionafter the timber

business, this added

White

71

companies.

was

at

his

at

SCANDAL

Luipber Company and

obtaining timber from the White

in

his office at this time to hold

use

of the lumber

The

EARTH

H. Beaulieu, the Nichols-Chisolm

Indians.
to

WHITE

another

was
was

no

J. T. Van

one

allotted and

complicationto

the

but

knows,

one

little lighton

what

the situation.
As

Metre.

he

signed
re-

the real estate

entered

affairs

already confused

Earth.

such confusion, the

During the allottingof the pine timber there was
gations
broken
and many
lost
their
people
places. My two investithe reservation, covering nearly seventeen
to
on
weeks, lead me

line became

believe that the

the
at

the

valuable

most

of those

names

who

tracts

have

to

were

selected

were

them

were

and

in advance,

entered

on

that

list for

use

allotment.

In support

of this contention

is the affidavit of Robert

Henry, sworn
early to White Earth at the time of
the allotment
and passed into the agent's office shortlyafter the allotting
began. He held in his hand descriptionsof forty or fiftydifferent pine
to

September

tracts, and
a

24th, 1909, who

yet

was

told that all had

good pine allotment.

each

of these

came

Not

allotments.

been

selected and

he could

enough people preceded Henry

The

same

is true

of

woman

not

to

have

who

had

have
drawn
in her

hand

and she was

told that all of these had been selected.
fiftydescriptions,
It early in the day became
if possible,
evident that the full-bloods were,
to be kept from
only the
getting any land, for by the Clapp amendment

mixed-bloods

could

sell their land.

the full-blood Indians

Early in the day when
clamoring for
were
white
and
recognition and insistingthat the French-Canadians
people
be kept back, John St. Luke, the policeman,testifying
under oath, September
Michelet
of his office in
out
24th, 1909, says:
"Agent Simon
came
excited manner,
and told me
an
to keep the Indians out and let the mixedbloods in. There
seemed
in the line. Michelet
to be confusion
pushed
of these Indians back, swearing at them, and told me
to club them
some
if necessary,
from crowding in." St. Luke refused to do this.
to keep them
At last the fuU-bloods
of the Indians sent
registereda protest, some
for their guns,
and things took on
serious
a
aspect. Presently by way
of compromise it was
mixed-blood
that received
that
for
agreed
every
until
full-blood
continued
should
also
obtain
This
a pine allotment
a
one.

OJIBWA

CHIEF.

KE-WAY-DIN,

RESERVATION,

PINE

POINT,

MINNESOTA,

WHITE
1909

EARTH

THE

74

the influence

AMERICAN

INDIAN

what kind
liquor. Many of the Indians do not remember
of papers
they signed,whether deeds or mortgages, or whether any papers
were
signed at all.
in progress,
had moved
While
and we
to
over
our
investigationwas
Rice

River,

of

J. Weston

Mr.

Allen

visited

us

for three

weeks.

He

came

as

representativeof the Boston Indian CitizenshipCommittee, and because

of his high standing in the legalprofession,rendered
valuable assistance
in the investigation.
The key to the whole situation lay in the question of blood.
As has
been
The
shown
could
sell
land.
mixed-bloods
their
the
before,
only
full-bloods could not.
the old record-keepers,
Consequently we assembled
medicine
their own
chiefs, and Indians of prominence who knew
men,
Some
of
than
of
these
were
people.
more
eighty-fiveyears
age and none
of them
under seventy.
When
Indian appeared before us to give his
an
testimony, we first asked him whether he was a full-blood or a mixed-blood,
and the names
of his parents and grandparents. The old witnesses, probably
twelve
the parents or grandparents
or
fifteen,might not all know
of the Indian testifying.But three,four, six,and sometimes
eight of them
know
would
the family history,and would
whether
the
be able to swear
a

Indian
that

we

One

was

full-blood.

could

do

If he

nothing for

affidavit of the

was

mixed-blood,

we

told him

with

regret

him.

Indian

himself

as

to

his blood

relationshipand

effect.
signed by the old witnesses to the same
the property possessed by the Indian, with
number
and
description of allotments, and by careful questioning we
ascertained
when
The
fourth
and where
he had
disposed of his land.
affidavit was
by the interpretersin which they solemnly declared that
to the Indian and his answers
they had correctlyinterpretedour statements
that he understood
to us, and
that he had signed.
the nature
of the papers
The interpreters
preted
also made
further affidavit that they had carefullyinterthat
addition
to the old Indian
In
witnesses the papers
they signed.
to all of the above, we
frequently took affidavits of Indians who were
that the
it will be seen
present during the swindling operations. Thus
evidence
I
and
far
So
exact.
was
as
know, no
complete, positive
very
work in the same
investigatingforce on a reservation had ever done more
to six,and
length of time. We labored from eight o'clock to twelve, one
from
until
eleven
at night.
frequently
seven
The Indians took great interest in the investigation,
moved
and as we
from one
accompanied by
portion of the reservation to another we were
of these poor
large numbers
eighty Indians
people. On one occasion over

parents

third

was

taken, another

affidavit related

to

THE

WHITE

present, and

were

we

SCANDAL

EARTH

compelled

were

to

turn

75

large school buildings

two

into dormitories.
These
Whether

Indians
the term

through

property
in many

had

lost

their

"swindle"

instances

and

many

not

or

devious

Indians

without

property almost

is used

is immaterial.
The

ways.

exception.
lost their

They

aflSdavits indicated

before the

that

either drunk

or somewhat
buyers
appeared
of liquor. Not
only did the interpretersgive
the Indians liquor,but frequentlythe Indians drank of their own
accord.
Of course
the bankers, lawyers,county officials and real estate men
knew
their
that the ordinary code of business ethics would
not countenance
But
these
land-owners
Indians,
dealings with drunken
being
persons.
of the thirty-sevenindividuals and firms who
and the sentiment
in the
Earth
affidavits are shown
to be responsiblefor the conditions
at White
made
and
Indians
discrimination
land-owners,
as
was
no
being against
"do
sober.
business"
drunk
Next
Indians were
whether
to
or
permitted
of separating the Indian
from his land, the
to drunkenness
as
a
means
deliberate deceit practisedby the buyers stands out conspicuously. Scores

the

influence

of affidavits and

statements

under

five,or

but

paper,

white

seven

even

accepted the
to

Therefore
to
nor

deeds

or

of the

you

favorite form

The

sworn

receive

and

"the

others

would

them.

Many

have
your

Indian

that
be

one

for

of the buyers

safe in your
You
had
land.
no

signed and

cases

necessary

therefore

were

as

the Indian

they were
justthe same.
read

preted
inter-

or

could

neither

says

this is

document
legal

which

if read to you, and all you have to do is to sign

the money."
to have
Very few Indians appear

would

of these

held

Indians

of the

was

signingreceipts,
mortgages,
expressionused by the interpreter,

of

buyer

to the papers
they signed.
Indian
When
an
appeared with

usually told

three,

two,

in most

were

the law it

in the papers
as mixed-bloods
signed by these Indians were

papers

understand

not

name

your

patents

them, and in the majority of cases,

read, he did not know whether he was
releases.

would

trust

Most

owned

frequentlyprotested,statingthat

They

was
according to affidavits,

who

preliminary
patent was
of time become
deeds, the

trust

in the process

mixed-bloods.

described

were

few

The

In order to be within

deeds.

as

mixed-bloods.

as

of Indians

differentiate and

Indians

but
full-bloods,

write

patents would
not

same

the

prove

sworn

trust

as

people did

taken

were

eighttrust patents.

or

him
were

cabin, and
better

parted with

let

than

more

be

and

if these

to say
papers

keep

the papers

trust

patent

he

was

purchased or mortgaged and the

he could
for all of
sign papers

accustomed

me

one

them

and

we

to the

bum

up

in my
can

Indian, "You
you

would

lose

Then

the

safe."

imagine the

result.

AMERICAN

THE

76

Allotments

acquired by

allotments/'

Such

estates

fee is anywhere from

INDIAN

inheritance
be

must

few dollars to fifteen dollars

communities

In other

probated.

or

"dead

the Indians

by

called

are

the

but in Detroit,

more,

Ogema and Wauban, the usual charge varied from $50 to as

and there were
high as $150, according to the credulityof the victim
other charges. When
the Indians
reported to us that they had signed
"dead
allotments"
to be probated, we
over
frequentlydiscovered that it
Mahnomen,

"

not

was

order

clear in the

Indian's

settle these

estates, but

to

without

was

anything

mind

the Indian

much

so

surrendered

having

in

necessary

was

money

patent, he

the trust

for his inheritance.

show

to

how

Frequently

after the benevolent

little

or

had

banker

nothing
attorney or
paid for his efforts in directingthe Indian's footstepsalong the broad
highway of civilization.
Instances
deceased
Indians
not
actually
are
were
wanting where
resurrected
which
had
of
land
they
neglected to
long enough to dispose
during life,and affidavits are not lackingwhich recite that so-and-so
convey
accrued

to

been

adult

an

was

mind

one

mixed-blood
of

case

made

they

as

men

the

scoured

children
There

boy

were

reservation

they

handle
at

alive, and

was

Certain

Point.

was

in

I have

his affairs.

Pine

allotted all the available

buyers, and

the

until

his grave

pine allotment.
with forgeryand perjury.
liverystables of Detroit and

in the

the lands

as

engaged by

were

these
and

employed
soon

in

and

of age,

dividuals
in-

by
there-

of his valuable

affidavits bristled

Men
that

boy resting

control

to

competent

affidavit that this

secured

The

and

had

secured

that

night and

and

pursued

day
the

the best farms

months

for many

women

men,

timber

me

drivers

and

teams

Indian

and

told

elsewhere

tracts

able.
avail-

interesting.He
walked
into Detroit a tramp
and
ten
began washing dishes in
ago
years
hotel. Just how he got his start is under dispute,one
a
man
claiming that
theatrical company
left several trunks of gaudy paraphernalia
a stranded
is

in Detroit, which
land.

Whether
and

at

of the Indians
Where

was

one

in

man

this

man

this is true

particularwhose

traded
or

to

not, he

drunken

some
was

history is

Indians

for

successful in Indian

land

tract

of

lation,
specu-

a
leading citizens of the region. Some
present he is now
call him, "the white wolf, with the gold teeth."

the

United

being enacted.'^
people? Where
were

States
Where

Indian

Bureau,

while

this

disgraceful

the Indian

to protect
Agent, sworn
these
the Inspectorsand SpecialAgents.'^ How
was
it that the testimony of missionaries and others, and their warnings, produced
scene

was

no

asked, and

effect in

nobody

Washington.'^
has

ever

was

These

answered

are

them.

questions I

have

repeatedly

CHAPTER

VII.

SOME

INDIAN

AFFIDAVITS.
the

During

TESTIMONY

AND

SICKNESS.

of the pine and land purchases, crowds

of Indians
persuaded to visit Detroit and Park
Rapids and
the
sold
them.
to
law,
Ogema.
Contrary
whiskey was
frequently
They
tell how
in the centre
at Park
of the village,
Rapids, in the little square
drunken
Indians
were
lying on the grass in numbers, and at Ogema
a
saloon keeper was
passing liquor in a bucket, and handing it out by the
dipperful to Indians.
at

White

height

Earth

After

the

were

buyers
they

their allotments,
who

would

Rock,
who

sell.

not

used

persuasion

resorted
A

awakened

was

had

wife

to

of

eleven

at

stronger

in

measures

policeman

o'clock

Indians

get the

to

in the

John

Detroit

buyers,

o'clock

two

up

those

Point, Mrs.

night by

forciblyentered her cabin, and stayed until

they obtained one of her tracts of land.

with

dealing

Pine

at

give

to

in the

ing
morn-

until
When

Indians

visited

Detroit

and

When
about
the
now

before

Indians

sellingor
in the

wish

Rock,

who

of the

Government

visited

E.

the

present

cried to

will not

sell,we

will throw

one

son,

**Go

in aflSdavit No.
to

got him

Willy Bassett,
In

the

"Anundensen
bloods.

I quote
papers

well have

banker

asked

He

told to

was

of Mrs.

case

before

said
this
which

recited

hesitated

was

is all

case

because

that

she

bank,

effect that
into the
fetch

and

as

hall, one

her

In

testimony

she

did

not

of those

back, and

if she

was

with

mixed-blood

it
were
a

that

268, July 29, 1909, states

then

bought

his land.

he would

or

Roberts, her

right.

signed

and

sign papers,

Lawrence

that

she

drink

Anundensen

if I

the

the

used.

her into the lake."

Me-zhuck-ke-gway-abe
Saunders

Holmes'

started

Fred

appeared

The

G.

is to

price offered, and

Interpreter Morrison,

to

and

brought into the oflBces of the buyers and

mortgaging, more
were
persuasive arguments

hands

sell at

authorities

were

of Grace

case

the

partook

of

liquor they were

rested.
artold
being brought
fined, they were
by the attorney who was
supposed to defend them, or by the kind-hearted
land buyer, that they must
sell or deed
of land in order to
tract
a
over
the fine. Sworn
is to this effect.
testimony in several cases
pay
On

be put

aflBdavit

I said my

jail.

recites that

Interpreter Robert
and

minor

A
in

Morrison

parents

are

she
"

full-

We

signed papers."
is typical of nearly one
not
explained to this

mixed-blood

Indian.

hundred
woman

others.
and

may

ROSE
One

of the

ELLIS

interpretersserving during the investigationof

Carlisle

graduate.

Full-blood

Ojibwa

1909.

INDIAN
A

TESTIMONY
of Indians

number

AFFIDAVITS

"

stated

have

that

"If you

are

79

related to mixed-

bloods, it is all right." I make

particularmention of this mixed-blood
Gus
question because, before the CongressionalInvestigationCommittee
Beaulieu
claimed that I endeavored
all Indians full-bloods,
and
to prove
that these Indians, having previouslysworn
before the land buyers that
be indicted for perjury. We
mixed-bloods, should now
they were
were
careful in all our
evidence, and we discriminated against those
especially
who

appeared to
Only Indians

all.

The

be

fact that

mixed-bloods

were

mixed-bloods

who

undoubtedly

were

Indians

many

does

if there

"

not

prove

St. Paul

from

any

discrimination
entered

were

as

at

such.

have

that they
previouslysworn
them
made
to be such.
to
They were
not
explained to them, and if there is
responsible,rather than the Indians

may

sign these papers, the papers were

perjury,the white people are
any
who have been duped.
When
the business of dealing in
of wild bronchos

was

full-bloods

South

Indian

lands

was

at

Dakota, and broken-down

its

loads
height,car-

horses

from

shipped up to the Indian country. The business was apparently

Indians
testified
conducted
on
a
large scale, for several hundred
of horses,
their allotments
for a little cash and teams
to having traded
old
harnesses
and
mention
not
to
buggies,
pianos,graphophones
sleighs,
and other useless articles in the struggleof the aboriginesfor existence.
As the Ojibwa are woods
Indians"
Indians, and not "Horse
canoe
as
or
are

the

Even

were

Sioux,

very

few

if the horses had

have

been

lived but

the management
of horses.
active, it is doubtful if they would

understood

strong and

Some
of the horses
of any considerable value to these Indians.
few weeks.
old that their teeth were
so
Many of them were

down.

worn

of them

been

The

broncho

would

run

and

away

smash

the old

buggy

or

sleigh.
Five
in order

who confessed
interpreters,
told
prosecution,
escape

to

often stood
drove

in their office doors

after

and

as

how

to

their part in these proceedings

and real estate men

the bankers

laughed heartilyas

their business.

the poor

Indians

conducting
lady, who is a Carlisle graduate,told me that she and her
who paid the Indians money
for their land
sister,believingthat the man
Indian
and
was
cheating,put on
costumes, painted up
passed before him.
Each
"Do
receive
$750. He said,
girlwas to
speak English?" She
you
"no."
He then proceeded to count
replied,"kawin," which is emphatic
and twos aloud until he had reached what would appear
to an ignorant
ones
Indian to be $750, but was
This girlstood aside
in realityabout $130.
and her sister then appeared. The man
asked the same
question,and she.
away

One

young

THE

80

waiting until he had

think

you

had

you

AMERICAN
counted

INDIAN

the

then

money,

that over?"

better count

said in

He

to each sister. A
good the full amount
home
with
pine timber for $10,000 and came
bills stuffed in a long stocking.

and

made

feet of

One
feet of

old Indian

our

pine timber

ten

was

of

witnesses

valued

at

nearly

at

Pine

thousand

English, "Don't

flushed and

sold

woman
a

stammered

thousand

million

one-dollar

Point, sold seventy thousand

dollars,and all he received

dollars.

In the

0-mo-du-yea-quay, she testified she was

who
told her that Lawyer Beum
Flammand,
by
would pay her $500 for her eighty acres.
"When
I got there, they gave
little less than forty dollars and bought me
house alongsidethe
me
a
a
small
table and a little
railroad,containingone bedstead, two chairs,a
cook-stove.
After that Flammand
would come
house and give me
to my
visited

dollar

of the old

case

or

quarter. After

all

gone."

in

Official Affidavit

One
had

of the

valuable

Indian

saddest

359,

received

Lufkins,

littlewhile he told

stories told

pine timber

having

William

One

woman

interpreterJoe

the

that

of

which,
money,

me

at

that my

me

White

Earth

money

will be found

0-nah-yah-wah-be-tung. This
he
the

states, he

sold for

was

$7000.

man

The

graftersimmediately got busy.

mixed-blood, persuaded him

to

pay

$1800

for

moved
from some
distance on
the prairie
to
building. This was
the
heard
that
for
I
A
was
Ogema.
largesum
charged
building.
moving
the railroad tracks,which procedure
$400 was
charged for moving it across
ing
occupiedless than an hour. After the house was established on a lot frontthe main street of Ogema, the Indian was
told that he should go
on
into business as do white people. It was
suggested that he start a feed
He trusted one
two
store.
to visit St. Paul and buy flour and feed
or
men
These men
in order to stock his store.
squandered a thousand dollars in
three
hundred
them
and they returned with a
He
sent
more
dissipation.
until he
feed
stock.
Thus
the
dwindled
small quantity of
man's money
defrauded out of his entire $7000, and is today a pauper.
was
without giving
In the followingcases
I have stated the facts briefly,
ranch

the Indian's

name.

that a
382, it appears
testimony on file in case numbered
Indian
had
him
before
an
brought
prominent man,
wish to sign papers, and the attorney said if she did
have her arrested and put in jail. The proprietorof
not do so he would
these
at Detroit,accordingto this sworn
statement, gave
a lodginghouse
Indians liquor.
In

the

certain attorney and

did not
who
woman

^"^'^'"^^

^Y

Qw'^k

AMERICAN

THE

82

According
sent

for

the

minor

bank

the child
risk.

and

son's allotment.

to Kolb's

went

aflSdavit numbered

to

of the Indians

one

Kolb

INDIAN

was

stated

The

me

or

man

minor, yet he would buy the timber

$100 and ten dollars of this was

later the banker

will

Ogema
pine on

The

Indian

and

though
that, al-

given
for the

sent

the

stand
to

Jim

Indian

allotment
patent of your original
Thus Kolb obtained the Indian's

trust

arrested."

probably be

the

at

stated

there, who

the Indian

paid

you

buy

to

fourteen.

aged

was

another

Bunker, the interpreter.A month

and stated, "You
better bring your
to

J. Kolb

M.

that he wished

minor

found

and

eleven, banker

originalallotment in addition to the minor child's pine. I might continue

repeatingsimilar instances.
I reproduce here. Government
Two
imi"ortantand shocking statements
official numbers, 247 and 92.
are
They
self-explanatory.
State

Minnesota

of

County
On

SS

Mahnomen

of

this 23d

day of August, A.D. 1909, before me, W. K.

Moorehead,
MsLynSpec. U. S. Indian Agent, personallycame
way-way-be-nace, who being first duly sworn
by me according to
law, on oath deposes and says:
Two
house

years

ago

for the

for E2NE"

Mr.

$20 cash.

When

gave

have

already arranged
have
land

your

my

Mr.
As
the

for

Vanoss

whiskey

you."

Waller
near

as

came

and
took

can

he

also
the

he

Maggie

with Mr.

House
trust

to

No.

timber.

this statement,
have

patent

you
to

I went

He
"I

arrested,

take

care

of
and

witnesses.
(Mah-geed) were
as
interpreter.Vanoss gave
with a pint bottle of whiskey.

patent

and

giving up

handed
the trust

me

$20 in cash.

patent cancelled

obligationsincurred in the mortgage referred to

signed by my wife, Ah-be-dah-sah-mo-quay.
In the fallof 1908

my

2321

Waller

presented me

judge, my

made

to

came

wife, Ah-be-dah-sah-mo-quay,

My

trust

hardwood

was

came

at the Court

and

Minn.,

originalallotment

here to get your

over

children, Antoine

Andrew
me

come

of Waubun,

of my
This

patent
8, 144-40.

Sec.

me

and

Waller

trust

to

Mahnomen

in the

with the Trust

fidavit
af-

Patent

of my additional allotment No. 1702 for N2SW"Sec.36"

145-38.
This may
be timber land.
I saw
L. O. Johnson, of the Prairie
Land
I sold the land to Johnson
for $364.
He did
Company.
not

ask

any

questions as

to

my

blood

relationship.I signed

INDIAN

papers,

TESTIMONY
wife

my

drinking at

was

Three
my

years

house

them

and

Brunette

Peake

of

83

interpreter.

was

the time.

Fargo

ago

and

if I had

asked

I had

Willie

present.

was

AFFIDAVITS

"

three:

any

Ogema, Minn.,

allotments

dead

Naysh-kah-we-gah-bow,

age

to

came

to

sell. I told

36

yrs.;

Mah-

co-day-we-gwaince, and Zo-zed, age about 4 yrs.

Fargo and
Peake
take these three trust
said that they would
patents of
the dead allotments
to be probated. They also stated that when
also heirs) come
of age they would
grandchildren (who were
my
value
of
allotments.
This
the
these
summer
they paid me
pay
This is all I have ever
received.
wife
and I signed
$130.
My
Willie Lufkin, was
dollar
interpreter. I paid him one
papers.
($1.00).
About
my

the

Minn.,

Mahnomen,

be

to

was

allotment

No.

The

allotment

of

This

S2SE

No.
No.

of June, 1909,

grandchild, Simon

deceased

for

middle

^Sec. 2

"

I took

Smith,

to

I have

probated.

the trust
J. T.

received

of

Metre

of

no

money.

for

No.
Naysh-kah-we-gah-bow
was
of Mah-co-day-we-gwaince
144-41;

"

for
for E2SE"

2326

Van

patent

2323
was

was
; of Zo-zed
His mark

Sec. 5"144-40.
MAYN-WAY-WAY-BE-NACE.

Witness

to mark

Georgia
Subscribed
A.D.

Lacy
and

to

sworn

before

me

this 23d

day

of

August,

1909.

Warren

K.

Moorehead

Spec. U. S. Indian
State

MinnesotaI

of

County

Agent

^^

Becker

of

Margaret Cobum, or
Margaret Colbume
Age 45.
Allottee Orig. 2951, Lots 1-2- "9,
Sec. 6, Twp 142, R 42.
On

Colbume,

deposes

day of September, A.D. 1909, before me, W. K.

Margaret
Spec. U. S. Indian Agent, personallycame
who being first duly sworn
according to law,
by me

this 6th

Moorehead,

and

says:

AMERICAN

THE

84

about

That

Ephraim
finding me
said, "I

two

Budrow

named
August, 1907, a man
at
Cloquet, Minn., and
my
and
observing my
crippled condition,
in
this
condition.
see
Why don't
you
house

to

came

surprisedto

am

in

ago,

years

alone

there

INDIAN

sell some

of your land?"
He asked me
land I had.
how much
This man
about my
seemed
land.
to know
He asked for the two
deceased
trust
husband, Joe Colburne, No. 2950
patents of my
you

SW|4

for

for my

SW|4,

of

trust

own

Joseph, No.
nervous

patent,

back

and

and

manner,

to

me.

son-in-law

My
Houle.

asked

husband

home

came

what

me

for town

same

evening,however,
as

run

called to him

once

Budrow

not

to

hunt

Budrow

out

him.
but

to

He

stop.

I could

and

stop

of my
to crawl

Because

managed
paid no attention

His

noon.

Said

excited

an

before

after him

about

143, R 42.

in

room

is Frank

name

crying about and I told him that

had run
off with the three trust patents belonging to
(dec'd),
myself and the boy. My son-in-law started at

He

said Budrow
my

and

in the

patents with

trust

crippledcondition I could
the window

12, Sec. 30, Twp

forth

presentlyhe went

him, taking the three

to

SE|4 of SEl4, Sec. 31, T 143-42,

child
above, and for that of my

"
as

for Lots 4 and

2953

walked

Budrow

Sec. 32

was

for Budrow

was

but

could

not

find him.

That

son-in-law caught hold of this Ephraim

to
boarding the train and told Budrow

my

Budrow
reached
give up the trust patents he had taken from me.
into a pocket and handed
out
to
son-in-law,
some
papers
my
which
son-in-law thought were
the three trust patents but
my
which
proved to be only the trust patent of my child Joseph.
Three days after,when we managed to get enough money,
sonmy
in-law went
to Ephraim
Budrow's
house
at Fish Lake, White
Earth reservation and said Budrow
promised to give up the other
trust patents the next
two
morning, but during the night Budrow
went
two
My son-in-law waited for Budrow
days but
away.
failed to

Budrow

About
sick and
I touch

There

months

two

needing some
a

no,
was

and

pen,

$100 for my
them

turn

no

ago,

was

when
the

money,

after I did

They asked

son.

that I

up.

so

me

full-blood.

was

in Waubun,

lawyers

were

I received
if I
I

and I did
interpreter

was

was

not

very

to

sworn

understand
Her

MARGARET

taken

$400 for myself and

mixed-blood

not

was

insistent that

and I told

these papers.
the papers.

mark
COLBURNE.

TESTIMONY

INDIAN

AFFIDAVITS

C.

E.

Dennis.

Subscribed

1909,

and

to before

sworn

White

at

me

this 6th

K.

Spec. U.
It should
these

of proi"erty.
patent would
his.

sending

By

issued

were

small

to

any

allowed

to

to believe that the trust

a

fee to

Indian
remain

patent

was

September,

Moorehead,
S. Indian

Agent.

who

Washington
could

duplicate trust

prove

that

he

in ignorance of this, and

everything. Therefore, when

patent they supposed they had

trust

of

that those in authority should have

be clear to all persons
the loss
that a trust
Indians
patent lost did not mean

be

Indians

day

Earth, Minn.
Warren

informed

85

to mark

Witness

A.D.

"

had

lost
led

were

they

lost

lost their allotment.

sion
entire space assignedto this chapter could be devoted
to a discusconditions
but it is too heart-rendingto take up in detail.
Chippewa Indians are sufferingfrom tuberculosis,scrofula,trachoma

The

of health
The
and

other diseases.

Thirty-two per cent of the children in the Government

on
by Government
physician.Dr. Edwards, were found
have
to
trachoma; fiftyper cent of the Indians livingat Pine Point have
tuberculosis.
Unless drastic remedies
are
adopted the Ojibwa will soon
be a thing of the past. The
OflSce has built a hospital,and has
Indian
rented of the Episcopal church a small one, yet these care
for but a fraction
schools

of the

examination

sick.

The

Homaj*, in charge of the Mission

priest,Father Roman
River, reported to me under date of April 29, 1910, that there was
died that
before in his territory;that Indians
more
sufferingthan ever
of the Indians were
winter, that many
compelled to hunt rabbits, not for
pleasure,but from necessity,and that practicallyall the rabbits on the
Catholic

at Rice

reservation

killed.

were

He

exhausted

his littlefund

and

much

of his

own

salary in caring for the unfortunate.

Early in April he had utilized all
the lumber
at his disposalfor the making of coflBns,
and for the last Indian
that he buried, just previous to writing the letter,he made
the coffin out
of the

church

Rev.

wood-box.

Father

Felix,Catholic Missionary at Pine Point, and Rev. Wilkins

of the
Smith, Episcopal missionary at Twin
to me
Lakes, both wrote
great sufferingand poverty, sickness and death, and how their resources
were

taxed

such

Indians

orphan

beyond

school

as

were

near

their

abilityto

connected
White

Earth

meet

with

the

same,

in order

their various

villageis

crowded.

to

missions.

relieve
The

even

large

"S^ S

f*"
""-.

**

*:

"

4,

-r

fc

.5 ^

_" H

"

-a

-a

"L)

fe jd

."5

.o

(15
="

-nj

-5

"
'^

"
S S

""

S
S

-c -^
"

6
t.

Qi

.S

INDIAN
The

Government

does

and

in

was

TESTIMONY

boarding school

excellent

the

At

is

time

87

by about 300 pupils

however, it
investigation,

attended

now

of

our

immediate

unsatisfactorycondition, and

most

work.

AFFIDAVITS

"

reforms

had

to

be

inaugurated.
Prior

the

Linnen-Moordiead

investigationthere was
entirelytoo
would
imagine that pupils in a
Government
school, and under the protectionof the American
flag,would
be safer than pupilsin ordinary institutions not governmental in character.
Yet there are
record where
children, little and big, have
cases
on
many
lost their allotments
Office
while attending school.
For this the Indian
does not seem
much
blame
the
teachers
and
to
so
as
superintendentswho
much

to

school

swindling of

should
with

refused

have

children.

admission

to

One

who

persons

to

came

business

transact

has issued
gratifyingto learn that the Commissioner
it is impossiblefor strangers, land sharks, or others
Government
to enter
boarding schools and swindle minors out of their
of the Government
property. My only regret is that the strong, rightarm
arrival
did not protect these poor people and their children prior to my
minors.

It is

strict orders, and

White

at

Earth.

Miss

Phillomea

Dakota, where
She
while

now

she

Indian

many

lived

as

without

room

was

authority,and sent for Miss

and the man
produced a folded
there was
a
dispute as to how
There

was

each

for instruction.

year

testifies that

She

large dormitories.

Donnell.

her

She

and

paper

discussion

some

the school at Flandreau, South

assembled

are

prominent, educated Indian appeared and

oppositionon the part of any teacher or

in

roll.

pupil in

children

the others, in

do

there,

was

the music

Donnell

fountain

it, and

he

her

from

person
room,

said that

He

pen.

spelledon

was

name

about

down

came

entered

the Government

secured

her

signature

each

side of this paper in order, as he assured her, to correct

any error
in the record.
in both places,and he gave her a
So she signed the paper
folded piece of paper, or an
a
present for
envelope, and told her it was
on

her.

Indians

she did not

he told her it

as

it

frequentlymake
look

was

near

check

was

for $500.

school

and

Indian

had
no

land.

She

he referred
come

witnesses

was

valuable

presents when
been

in her

and
visiting,
room

of

she found

eighty acres,

allotment, she concluded

would

that
be the

sign paper
immediately sought the superintendent of
the matter
and myself.
to Inspector Linnen

the

an

automobile

signature,and

he

had

to hasten
no

power

so

time,

some

paper

the result of which

to the school in
to

other

until she had

she looked at the

surprise. When
that her allotment
Then, realizing

of Mahnomen,
he had made
her

probably

each

this paper

the town

loss of her

were

at

matters.

that
The

There

of attorney

in

THE

88

South

INDIAN

AMERICAN

Dakota, but only in Minnesota.

recorded

with

Yet

in

few

days the deed

was

the

signatureof witnesses.
In our
officials we
capacity as Government
reported this outrageous
the
to
ing
proceeding
Department, prepared carefully-drawnaffidavits coverthe entire circumstances, and rushed them
to Washington to enable
the Commissioner
to take immediate
action.
Up to the last that I heard
from

Miss

has been

Donnell, she had

no

relief from

the Government,

but

of her own
funds (which were
out
limited)
buyer would not have given it up but for the
fact that he knew
we
were
ready to proceed against him. I cite the case
of this girlin detail,although there are
others which could be mentioned
where frauds were
schools.
children
in the Government
minor
on
practised
When
the Graham
affidavits
the
Committee
published,
hearings were
and correspondence were
made
public. The Indian is supposed to have
persuaded Miss Donnell to speak:in his favor. One of the Department
of Justice officialstold me
that the case
againsthim was dropped.
We
learned that certain educated
Indians made
a
practiceof going
to these Government
schools, callingthe pupils into the parlor or the
music-room
or
parade-ground, and transactingbusiness with them.
to

obtain

compelled

obtained

her

own

to

land.

pay

$57

The

oldest and

The
various

we

Indians.

aflBdavit
his

attached

aflBdavit

who

United
list

The

result.

been, that

who

men

attempted

to

other

was

were

assemble

did not

make

to

in accordance
thereto.

papers

three

or

On

I present a photographic
Linnen.
It will be
served
ob81

page

in detail,and

exact
were

followed

lists of

Indian

the

all the

on

population
ethnologicallines. The trouble has
not
descent,
acquainted with Indian customs
or
the
number
of
older
sufficient
a
Indians,
together
made

accurate

pn

at White

work

our

the Indian

to

Earth, the aflBdavits,the rolls,

OflBce,and submitted
by them

Department of Justice. The Department accepted our

put them in legalform and began prosecutions,which have
the present time.
C. Burch
When
Hon. Marsden

down

preters,
inter-

in the presence
of those old
with the facts, and each

taken

States,

given

were

of two

assistance

aflBdavits

the

and

the

at

all of the Indians

these rolls.

of

At the conclusion
and

men

the witnesses

drawn,

thumb-print

the

in

reservations
would

assembled

were

knew

an
by Mr.
copy
by study of this that the testimony was
If this plan
proved to be a full-blood.

Indian

have

the

Through

was

of

and

investigated.These

carefullyexamined

we

An

witness

of the tribe

men

certain parts of the reservation,and their parents. In many

stances,
infull-blood
the grandparents and whether
they were
they knew

mixed-blood

men.

INDIAN

reliable

most

points where

livingin
or

AMERICAN

THE

90

extended

to

charge of

had

the White

Earth

cases

for the Attorney General, Mr. E. C. O'Brien served as his assistant. Hon.
succeeded
C. C.Daniels
Judge Burch, and Mr. O'Brien is associated with
him

prosecutions. Mr. O'Brien kindly read proofs of

chapters and offered suggestions. Mr. O'Brien says:

in the

Earth

White

my

"

"All

suits

by

Mr.

and

was

based

are

the Linnen-Moorehead

on

Hinton

The

Hinton.

prepared

who

determine

to

roll,except

roll includes all Indians

entitled

were

few

on

the

to

fee

gested
sug-

ation,
reserv-

simple

patents."*
*

John

Mr.
Earth

to

The

ago

year

of two
not

All lovers of

*Letter of Dec.

is

new

the White

White

pray

list is accurate
Federal

that

this is not

many
correct.

gress
scandal, petitionedCon-

Earth

Ojibwa.

This

bill nearlypassed.

roll of allotments, which

Mr.

O'Brien

in the suits.

justicemay

2nd, 1914.

roll of the

making

now

included

Linnen-Moorehead

letter indicates

recent

responsiblefor
to make

assures

are

:|c

appointed SpecialAgent and sent to

he added
informed
Ojibwa. I was

was

O'Brien's

A Commission
me

roll of the

new

Mr.

"interests"
a

Hinton

H.

make

but

names,

that
and

no

new

has stood

Building,Minneapolis.

roll be
the test.

attempted.

The

THE

Having
we

ROLL

assembled

as

able to check

were

there would
schoolroom

up

be

where

as

AND

STORIES

witnesses

our

the many
as

many

errors

the

91

reliable old

most

in the Government

forty or fiftyOjibwa

Indians,

roll.

assembled

quently
Fre-

in the

held.
When
the interpretercalled
hearings were
out
such a name
as
Min-de-moi-yen, or E-quay-zince, or Mah-geed, the
other Indians
would
shout with laughter,and when
they had recovered
know
would
what
individual Indian
did
state
not
sufficiently
they
they
there
that
named
who
as
were
a score
was
appellation.
might respond to
The
of attorneys in the past
Ojibwa Indians have had a number
None
of these men
to have
seem
cerned
contwenty, or twenty-five years.
themselves
with the prevention of the wholesale thefts of land and
timber.
The gentleman who
acted as attorney at the time of our
arrival,
became
the end of our
active toward
and did what he could
investigation,
he had done
But
to secure
nothing previously
justicefor the Indians.
along such lines, and his activities savored of a death-bed
repentance.
fullThe
The
his re-election.
Secretary of the Interior did not approve
blood Indians were
the
mixedof
and
the
the
against
employment
attorney,
blood
insistent that the
Indians, headed
by Gus Beaulieu, were
very
During the three years prior to 1909, the attorney
attorney be retained.
had received in salary and expenses
about $20,000.
the
A large council was
called in July by the Indians
to talk over
attorneyship. Mr. Linnen and myself were
spectators, and while we could
have helped the poor, ignorant full-bloods,because of our
official position,
we
were
compelled to sit in silence and see Gus Beaulieu and John Carl,
The
first
Rev.
Clement
Beaulieu
and
others manipulate the meeting.
the
Beaulieu
outvoted
there
sufficient
full-bloods
have
to
were
morning,
our

element, two to one.

Beaulieu, consumed
mixed-bloods

sent

would

But
the

in teams

Beaulieu

Gus
time

in

and

Clement

his brother, Rev.

speech-making,

while

Ben

Fairbanks

the reservation to bring in those who

session
Beaulieu's desires. At the afternoon

all

over

according to Gus
might have carried their point,but they spent their
time
of the two
and
Beaulieus
others, being
answering the arguments
cleverlyheckled into making long speeches.
The next morning, the council adjourned to a largerhall,in the center
of White
element
Earth
village. By this time the mixed-blood
inated
predomof
and a very
assembled, including a number
motley crowd was
who
of
and
other
several
and
interpreters
saloon-keepers
Ogema
towns,
mentioned
in the affidavits as having acted as go-betweens in land
were
vote

the full-blood Indians

and

timber

deals.

outvoted, they

were

To

shorten

asked

to

my

story, the poor

write out

ballots

full-blood Indians

(which they

did not

were

under-

OJIBWA

WHITE

GRAVEYARD,

Nearly

all of these
the

burials

are

past few

EARTH
those
years

of

MINNESOTA

consumptives

stand
We

and

most

made

ROLL

of them

could

STORIES

AND
not

write) and

93

the attorney

report against the council, and

sustained

THE

re-elected.

was

Secretary of

the

the Interior

objections.
also a Chippewa
to the Chippewa
attorney, there was
Committee
Conmiissioner.
Graham
considered
The
him
Investigating
at some
length.
H. Hall be appointed Chippewa
Senator
Clapp asked that Darwin
The
Commissioner.
history of this appointment is interesting,but
must
to
not
that. Hall had been
(at present) be related. Previous
totaled
employed at various intervals until his employment
eight
In

and

years

the

our

addition

of

for my
part $3,066.64. Mr.
than a third of that sum.
Hall
and

of

was

some

(more

or

but

value

no

200

with

offer met

my

offered to

had

remark

to

that

would
move

Indian

an

Indians

200

of Mr.

Linnen.
and

and

how
had

was

stepped

these

investigating,

were

He

way.

about

detailed to

was

hundred

one

Indians

same

It cost

him

It would

have

help

with

sympathy

Hotel, White

out

in

miles

sixtydays,

$167.50

per

$33,500

cost

head
to

to

move

us

the

Earth, prior to the arrival

into the street

of the dreadful

that he could

situation

in order
of the

right their wrongs.

and
investigation,

He

not

to

Chippewa
informed

I could

see

be

heard
over-

Indians
me

that

his attitude

hostile.
The

wrote

We

I told him

no

move

years!

the Hiawatha

at

Indians

no

more

Earth!

White

to

Hall

I met

Lac

miles.

hundred

one

in

been

During the twenty months

fiftyIndians, accordingto my information,
Indian Office refK)rt. At that rate, his job

fifty-oneaccording to the
have lasted nearly seven

and

us

and

have

not

cordial response.

no

in office he moved

was

Linnen

helped

Mille

could

expenses

while

He

us.

300

or

less). I

that Hall

to

Linnen's

Earth

White

to

came

move

he

it is well

this connection

In

$31,845.

cost

investigationmade by Linnen and myself,includingthe employment

and part of the fall,cost
thirty-sevenpersons, and lastingall summer

Secretary of

to

attention

portion of

the
to

the Bureau

Commissioner
the

them

sad

of Catholic

of Indian

condition
White

had

Indians, that

the

removal

of

brought them under the influence

of one
Gus
Beaulieu
and other politicians.They were
promised houses,
lands and farming implements. In Washington three years
a
ago I met
of this body were
delegationof the Ojibwa. Three of the members
sonally
perknown
and the Chief Ah-bow-we-ge-shig well known.
to me,
They
told me
that the last thing that Darwin
Hall did was
to summon
the Mille
to

Earth

of these

Missions, Charles S. Lusk,

in August, 1910, calling

Affairs

and

Lacs
He

persuade them

left them

White
Mr.

AMERICAN

THE

94

returned

did

page

did

considerable

them, and

move

Helen

from

scandal

not

their former

to

move

in camp,
promising to
Indians
waited
These

Earth.
Hall

to

INDIAN

not

homes.

in the

occur

The

Jackson's

Hunt

old

from

distance

their homes.

them
to
shortly and move
They had little food.
they suffered privations,and at last
return

weeks.

two

story of the Mille

of

"Century

days,

but

Lacs

reads

as

is recent

history.

this

Dishonor,*' yet

is

Who

responsible?

in the world would

be
and women
body of men
experiencethat
utterlydiscouraged if they had passed through the same
of White
fell to the lot of the Ojibwa Indians
Earth, Minnesota, during
twenty-fiveyears. I am acquainted with no community in the East where,
in the minds and hearts of the citizens,there would remain even
a
particle
of respect, or regard, or confidence, in any
culture,
or
or
government,
The sole saving grace is the
civilization,responsiblefor such a condition.
natural cheerfulness and optimism of the Ojibwa people,as a whole.
Many
and
of
them
will
farm
for
the
most
not
of them
work,
or
are
discouraged,
that the farming and working in the past resulted in those who were
reason
indolent
industrious being disciplined,
(see page 68) and those who were
white
would
similar
cumstances.
cirNo
work
under
rewarded.
man
woman
or
being
Yet, contrary to all precedents,they are cheerful and optimistic.
keen
of
and
selves.
themhave
humor,
sense
a
laugh
They
they
joke among
Almost

other

any

I desire to vary
a
by illustrating

having an animated
ground, smoking,

discussion.
and

yawn.

something which
interpreterturned

caused

stretch

and

first white
When

to

number

the other
and

me

seen

the Indians

were

of

officials

of the old Indians

he has

man

of the

one

One

of this recital of wrongs

after
interpreters,

the

and

old witnesses

The

the monotony
incidents.

and

ings,
suffer-

few

Indians

dinner

us

open

which

hour,

to

shout

with

and

in council
read

says,
a

on

merriment.

one

the
to

said
The

that that is the

lie did not

the

were

on

happened at this moment

immediately laughed and

his mouth

assembled

arrived

noon

about
lolling

were

said, "Mah-een-gonce

to

one

hop

out."

occasion, a long
preted
clerk, and inter-

by
Washington
by John Lufkins, a Carlisle graduate. At the conclusion of a tedious
called
we
interpretationrequiring an hour, a prominent Indian, whom
and
but
whose
correct
name
was
Ah-bow-we-ge-shig, arose
"Shorty,"
than fifteen or twenty seconds in
uttered a few words not requiringmore
His reply to the long,well-worded, indefinite Washington letter
utterance.
letter is like the food that we
Indians
is worthy of preservation. "That
and no meat."
have today, all soup
letter from

was

THE

ROLL

AND

STORIES

95

of the preliminary trials were

When
heard
some
previous to action by the Department of Justice, the
gah-dwun-gay-aush, eighty-two years of age, and who

at

remarkable

Indian

family

memory,

on

was

history of several

the

hundred

witness

stand.

persons

and

This

White

Earth,
Bay-

old

Indian

was

possessed of
knew

the

entirelyfamiliar with

was

all parts of the reservation.

The lawyers,however, would
ask him where
located a pieceof land described as Township 4, Section 15, Range 142,
was
and

who

the head
The
order

owned

attorneys
to

it,instead of asking the Indian, "Who

of Otter Creek?

"

or

purposely

substantiate

"Who

asked

their

owns

used to live at the head

the

Indian

contention

in

that

way

Indian

to

the land

at

of Otter Creek?
confuse

testimony

"

him, in
was

not

reliable.
for a long time, old
Having stood this annoying and unfair grilling
Bay-bah-dwun-gay-aush said something to the interpreterwhich caused
the other Indians to laugh. His remark
"Why does the lawyer ask
was,
where
land is? The
white lawyers know
the Indian
better than I,
me
because they now
of the lands.*' I believe that he added
that
most
own
stolen
effect.
had
that
words
to
or
them,
they
criticised by those who
Inspector Linnen, Mr. Allen and myself were
discredit
for
the
that we
looked
to
our
work;
reason
sought,unsuccessfully,
dance.
reverend
that we
One
on
during a squaw
gentleman contended
of
In fact, he reproached one
were
encouraging "pagan ceremonies'*.
the Government
oflBcialsrather severely. The Government
oflBcialdenied
having taken part in a pagan
dance, whereupon the reverend gentleman
asked
dances?'*
"I can
him, "Have
seen
truthfully
you
pagan
many
"
that
observed
but
which
the
I
dance
official,
never
one
say," replied
might truly be called pagan." The reverend gentleman seemed shocked,
but made
bold to inquire:"On
what reservation?"
"It was
no
on
ation.
reservThe
witnessed
the inaugural
dance
I ever
was
only real pagan
ball in Washington during Harrison's administration."
On another
the end of the investigation,
occasion, toward
we
were
visited by a reverend gentleman much
concerned
to the welfare of the
as
himself with
Indians, a most
worthy person, but who seemed to concern
rather
the
than
details,
great important questionsand problems of White
Earth.
There
the Indians, and the
was
a
good deal of drinking among
The
the
police made
frequent arrests.
day following an arrest, when
Indians had become
office
sober, they were
brought into Major Howard's
These
where
of "fatherly court"
held.
sort
a
hearings might be
was
Mr.
affairs
other
communities.
in
to
court
roughly compared
police
but
in
schoolLinnen and myself occasionally
the
went
in,
usuallywe were

AMERICAN

THE

96

Because

taking testimony.

room

INDIAN

multitudinous

details,the

think

were

did

we

not

charge of all those

assume

to
worthy gentleman from the East seemed
neglectingour duties. He thought we did not seem
appalled by the laxityof morals, etc. Such was not the case, for we had
missioner
already made a lengUiy report to the Secretary of the Interior and Comof Indian Affairs on the whiskey curse
and on immorality. However,
he spoke to an educated
The
Indian, and rather reprimanded us.

that

Indian's
I will
are

we

answer

was

give you

all

of the best I have

one

Indian

an

fire. Linnen

on

illustration.
Moorehead

and

and

the stable next, but

work on
the house and

the shed

heard.

ever

The
are

said, "Doctor,

He

shed, the stable and

trying to

is doomed.

You

save

them

want

the house

the house
to

first,

abandon

begin on the shed."

Today the Department of Justice has before it something like sixteen
hundred
Several times have
I
Earth.
cases
involving lands at White
While
written the Honorable
for
information.
General
some
Attorney
lands

have

admitted
we

been

returned, and

that there has not

hopped.This has had

It is my

firm

bad

conviction

Indians, for the

that

that

reason

instituted, it

reforms

some

must

be

the prompt, efficient "clean-up" for which

and Indians.
effect elsewhere on both Whites

been

white

they

are

people are encouraged to defraud

That is,
willingto "take a chance."

they know that the Indian property can be obtained in a short time, whereas
the procedure of recovery
will drag through months, (and usuallyyears)
feated.
and that the Government
of being dechance
stands more
than an
even
It

defeated

was

in the first White

Earth

cases.

powerful
point of view that the graftersare more
than the Great Father at Washington. While this seems
entirelyillogical,
The
nevertheless
from the Indians' point of view.
it is entirelytrue
The

Indians

take the

"

Indian

loses his property

under

such

conditions

as

occurred

Earth, by the removal of restrictions,in a few days, or

in a few months, or not more
than a few years.
this is true

and

does not

that

spend

in very
for years.
The
save

on

or

the

it
a

occurs

few

rare

instances.

Indians

attorneys

all

weeks,

over

or

the United
few

months

Usually, the

write letters to the

who

tried the

cases,

men

and

few

States.

He

at

White

where
weeks, elseknows
The

that

ment
Govern-

recoveringthe erty,
propGovernment
drag
cases
in

gation,
began the investireceive
they
just such

who

repliesas fillthe files in my oflSce: "I have the honor to advise you that
the Department is doing all it can
to trial. There
to bring the cases
was
merits.*
their
be
tried
much
taken
before
could
be
to
on
testimony
they
Some
almost ready for trial,and we
are
now
hope to submit them before
"

Letter of

Aug. 29th,

1914.

AMERICAN

THE

98

begun their labors.

had

summer,

hold

to

examinations

our

in which
of three
and

allotments.

were

With

the

and

we

assembled

were

The

chief had

and

his wife

lost
were

was

under

number

compelled

were

opposite the oflSce

the

room
school-

charge

of children

heirs to about

eleven

easilyworth $45,000 or $50,000, being mostly

had been
pine
exceptionof one or two others, this man
robbed of more
else,and it was patheticto hear him
property than anyone
in
whom
how
certain
he
trusted, had taken advantage of his
state
men
he had finished his long recital of wrongs,
I remarked,
ignorance. When
"You
must
have lost entire faith in the white people and in the Government
at Washington."
"Oh, no," he replied,"I think that Washington
if
would
there could hear my
give me justice only the men
story." Just
the school session came
he completed this statement,
to an
end, and we
as
thin
heard
the
the
childish
voices
through
partition
singing in unison
the
and this was
"My Country, 'Tis of Thee, Sweet Land of Liberty"
firsttime in my lifethat the words sounded
in my ears like a hollow mockery
timber.

These

he

thus

cold

was

children

teachers.

relatives,and

other

It

Just

indoors.

sixtyIndian

some

four white

or

INDIAN

"

and

sham.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

OF

Omitting ethnological
reports and Warpen*s

book

WHITE

EARTH

(seepage /^5)those who

desire to

study conditions

Earth, Leech Lake, Red Lake, and Cass Lake, are referred to the reports of the Secretary
of the Interior,Commissioner
of Indian Affairs,and the Board of Indian Commissioners
the past twenty
at White

These

years.

The
and

contain

all administrative

details.

legalaspect of the prosecutionwill be found in pamphlets issued by the Department of Justice,

the U. S. Court
White

Earth

House

of

of Claims.

the subjectof much

the part of Committees
of the Senate
on
investigation
Representatives.The most lengthy and exhaustive investigation,
covering every phase
of the subject,is the report of the Committee
on
Expenditure in the Interior Department, Honorable
of Illinois,Chairman.
James
M. Graham
House
Resolution
No. 103; July 25, 1911 -April, 1912;
Those who care
2759
to follow the subjectfurther, will find in this lengthy report an
enormous
pp.
and

amoimt
A
of

has been

of material.

synopsisentitled "The

Friends

of the Indian

and

Lesson of White
Other

Eiarth" will be found

Dependent Peoples held

in the report of the 30th Conference

Mohonk, N. Y., October, 1912.

at Lake

CHAPTER

IX.

THE

MESSIAH
The

Sioux

is

AND

SIOUX

THE

CRAZE

As the Iroquois
famous
Indian
nations.
of American
in the forerank
placed them
to the
aborigines, so the Sioux from the days of Lewis and Clark down
in evidence.
present have been much
They are primarily a strong, hearty
race
at Standing Rock,
possessed of dominant
spirit. Their reservations
of the 28,000 natives of this stock.
Rosebud, Pine Ridge, etc., contain most
Reference
to Major Powell's
will acquaint readers with the
linguisticmap
of
Conmiissioner*s
extent
enormous
territory they once
occupied. The
of
shows
that these people today own
1913
small fraction of their
a
map
originalholdings.
The
of the Sioux, the famous
that they have
men
general progress
covered
Red
in the chapters treating of Education,
produced, I have
Cloud, SittingBull, etc.
known
oflScers as Horse
to the army
Indians, and to many
They were
activities

others

Plains

as

canoe

Hills and

most

our

ago

Indians.

The

horse

the

the

Ojibwa or
entirelyconfined

to

was

almost

was

of

one

centuries

two

the Missouri

Penobscot.

to the

River.

the

to

was

eariy days

their

bark

habitat

Plains, the foothills of the Black

Great

in Minnesota

at an
early period,
The
older
by the Ojibwa.
Ojibwa claim that the Sioux frequently surprised hunting parties of these
woods
the Ojibwa were
Indians, and that whenever
caught out on the plain
the
with
defeated
Sioux, they were
by
invariably
great loss. The Ojibwa
therefore resorted to the strategy of luring the Sioux into the woods.
Where
this was
into play and
of the Ojibwa came
possible,the expert woodcraft
they generally defeated their enemies with heavy slaughter.

but

driven

were

1850

on
as

far

their
The

westward

1868

found

With

the

the Missouri, and

I have
The

so

to

indicated

and

the

were

southward

Sioux

railroad, and

the great influx of white

in

some

detail

other

on

the

on

supremacy

of the

coming

history is concerned,

chief
wild

support,
horse

thoroughly,
that

was

the
of

in fact
a

is pretty

their

later

traders, their

Sitting Bull,

life

and

we

should

Plains

questioned.
un-

navigation

powers

declined

other

divisions,

pages.

the

much

acquisition.

past fiftyyears,

mentioned.

very

Great

steamboat

story of the Brule, Miniconjou, Oglala, Teton

as

Cloud,

They

In

the birch

what

Sioux

was

In

The

same.

bound
order

study

in addition

and

the

up
to

buffalo

understand

in detail the
Messiah

was

in this animal.
them

life of Red

craze,

as

viously
pre-

AMERICAN

THE

100

The

belief.

beyond
in full

between

contrast

In

1890,

later,I found
ditches, and
irrigation

Ridge

of the

one

of

today and

that of 1890

strangest ceremonies

doing

their best

toward

plainswhere once clustered

brick buildingsof
large,modern

On
the

were

the Pine

is almost

imaginable was

In 1909, when
I visited Pine Ridge, exactlynineteen years
their allotments, farming, digging
the Sioux working upon

swing.

road."

INDIAN

the

the

institution

where

men

young

and

"taking the white man's

tipisof the Ghost dancers
cessful
sucOglala school, a most

the

are

women

trained

in the arts.

than surprising it is
of these Indians
is more
chieflydue to the fact that they have had as their
is in sympathy with them
who
and who
Superintendent or Agent a man
influence. Major John R. Brennan
has not been replacedthrough political
than fifteen
old fightingOglala Sioux for more
has supervisedthe famous

Certainly the

remarkable.

progress

And

"

it is

years.

The
are

been
but

the soil is

do the best

is much

there

desired.

large as

as

suited

more

they

under

can

have

All of the Sioux

fanaticism

such

as

all of the

the circumstances.
so

progressed,that it is unthinkable
dance will again overtake them.

far

the Ghost

predict that

safe to

is, as I have said,creditable,but they

and the increase in stock has not
suffering,
Farming operationscontinue on a large scale,
to grazing than farming,although the Indians

of these Indians

progress

still poor,

since all of their children

have

been

that any
It is quite

educated

and

of every
reservation
have been allotted land in
nearly
will
continue
if
the ravages
of tuberculosis
and
to progress,
severalty,
they
are
stayed,a largenumber of the descendants of the full-bloods will survive
and

become
These

in the
and

Sioux

useful citizens.

Indians, after the

publiceye until occurred

being the chief event

that

considerable
On

to

space

the famous

of

SittingBull,
Ghost

since the Custer

dance,

fightwe

were

or

must

not

Messiah
needs

much
craze,

devote

it.

during the past two centuries, in this country,

priests,have prophesied the coming of an Indian
Messiah.
We
shall at some
future time consider this interesting
subject
in detail,but within the period embraced
in this book, that peculiarcraze
which
and the South
during the year 1890,
swept throughout the West
and known
the Ghost Dance, is the chief religious
event.
as
JamesMr.
of Ethnology, published a very
Mooney of the Bureau
comprehensive monograph, in 1896, entitled "The Ghost Dance Religion",
in the Fourteenth
Annual
of Ethnology. I shall
Report of the Bureau
information
the
in
this
draw
presented
chapter partlyfrom Mr. Mooneyes
Indian

several

surrender

shamans,

occasions
or

MESSIAH

THE
axjcount, but more
at Pine

of 1890

from my
especially
own
Ridge reservation,South

the Messiah

Sioux

CRAZE

reached

craze

101

in the winter

made
investigation

Dakota, where

Oglala

the

among

its culmination.

Oglala dances was taken down at the time by Mr.

George E. Bartlett (Huste) and myself. Our work was not copyrighted,
monized,
its way
into various publications,and after being harand soon
found
fair
to
than
music
in general use.
It is no more
was
our
soon
Mr. Mooney,
that as I lay no claim to specialskill as an ethnologist,
say
able
and
such
to present
studies, was
having more
training
experiencein
the songs and their translations more
accurately. I believe,in my original
in January
York
articles published in the Illustrated American
of New
of the Sioux word-syllableswere
and February, 1891, some
not
properly
spaced,

number

investigatethe
inaugurated by him.

I did

not

was
religion

him.

He

proper

Ridge,

name,

Mr.

time, and

known

was

to

Messiah
The

Mooney

set

out

visited Walker

told

Sioux

1891,

for Pine
Lake

correct,

although

paper.

in the

me

after the trouble at Pine

year

Ridge,

he

where

reservation

although the new

great deal concerning
Mooney gives as his

West,

Johnson, whereas

as

few minor

were

published was

as

technical

In November,

Wovoka.

then

them

there

omitted, and

the account

"popular'',rather than

was

marks

of accent

in the main

But

errors.

it

of the

music

The

in

spent considerable
Wovoka

where

Nevada,

ing
(Johnson) lived. Here he obtained at first hand the information concernwith
the originof the Messiah
a
nd
has
a
us
very
religion,
presented
valuable and interestingaccount.
dreamer.
of all Messiahs
As in the case
a
was
or
prophets, Wovoka
known
He inherited the spiritof prophecy, for his father before him was
had
the
of
time
The
at
never
visit,
a
as
man
Mooney's
prophet.
young
small area,
some
wandered
a
beyond the valley wherein he resided
his
and
Wovoka
the
miles
in
to
religion
Paiute,
length.
thirty
belonged
which Mooney records.
be summed
may
up in this statement
"

"When

people who
my
or

the
had

people they
lie. He
If the

gave

died, I

sun

died
must
me

went

long time
be good and

this dance

missionaries

and

to

heaven

to

up

God

ago.

love

one

told

and
me

God

saw

to

another, and

come

not

and
back

to

tell

fight,or steal,

people."
employees had seized
remarkable
paragraph, the new

give

all the
and

my

Government

upon

the

sentiment
uttered in this
religion
shall see
Instead of that, as we
might have been turned to good account.
an Agent
presently,
utterlyignorantof Indians, saw in this sacred ceremony
the very
worst
and he sent for troops
nothing beyond a "war dance"
have
done.
possiblething he could
beautiful

"

INDIAN

AMERICAN

THE

102

days conversing with this interestingi"erson,

Wovoka, who told him that he had given to his people this dance about
talked very
to have
two
freely with Mr.
previously. He seems
years
him
and
when
take
his
to
left,
Mooney
photograph,
Mooney, permitting
the prophet gave him as souvenirs to exhibit to his friends,a blanket of
which
and
rabbit skins, sacred paint endowed
with miraculous
powers
and
of
Ghost
dance
in
the
ritual
the
plays an important part
religion,
Mooney

other

spent

many

trinkets.
In

they
was

there

Oklahoma
him

gave

Mooney
written

permitted to take
was
nothing bad
Mooney traveled

the

with

met

Washington

to

to

hostile in the

or

months

many

and

Cheyennes

of the doctrine

statement

Arapahoes

he

authorities,"that

the

convince

and

which

of Wovoka,

religion."

new

South

and

West

his excellent

and

that he studied every phase of the dance.

My work was
Ridge where I studied the dance while it was in progress.
There
it appeared in all its purity; there the white people made
of it a
"warlike"
a
demonstration; there stupidityand ignorance transformed
Wounded
into a bloody tragedy
Knee.
peaceful,religious
ceremony
I employed three
interpreters:the Weasel
(Itonkasan,) George

report is evidence
confined

Pine

to

"

Bartlett

(Huste), and
Charles

Doctor
was

Frenchman, whose name

Eastman, the Sioux, some

A.

published,informed

during and after

intimately.
Summing up
of 1890

craze

In

It

of such

"give

me

the

trouble

was

was

Mooney's conclusions in
mixture of Christianityand

"you

as

Mother
of the

white

came";

There
was

was

the

upon

only
stand

this

has
pages

few

all the

fight",and,

"do

actors

religion.

the sentiments

language,but the

not

present before,

words, the Messiah

Indian
to

account

of Jesus

frequentrepetitions
injury to no one";

man's

"Dance

avarice, the communistic

seized

must

years

ways"; "live as brothers as you did before

and
faithfullyto the Great Spirit";"Father
are
talking";etc., indicate a belief in the better things of life and
hereafter.
Instead of hostility,
was
proclaimed; instead of
peace

up

the bad

conformed

craze

expressedin His

not

recall.

after my

correct, and he was

was
Pine Ridge, and
knew

Mr.

sentiments

the Whites

that

at

nutshell,the Messiah

Christ.

that it

I do not

183-220.

life

discontented

one

taken
to

craze

commented
And

advocated.

was

while

element,

by SittingBull
further
in full

their
on

I do not

question that SittingBull sought

to

own

and

or
a

discordant

few

other

personal aims.

SittingBull's
entirelyagree
gain through

note,

and

Indians, who

Major

Laughlin
Mc-

attitude
with

in his book,
him, it is beyond

the Messiah

craze.

To

THE

certain extent

in his mind,
Bull

MESSIAH

he advocated

desired above

all

103

resistance,but the dominating desire

that Sitting
would
indicate, was

armed

careful review

CRAZE

of events

things to

the Indians

see

to their old-time

restored

of the buffalo,
prayed
days'* would be impossible. He probably
good
believed that volcanic action ("wave of mud",
the Oglala called it)
as
would sweep
the country, destroy the Whites
and leave the red men
across
happy possessors of the Plains and countless herds of bison, elk and deer.
That
the belief of many
of the Indians, and so expressed by them
was
the
Ghost
dance.
during
The
Ghost
seized upon
was
dance, or Messiah
by all these
craze,
domination.

without

Sioux

these

the

others, he

"the

which

as

that

Like

Indians

had

In 1876, only fourteen

several companies of the

supply
had

of

become

It is not
referred

to

years

remember

the reservation

on

years

before, they killed Custer

Seventh

stillration

to

necessary

Pine

at

wiped

and

Cavalry.

the

Indians, and

of the Sioux

repeat the troubles

of the treaties,Indian

some

of this book.

pages

few

must

some
They had made
of
the
down
they were
cutting
Indians
the
before
hundreds
of
thousands
beef, etc.,
pounds,
caused
self-supporting,
widespread suffering.

but

progress,

We

of their troubles.

out

lived but

Ridge.
out

return

old

of salvation

means

for the

here.

I have

in other
for dissatisfaction,

cause

In the

springof 1889, so I was

authorizingthe purchase

informed

at Pine

Ridge,
of land

Congress passed an act

a
these people. Honorable
of Ohio, and
Charles Foster, ex-Governor
several other gentlemen were
to negotiate with
appointed a committee
held
the Indians.
councils were
According to the Indians' version, many
of

large tract

from

and

great deal of discussion ensued.

and

strenuous

of
educated

they

the
Indian

all related to

Sioux

reservation

summed

up

purchase
the

"

their

the debates

Sometimes

cause

of lands
old

same
as

story.

follows:

were

rather

the further

to

"

An

tailing
cur-

intelligent

"

by the treaty were divided into three classes. All

within a period of three
tracts selected for farming or grazing purposes
Those
to be sold at $1.25 per acre.
years from February 15, 1890, were
valued
at seventy-five
purchased during the two years following were
The
cents
portions remaining unsold after the expirationof
per acre.
five years could be bought for fifty
The money
received from
cents per acre.
the sale of the land was
States Treasury, subject
to be placed in the United
to interest,which was
to be paid to the Indians at regularintervals.
self
his Agent considered qualified
for supporting him"Any Sioux whom
"The

secured

to be allowed

was

which

lands

was

determined

to select for his

by

the number

own

use

of members

tract

of land, the

in his

area

of

family. Farming

and

implements

INDIAN

AMERICAN

THE

104

utensils,oxen
also to be given him.

horses, seed, etc., and

or

fiftydollars

in

Notices to acquaint the Sioux with this

buildings,
conspicuous places in the agency
and every inducement
offered the people to take the land in severalty.
was
So far, about
hundred
smaller number
at Standing
at Rosebud,
a
one
hundred
made
two
at Pine Ridge have
Rock, and some
applicationsto
the Agents for allotments.

cash

were

propositionwere

posted

MODERN

as

SIOUX

in

CABIN

of many

made
"Inquirieswere
why more
persons

did

to

liberal offer and

become

not

for not taking up land

already prejudiced that under
be impossibleto interest more
agriculture."*
Some

of the Indians'
have

always

which
"

Written

in 1890,

at

are

Pine

TENT.

Ridge

RIDGE,

men

themselves

on

severaltyconvinced

the reservation
Government's

of the

Indians'

answers

all

1909

and

their

questionersnot

present condition of affairs it would

than a small percentage of the nation in
the

statements

maintained
never

in

PINE

of the leading
avail

self-supporting.The

reasons

Indians

SUMMER

AND

may

be denied

in Washington.

The

that many
missioners
things are told them by Comcarried into effect. I am
that
quite aware

o
Q

CO

I
CO

s
n

8
S
CO

2::
02

"THE

MESSIAH

CRAZE

107

few days ago that it was

a
Keeps-the-Battle (Kicizapi
Tawa) told me
during the visit of the Pine Ridge Sioux last July that he first heard of
the coming of the new
Messiah.
He related the followingstory:
"Scarcely had my people reached the Ute villagewhen we heard of
white preacher whom
the Utes held in the highest esteem, who
told a
a
beautiful

dream

strange person
to

us

word

to

our

vision of the coming of

or

arightthe wrongs
hunting grounds, was

and

he gave utterance
"His teaching had

the commands

to became

so

man,

man.

people; he could
powerful that every

This
restore

wish

or

fulfilled.

strange effect upon

of this

good red

of my

to set

was

game

great and

they began

the Utes, and, in obedience

Messiah

dance."

the arrival
Keeps-the-Battle further said that, immediately upon
of the hunting-party at Pine Ridge, a small dance was
held in imitation
of the ones
the Utes, but that until the medicine
they had seen while among
The
men
began to superintend the ceremonies nothing unusual occurred.
dances were
held every few days until the middle of August. Then, with
scarcelyany warning, a wild and general desire took possessionof a large
the moment
he set
the expected Messiah
part of the nation to welcome
foot upon
Mr. H. G. Galagher was
earth.
then Agent, and, fearingthat the
enthusiasm
of the Sioux under his charge might terminate
in an outbreak,
he visited White
Indian
Bird's camp
fourteen
police.
accompanied by
As he approached the village,
of
the brush and,
twenty warriors sprang out
him
to halt.
drawing their Winchesters, called upon
They would not
permit him to advance, and compelled the party to turn about and retrace
its footstepsto the agency.
The news
of this bold action spread like wildfire through the country,
and being heralded
and exaggerated by the daily press, caused many
an
and
timid
settler
the
nearest
to
to
to
goint upon
remove
uneasy
prepare
the railroad.
The
carried

of the failure of the agent to stop the Messiah

dance
was
couriers to the Indians at Rosebud
and Standing Rock
vations,
reser-

news

by

with the
infatuated
became
susceptiblepersons
dances
were
arranged at points distant from
the agency
posts, in order that no employee might interfere. Of course,
both the Sioux and the Whites
much
excited.
The former were
ready
were
and willingto throw off forever the odious yoke of oppression;the latter,
fearful for the safetyof their homes
and families.
barricaded
The
white people became
frantic from fear, houses
were
and
all Indians
viewed
with suspicion. A sensational
magnified
press
events, and settlers accused
friendlyIndians, who had joined the
many
and

new

craze.

the

more

Meetings

and

THE

108

dance

for

other

no

INDIAN

AMERICAN
than

purpose

accusation, coupled with

worship, of hostile intentions.

arrival of

the

some

four

as

five times

number

as

many

of

fled to the northward.

men

But

to

return

quite natural
reception near

to

to

seem

It is
Galagher last summer.
little frightenedat his
not
that the Agent was
a
would
Bird's'* camp,
and, as subsequent events

the mission

to

suppose

"White

SIOUX

to

subdue

to

were

small

or

lodgers which
necessary
later fled into the borders of the Bad Lands, had the effect of turning the
timid toward
the agency,
while the braver middle-aged and young
more
troops

the

This

FARMING.

WHITE

indicate, he feared

discontinue

their dance.

CREEK,

CLAY

PINE

RIDGE,

1909

his authority and compel the Sioux

would die out
hoped that in time the craze

to

assert

He

his part.
But
instead of ceasing, the number
ing
threatenincreased,and reallythingsbegan to assume
a
participating
very
without

interference

of Agent

on

the change of Agents and Dr. D. F. Royer, of Alpina,

aspect. Then came
Mr.
for so
the man
Dakota, succeeded
not
Galagher. Royer was

South

trying a post, and

certain to follow.
bombarded
every

as

both

And

no

the

Agents

sooner

were

political
appointees,trouble was
begin to dance than Royer

did Indians

Washington with requests for troops.

day.

He

sent

letter

or

gram
tele-

MESSIAH

THE
The

dancers

slow to take

not

were

CRAZE

109

of

advantage

Galagher'sor Royer's

non-interference,and

Agent
The

circulation to the eflfectthat their

a report gained wide
afraid to command
the policeto arrest the principals
in the dance.

was

medicine

addressed
"Do

you?

have

use

arms.

Now

Whites

should

you

hands?

brave, and the

Be

Be

cowards,

and

he will

consider

the

Messiah

us

Be

Saviour

men,

on

children.

not

reservation

own

afraid of

are

the

send

much

as

as

exercise the

guns.

let

reservation
to

your

SittingBull,

followingmanner:

the

on

the late

as

great Wakantanka

to

pray

stamp

same

after the

remedy lies in your own

perfectright to dance upon

your

your

the

that

see

you

please,and

you

somewhat

the

when

You

to

do

of the

Indians

men

not

you

Why

earth

and

men

the young

if you find it necessary

rights,even
and
will aid
good
great Wakantanka
be ashamed
of you."
it appeared in its purity.
craze
as

beliefs the candidate

for admission
to the church
nearly all religious
of
is
to
certain
ceremonies.
body
worshippers
compelled
through
pass
ever
our
own
day we maintain certain practiceswhich have nothing whatIn

or

In

do

to

by

with

tradition

do

There

one's salvation,but

not

in 1889-1890.
and

the dance.

issue from

men

if it is

Whites
rub

and

himself
The

located

pipe

the

cold weather

chillythey
half-breeds

The

shamans

blankets

wrap

who

have

Knee

took

served, and had

was

common

its

craze

the

among

became

use

spread,
wide-

it

at
power

priorto

things ever

saw

streams.

their

or

departurefor the

of the
Sioux

the agency
Water's

No

One

charge.

the affair.

start

North

of considerable

camps

miles from

under

stop

the

Other

least controlled
to

these

None

bath.

creek.

the dance

their bodies.

about

witnessed
the

of the dancers

Wounded

"high priest,"or

was

the Messiah

White
Clay creek, four
and
Medicine
Root
Porcupine
upon
rendezvous.
the
later,
general
be

sacredly preserved.

specialpreparationson the
in frequent use, and many

any

sweat-bath

existed upon

to

are

both

down

prepared them, or purifiedthem, for

When
the young
during the sweat.
perspirationis fairlystreaming from every
they plunge into a pool in the creek nearby,

issuingfrom

largestcamp
upon

The

handed

is also smoked

their bath

after

on

been

been

have

this account

sweat-lodge

during
thought

But

dancers

If it is not

pore.

but

the
The

have

to

appear

The
part of the candidates.
Indians
themselves.
purified
Sioux

which

historical record, and

and

Three

the dance.

was

extent

headquarters,
camp

became,

of them

seemed

or

four assistants

s
00

.1

PCS
W

o^

CHAPTER
Several

sweat-houses

X.
erected

are

DANCE

THE

in order

to

the

prepare

men

young

of young
fifty or sixty,
good number
say
men,
have
taken
the sweat-bath, and prepared themselves, the high priest and
his assistants come
forward.
The
eagle-feathersin his
high priest wears
assistants are
The
dressed
hair, and a shirt reaching nearly to his knees.
other
in similar manner,
but wear
than
the
ornaments
eagle-feathers.
no
for the

The

dance.

dancers

When

wear

whatsoever,

ornaments

no

and

enter

the

circle without

blankets.

their

and
finery and dance
lay aside all ornaments
without
the trappings which
conclusively that
they so dearly love proves
their
In
other
influence
is
work.
dances, (the
at
some
powerful religious
the Old Woman,
herbs
the Sun) feathers and
Omaha,
bangles; weapons,
or
painted and plaited grasses; porcupine quills,horses' tails and bits of
in great profusion.
fur-skins; necklaces, bells,silver discs, etc., are worn
fasted.
for "conversion''
After they
At Pine Ridge few candidates
have come
the sweat-house
the sacred
to
forth from
enter
they are ready
circle. The
quickly from the village to the open
high priest runs
space
of ground, five or six hundred
yards distant, and, stationing himself near
follows:
the sacred
tree, begins his chant
as
Indians

That

should

hear, all

"Hear,

hurry

"Come,
"I

and

up

the circle, tell these

myself have

persons!

you

and

dance,

people what
in

been

the

when

have

you

you

in the

seen

spiritland

have

and

finished

running in

spiritland.

have

tell

seen

strange

many

and

true."

me
are
good
my
eyes
and
crowd
to the dancewomen
speaker proceeds, the men
the
number
of persons
three
to
form
two
circles,
according
ground. They
or
with
who
wish
to
fingers interlocked
participate, and, grasping hands
toward
the left.*
around
("Indian grip"), the circles begin to move
the
sacred
It is a nearly
stands
In the center, at No Water's
tree.
camp,
of branches
to a height
straightsapling thirty or forty feet high, trimmed
white
attached
is
small
of several feet.
To
the topmost
flag or
a
twigs
with
of purity, together
some
canvas
strip,supposed to be an emblem
colored
strips. The base of the tree is wrapped with rushes and flags to

and

beautiful
As

the

thickness

thrust

things, all of which

of

some

little giftsor

feet.

Between

the reeds

This

Chapter

was

written

from

time

to

time

peace-offerings. These offeringsare supposed to allay

given in perfectlygood faith by the
pieces of calico, bags of tobacco, or

the anger
of the Great
Spirit,and are
natives.
consist
of small
They
poor
*

the dancers

at

Pine

Ridge, December,

1890.

112

THE

AMERICAN

INDIAN

deeply
pipes. During the height of excitement, those worshippers most
of flesh from their arms,
affected cut small particles
and thrust these, also,
the rushes of the holy tree.
between
that after the
(the Weasel, "Itonkasan'') informs me
Henry Hunter
dance had been running some
days, the rushes covering the base of the
b
esmeared
with human
blood!
tree
were
literally
toward
the left,the priestand his assistants cry
As the circle moves
he raises
As they pause
out
loudly for the dancers to stop a moment.
the west, and upon
all the people actingsimilarly,
his hands toward
begins
the followingremarkable
prayer:
have
Grandfather
and Grandmother
"Great
Spirit,look at us now.
but
these
All
to
Wakantanka,
see
come.
they will
good people are going
be brought safelyback
to earth.
Everything that is good you will see
there, and you can have these things by going there. All things that you
tell your
hear there will be holy and true, and when
return
can
you
you
it is."
friends how spiritual
As
aloud with all the fervor of religious
he prays,
the dancers
cry
of them exclaiming: "Great
fanatics. They moan
and sob, many
Father,
me."
I want
to have pity upon
you
of these people.
One
can
scarcelyimagine the terrible earnestness
school-teachers,
George E. Bartlett, and Mr. Sweeney, one of the agency
that during
the chief herder, Mr. John Darr, and others, have informed
me
their extended
the
of
at
duration,
they
years'
experience
many
agency,
have witnessed many
of the dance,
of these dances.
They describe the scene
especiallyat night,as most weird and ghostlike. The fires are very large,
and shed a brightreflection all around; the breasts of the worshippersheave
and cry as if they were
with emotion; they groan
sufferinggreat agony,
to ask great Wakantanka
to forgivetheir sins.
and the priestbegs them
After prayer
have been made
and weeping, and offerings
to the sacred
pole, the dance is started again. The dancers go rather slowly at first,
and as the priestsin the center
begin to shout and leap about, the dancers
Instead of moving with a regular step, each
partake of the enthusiasm.
backward
and
forward, up and down, as hard as he or she
jumps
person
One
without
hold upon
their neighbor's hand.
their
can
relinquishing
by one the dancers fall out of the ranks, some
staggeringlike drunken men,
fall
others wildly rushing here and there almost bereft of reason.
Many
blinded
while
the
if
of
earth
to writhe
about as
demons,
possessed
upon
and run
throw
their clothes over
their heads
women
through brush or
in the faces
The
trees.
busy
waving eagle-feathers
against
priestsare kept
of the most
violent worshippers. The
feather is considered
sacred, and

disturb

not

and

them

to

say

attention

further instructed

He

us.

make

priestswould

he would

for the

to return

me

that if they would

the Whites

to

INDIAN

AMERICAN

THE

114

in the dance

be constant

shortly come

and

and

pay

If the

their aid.

to

medicine-shirts

dancers

people,the Sioux,

to my

them

over

pray

Whites
that the bullets of any
harm
could come
to the wearer;
no
fall to the ground without
dance would
desired to stop the Messiah

the person
firingsuch shots would drop dead. He said
prepared a hole in the ground filled with hot water and fire for

that he had

reception of all white

words

commanded

was

GHOST

Just

DANCE

after the

tree, with his

or

break;

going through
So

him.
use

or

The

arms

some

have

man

may

motion

CAMP,

been

or

be
to

woman

to

presence

the father
is
and

parting

in

which

may

moaning about their

all join,singing with

be at this moment
as

at

the

if their heart

walking and crying,wringing his hands,

for his transindicate the deepest sorrow
gressions.
to

his mother

refers, of

supposed
hasten

these

by Hust6

the rushes, sobbing

about

the singer cries aloud

appeal

Sketch

18"0.

crying and

first song,

the

With

earth."

to

WATER'S

thrown

another

in this connection

the mother's

NO

dancers

her

or

return

AT

non-believers.

and

men

to

sins the priestsstrike up

Some
deafening loudness.
would

that

doing

harm, and

anyone

the

no

high

to

her

course,

be present and aid

the Messiah, and its

to
to

give emphasis

coming.

to

the

demand

for

(93

"*

en

O
en

CD
"

rSi

-^

*^
"

CL.
"

^-j

en

^.

O
en

cd
"^

en

THE

116

The
the

second

goodness

song

AMERICAN

INDIAN

requiresa longer explanation.

of the father.

Some

It expresses
in brief
has come
to life from

of the dancers

one

the trance, and has just related his or

The Messiah, or Father, has been very

her

experiencein the other world.

the high
to the subject,and

near

importance of this fact,runs about the interior

several pipes around, exclaiming that these pipes
received direct from the Great Spirit,
and that all who smoke
them
were
will live. The
worked
of
such
to
a
people are
pitch
religiousfrenzy
up
truth undisthat their minds
are
now
as
willingto receive any utterance
The
putable,so they pass around the pipes,singingthe song meanwhile.
of
the
"This
Father
indicates
the
that
the
God
words,
says,"
repetition
inspiresall that is done.
One of the visions seen
when
under the influence
woman
by a young
of the trance, varied somewhat
from the others.
She told the following

priest,enlargingupKjn
of the circle handing

the

story:
"I
I

saw

carried into the beautiful

was

small but well-made

land

others have

as

lodge constructed

been, and

entirelyof rushes and

there
reeds.

the fine basket-work

closelytogether and resembled
make
the
The
winter.
tipi was
during
many
squaws
vided
prowith a stone
flat
laid up
of
stones
small,
wall, which was
composed
againstthe walls to the height of three or four feet. In this lodge the great
dwelt and would issue forth at noon.
Wakantanka
Promptly at the time
when
above
trembled
the sun
the
was
violentlyand then began
me
lodge
its descent toward
the earth.
It landed near
the dance-ground, and there
This was
the
clothed in a blanket of rabbit-hides.
stepped forth a man
These

woven

were

of

that

our

he

Messiah, and

to

come

vision of Little Horse

The
"Two

They

had

is stillmore

holy eaglestransported me

showed

me

the Great

Messiah

I wept, for there were

fastened
had once

countenance

the cruel Whites

in his side also, but as

of feathers this wound

wound
mantle
blanket.
no

He

Whites

prepared
should

ever

insisted that

should

enter

for the Indians.

the

as

in
nail-prints

he

to a

kept
only

could

I looked

his hands

be

covered
seen

Grounds.

when

his fair

upon

and

There

large cross.

himself

said:

He

Hunting

Happy

there, and

him

city nor
The

remarkable.

to

continue

we

his

with
he

feet where
was
a

shifted

the dance, and

partake

of the

earth, he said, was

small

beautiful

promised me
good things he

now

worn

out

his
that
had

and

be

repeopled.
a long beard
looked upon."

"He

us."

save

had

and

longhair,and

was

the most

handsome

man

it

DANCE

THE

Before

117

descriptionof

the dance

it

appeared during
Ridge, I would like to add
that the dances were
in
held throughout the day usually,but that once
all
continued
while, when
a
a
villagewas
especiallydevout, they were
night. In that event food was
prepared in large quantities,so that the
could
of
refreshments
when
worshippers
partake
they desired.
The high priestfrequentlyannounces
in a loud tone the visions related
to him
His discourse is often interruptedby loud grunts
by the converts.
of approval on the part of the assembled
natives.
The personalexperience
concluding my

the first few

months

of the Weasel

may

of its existence

be

at

as

Pine

of interest:

to
visions,but the other Indians told me
no
dancing I saw
think of anything in particular,
the
fastened
not
but keep my
upon
eyes
I would
all that they saw.
priests,and soon
see
"The
first large dance held was
under the
Creek
Wounded
Knee
on
Two
I attended
this one,
but did not
observe
guidance of Big Road.
Strike in the audience.
for several weeks
We had been dancing irregularly
when
into camp
a
runner
came
greatly excited, one night, and said that
the soldiers had arrived at Pine Ridge and were
sent
by the Great Father
at Washington.
The priestscalled upon
the young
at this juncture
men
but to continue the dance, but have horses ready so
not to become
angry
that all could flee were
mounted
the militaryto charge the village.So we
our
ponies and rode around the hills all night singingour two songs."

"While

I asked

the Weasel:

"Yes, they
over

these

wore

garments,

herself with

edge turned,

"Did

and

they

butcher-knife

a
so

you

ever

see

the medicine-shirt

blessed shirts that

powerful

was

on

were

the
the

The

night.
bullet-proof.One

arm,

but

medicine

the blade
in the

worn?"

priestshad

said prayers
girltried to gash

was

shirt."

bent

and

the

CHAPTER

XI.

About

LOUIS

December

8th

SHANGRAUX

AND

THE

TROOPS

Louis

Shangraux and some

prominent Indians
the
dancers
in. December
to
were
by
military
persuade
come
heard
15th
we
thirty
singing, and running out of our
quarters, beheld
horsemen
the agency.
advancing upon
large numbers
Following them were
of the "hostiles".
well armed.
and
Every
was
man
superbly mounted
Six-shooters
their
were
sides, while the gun-cases,
hung at
neatly beaded
and
The
ornamented,
were
strapped and
hung
along the saddles.
drew
warriors
in
front
of
the
and
general's
(Brooke) headquarters,
as
up
the last notes
of the song
died away
As
backs.
leaped from the animals'
into the commanding
officer's presence,
stood
who
they crowded
we
near
had the honor
of shaking hands
with these men.
comed
The
general himself welof commendation,
them
with
words
for he thoroughly appreciated
sent

the

the

out

of

efforts

to

"friendlies"

the

in

the

desire

to

bloodshed.

prevent

That

night, accompanied
by my
interpreter Bartlett, I visited the
of
Scout
and
secured
the following narrative
lodge
Shangraux,
regarding
the expedition and
the intentions
of the hostiles.
"One

week

office,and

told

bloodshed.

the

of Short

he

me

said

He

good, that

(the 8th) the general called

ago

was

and

good,

some

trouble.
would

given

was

No

true

subsequent

events

The

he

knew
with

went

Indian

an

his party,

could

him,

who

found

was

is located

had

failed

in great

resulted

the

reach

to

all information

that

select

to

power

whom

this

Jutz

had

out

site
camp-

regarding the

entirely unreliable."

was

the

man

not

sent

his

bringing in the hostiles without

of

of Father

Kicking Bear, and

men

white

kill anyone

mission
scouts

strength of the hostiles

Louis

the

Government

Bull

desirous

very

that

into

(Shangraux)

me

should

to

be

be

for

and

accordingly chose

depended

it

venture

in

upon

believed

was

the

near

of

case

hostiles

the

From

camp.

true.

the valley. But

plateau, 130 feet above
camp
is
observed
the Indians
claimed
Louis
one
approach
a
narrow
path.
had piled stones, or made
breastworks.
ammunition
They possessed much
and food; two
springs afforded plenty of water, and their situation appears
been
to have
Some
little way
secure.
off,in the valley, was
large village.
a
"When
there
entered
and
about
262
we
were
liodgespresent. One hundred
on

"

seventeen

squaws

of these
and

men

remained
came

and

forward

145
to

returned

greet

us,

with
and

us

to

the

all seemed

agency.
very

The

friendly.

LOUIS

They supposed
learned

our

time

have

to

which

first that

at

mission

true

anything

had

we

they seemed
do

to

with

very

Just before

us.

formed

119

when
to join them, but
they
and refused for some
suspicious,

come

lasted the greater part of four days, the

forward
and announced
that there would

came

TROOPS

THE

SHANGRAUX;

began the council,

we

and his helpers

high-priest
be a Ghost-dance.
They

circle about

the sacred tree and began their chant.

Knee, this beat the record.
dancing I saw on Wounded
into trances
the
and
the
dozen,
People went
kept busy
priestswere
by
in
the
of
the
fainters.
Several
remained
trances
as
relating
experiences
twelve
the
when
and
of
exhaustion
evidences
hours,
utter
long as
gave
a

"Of

all the wild

directors aroused
"Short

ridingin
black

them.

Bull

said:

If he is

man.

again,and he is an
white

*I

the Messiah

see

plain-wagon drawn

by

Messiah

our

Indian.

Ah!

we

coming from

are

wait; I

like

and

him

see

is

He

the West.

much
looks very
I
fooled.
Now
greatly

mules

two

the third time, and

him

see

he is

make

tells

children to school, to
to send my
me
large
Do not fight,my
children, unless the
fightany more.
soldiers first fire upon
you.'
their eyes rolled, and
excited they trembled
all over,
so
"People were
the muscles
Indians
of their faces twitched.
the
most
were
They
crazy
a

He

man.

farms, and

not

to

beheld."

ever

The

dancing continued

intermission

for

nearly thirty hours; then

of several hours, during which

council

there

an

was

held in order to

was

give audience to the friendlies. Short Bull and Two Strike (hisreal name
is Nompagahpa,
and a literal translation is, "Knocks
down
Two*'), aided
and
of the hostiles, while No Neck
by Crow Dog, championed the cause
Louis Shangraux spoke on behalf of the friendlies. Louis does not remember
what
be

he said in the first council, but

put into
"The

one

Short

not

Bull's

could

of his remarks

sentence:

Agent will forgiveyou

rations,but

the substance

permit

you

to

if you

will return

give

now,

more

you

dance."

(Tatankaptecelan)reply was

so

forcible

to

as

remain

in

Louis's memory
in the exact words of the speaker, and ran as follows:
"I have risen today to tell you
something of importance. You have
heard
done

the words
as

would

permit

taking away
But

even

whether

of the brothers

myself, you
us

to

have
continue

from

the agency

weighed them

the dance, would

give

portionsof the reservation, I would

if you

you

are

camps,

more

have

if you

and

carefully. If the Great

Father

quit
returning.

rations, and

be in favor of

(turning to Louis) say that he will,how

tellingthe truth .'^ We have been lied to

can
so

we

many

know
times

THE

120

INDIAN

AMERICAN

If we
Agent sends to us.
of us in jailfor
and ponies,put some
return
guns
We
prefer to stay here and die,
stealingcattle and plundering houses.
free now
if necessary,
and have plenty of beef,
to loss of Uberty. We
are

that

we

will not

believe any
he will take away
our

in obedience

all the time

dance

can

that

words

your

of the Great

the command

to

We

tell you
to return
to your
Agent and say
in."
in the Bad Lands
not
to
are
come
going

tanka.
Dakotas

Neck

No

"It

brave

as

rations,disarmed, without horses or

dance, our Good Spiritwill protect
bullets of the

and

men,

all

in, and

come

in obedience

than to live like cowards

Spirit,

of the Good

No,

guns.

will not

we

if all dancers

us, and

to

at the agency

the
on

mands
com-

scanty

return.

If

we

sincere, the

are

harmlessly to the ground without power

powerful that it can contend with Wakan-

soldiers will fall

There

is

tanka; therefore
The

the

Bull added:

is better to die here

to hurt.

Wakanthat

rejoined:

"Think, my people,how foolish is this action! Do

will be well; remain out here and you will be killed."
Short

him

to

no

we

so

army
not

are

gatheringbroke

afraid to remain

here."

up, and nearly every

the hostiles would
not

continued

one

in the Ghost-

further words
For two
have
with
days
friendlyscouts.
Friday and Saturday, the 12th and 13th, the last
council was
held.
The scenes
accompanying the closingof this gathering,
hours it
and for a period of two
Saturday afternoon, were
very thrilling,
seemed
if a general battle would
those who
desired to
between
as
ensue
dance.

the

return

to

the agency

About

with

the

"

the hostiles.

Saturday, Two

noon,

in the dance

and

arose

and

Strike

"

who

about

accompanied by
killed Spotted Tail
who
announced
his intention of returning. At
such
Bull sprang
Short
prominent men.
angrily:
scouts,

sunka, the Indian

"At
Do
us

such

time

as

this

leave; remain with us.

the truth; they will conduct
not

in

we

should

These
you

had

his intention

announced

men

back

145

been
to

lodges.
about
this
to

from

to

Crow

ten

the agency

Dog (Kangiago) also

years

declaration

his

all stick

of the leaders

one

return

feet

and

from

two

cried

out,

together like brothers.

not telling
are
they will place

the agency
and
to the agency

jailthere. Louis is at the bottom of this affair."

you
And, running to the place where the guns were
stacked, Short Bull
his
followed
surrounded
of his young
and,
grasped
by many
men,
gun
Shangraux. Louis's situation was desperate. He knew these furious men
might kill him at the slightest
resistance,so he laughed as good-naturedly

INDIAN

AMERICAN

THE

122

gested that both McLaughlin and himself togetherwith attendants should

truth or falsityof his doctrine
The
in the far West.
visit the Messiah
If McLaughlin had agreed to this sensible propowould then be apparent.
sition,
much
evil might have been avoided, but the Major refused to go,
and thereby missed
an
opportunity of doing the Indians a service and
the
subsequent massacre.
preventing
to prepare
the President ordered the Secretaryof War
In November,
for action, and Major John R. Brooke
(now General) went to Pine Ridge.
have seen
there were
These
a
large number) were
troops (of which we
scattered about through the Indian country.
The
Pine

Ridge,

bands

until

troops
or

his reservation

end

of December,

scouting about

were

of Indians.

the

In the meantime.

(Standing Rock) and

either in camp
near
scattered
the country pursuing
Sitting Bull was
preparing to leave
were

in

flee into the Bad

Lands

to

join the

and
who
had fled there from Pine Ridge. Both Mooney
Bull's.
As
of
what
occurred
at
accounts
Sitting
McLaughlin
give
Major
that
shall
I
of
the
is
the
reproduce
portion of
two,
lengthier
McLaughlin's
it relatingimmediately to the death of SittingBull.
Ghost

dancers

THE
Down

"INDIAN

GATE,"

and
ravine, to the right,the interpreter

PINE

RIDGE.

myself used to
"hostiles* camp" and obtained

creep
news

18"0
at

night. Thus

we

reached

the

CHAPTER

XII:

THE

TRAGEDY
It

AT

that the Indian

seems

the

OF

DEATH

SITTING

WOUNDED

AND

BULL,

KNEE

policebrought Major McLaughhn

information

intentions

of the famous
medicine
The
man.
Major became
be arrested
fore
and confined, and he thereSitting Bull must
sent
Bull Head.
the thirtya
squad of police under Lieutenant
Among
nine Indian
four relatives.
made
the arrest
Aside
policemen who
were
from
the officer in charge. Bull Head,
Head
and
Red
Tomahawk
Shave
been the most
to have
seem
prominent.
stretched
of a number
of houses
consisted
Sitting Bull's settlement
as

to

that

convinced

on

of the

the banks

surrounding

group

cabins

and

Grand

for

River

Sitting Bull's cabin

of four

distance

or

comprised of half

was

The

five miles.
a

log-

dozen

corral.

The

their mission
in the night and arrived at daylight.
police entered upon
deserted, the Indians having been engaged
Many of the houses were
in dancing the greater part of the previous night. The
of the
entrance
wheeled
Bull Head
the camp,
but they saw
policemen awakened
as
no
one,
his men
between
the Sitting Bull houses
dismount.
them
and ordered
to
of the
Ten
and Shave
Head, entered one
policemen, headed
by Bull Head
Head's
entered
In the house
houses, eight policemen the other.
by Bull
the old medicine
Crow
his
and
Foot his
two
wives,
party they found
man,
a
youth of seventeen
son,
years.
"The
much
were
Sitting
women
frightened and began to cry.
very
"

Bull

sat
"

"

and

up

*You
*

Very

of his wives
showed

no

the

door

came

the

matter.

and

must

go

to

the

agency,' said Bull Head.

gray

one,

himself

been

but

with

be saddled,

and

trouble

He

care.

an

was

on

the

other,

to

also asked
had

Indian

He

good

that

his

the animal

dressed

were

Head

had

make

one

policeman
and ready to leave.
the
and
the police,when
in
house,

Sitting Bull
no

evidently wanted

some

of the
surprised at the extent
of the building in a little knot, Bull Head

Bull, Shave

They had

dressed

had

out,
out

was

his arrest,

by the time

"There
walked

at

concern

best horse,

what
arrest

well,'said Sitting Bull, *I will go with you.' And he told

house
and bring him
his best clothes.
to go
to the other

impression and
at

asked
under

are

and

Red

they
They
side of Sitting
one
directly behind.

demonstration.

Tomahawk

on

Sitting Bull's house, and it was

in the gray
of the morning when
out.
They stepped out into a
they came
of
all
excited
Ghost
armed
and crowding about
dancers, nearly
mass
greatly
been

twenty

minutes

or

more

in

INDIAN

AMERICAN

THE

124

body of the police,who had held the way clear at the door. As
stepped out with his captors he walked directlytoward the
horse, with the evident intention of mounting and accompanying the
his son, Crow
distance from the door when
Foot,
police. He was
some
intended
to make
resistance, began to revile
seeing that the old man
no

the main

SittingBull

him:

"

"

would

You

Indians
"The
excited
a

call

faces, and

"The
so

who

would

in

to

the

now

declared

have

of

have

you
to

of dark,

mass

and
shrilly,

all the rest

than

goes,

through

gone

him

SittingBull's life showed

his faithful adherents

saw

that

give yourselfup

you

volubly and

talk

to

there

was

about

"

fire at

his

160

in

of it. He
crazed

bidding;

to

better

Ghost

light,
about

looked

dancers

submit

to

"

arrest

the end

of his power
and his probable imprisonment; he had sure
from Pine Ridge that he, only, was
needed to head the hostiles there
of extermination
war
against the white settlers. He made up his mind

take

his chance, and

screamed

police.
"Instantly Catch-the-Bear

front rank of the crowd, fired at

First Lieutenant

wounding
First Sergeant Shave
few

you

in the crowd.

physical courage

and

news

and

man

blue-coat, and

commenced

movement

last moment

as

him

meant

to

in blue uniforms,' the young

shouted.
man
hit SittingBull hard.
He looked into the
taunt

menacing
far

yourselfa brave

surrender

never

yards

to

Head

the left and

out

order

an

to

his

Strikes-the-Kettle, who

and

Sergeant Red
shot

him

Tomahawk,

when

hit, and

Sioux

put

at

the

instant

same

in hand

revolver

was

immediately
was

guard,
rear-

in the right cheek,

the firstsergeant, and SittingBull

"SittingBull's medicine had
him

with

who

Bull Head

Lieutenant

in the abdomen.
front of Sitting Bull

in the

mortally
shooting

Strikes-the-Kettle

and

Head,

attack

to

were

point-blankrange, Catch-the-Bear

Bull

wheeling,he shot SittingBull through the body, and

Second

people

stop forever

to

killinghim instantly;the lieutenant,

together.
falling
not

saved

him, and

the shot that killed

of the ancient

the domination

regime

among

the

of the

Standing Rock reservation.

bloody fightthat ensued has been told, and the world
knows
how those thirty-nine
Indian policemen, with four of their relatives
who
volunteered
total of forty-threein all
to accompany
a
them,
off
Ghost
killed and five wounded;
160
fought
dancers, eight of whom
were
how Second
after the two higher ranking police
Sergeant Red Tomahawk,
oflScers had been mortally wounded,
took command
and drove the Indians
to the timber; how
Hawk
No. 1 ran
Man
through a hail of bullets to get
"The

tale of the

"

"

OF

DEATH

SITTING

BULL

125

the

how
six faithful friends of the
to the cavalry detachment, and
news
Whites, policemen of the Standing Rock reservation,laid down their lives
in doing their duty that morning. Two
17, 1890,
days later,on December
buried

we

Shave

Head

and

four other Indian

policemen with militaryhonors

in the cemetery at Standing Rock, and, while Captain Miner's entire

of the Twenty-Second U. S. Infantry fired three volleys over
of these red heroes, and

graves

great

of the Sioux

concourse

tion stood in the chill brightsunlightof

of the

pany
com-

the

reserv^a-

fair winter's

day, mourning aloud

for their dead, I quietlyleft the enclosure and joined a little burial-party
in the militarycemetery at Fort Yates, situated about five hundred
yards
south of the agency
Four militaryprisonersdug the grave, and
cemetery.
in the presence
of A. R. Chapin, Assistant Surgeon, U. S. A., H. M. Deeble,
Assistant
Acting
Surgeon, U. S. A., Lieutenant P. G. Wood, U. S. A., Post
Quartermaster, now
Brigadier General, retired,and myself, the body of
lowered
and placed in a coflSn,was
into
SittingBull, wrapped in canvas
the grave."*
and many
Naturally the death of SittingBull caused great commotion
Indians
In spiteof promises to the contrary,
joined the Ghost dancers.
they imagined that all those who had incurred the illwill of the authorities
to be killed.

were

About
Strike

others

were

each

Major Brooke
persuade the

this time

and

There

to

of skirmishes

number

On

were

28th, Major Whitside

December

demanded

Indians

Pine

Ridge

sent

Colonel

Whitside.
and

unconditional

few

with

Horse

dancers

Two

come

in.

killed

on

to
were

persons

All of this

agency.

Forsythe
This

gave

of

with

Whitside

other Ghost

persuaded by American
and were
encamped at
agency
29th (the next
day) the
the center

Early

of the camp

in the morning

Friend

the Indian, pages,

which

into camp
twenty
communicated
to

under

men

Horse

Kicking
and

the Catholic

Cavalry

given.

once

miles

northeast

of

Brooke, who

Major
Cavalry to join
against 106 warriors

of the Seventh

total of 470

as

and

Bear

Little Wound

the Indians
white

battery of four Hotchkiss

to

come

to

flaghad
guns

from

Short

mission,five miles

officers ordered

of the Indians

219-222.

at

was

children, frequentlyestimated

dancers

been

the Seventh

Indian, Big Foot, and his people

According to Mooney's account,

companies
a

and

women

was

four

charge of

in

surrender

soldiers went

the

and

number
The

250.

My

in which

This same
with Big Foot's band.
travelingtoward Pine Ridge agency.

The

American

out

of the Ghost

up

Whitside

"

sent
rest

side.

came

In

had

out.

200

Bull

to

had

in to the
ber
Decem-

be disarmed.
been
been

erected.

posted,

;^
o

3
o

"
u

OF

DEATH

SITTING

BULL

127

and these were

trained on the Indian camp.
The cavalry was
placed in
squads at various angles,almost entirelysurrounding the Indians, or at least
the flank. Chief Big Foot was
illwith pneumonia, and the troops had
on
About
stove.
provided him with a tent warmed
eight o'clock
by a camp
in the morning the men
ordered to give up their guns.
were
Following
with only two guns.
out
further, twenty of them came
Mooney's account
The Indians seemed
of the soldiers
unwillingto give them up, and some
and
ordered
the
them.
into
to go
tents
were
secure
Mooney says that this
search consumed
time and created excitement.
My information is to the
effect that the soldiers threw things about in the tents and took guns away
from
those who
had
children were
them; many
badly frightened and
told by the shaman, Yellow
Bird,
began to cry, and the Indians were
now
that they were
told that the medicine
and then killed. I was
to be disarmed
threw dust high in the air and it broke like a little cloud and then
man
the massacre
idea, in a littledifferent
began. Mooney presents the same
form.
While

this

ordered
terror

searchinghad continued, a large part of the soldiers had been

within ten yards of the Indians, which further added to their
Bird spoke the truth, that they
convinced
that Yellow
them

to

up

and

all to be shot down.

were

One
who

or

and

going

was

to

riflesand

fired upon
the soldiers,
at the first discharge

set

up

at

this

place by the

their feet, seized knives, clubs

fought desperately.
other troops operated the Hotchkiss
on,

of shells and

storm

or

half the warriors

afterwards

were

sprang

and

guns,

this

sent

revolvers

sticks

Many

survivors

remaining
While

drew

almost
the fire,killing

of their guns
Indians.
The
few

Indians

two

returned

bullets

the

among

women

and

or

the

guns

children

standing or running about the tipis. Mooney says "the guns poured in
two-pound explosiveshells at the rate of fiftyper minute, mowing down
everything alive.
"The
terrible effect may
be judged from the fact that one
vivor.
surwoman
Blue

wounds,
In
were

by

Whirlwind,

while

each

few minutes

200

with

whom

of her two
Indian

men,

some

women

conversed, received fourteen

also wounded

were

and

by her side.

children,with sixtysoldiers,

tipishad been torn down

the helplesswounded,
were
burning
of Indians were
flyingin wild panic to the shelter

lyingdead and wounded

the shells and

the author

little boys

of them

on

the ground, the

above

survivinghandful
soldiers and followed up
of the ravine, pursued by hundreds
of maddened
had been moved
which
into
by a raking fire from the Hotchkiss
guns,
positionto sweep the ravine.
and

the

THE

128

"There
where

be

can

dying

Welsh

had

with

ceased

the

on

says:

they

were

been

at

this

On

while

flying,it

strikingcontrast

SittingBull fightwhen

at the

of American

they

Morgan
includingBig Foot, were

The

bodies

two

miles from

of the

I agree
his

with

As

Indians

"Remember

Custer,"

"

the

There
Pine
He

one

was

Ridge.
was

may

the

not

armed

stampeding

of the
sick.

lay

of

distance

give
was

lungs,yet

deserved

Cavalry troops cried out,

girlsand destroyed
the concluding
charity over

little boys and

of

Kraft, of the Catholic

fluentlyand

result of the

of all the Indians

will all

we

only thought

of the Seventh

the last rites of the church

immediate

mony
testition.
direc-

criticize the soldiers of

warriors,

endeavored

with
to

the

tribute.

to

until he fell unconscious.

dying

The

Indians

he had

were

on

is not

into the hills.

They

excited

so

soldier's

correct, but

of Wounded

massacre

mission.

stop the fight.

bullets flyingabout him, he

Mooney pays
they did not recognizehim, claiming that
because of the cold. Mooney affirms this
his priestlyrobes.
The

police

The

he

had

himself to write in moderation.

trust

heroic character. Father

him

wore

not

they pursued

as

spoke
through

stabbed

women.'

by

children,whose

and

women

Sioux

He

administered

that

should

man

might as well draw the veil

pursuit and the butchery.

We

scene

of

that many

me

of the Indian

his tent, where

scattered along

were

shooting of

for the

As

told

children

that

with their lives,one

to escape

them.

scene

the murder

to

assailed

were

though

as

blind rage

though

as

killed,

were

of the encounter'."

Mooney,

country.

own

assent.

The

the

look

the moderation

dead

Herbert

as

of action,and

scene

killed around

and

women

children

and

after

stretched

was

other

Commissioner

men,

would

massacre,

down

friendlies is strong in the same

in his official ref)ort says that *Most

and

Horse

to

the

careful writer

women

many

shot

were

warrior

every

far from

simply

was

arms,

pnjintsuch

so

found

were

in their

almost

the fact that

shot down

work, in

infants
when

and

ground.

*From

that their bodies

and

INDIAN

question that the pursuit

no

fleeingwomen,

resistance
or

AMERICAN

Knee

was

that

they

believed

coat
over-

that he

the
were

to be murdered.

General

Miles

adopted

harsh

measures

all their guns and came

McGillicuddy, the former

surrendered

soon

Doctor

against the

to

date

in Nebraska

the events, stated to Mooney

there has been neither a Sioux outbreak

of

pin, and

or

Dakota
no

has been

property

has

killed,molested,
been

and

in to the agency.
Agent at Pine Ridge, who

entirelyfamiliar with
"Up

Indians

or

on
nor
can

destroyed ofiFthe

they
was

January 15, 1891,

war.

show

No

citizen

the scratch

reservation.

Only

Afraid

miles farther south.

twenty

the

cold, and starvingas she

was,

reached

The

"

at

the Bad
*

After

Lands.

that I traveled

the beef corral.

and

early in the morning

back, and
and

Then

in

took

me

few

to

minutes

tent.

to go

to

travel

rest

it

near

circled around

woman

poor

INDIAN

AMERICAN

THE

130

to

words:

own

night,restingdaytime, until I got here

the militarycamp,
near
very tired, and was
soldier came
and he shouted
out
something
there, and they got a blanket
were
fiftymen
every

was
a

I had

no

blanket

and

die.

"

me

continued, wounded,

it, and

feet

my

After I got to the tent

was
ready
doctor, because he had straps on his shoulders
about

perience,
ex-

by night and hide by day until she

be told in her

may

of her last

account

on

doctor

swelled, and I

were

in

came

and washed

me

"

soldier

and treated

well."

of the attack had joined

camped near the scene
of the
of some
the representations
in the pursuit at the beginning, on
cording
Acit as soon
murderers, but abandoned
as
they found their mistake.
and
to all the testimony, the killingwas
a
wanton,
unprovoked,
deliberate murder, yet the criminals were
acquitted in the local courts.
The apathy displayedby the authorities of Meade
county. South Dakota,
called
forth
in which the murder
committed,
some
was
vigorous protests.
Colonel Shafter, in his statement
of the case,
concludes, referringto the
recent
killingof Lieutenant Casey: *So long as Indians are being arrested
under conditions of war, it seems
and held for killingarmed
to me
men
of peacefulIndians should
of a part of a band
that the white murderers
view
not be permitted to escape
punishment.' The Indians took the same
of the case,
General
Miles demanded
of Young-man-afraid-ofand when
his-horses the surrender of the slayersof Casey and the herder Miller, the
old chief indignantlyreplied:*No; I will not surrender them, but if you
will bring the white men
who
killed Few
Tails, I will bring the Indians
who killed the white soldier and the herder; and rightout here in front of
shoot the Indians
and you
have
men
tipi I will have my young
your
"A

your

few of the soldiers

soMiers

shoot

the

white

and

men,

we

will be

done

with

the

whole

business."
"In

regard

to

the heroic conduct

of One

Feather, the officer then in

*The determination
and genuine courage,
as
charge of the agency
says:
in keeping at a distance the six men
well as the generalshiphe manifested
who
were
pursuing him, and the devotion he showed toward his family,
riskinghis life againstgreat odds, designatehim as entitled to a place on
the listof heroes*."

on

I present as
Wounded

the

an

illustration in this book, the little monument

Knee

battlefield

by the Sioux

themselves

erected
some

years

"This

Cheyenne
Dec.

by surviving relatives and other Oglala and

of the
Chief Big Foot
Massacre,

is erected

monument

Sioux

River

in memory

Indians

29, 1890.
"Col.

of

Forsythe in command

U. S.

Troops.

He
often said *I will
of the Sioux Indians.
a great Chief
"Big
He did many
good and brave deeds for the
stand in peace tillmy last day comes.'
and the Redman.
White
man

Foot

innocent

"Many
"The
of

was

erection

women

of this

Joseph Horncloud,
This

was

whose

and

children
is

monument

father

paid for, and

put

was

up

who

knew

largelydue

no

to

wrong,

the

died here.

financial assistance

killed here."

by Indians

"

not

white

people.

THE

132

after the

It

on

dedicated

was

told, but it stillstands

was

in these modem

Indian

who

do

not

these

with
have

attend

as

still backward,

are

the Protestant

so-called

A few brief

or

and

there

Catholic

"non-progressives,"one

forgottenWounded

not

typifyingour

monument

of the

treatment

days.

of the Sioux

Some

INDIAN

in the presence
of a great concourse
The inscription
is given in Sioux on one
side of the shaft, in
the other.
The
War
rather
Department
objected to it, so I

massacre.

of Indians.

English

AMERICAN

quite a

are

missions.

If

hear

may

one

them

number
will talk

say,

"We

Knee."

concluding statements

in order.

perusalof this long

purely religious
ceremony.
The Sioux were
in
sincere. They danced
earnest, they were
deadly
There
was
day and night until they dropped from exhaustion.
nothing
in
North
times
in
like it, so far as I can
recent
America.
ascertain,
They
in a frenzy. Yet there was
Revivals
no
thought of war.
were
among
denominations
in this country (especially
in remote
Protestant
districts)
older persons
remember
the
Many
frequentlydevelop religiousmania.
of
the
and
South
in
which
West
"Camp Meetings"
people "got religion."
The interference of policeor troops at such a gathering would
bring on a
the white Christians participatingin the services.
riot among
insensible for hours
to become
Negroes of the South have been known
and
relate visions on
to
to enter
a
catalepticstate
recovering.
Hysteria at religiousgatheringsin the South is common
among
negroes.
mania
is not surprisingamong
In view of these facts, a religious
dians,
Insalvation
of
troubles.
In
have
fact
who sought, as we
out
the
seen,
induced
was
craze
by their wretched condition.
There
did, not
was
no
we
danger at any time at Pine Ridge. What
but on many
a number
nights,is proof of the assertion. There were
once,
of newspaper
in the littlelog hotel at Pine Ridge, and they sent many
men
narrative

indicates

was

"

"

sensational
agency,
out

are

that at the first the dance

to

accounts

look

myself,were

the Eastern

to

the field. Mr.

over

the

to
only men
the valley,one

the camps
in
able to do so,
desired

to

my
or

Knee

were

savages.

had

Sioux

spoke

ever
a

left the
few

went

quite well, and

left the agency

and visited
miles distant.
The fact that we
were

knowledge
two

of them

one

occurred, when

Bartlett, who

is sufficient refutation

fight,or

Not

papers.

until the battle of Wounded

Both

who

of the
of

us

statement

would

have

that
been

the

Indians

killed

were

experienced the slightesttrouble, but on

the contrary were
afforded every
facility.We often felt guns and revolvers
the blankets
reclined in the tipis. Force
caused
under
which
on
we
Wounded
it.
Knee.
would
have
prevented
Humanity
this statement

true.

We

never

XIII.

CHAPTER
This
in the

The

report,* 101,216.
Indians.

of their ancient

some

faith

life and

of their

report

Brown,

divided

J.

have
to

far

so

for

Indians

the

their

ending June

year

Commissioner

the

to

the tribes

follows

as

present

30th, 1913,

41,706
24,973

Seminoles

Creeks

18,700

MississippiChoctaws

Indians

are

stock, and
third of

Five

"

Choctaws

is another

that

region known
Treaties

known

by

Indian

as

South,

population.

SuflSce it to

3,119

to

1,639

As

say

to

the

that

19,475,614

the

belong
great
Mississippi. They
removed
why they were
to

of the

east

Territory. Here

amounting

10,989

ethnologists to

lived in the
Indian

our

story.

of tribal land

tracts

departed from

consider

Chickasaws

constitute

"

year

them

found

1850

they located

in

large

upon

acres.

in undisturbed
to remain
they were
session
posof their new
ment.
homes
were
duly signed by the United States Governentitled to
Although the treaty of 1866 stipulated that they were
the admission
a
delegate to our Congress, when
Congress authorized
representative from Indian
Territory, and in spite of the fact that
of the tribes made
effort to bring about this result, nothing effectual
an

send
a

some

setting forth that

accomplished.

ever

May

2, 1890, the laws

and

March

March

3, 1893,

Tribes

lands

This
in

of Arkansas
Indian

3, 1901, every

citizen of the United

Commission.

of them

follow

Indians

past.

George

among

that

were

the

history. While

H.

Muskhogean

their

composed of southern
and
ethnology will be

are

customs

it is advisable

Commissioner's

the

Cherokees

These

was

Tribes

They reside

States.
to

Civilized
Wright,
and
John
of
B.
Union
Agency,
Kelsey, Superintendent
of
before
Education, lies
According to this, they
me.
Supervisor

Tribes, Dana

of

these

on

signed by

are

customs,

than

according

tribal

of my
the bulk

fathers, that

needs, rather

The
and

of their

volume

next

in the United

number,
Civilized

Five

consideration

presented in the
the

and

of Oklahoma

TRIBES

CIVILIZED

largestbody of Indians

is the

State

FIVE

THE

Cleveland

President

undertook

to

to

cover

Indian
declared

was

Affairs,

appointed the

allot to all the Indians

severalty. There

Indian

extended

of the Territory

ritory,
Terto

be

States.

allotted.

Report Commissioner

were

1913.

were

200,000

famous

of the Five

claimants

and

Dawes

Civilized

about

90,000

INDIAN

AMERICAN

THE

136

speechesof the clever,shrewd, oily,forked-tonguedlawyers and landthem; they asked not charity but justice. The
buyers who came
among
evitable,
intrue, that was
positive,that was
only thing in this world that was
this fact: that every time they touched a pen they lost somewas
thing;
that every
to them
was
broken;
promise made
by a white man
abandoned
all
that
when
that they had
they are gathered
hope save one
to their fathers,in the great beyond, they hope to find some
place where
live in peace and contentment,
in ancient days.
as
they may
the

"

Crisis

The

Whenever
to

men

Indian, there have

service such

Oklahoma

crisis arises in the affairs of the Nation, there

while

it, and

meet

in

arisen

have

persons

the forces of evil have

few

champions, and

rendered.

Some

we

of them

are
always
conspired against the
should not forgetthe

have

down

gone

to

b^ hatred, treachery,malice and the love of gain.

Others continue in office,
not
through a
escaping the wiles of the enemy,
the
conscience.
but
the
of
miracle,
Today there
through
public
arousing
are
some
2,000,000 people in the State of Oklahoma, and as in every other
State, the great majority of them are upright citizens. They have not
taken a firm stand for the Indian in the past, for the reason
that they did
The
their
realize what
in
the
of
State.
not
eastern
was
going on
part
and effective propaganda. The extent
grafterscontrolled a tremendous
of this is surprising,and I have
of circulars,copies of
received scores
action
evidence
of
the
determined
of those who
covet
as
etc.,
speeches,
the oil,coal, gas, asphalt,farm lands,and timber tracts of the Five Civilized
Tribes.
Every person who is endeavoring to bring about fair play in
Oklahoma
eastern
was
charged with being "perniciouslyactive in politics",
if he lived in the State of Oklahoma.
If he happened to reside in the East,
he was
either a "sentimentalist", unfamiliar with Indian affairs,
or
guilty
of besmirching the fair name
of the State of Oklahoma.
The better class
honorable

defeat induced

of citizens in the State

conditions
in

influencingnot

of the Interior and

of Oklahoma

became,

obtaining among
only the members
Commissioner

these
of

at

last,aroused

Indians

the deplorable

to

succeeded

they
Congress but also the Secretary

of Indian

and

Affairs to call

halt.

seems

people went in order to despoilthe Indians

incredible in this day of Christianityand civilization. Some
men

made

contracts

The

lengthsto which

sought

to

Others

made

with

few

Indians

on

contracts

the sale of vast

with

tribal estates

basis of fees of high percentage and

in the United
States Treasury
moneys

control of Indian

secure

thousands
"

tens

of Indians

to

represent them

of millions of dollars

"

on

in

liberal

FIVE

THE

CIVILIZED

TRIBES

135

the Indians, or

small, the walls thin, and not

by them, are wretched affairs,
and cold in winter.
They are hot in summer
The
Indians
in Oklahoma
under
their various
having settled down
tribal governments,
made
great progress.* They published papers in their
own
language. The Cherokee
capital at Talequah contained creditable
buildings a good administration
building and two fine Indian schools,
which may
be seen
built
and
This school, by the way,
138
146.
on
pages
the
Cherokee
Indians
with
their
is
white
by
own
now
occupied by
money,
the finest buildingI observed
and it is a
in all Okahoma,
pupils. It was
that the Indians
not
were
standing repudiation to the statement
gressing
proand that they did not afford proper
educational
facilities to their
own
people.
At the end of the Civil War, a number
of outlaws belonging to guerilla
substantial.

"

bands, both

North

and

South,

the country and

authorities at Washington
to

out, but,
was

as

made

whites

few

persons

grated
mi-

complained, and our

attempts to keep them

abortive

dominated.

The

Commission

Dawes

of
of negotiationand coercion, enrollment
after years
totals
began. The rolls are now
completed and include the

mentioned

in my

There
and

inevitably,the

White

State.

Indians

The

formed, and

the Indians

on

into the

came

occupied it.

were

part, and
who
women,

our

in the Creek

statistics upon
a
few Indians who

righthere I wish
treated

were

with

previous page.
held
to

pay

against this arbitraryaction

out
a

compliment

contempt,

who

were

to

few

old

men

called "Snakes'*

"Nighthawks" in the Cherokee nation by the unthinking.

that they have a simple, a child-like faith in the
Why.'^ For the reason
They believe that we will keep our pledged
great United States Nation.
word.
educated
and therefore they cannot
not
tials
are
They
grasp the essenexecute
of our
civilization as it appliestoward
that
when
we
Indians;
lease among
a ninety-nineyear
ourselves, we keep it; but that a solemn
and

entered

covenant

these poor

into

with

the

Indians

is

very

So

different matter.

Nighthawks refused to be enrolled and to receive

allotments, trustingin the honesty and integrityof the Great Father at
witnessed in my
life,
Washington. One of the most patheticsightsI ever
when
old Fixico Harjo and Okoskee
was
Miller, and a few other fine old
men,

solemn

old Snakes

of the

best

and

type

of American

Indian, called

my

attention

to

our

helpless,that
people,statingthat they were
allotments
had been forced upon
them, that they expected to see even
these little tracts taken away
from them, that they could not understand
*

covenant

with

these

to the Creek Nation

Capt. G. W. Grayson, officialinterpreter
confirms statement
of former well-beingand progress.

"

lived with these Indians

sixtyyears

"

August 8, 1907;
in

AMERICAN

THE

140

one

the Choctaw

one-fourth

year,

The Cherokee
of patent.
of each allotment a homestead

agreed
the

be sold

not

by

to

The

allottingbegan, a great clamor

the restrictions on
Congress to remove

allotted.

removing

adult

which

included

1,500,000
Mr.

of North

the Supreme

Civilized

years

Court

passed

food
"In

of

the

to

stead
home-

white

Directly
people

part of the lands

had

of all lands

of Indian

tribes

and

blood,
affected

Attorney for the

important to the Indians
a
deep interest in their

was

took

for them; he

Federal

to

allotted

by

by

the hands

to

that

frittered away.
of full-bloods and

Creeks, Cherokees, Choctaws,

instrumental

securing from
essential to the

are

their property

them

rights for

local consent.

his duties

the Act

of

of white

he observed
that a large
diately
April 21, 1904, almost immequate
the
and
people
grosslyinade-

by the allottees had

thought.
a
popular demand
Congress

Under

been

was

and

statutes

of the statutes
secure

commissioned

National

as

Mott

assumed

salable

Roosevelt

against sale three years before the land

according to the agreements under which it was
money

consent

acres.

the

not

received

for serious
response

will

Mott

into

consideration
was

the

upon

that

part of the land made

act

forceful advocate

the time

beyond

to

appointment

constructions

and

after Mr.

had

Tribes

1904, President

Tribes, for Mr.

became

welfare

"Soon

citizens

Carolina
This

impressing enactments

many

up

allotting
condition

Cherokee

160

from

the sale of

Civilized

freedmen

of Indians.

and

Five

month, May,

L. Mott

Indians'

went

Out

of land.
next

Tribe

condition

of the

mainly

acres

of the Five

in

members

the

M.

Creek

from

In response
to this demand, on
April 21, 1904, an act was passed
the restrictions against the sale of the lands except homesteads

of the

"In

the law

and

Chickasaw

and

after the
to

under

Creek, Seminole

the Choctaw

and

acres

reserved, which

was

of their lands.

40

was

lands could be sold one-fourth

for twenty-one years.

This was
in order to get the Indians
to

taxed

or

the Government

allotment

Chickasaw

and

in three years and the remainder

in five years
land could not be sold for five years.

date

it,could

INDIAN

been

had
to

was

removed

the

land

The

the law, all restrictions

on

mixed-bloods, except homesteads,

and

the sale
of the

expireby limitation
within three or four years.
In the lightof the experienceunder the Act
diflScult to foretell what would
of April 21, 1904, it was
not
happen when
these restrictions expired under the impending statehood
regime.
Mott
"To
bent all
the calamity threateningthe Indians, Mr.
avert
of his energiesto securing an
amendment
of the law, extending the reand

Chickasaws

striction
re-

alienable

become

allotted.

This

wasted.

were

to

THE
strictions

FIVE

CIVILIZED

TRIBES

againstthe sale of all Indians' land.

he failed to

extension

141

In the face of strong opposition

mixed-bloods, but

Congress
prevailedupon to pass a measure
extending until 1931 the restrictions
against the sale of all lands of full-blood Indians except under the supervision
of the Secretary of the Interior.
This was
part of an act of April
of the affairs of the Five
26, 1906, entitled *An Act for the final disposition
Civilized Tribes in the Indian Territory,and for other purposes,'which
framed
for the inauguration of the new
State
to adjust conditions
was
of Oklahoma,
then practically
assured.
"The
known
section of the Act extending restrictions was
the
as
McCumber
amendment.
McCumber
In urging its passage
Senator
read
to the Senate
an
by Mr. Mott in which he made the statement
argument
that within thirtydays after the Act of April 21, 1904, became
effective,
of the land made
not
ten
salable by that act remained
in the
per cent
hands of the allottees,
and within sixtydays not ten per cent of the allottees
who had sold possessed a dollar to show for the heritageso improvidently
and Senator
Teller expressed doubt
of
disposed of. Senator McCumber
the constitutionality
of the amendment,
but impressed by the necessities
of the situation solved the doubt in favor of the Indians by voting for its
secure

an

as

to

was

wisdom

The

enactment.

Court

Reports,
"This
taken

had

not

intended
of Mr.

for the

employment

extend

of Mr.

Oklahoma

W.

of

Congress had

of the Creek

and

L. Sturdevant

its

stitutionality
con-

the

power

purchased. On
made

an

priation
appro-

authorized

and

of St. Louis, who

of the Interior

not

so

Nation

testing this contention

concurrence

the

it, in that

the restrictions to land

the Council

purpose

in the courts

and

prevent
to

Mott

Mott, with the

"The

vindicated

738.

page

could
not

the advice

Mr.

was

suit grew out of the fact that after August 8, 1907, conveyances
from full-blood Creek Indians on the theory that the McCumber

amendment
and

measure

by the United States Supreme Court on

Tiger case, reported in 221 U. S. Supreme

15, 1911, in the Marchie

May

were

of this

established

was

was

Department,

to

retained

the

by

aid in establishing

amendment.
binding force of the McCumber
held againstthe contention of the Indians

trial court

of Oklahoma
the Supreme Court
said that as the lands involved
in
inherited.Congress did not intend to restrict the sale
Tiger case were
of them, and that therefore the constitutionality
of the Act was
not drawn
in question; but the attorneys were
convinced
did
that the local courts
this
which
considerations
Indian question in the lightwith
not
see
grave
of public policy and conscience illuminated it before the nation, and they
This court
reappealed the case to the United States Supreme Court.
the

AMERICAN

THE

142

versed

the

the Oklahoma

holding of

effectiveness

of the

INDIAN

McCumber

established

and

courts

the

for

amendment,

the force and

much-needed

tection
pro-

of the 40,000 full-blood Indians of the Five Civilized Tribes as to

all their lands; the court
said that it rests with Congress to say when
its

and that it had not surrendered

guardianship of the Indians shall cease
This decision established the
this rightby creatingthe State of Oklahoma.
of Congress in the future to impose such additional
safeguards
power
in Oklahoma
their necessities may
for the protection of the Indians
as
require. On the strength of the principleestablished in this case, the
in behalf of the Indians brought suits involving30,000 causes
Government
of action against white people who
had taken
deeds from
Indians
who
restricted under

were

settled

now

with

"Oklahoma

the

their lands

the most

amendment,

of which

are

the Indians.

1,500,000 population,became

a
pledge contained
jurisdictionof the

16, 1907, upon

question

the McCumber

favorably to

November

on

that she would

in her constitution
Federal

State

Government

the

over

never

Indians

legislate
by law or regulationconcerning
their rightsor property.
Immediately she had a delegationin Congress
and at once
began a determined
campaign for further repeal of the laws
enacted for the protectionof the Indians.
The main argument
employed
and

its power

or

that the Indians

was

to

competent

were

to

care

for their property

and

needed

protection against improvidence; that the State could be

legislative
all the protectionthey required and that Federal
trusted to afiFord them
interference with the
as
an
guardianship and supervisionshould cease,
And
personal privilegesand rights of citizens of Oklahoma.
they made
no

much
who

of the fact that among

the mixed-bloods
there are
a few
are
quite shrewd enough to look out for themselves.
"This

peaUng

the

homesteads
from

highly successful

fightwas

in the enactment

of

law

restrictions
of freedmen

as

removed,

were

whether

sold

well

as

should

by

the white

contenders

and

resulted

on
27, 1908, exective July 27, 1908, reMay
the sale of a large class of land including all

on

of mixed-bloods

and

restrictions all told, over

homesteads,

to

individuals

9,720,000

all other
become

the allottee

or

lands

of less than
acres.

from

taxable

the

not.

This

It

which
same

half blood,

provided

freeing

also that

all

restrictions
as

late act

lands

of

violated

against sale
white people,
the terms

of

the agreements made

with the Indians under which the homesteads
of the
Creeks
and the allotments, or parts thereof, of the Choctaw
and other
tribes

were

"While
on

Indian

exempted
this

measure

Affairs,in

from

taxation

for a given period.

being opposed before the House
the disastrous policy toward
illustrating
was

Committee
the Indians

FIVE

THE

CIVILIZED

TRIBES

143

that Congress was

entering upon, Mr. Mott referred to the 8th dayjof
August, 1907, when restrictions automaticallyexpired on all lands in the
Creek

Nation, except homesteads, of all allottees of less than

stated

full blood.

o'clock of the morning of the 8th day of August,

by one
deeds conveying one-half of the lands of the Creek
affected
Nation
so
and delivered to well-organizedland buyers, in many
executed
were
cases
for inadequate considerations, and that these considerations
frittered
were

He

in

away

that

few

"The

weeks.

This

statement

their lands

the

upon

which

not

was

controverted.

subject to taxation the

homesteads
and other lands of the Indians
was
regarded as destructive
of their property rights. The
Indians
had
agreed to the allotment of
part

of this Act

condition

undertook

to

in their

contained

treaties

that

certain

The Choctaw
and Chickasaw
exemptions from taxation should be observed.
lands were
while owned
to be exempt
by the allottees. It wals provided that
of forty acres
in the Creek, Cherokee
and Seminole
tribes,a homestead
should

be reserved

from

each

This

should

allotment, which

be non-taxable
the

favored

for

Government

by
handicap under which
about to enter upon
method
of living. It was
that
a
new
seen
they were
the destruction
of this safeguard would
bring disaster to the Indians as
it would
introduce
insidious agency
for divesting the Indians
most
a
of their land under
the power
sell for delinquent taxes; and it was
to
realized that withdrawing the exemption was
the arbitrary taking of

twenty-one
as

property
to

years.

wise

arrangement

was

policy of equalizingto the Indians

without

due

process

of law, which

the

the

courts

should

be asked

prevent.
"These

considerations

were

after the passage

attorney soon
took an
advanced
positionand
take

away

from

them

the

presented to the Creek

of the Act
decided

right of tax

and

upon

Council

by their
they again
of Congress to

his advice

the power
exemption. A resolution
to

test

to

that

October, 1908, but it needed the

passed by the Creek Council
approval of the President of the United States to make it effective. And
here arose
a
peculiarsituation.
Mr.
"When
Mott
tary
presented the resolution to Mr. Garfield,the Secreof the Interior,and the President, they stated that they had approved
and the President
had signed the bill removing, restrictions and making
the unrestricted
taxable.
homesteads
It was
represented to the latter
in reply that the Indians believed they were
wronged by the Act, and that
in getting into court
if the President
refused to aid them
their
to have
measured
Indians
would
and
feel
that
the
the
ment
Governdetermined,
rights
them
and was
afraid to have its
not acting in good faith toward
was
eflFectwas

in

AMERICAN

THE

144

INDIAN

President Roosevelt admitted

the force
inquiredinto by the courts.
of their positionand approved the resolution.
retained to present this question to the
"Mr.
Sturdevant
again was
with
similar
a
Nation,
question arisingin the Choctaw
courts, together
As in the Marchie
the question being common
to all the tribes.
Tiger
the Oklahoma
trial and Supreme
held against the
restriction case
courts
of the Indians.
contention
They decided that the Indians must pay taxes
homesteads
well as on all other land from which restrictions against
as
on
Mr.
removed.
sale were
Sturdevant, confident of his position,appealed
United
States
the
to
Supreme Court and argued the novel question to
interested bench
which
handed
down
an
IS, 1912,
an
opinion on May
It held that the Indians' exemption from
reversing the courts below.
vested in exchange for a
taxation was
a
property right that had become
actions

consideration,

valuable

portion of

land

Congress had
it had

than

no

to

the

"In

and
more

take

wit, the

to

claim

yield any
to

power

the land

all other

allottee to

take

his

tribal property, and that

withdraw
that exemption

destroy,impair or

itself.

opinion the Supreme Court

always be measured,

stated

should

of Indians

of each

consent
to

whether

rule

by

which

in the courts

the

rights

in Congress.

or

said that 'the construction

(of statutes)instead of being strict,

is liberal;doubtfulexpressions,
instead of beingresolved in favor of the United
States, are to be resolved in favor of a weak and defenseless
people,who are
and good faith.*
its protection
wards of the nation, and dependentwholly upon
It

was

"Thus
and

settled

was

particularlyto

cannot

Court.
Indians'

take

away

questionof far-reaching
importance to

those
from

But

Congress

land

and

expose

who

have

the Indians
can

not

sold their homesteads.

this

right established by

repeal all
them

to

the

their

restrictions

own

the

the

on

ignorance and

if the present tendency continues, this backward

movement
consummated
in a few years,
and at present there

the Indians

Congress
Supreme

sale of all

improvidence;
will be
is

pletely
com-

nothing

in

indicate

a
change of policy.
there were
dates
primary campaign in Oklahoma
sixty candifor Congress of both parties,from whom
members
to be
were
eight
selected.
Nearly all of these aspirants for seats in Congress solicited
of
support on the promise that if elected they would work for the removal

sight to
"In

recent

all restrictions

on

the sale of all Indian

land

of the Five

Civilized

Tribes

and for the 'emancipation of eastern

Oklahoma
from Federal
supervision.'And they were all in earnest for they knew that to be elected
favor that policy,and the sentiment
that sent the winners
to
they must
Congress would exact a strict compliance with that agreement.
in Oklahoma,

t
s

1
a

-a

en

".1
"

"
.

"

s
^

.a'S

la

THE
"It

FIVE
clear that

seems

Under
other than

homesteads

of the

Interior.

before

the

further

present law
may

There

and

should

understands

he must

land

any

be sold under
be

sale he

actuallypaid to

the Indian,
is not

or

to

eye

of the

wants

to

Secretary
True,

proposed

sell,that he

offered is adequate
for him

the Department,

couraged.
dis-

Tribes

this method.

investigatesthe

be satisfied that the Indian

be

Civilized

Five

the watchful

the deal, that the consideration

words, that the Indian

of the

objection to

no

147

of restrictions should

removal

Secretary will authorize

transaction

it is

the

TRIBES

CIVILIZED

"

and

that

in other

defrauded.

"To
say in the face of the experience of the past eight years that this
interference
unreasonable
supervisionof the Indian is an unwarranted,
with the rightsof citizens of a sovereignState, is the shallowest sophistry.
Under
the wise policy of the Interior Department the consideration
paid
for lands of a restricted Indian is received by the Department and expended
in the construction
plements,
of improvements on his homestead
and for farm imlivestock
over

each
and

to

the

case

needs.

Indian

being

and

other

in small

determined

by

an

his money
unscrupulous white men
In

this way

necessities of life. Or

instalments, the

exact

the money
to be

course

is turned

pursued in
Indian's capacity

investigationof the
is not foolishly
spent

and

he

is not

who too often take advantage of the

by
Indian's ignorance and improvidence. Certainly this cannot
be objected
to by the good people of Oklahoma
who have no desire to see the Indian
plundered.
decisions of the Supreme Court
"The
have established the right of
Congress to pass all needful laws for the protection of these Indians and to
shown
and have hereby clearly
impose necessary
supervisionof their affairs,
that Congress alone is responsiblefor the fate of these friendless people.
The objectivepoint of assault will be the next
Congress. Will it be able
that will be brought to tear down
the pitiful
to resist the pressure
remnant
of protectionthat remains
attitide
of our
The
to these wards
country?
of the Supreme Court and the Interior Department has placed the whole
Nation
under obligationto them, for they have saved us as a people from
before mankind
as
entirelyfaithless to our fair promises
standingpilloried
the
made
to a weaker
people. If their illustrious example shall awaken
conscience, the Indians who
legislative
are
yet restricted need not view
with despair the convening of another Congress. But if the present tendency
is not arrested, within five years
these Indians will be strippedof
of protectionagainst their own
measure
incompetency. Our wards
every
in the full enjoyment of all their property
who less than ten years ago were
rightswill have experienced a swift impoverishment without parallelin
our
history."
cheated

XIV.

CHAPTER

GRAYSON'S

CAPTAIN

BARNARD'S

MINORS'

THE

WORK;

Captain G. W. Grayson of Eufala,

interpreterto the Creeks, and who

who

Smithsonian

in their studies

savants

commented

and

that
is proper
to state
degree of protection and

some

Kelsey
from

time
people. Some
Government
the
to why
allotee the proceeds of

of the

thirds

as

the

paying

it out

in small

He

promptly

indicated

decidedly
many

of

royalty
charge by

bad

conducted

him

white
to

the

to

of

the Agents

the

necessities
in his home
form
"The

the

thing

he

as

him

to

paid

was

left the

brothel

to

his need

That

the

railroad

Indian
fare

it

pleading
he

so

appeared
who,

Department
Indians,

to

can

is

in

that

it

This

happens
morning

the

To

the

was

least

at

town.

had
large sense,
precautions as

such

in

of the allurements,

one

of

sum

taken

again paid

out

clear

very

adopt

be

to

get

were

immediately

of the money
paid to him.
the
when
following
on
payment,

night

there

was

office,who
drink

where

quired.
re-

very

considerable

his lands, who

on

Mr.

withhold

office had

do.

to

twoto

in interested,

as

experience of the

Indian

negroes,

over

prof)ounded

was

time

to

humane

soon

while

town,

of

in the

where

this

duty

the

assumed
would

of

prevent

in many

sufficient

cases

to

money

the

rest

of his money

to

due

practiced, is that of
diate
purchase his immecall at the postoffice

him

is sent

to

him

in

check.

theory

this money
plan and

family."

and

city, advising him

on

which

such

his money
at his home,
white men,
he
and bad
which

the

excluding

penny

appears

of these

time

oil wells

method
adopted,
visitingpayee
only

"Another

the

from

the

of like enormities.

recurrence

allowing

the

the

as

Government,

guardianship

be

as

by

script
manu-

extended

be

it necessary
in which
he

sale of lands

from

convenient

his

pay

officer of the

men

of every

the

robbery,

sufficient

some

rob him

usually during

the

full-blood

accruing

money

and

after

this to

years

Oklahoma

my

Nation,

officials found

replied that

where

instances

Creek

the

supervision should
since, the inquiry

amounts

many

"

in

"It

served

frequently employed

of Indians, read

follows:

as

ESTATES

has

is

official

MISS

VIEWS;

may

adopt

be

action

where

is based

wisely advise
appropriated, and in

ways

can

of

is, that

he is free from

disbursement

his wife
these
that

the

Indian

the influence
as

cool
will

to

and

ceiving
re-

of intoxicants

what

use

sober

actually

to
ments,
mo-

benefit

MINORS'

THE

ESTATES

149

of the Board
sioners,
of Indian Commis17th, 1912, the Chairman
and spent some
George Vanx, Jr., visited Oklahoma
travelingthrough the Cherokee, Creek and Seminole countries. He

On

May

Honorable

time

accompanied by Dana H. Kelsey, Esq., Superintendent of the Union

Agency, having in charge the Five Civilized Tribes. Mr. Vaux*s
findingswere
publishedin the 43rd Annual Report of the Board, 1912.
situation in its broader
Desiring to study the Oklahoma
aspects, I
was

Indian

visited

Oklahoma

various
the

Government

Allen
the

through
and

Both

of

under

report

I made

This

report
stated

me

on

conditions
and

in his

Indian

Mr.

to

say

Bureau
of the

few

the actual conditions

recommendations

submitted

to

Secretary of the

Honorable

Commissioner
few

mentioned

moments

of Indian

our

Interior.

than

has

Five

Tribes."

ever

ago,

years

ago

it

was

by

went

to

the

gentleman
last

Oklahoma

trouble
officialsthere stirred up more
in the settlement
before occurred

Stephens desired to see the Board

and
Speaking for myself i"ersonally,

that

it.

"

matters

abolished.

and

the

to

Indians,

Chickasaw

Mr.
resentative
Stephens, RepCongress by Honorable
did
Mr.
not read the report.
Apparently
Stephens
speech of July 27th, during discussion of the Indian appropriation

by unjust criticism

for the
of the

and
he found

as

miles

many

Texas.

bill:

year

Choctaw

drove

criticised in

was

the
Moorehead,
Illinois (Mr. Graham)

and

the

photographs showing
living.

are

"Mr.
from

by

East, and

the situation

on

numerous

Vaux,

from
He

to

report

Mr.

Allen,

countries.

after I returned

inhabited

the Indians
a

Chairman,

Cherokee

and

took

us

which

J. Weston

Indian

Boston

remained

region

made

with

and other
CitizenshipCommittee
considerable
time not only in consultation with
officialsand private citizens,but also in drivingover

Creek, Seminole
Mr.

1913, in company

in March,

Esq., who representedthe

organizations.We spent

stated

of

Indian

not

for the Board,

that the Board

Commissioners

was

not

I desire
active.

of
extended
its work
and projected a number
Immediately the Board
In the
which
carried to a successful end.
important investigations,
were
last Congress the Board
in
criticised for being too active, especially
was
Oklahoma.

Friends

of the

Board

rallied to

its support

and

the

former

appropriationof $4,000
The
Board
Arizona.

past

have

two

been

This

raised to the present amount

of $10,000.
was
of the
studies
of
conditions
members
Indian
by
years
and
carried on
in Wisconsin, Oklahoma,
New
Mexico

winter

the Board

Pacific Coast, in the Northwest,

intends

to

Oklahoma,

investigateconditions
Montana

and

on

elsewhere.

the

In
out

Mr.

reply to

wherein

Careful

he

reading

this fact

"

and

in

who

had

The

only

criticisms

I gave

guardians

report urged the Congressionaldelegationfrom

in behalf

stand

Much

the

matter,
all the

of them

Barnard

of the Oklahoma
of Miss

found

in the

Oklahoma

to

that

am

we

are

all

take

The
a

strivingby

closingmy comments
friendlyrelations exist
that

without

offered, information

dramatic

charge of the Department

records.

court

In

last winter

Indians.

Barnard's

for which

cause

oflBcials,and

furnished, or

Kate

the

I desire to state

Government

has

Miss

to

cited above.

one

at the grafters,
administrators,

or

firm

Indians.

injuryis done

speeches as
and

of the

of

imprejudiced person

Indians, giving details gleaned from

swindled

f)ointed

these letters.

to

those aimed

of

and

OflSce oflScialsin Oklahoma,

were

names

received

any

the Indian
of criticising

nearly fiftyinstances

him

to

wrote

has been

answer

report will convince

of my

them.

No

error.

that instead

I commended

speeches,I

Stephens' two
in

was

INDIAN

AMERICAN

THE

150

began

sorry

story.

of Charities

space

It

and

between

myself

exception, everyone

for this book.

radical
does

campaign
not
permit

on

the

behalf
recital

for years
she was
for
the
State.
Corrections,

seems

such

this unfortunate

on

that

in
She

of small
poorhouses, large numbers
children
that
these
were
Investigationproved
once
possessedof valuable property, out of which guardians had swindled
them.
After the robbery became
complete,the guardians avoided personal
responsibility
by persuading judges to declare the children homeless
and placed them in State institutions,
where they were
supported
paupers;
at publicexpense.
The number
of children declared paupers
mounted
into
the thousands.
The thing became
and
national
Miss
Barnard
scandal,
a
found
herself involved
in a fight with the politicians
and grafters
soon
who
Miss
Barnard's
official ref)orts
profitedby these wholesale swindles.
for the years
in heart-rending
describe many
1909
of these cases
to 1913
detail.
The
appropriationsfor her department were
wholly inadequate
for more
than a fraction of the State wards, and she was
to care
compelled
to cooperate with the Federal
authorities.
This brought her department
in line with Mr. Mott, Mr. Kelsey and others who
were
fightingto bring

orphans'

homes

and

children, chieflyIndians.

about

similar reforms.

Naturally, she

aroused

powerful oppositionin

her

own

State.

The

sentimentalism"
could not be raised against her, she being
cry of "Eastern
State employee. Her
a
campaign seriouslyaffected oil, land and other
interests.

salary,but
other

Hence,
no

necessary

the

Legislaturecut off her appropriation,allowing her

publication,employment of assistants,travel or
Barnard
visited Chicago and
items, whereupon Miss

funds

for

MINORS'

THE
raised

way

one

She

plank

Miss
Of

Kate

He
matters.
no

use

Indians, the Federal

is

Barnard

justlycalled
frail

even

"

attorney, Mr.
are

the

at

her.

Lake

Conference

Mohonk

Government

Huson,

the "Joan

should

"Where

possessedof
speaker. I asked
all these big men

are

hearts, the

and

of Arc

she is

"

direct,forceful and dramatic

fellows of the

Why

hear

to

resume

them.

slightfigure

most

and

assembled

stirringaddress

restricted

over
jurisdiction

persons

introduced
21st, this year, and through her efforts the Conference
failed to properly
in its platform to the effect that if Oklahoma

protect her

is

of dollars with which to wage

cation.
a
campaign of eduorganized eleven counties, and although hampered in
grafters,
speaks to largegatheringsthroughout the State.

delivered

October
a

has

by the
meeting 8000

every

151

thousands

some

She

At

ESTATES

of Oklahoma".

and
lion's courage
her able assistant
of the West,

read

much

the

about?

so
big
courageous
in her heroic fight?"
they not supportingthis woman
to other
replied:"Oh, they have hearts, all right,when it comes
make
millions out of the Indians, it's
But so long as they can
to them.
to talk the humanities
They all follow David Harum's
men

we

golden rule."
July 23, 1912, Mr. H. Huson, Assistant Commissioner
Department of Charities and Corrections,which was presented
Congress by President Taft in his veto of the bill attempting to validate
In

letter dated

of the State
to

inherited land titles,it was

also said

in behalf
"Armed
with this authority Miss Barnard
has intervened
approximately 3,000 orphans, nearly all of these Indian children whose
estates
were
being exploitedor disposed of by incompetent or grafting
We
have had many
guardians.
guardians removed, and we have saved
for these children since this law became
operativesomething like $100,000
in money
of something like 115,000 acres
and prevented the sale or return

of

of land."
Yet

in

spite of

her

good

work

she

is

now

compelled

to

fight for

existence.
The
Cato

Indian

OflSce decided

Sells,Commissioner

to

take

of Indian

hand

in the

and
struggle,

Affairs,visited Oklahoma

Honorable

early this
all
the
and
other
officialsand
made
brought
together
judges
probate
year,
the
a plea for cooperationin the preventionof further
of
Indian.
despoiling
A set of rules, or method
of procedure, was
adopted, and the probate
have agreed to follow them.
judges of Oklahoma
Everyone hopes Mr.
Sells' plan will work to the advantage of the minors and dependents.

THE

152

AMERICAN

Of the thousands

of

INDIAN

where

cases

minors

of property, I present but three

These
from official ecords.
are

out

or

swindled
incompetentswere
of
the
largernumber.
typical

and

four

than fifty
guardian in thirty-onecases
involvingmore
this
been
had
one
man
as
dealingwith
case
guardian
his brothers in the purchase of merchandise
There
is but
for his wards.
at school.
one
exception,that of a minor eighteenyears old who was away
officer on
behalf of these minors
A Government
protestedagainst such
I
practiceand asked to file exceptionsand proceed in all of these cases.
that the judge did nothing.
informed
am
A guardian had a ward, Sam Bighead, a full-blood Indian boy five years
of age, who
owned
of valuable land, much
of which produced
560 acres
oil. Eighty acres
of this land was
sold for the sum
of $10,000.00 cash.
of land and $10,000.00 cash, he was
Although this boy owned 480 acres
This
placed in the Creek Orphan Asylum where he died May 18, 1910.
children
entitled
the
and
with
to
care
boy,
treatment,
was
placed
proper
of paupers.
Why the guardian wished to have on hand such a largesum
One

man

was

In all but

minors.

of cash, all of which

since the

ward

When

the poor

in cash, and
Death

was

was

for the maintenance

of the ward,

public charge, passes comprehension.

left of this $10,000.00, $2,884.30
boy died, there was

$5,000.00 loan

firstmortgage.
on
appointed
stay the actions of the guardian;he became
As
administrator
he accounted
He
for $11,424.30.
ported
re-

did not

administrator.

that $6,074.96

$5,627.00

unnecessary

was

was

divided

the balance

into four

on

hand

equal parts

of the estate.

for four heirs.

Of this

However,

sum

the

Government

specialagent Farrar contends that in three of these cases

of 25% each were
fees
of the estate of
out
attorney
charged. So finally,
$11,424.00, $4,405.85 was
placed in the hands of the heirs. How can some
Oklahoma
citizens clarftor for withdrawal
of Government
supervision
after reading this story .^^
A man
named
Jerry Bunce was guardian of an Indian boy (Choctaw)
named

Tonihka.

the

Some

of the

inherited

land

of the boy

had

been

sold

in the possession
guardian through the probate court, and there were
of the guardian funds belonging to his ward
amounting to $1100. The
and calf for the ward; the boy slipped the calf
guardian bought a cow
The
and sold it and with the proceeds bought him some
clothes.
away
guardian employed an attorney and had the boy arrested charging him
with larcenyof the calf. Other attorneys were
employed to defend the boy.
The guardian paid the attorneys on both sides of the case
$900 of the boy*s
side
for
and
the
other
side
for
an
one
allegeddefense;
prosecuting
money

by

"

THE

154

When

AMERICAN

girlbecame

this

of $8,000

INDIAN

of age

oil lease

new

with

made

was

her for

of
into the hands
went
paid, which money
allegedhe likewise admitted he diverted to
his own
It is also claimed
that approximately $2500 royalty has
use.
been received by the guardian for this girl. It is claimed that the guardian
that he owed
has admitted
this girlapproximately $20,000.
ward
The
home
of
her
weak
lived in the
She is of
guardian ostensiblyas a servant.
mind
and reallyan
cured
incompetent. In September, 1910, the guardian se-

which
the

bonus

guardian and

from

divorce

it is

his wife, and

afterwards, it is claimed, continued

to

his ward.

live with
As

was

which

an

resort, my
valuable
a

illustration of the extremes

attention

called to

was

In

property.

order

to

to
case

of

which
an

these

grafterssometimes

adult who

get large allowances

had

died and

from

the

left

estate

accounts
were
padded expense
put in for the burial robes, metallic caskets,
the
who
relatives
attended
the burial stoutlyinsisted that
etc., although
used.
In this instance, the
only a box, and the cheapest clothes were
that
the
be
to
made, exhumed
an
was
grafters,knowing
investigation
in
metallic casket, and carried off and destroyed
a
body and placed same
the pine box in which the burial had originally
been made!
Miss
Barnard
found a pauper
child in an
almshouse.
Investigation
proved that the guardian disposedof a valuable "oil allotment" for $50,000.
Instead of using a part of this money
for the child's education, he appropriated
A
it to his own
of
recovered and the
the money
use.
was
portion
child placed in an
educational
institution.
Indians about to become
of age possessingvaluable allotments, were
taken
to
remote
Denver,
Henry Purchase
points
Minneapolis, etc.
taken to St. Louis, and detained until he signed a deed to his property.
was
Marcus
in Southampton, England,
Corey was found by Secret Service men
and returned after much
trouble to his parents. Marcus
possessedproperty
"

worth

$40,000.
Cases

in obscure
were

easy

attests

record

poisoned,or confined in rooms

The
their property.
hotels, until they signed away
ignorant
of 1913
the
to
this
as
grafters,
clipping
prey
newspaper

are

on

where

Indians

were

Oklahoma

an
opinion handed down today by Associate Justice Jesse
Indian girlswho
body holds that two MississippiChoctaw
valuable asphalt
they would have sold their allotments on which were
were
so
of mentally
under the statutory terms
depositsand which are worth $40,000 for $850 came
incompetent i"ersons and that the county court of Marshall County should appoint a guardian
for them.
when their
The girls
admitted
that they could neither read nor write, did not know

Dunn,

mother

City, June

of the supreme
ignorant that

died

or

how

many

25.

court

"

In

that

$5 billsit would

take

to

make

hundred.

MINORS'

THE
In most

States

ESTATES

guardian and

administrator

155

fees range

from

low

as

as

high as 5% or 6%. In Oklahoma, the administrators and guardians

charged from 3% to as high as 80% for service and costs in settling
from
page
up the affairs of these defenseless people. I present a random
Mr.
Mr.
Mott's long report. This was
included by the Honorable
Burke
in his speech.
2%

to

as

SHACK

OF

POOR

INDIAN,

CREEK

Photographed in

In defending such

charges,one

OKLAHOMA

1913

gentleman claimed

that

of these

some

Therefore, the charges

tracts, widely scattered.
of necessity be high. This is true of very few cases,
must
especiallysince
small tracts widely separated were
rarelyever
sought after by the grafter
estates

consisted

guardians, who

of small

in

some

localities

opprobiously designated

were

as

fessional
"pro-

guardians. The
figures speak for themselves, and should be
considered
in this country, as they
and woman
by every
thoughtful man
tell a story of robbery unparalleledin American
history.
No.
Nos.
No.
No.

626.

Amount

1411-1412.
1133.
1556.

Amount
Amount

handled, $2,085, at cost of $1,494.93, or 71.2 per cent.

handled, $65,266.92, at cost of $19,315.23, or

Amount

handled, $3,286.94, at
handled, $41,502.16,

cost
at

of $1,721.52, or 52.3

cost

per

of $21,953.60, or 52.8

29.4

cent.

per

cent.

per

cent.

AMERICAN

THE

156
The

followingcases

No.

32.

No.

310.

Amount

No.

359.

Amount

No.

428.

Amount

No.

669.

Amount

will be found

INDIAN

in Mcintosh

County, Exhibit C:

handled, $1,328.52, at cost of $937.89, or 70.5 per cent.

handled, $600, at cost of $305.50,or 50.9 per cent.

Amount

handled, $1,960, at cost of $695.50, or 35.4 per cent.

handled, $17,944.26, at cost of $3,043.07, or 16.9 per cent.
handled, $1,787.50, at cost of $609.49, or 34 per cent.

In Exhibit

D, for Tulsa County, will be found the followingcases:

Amount
7.
handled, $14,944.37, at cost of $3,267, or 21.8 per cent.
110.
Amount
handled, $2,094.28, at cost of $1,274.75, or 60.8 per cent.
273 (a). Amount
handled, $9,520.12, at cost of $2,487.67, or 26.1 per cent.

No.
No.
No.
No.

273

No.

1014

Exhibit

(c). Amount
(b). Amount

16.

Amount

No.

36.

Amount

No.

182.

Amount

(The above

three

No.

42.

Amount

No.

188.

Amount

The

below

cases

10.

of $6,523.15, or

22.2

per

of $3,644.30, or

18.6

per cent.

cent.

cases

280.

Amount

152.

Amount

No.

136.

Amount

No.

540.

the

of $10,650.43, or

cost

of $11,810.59,

same

or

per

cent.

19.9 per cent.

18.2

per cent.

guardianship).

in Exhibit F, for Okmulgee County:

handled, $8,688.21, at cost of $2,243.85, or 25.8 per cent.
handled, $2,855, at cost of $1,038.82, or 36.3 per cent.

handled, $1,321.50, at cost of $1,196.50, or 90.5 per cent.

handled, $2,026.55, at cost of $778.95, or 38.4 per cent.
handled, $2,570, at cost of $1,684.64, or 65.5 per cent.

Amount

271.

Amount

No.

237.

Amount

No.

179.

Amount

No.

98.

Amount
to

Amoung

No.

305.

Amount

No.

480.

Amount

No.

984.

Amount

No.

1039.

Amount

County, will be found the followingcases:

handled, $8,270, at cost of $911.96, or 27.8 per cent.

handled, $698.60, at cost of $364, or 52.1 per cent.
handled, $3,208.05, at cost of $983.10, or 30.6 per cent.
handled, $1,674.40, at cost of $482.57, or 28.8 per cent.

I also call attention

It will thus be

under

of $8,099.60, or 22.6

cost

handled, $1,740, at cost of $793.75, or 45.7 per cent.

handled, $1,347.78, at cost of $759.37, or 56.3 per cent.

G, for Okfuskee

No.

223.

were

cost

will be found

No.

In Exhibit

handled, $13,675.37, at
handled, $54,968. 10, at
handled, $64,863.42, at

Amount

No.

No.

cost
cost

E, for Creek County, contains the followingcases:

No.

No.

handled, $29,296.76, at
handled, $19,534.12, at

the

followingcases

found

in Exhibit

H, for Hughes County:

handled, $2,372.50, at cost of $909.58, or 38.3 per cent.

handled, $4,939, at cost of $1,147, or 23.2 per cent.
handled, $1,950, at cost of $717.95. or 36.8 per cent.
handled, $2,847.79, at cost of $744.44, or 26.2 per cent.
handled, $806.40, at cost of $407.64, or 50.5 per cent.

practicesapply generallythroughout the Creek

one
county than another, the general
situation is substantially
the same.
It is reasonable to presume
also that in that largenumber
of cases, as above pointed out, to wit, 4,339, where no reports of guardians have been made,
and where filesare out, equally bad or eVen
conditions prevail.
worse
seen

that these methods

Nation, and while they may

exist in

and

greater degree in

CHAPTER

We
on

XV.

looked

have

the

WHAT

upon

bright side for

all

and
Indians

who

OKLAHOMA

the

dark

From

INDIAN

last

Civilized

Five

Indians.

These

are

of their

out

prices,a great deal remains

ridiculouslylow

PROPERTY

Affairs, let

look

us

year's report of J. George

Tribes, it is learned
still protected
the

Notwithstanding

swindled

been

OF

side of Oklahoma

homesteads.

own

have

IN

the

to

restricted

32,939

are

LEFT

moment.

Wright, Commissioner
there

IS

prop"erty,

or

that

the

by

ernment,
Gov-

thousands

of

sold

at

same

suflScient to

provide every
homestead
Indian
and
of the tribes with
a
enough agriculturalland to
himself
maintain
and
family, provided he is protected in his rights; all
word
that
provided.
hinges upon
As
but
the
be

the

to

the

entire

at

Indians

of this land

Much

placed

is

Government
should

the

still

is what
the

to

is known

credit

officials, and

be sold, and

of the

to

Tribes

it is to
and

the money

to

and

divided

of the

must

it

restrictions

may

at

the

that

the Indians.

but

to

value

I suppose

sold the

attorneys,

28, when

work,

vary,

when

tribal

believes

among

up

all incentive

remove

Estimates

know.

the
The

the

lands

reasons

of Indians

speaking
an
ever-increasing
unwise
legislation.
of

of their crops
and labor,
that it is no
tion
exaggera-

belonging to the Five Civilized

has
couraged
enregularly. The Government
the
whose
this through
District Agents, or
field helpers,
duty
in their rights
in farming, to protect them
instruct the Indians
field agents stood
them.
These
exercise a general supervision over
that

state

between

work

"

the

the part of

about

thousands

Indian
few

and
to

men

third of the males

of them

the grafter, and

have

there

the entire number

was

determined

dismissed

from
these

effort

on

the Service.

worthy men
year's effort on
from
of the illustrations presented in these chapters are
Some
graphs
photoidea
and will give an
taken
by Mr. Allen and myself in Oklahoma

However,
are

The

practically everyone

of Indians

the number

man

lands,

$500,000,000,

or

tribal land, and

tribe.

on

of attorneys
Of

no

as

brieflypresented
page
general. By this method, we will rid the Indians

swarm

farm

and

half of this,

largely because

own,

for this, I have

in

statistics,
Whites, because of

and

timber

About

the

present

by Indians

asphalt lands

and

not

their property

upon

amount

held

acres,

least $1,000,000,000.

that

is claimed

placed

19,000,000

oilfields,coal

great
worth

I shall

of this land,

value

true

"

assured

Congress

continued

of another

the

appropriation and
behalf

of the

Indians.

OLD-STYLE

Cherokee,

Oklahoma.

CABIN,

1850-1890

Photographed,

1913

INDIAN
of the homes

PROPERTY
of the Indians, and

of the farms

some

159

they have

brought

cultivation.

under

The

unallotted

November

lands

have

have

the lands

developed and

not

were

value

Chickasaw

nations.

it is

the amount.

from

does

value.

part of the United

pricemay

thin, to $500 for heavy

veins

take

not

are

coal.

in this

Up

The

an

the

coal contained

deposit of undoubted

mately
approxi-

even

or

high as $1,000

wherein

this statement

value, and

of

bushes,

to

up

an

most

as

the circumstances.

under

vein of the best grades of bituminous

estimate

grown

tracts, in the eastern

to sell as

$50 for tracts

the lowest

had

impossibleto accurately

Coal

States,have been known

vary

price,but

the segregated coal and asphaltlands in Choctaw

These total 455,303 acres.
The value has been

are

variously estimated, and

state

since

and

sold for $10,458,945, or

tracts

many

it is the best that could be obtained

Of immense

been

rather low

seems

auction

sold at

usually been

1, 1910, 1,838,921 acres

of $5.68 per acre.
This

average

and

OKLAHOMA

IN

to

the

acre.

It will thus be

enormous

area

into account

present, the

that at

seen

is of

exceeding
the great asphalt
Government

has

control of this
resisted attempts of those who
would
secure
successfully
Wright, on page 28 of his report, states that there
property. Commissioner
is in cash depositedto the credit of the Indians, in banks in the State of

Oklahoma,

4%

The

$4,474,189.45.

interest

paid

this

on

varies

sum

from

6%.

to

of the coal and

panies
asphaltlands have been leased to mining comending June 30, 1913, 3,103,071 tons of coal
during
and 4,752 tons of asphaltwere
mined; the royaltyon the coal being eight
and on crude asphalt ten cents, refined asphalt sixty cents
cents
per ton

Some

and

per

the year

ton.

The

tribal attorneys, acting for these

Five

Civilized

Tribes, and

have, without
occupying high positionsof trust and responsibility,
done what they could to further the interests of their clients.
The

Whether

June

terminated

the Cherokees

30, 1914, and all

will prosper remains

seen.

In

addition

$2,480,739.35
received

bonuses,

from

to

were

oil

the

totals

distributed

presented, it
to

individual

be

must

Indians.

recorded
This

sum

that
was

royalties,lease privileges,mining royalties,rents,

etc.

Kelsey, Superintendent of the Union Agency, and acting

Wright last year handled a grand
conjunction with Commissioner
Dana

in

Cherokee

abolished.

tribal oflSces were

to be

of the

existence

ception,
ex-

H.

total of $8,215,989.71.

Some

idea of the

enormous

amount

of business

THE

160

AMERICAN

by his officemay

transacted

INDIAN

be

that piecesof
gleaned from the statement
mail matter
(over half of which were
letters)
dming the year totaled 364,218.
His office investigatedabout
18,000 leases, land cases, complaints and
probate cases all relatingto Indian property. The net saving to the Indians
$667,352.25.
by this governmental supervisionwas
Mr.
Kelsey states: "At the advent of statehood there were
no
ample
facilitiesto afford proper protectionto the minor and incompetent Indians,
number
the former
of which
approximately 60,000."
Some

of the difficultieswith

which

his office has had

to

contend

may

imagined from the followingquotation:

these lands either controlled the
"Many partieswho sought to secure
of
connived
the
with the guardian to purchase
appointment
guardian or
the land at grosslyinadequate prices,the difference between
the purchase
priceand the actual priceof the land being the profitrealized by the guardian
and the purchaser. In other instances parents who
were
appointed
guardians of their children sold their children's allotments and dissipated
the proceeds. This work discloses many
instances where partiesdesiring
allotments secured the appointment of themselves
to lease minor
or
ployees
emthe land sought they were
able
as
guardian,and by so controlling
in subleasinglands for,in some
to profit
to a considerable extent
instances,
leases
of
these
times
the
the imfor
provement
amount
paid. Many
provided
many
of the improvements
of the land in lieu of cash rental,while none
field
with
the
clerks are
made.
from the
were
Many complaints lodged
their
find
unrestricted Indians, who, upon
that their
attaining
majority,
allotments have been sold and the funds dissipatedby the guardian, leaving
them penniless."
of days there watching
I visited Mr. Kelsey'soffice and spent a number
The
the conduct
tremendous
and
of business.
activityin the oilfields,
the thousands
of applicationsfor oil leases or purchase of Indian lands
be

"

for the most

pass,

If it

were

not

part, through his hands

for his efforts and

those

and

those of his able assistants.

of Commissioner

Wright, and

the

and Miss Barnard),

tribal attorneys (and not to omit Mr. Mott, Mr. Foreman
in other words, if there had not appeared before those who sought
this "stone wall defense", there would be little to
to despoilthe Indians
record

today beyond the fact that the Five Civilized Tribes

possessed

one

time

great deal of property.

Superintendent of the Union

ten
Kelsey served over
years
with
familiar
and
is
Agency
thoroughly

as

reconmaendations, therefore, should

weight. They

Mr.

93

at

of his report.

carry

conditions

in

Oklahoma.
are

found

His
on

page
^

AMERICAN

THE

162

all of which

INDIAN
I feel I have

helped plan, and with which

had

much

to

do.

Oct. 23rd, 1914."

"Muskogee,

above
is very
encouraging, and I hope the consolidation
probate attorneys will work together for the result we all desire.
be proper
affair without
It would
not
to close the Oklahoma
saying
and Captain Grayson.
few words concerning Mr. Mott
a
Captain George W. Grayson has served as offic'al Creek interpreter
the history of his tribe, is entirelyin
He understands
for many
years.
to aid the various
tribal
sympathy with their aims, and has done much
Oklahoma.
in
With
fine
Chief
the
of
Indian,
a
Moty Tiger,
attorneys
I asked
Creek
Nation, he has frequently visited Washington.
Captain
section prior to publication,
Grayson to read the manuscript of my Oklahoma
All of the

and

the

and

indebted

am

to

him

for valuable

suggestions and information.

has been made

of by the Smithsonian
use
interpreter
of Creek language,mythology and
investigations
able interpreter
in all the State of Oklahoma,
family life. There is no more
has been referred to in previous pages
of this chapter.
Mr. M. L. Mott

Captain Grayson
Institution

In

as

in their

men

call attention

closing,I would

in the oflBce of the

to

remarkable

Secretaryof the Interior in

which

scene

February,

1914.

occurred
The

homa
Okla-

delegation in Congress from the state of Oklahoma, had opposed

As we
reappointment of Mott as attorney for the Creek Indians.
heroic
Mott
behalf
in
have seen
of his
previous pages,
fighton
put up a
Each afternoon for
clients, thereby incurringthe illwill of many
persons.
five days, were
arrayed against him all the Congressmen from Oklahoma.
of these lengthy sessions,in which the opponents were
conclusion
At
the
unable to prove
against Mr. Mott, the Secretary
anything of consequence
the

of the

issued

Interior

him

The

the

following letter:

Secretary

of

Interior

the

Washington

February 14,
dear Mr.

My

Chief
as

Moty

successor

your

I shall
in which
you

have

doing
have

your

been

you

1914.

Mott:

Tiger and myself have

as

agreed upon
Attorney for the Creek Nation.

Judge Allen

always take pleasure in contemplating the manner

conducted
yourselfduring the inquiry here. That

been

honest

under

diflScultiesand

to be admitted
duty, seems
antipathetic.

most

even

fearless at all times in

by those

to

whom

you

INDIAN
I
and

OKLAHOMA

IN

PROPERTY

163

glad to know that you are going to return to Oklahoma

that by mingling freelywith those people they will

am

I trust
to

come

see

as

you

of ideals.

man

Cordiallyyours,
(Signed) Frankun
M.

K. Lane

L. Mott,

Esq.,
Washington, D. C.

We

governmental records in vain for a parallelcase.

of the public,a loyal friend to the Indians.
was
a
The
Congressmen appeared against him in force and brought up every
conceivable
his fall;strivingto preserve
charge, in order to encompass
official peace
forced to replace
in Oklahoma, the Honorable
Secretary was
search

may

Here

faithful servant

him, yet
The
at

at

the

time

same

wrote

defeat, I

night followinghis honorable

the National

Hotel.

With

him

were

in his

Mott

saw

staunch

two

behalf.

letter in Mott's

commendatory

room

friends of the Creeks,

Chief

Moty Tiger and Captain G. W. Grayson. Mott uttered a remarkable

The
next
prophecy: "Moorehead, they are rid of me.
step will be to
force out the Department of Justice men,
Gresham
and Frost; then Kelsey
and Wright will have to go; Kate
Barnard
must
stop protectingminor
heirs, or

Having
years

her
cut

hence

board

"

and

ask the American

negligence has
Oklahoma

will be

off the real

must

do

then
fighters,
not

people to

forget this
support

brought distress
not

be

they

called

upon

remove

paupers,

thousands,
to

care

took

the Federal

slate will be wiped clean of the 30,000

In

lands

will not

few

Congressmen will
claiming that Federal

be

eightmonths, nearly half of Mott's

that

and

for these

people who

Indian

restrictions.

the Oklahoma

"

Indian

to

will

Commissioners.

Indian

abolished; also your

compelled

to

the

State

indigents.
return

land suits

now

of

Most

them,

and

pending."

prophecy has been verified.

CHAPTER

XVI.

THE

LEASING

CHICKASAW;
Indian

Few

book

than

the

could

be

and

these

and

the

made
J.

P.

into

Hurley,

end

myself
chapter. The

content

of this

of pages.
of Indians
the

and

Cherokees

to

that
little

A
over

Congressional Committees

before

would

McMurray

receive

and

of Indians,

the

in number

37,600

and

east

south

and

the

at

least

that

story from

both

are

of the

be omitted,

may

succeeded

interesting and
Creeks.
as

in

plicated,
com-

Further

erence
ref-

their story is practically

Creeks.
than

more

affairs

Seminoles

and

of the

miles

200

north

Chickasaw

different

centage
per-

Indians,

undistributed
portion of the
minimum
valuation.
being $35,000,000
number
of years.
stake has extended
a
through

and

tell

on

Choctaw

struggle for so large a

So far Mr.
Hurley, and other friends of the Indians, have
into effect.
preventing McMurray
carrying his contracts
Choctaw

Murray
Mc-

Indians

the

estate

The

The

Mr.

by

thousands

for

of this

fees, the

in

$3,500,000

Chickasaw

and

Choctaw

with

Esq., attorney

contracts
McMurray
contended
that
Hurley

possible estimate

the

at

licity
pub-

more

chapters

I must

But

hundreds

cover

contracts

the

court.

Several

effect.

bibliography

investigations

basis.

in

carried

to

McMurray

opposed

had

Congress have

contracts.

to

callingattention
Mr.

honorable

our

McMurray
describing the propositions made
his associates
and
the far-reaching effects on
were

testimony

in

AND

RECOMMENDATIONS

so-called

devoted

of Oklahoma
with

FINAL

matters

CHOCTAW

SYSTEM;

and

west,

Choctaws,
"

of the
an

allotted and

was

"

two-thirds

more

of

average

acreage

"

than

and

domain

vast

approximately

sold for the benefit of these

Chickasaws

little

entire

100

Mississippi Choctaws,

one-third

of the

miles

three classes
about

total Oklahoma

enrollment.
The

eastern

timber.

third
What

of this
is shown

territoryis especiallyrich
upon

the

map

as

the

in coal

Choctaw

and

wood
hardNation

sissippi
the Misas
largest coal deposits in what is generally known
this
and
allotment
lands
when
of
in
1903,
began
valley,
country
of the finest
with
rich growth of pine timber
was
a
practically covered
quality.
Chickasaw
The
Nation
comprised the greatest agriculturaland stockof which
cultivation
for half a century.
had been
under
raisinglands, some
well-to-do and self-supporting.
By the use of these vast estates, they became
The
flocked
richness of the country
and negroes
becoming known. Whites

contains

the

LEASING

THE
Indian

Territory with

SYSTEM

165

the idea

prominent that they were

going to be
the surplusland, as had been the custom
in breaking
permitted to homestead
Indian
Cherokee
reservations.
With
the
of
the
the
opening
strip,
up
and
Iowa
Comanche
and
the
and
reservations
the
on
Cheyenne
Arapaho
half of Oklahoma, immigrants flocked
west, comprising all of the western
of the best of them
to these openings. Some
remained
farmers in that
as
The
and
after exploitingthose western
riff-raff,
great western
country.
back to Indian Territory to ply their vocations
northern reservations, came
at the various
the Five Civilized Tribes.
allottingagencies among
at work;
By 1903 all kinds of land, livestock and timber companies were
skillful lawyers schemed
to change the laws.
than one
gusted
More
Indian, diswhite man,
the
Choctaw
hills
with the "Christian"
in
stayed
among
the pine forests and refused to come
and perform the duties necessary
out
under the laws made
for him in order that he might receive his allotment.
child was
Each man,
and
of land, appraised
to receive $1040 worth
woman
land.
of average
at from twenty-fivecents to $6.50 per acre;
also 320 acres
He was
to the
supposed to look it over, and being satisfied with it,come
land oflSce and file his "descriptions" with an
aflSdavit that he owned
such improvements, if any
there were,
and the possessary
right to the
to

land

selected.
miles

200

in the

He

not

induced

be

into the Chickasaw

over

Choctaw

Under

could

to

Nation,

It cost

come.
or

go

find suitable land

to

even

to

money

Nation.

the

allotment

the

act

of the

members

tribes

given the

were

rightto alienate one-half their lands within five years from date of patents.
were
more
more
ignorant classes were
easilyinfluenced, and runners
Choctaw
"shell
the
woods"
and
for
to
in
the
Nation
employed
go over
Indians.
Sufficient quantitiesof whiskey, an
interpreter,and expense
all
that
Indians
were
were
was
brought into the allotting
money
necessary.
and driven a
the
He
taken
in
out
agencies by
was
a
score.
conveyance
few miles from the agency
and shown the best improved farm in the country,
The

deal made

with

him

to

five years,

was

the balance

plotted upon

of his land

about

for five years

rightto the land. His

known

as

homestead

as

years

of age

selected for him

the hills. To
nor

set

in 1907, and

this

day

most

in

some

out

of these full-

their several allotments.

foot upon
affairs is illuminating
and Chickasaw

Choctaw
two
or
case
illustrating
Addie B. Easier
general conditions.
twelve

of

plans were
prepared
surplus which would be alienable within
and
seen
improved lands which he had never

of the way
place,generallyupon
blood Indians have never
seen
of

in consideration

lease the land

the purchase of the possessary

for him.
His allotment known

was

certain

minor
man

was

full-blood Indian
made

guardian

THE

166

for her.

Under
in

the

INDIAN

AMERICAN
act

new

southern

of Congress

additional

an

J. T.

district,Judge

judge

had

been

Dickenson,

pointed
ap-

had

he

and

between
the district by agreement
presented to him for
applicationwas
refused to appoint the one
requested, but
approval. Judge Dickenson
his own
selected a man
motion
of Wright living at
by the name
upon
Sulphur. Up to this time such independence on the part of the judiciary

been

the other

and

and

unusual

was

that
the

from

consisted

they
largerpart
of

of

Mullen

the

the old and

existed between

on

in squalor. He found that she owned,

family, four allotments besides her own
of improved land,
something like a thousand
acres
his ward

of her

"

in cultivation;that

Mr.

This

this time

found

of the death

reason

half of

judge.

war

judge. Wright

new

by

northern

assigned the

himself

all of this land

since allotment, and

at

was

in the

been

had

that time

session
pos-

being rented

by Mr. Mullen for an average rental of $2.50 per acre per year. Mr.
these lands
Wright employed attorneys and began proceedings to recover
for his ward.
He was
met
at the hearing by a subsequently appointed
guardian from the central district who had been appointed at the instance
of Mullen.
The hearing was
had before the old judge who promptly held
out

that

the

United
Mr.

domicile

of the

States Court

Wright guardian.

estates?

She

is

minor

What

has

central

district had

B. Easier

"unknown"

now

the

that

district and

to appoint
jurisdiction

no

of Addie

become

of the many

one

the

in

was

for the southern

her

or

since her

vast

is

property

gone.

After

statehood, the Chocktaw

and

Chickasaw

Nations

cut

were

into many
counties and probate matters
transferred to the County
of the counties which
included
the court towns.
Provisions
were
to

transfer

had

such

probate cases to the county which would

been inaugurated after statehood.
case

Little effort has been

themselves
have

been

made

sell or

to

fact

in very few instances

lands allotted to him.
Charles

McKinney
or

is

five minor

Johnson, Marshall

and

administrators

only

in

of the minors
of

out

grown

that

with four

because

that

those

and

instances

made

jurisdiction
the Indians

guardians
where

the

is any pretense made

to have
thing
everyhas resulted in the appointment of guardians

of the residence

has
litigation

and

had

lease the land

regular. This condition

in the counties
Much

to transfer these cases,

ignorant of the
appointed elsewhere
are

grafterwants

have

up

Courts

have

an

the

to

lands

recover

conflicts,and

and

it is safe

grafterssurrendered

to

the

rentals.
to

say

Indian

saw
ignorant,easy-going quarter-bloodChicka-

children.

Carter

these

Their lands

Counties.

He

was

were

scattered in Poulatre,

their

guardian.

He

sold

RECOMMENDATIONS

167

various

these

allotments
County
through the County Court of
his bond.
of the citywas
on
something like $7000. The mayor
and several other politicians
decided to buy
A certain judge, the mayor
local newspaper
which was
too
a
independent for the good of the party.
This money
loaned to the mayor,
who
was
as
securitya mortgage
gave
and

received

several tracts

upon

of land

which

purchase of the newspaper

sold by its creditors, and the

he

did not

used

and

own,

the money
and

insolvent

in the

plant; the latter became

was

guardian squandered the balance of the

money.

Indians of a low order of intelligence.

are
MississippiChoctaws
panies,
imported into this country in 1902 and 1903 by land comfunct,
dethe
Choctaw
which
Investment
now
was
Company,
among
in
Ardmore
and J. E. Arnold.
herded
barracks
around
were
They
other places during 1902, 1903
and
1904; the smallpox broke out
them
and they died like sheep. Before they left Mississippi,
contracts
in which
their
with them
made
on
were
they agreed to prove
up

The

They

and
among

lands

were

and

The

sell them

to

non-residents
Arnold

and

large accounts

the

furnished
Senator

the promoters.
Chocktaw

of the

stockholders

Owen

money
are

for allowance.

now

To

have

and

other

loss, but

J. E.

Company

Investment

and

stood

the

pressing before the Court

secure

these

claims

of Claims

if allowed, J. E.

Choctaw
has filed a lien upon almost every allotment of a Mississippi
has
these
claims
nations.
Congress
recognized
by permitting

Arnold

in these two
them

to

be

litigated.
Recommendations

are
Except a
everybody agrees that affairs in Oklahoma
persons,
Sells'
Mr.
Office
all
that
The
Indian
is
it can through
a
doing
shape.
ceedingly
attorneys to bring about desired reforms and protection,but it is exWe
slow work.
must
adopt Miss Barnard's plan if we desire to
to arouse
the remaining Indian peoplesin Oklahoma.
That is,briefly,
save
the conscience
of thousands
in hundreds
of good citizens in Oklahoma
and persuade them
to take a firm stand
against further despoliationof
Indians.
The grafters,
have exerted an influence
through their newspapers,
out of all proportionto their strength. They have dominated
in Oklahoma.
Hon.
have
subsidized.
One
of
attacked
the
which
even
They
newspapers
Mott
and
bitter toward
Mr.
George Vaux, Jr., and afterwards was
very
myself,received thousands of dollars from an Indian minor child's estate.
This money
used to boom
was
a
journal.
political

few

in

bad

All who
citizens into

would
action.

save

the

Indian

must

stimulate

Attacking grafters, is

not

the

better

class of

bringing into discredit

THE

168

good

name

great State.

INDIAN

graftersraise
the cry of State persecution.They do not, however, deny the pauperizing
well answers
of fraud. Miss Barnard
of Indians, or the 30,000 specific
cases
that we
critics with the statement
forces
of evil.
are
merely attacking
themselves
solve the problem promptly and
The people of Oklahoma
can
if
will
their
assert
satisfactorily,they
rights. All the protectionand publicity,
dians,
Inand legalprocedures in the world will not save
the Oklahoma
if the better class of citizens (the great majority)do not take a firm
stand for right and justice. The
ministers, Miss Barnard
claims, are
all of which indicates
against graft
alreadybeginning to preach sermons
trend of healthy public opinion.
a
of
Mr. Foreman,
who has worked
lines as Department
along the same
Miss Barnard
and Mr. Kelsey,and has been associated with
Justice officials.
I present his paragraphs herewith :
Mr. Mott, takes a rather gloomy view.
the restrictions on the
"In a few short years. Congress has removed
sale of nearly 70 per cent of the 100,000 Indians of the tribes
all
on
the

of

AMERICAN

I mention

this because

the

"

"

but

the

from
not

full-bloods.

whom

allotment

The

of them

mistake.

gone

retains

But

lesson should

of the full-blood.
and

there is

be

The

at

considerable

least

employed

mixed-bloods

probably

part of his original

released.

to

Indians

good should

some

emphasize

as

land

loose has been

be extracted

the need
is

owner

for

no

from

protection
He

more.

is

practically
nothing to be done for his class except in the
children.

the full-blood stillhas

"But
the

even

mixed-blood

protectionof his minor

been

these

overtaken

experiment of turning these mixed-blood

lamentable

it.

has

of land.

"The
a

inevitable

Congress released its protectingsupervision,and

in ten

one

The

There

is

no

his land, for his restrictions have

obligationto

duty of seeingto it that they are

these Indians

never

commanding
protectedin their property; this means
so

the restrictions against the sale of their lands must

except under the supervisionof the Interior Department.

that

be

not

To

as

relaxed

permit them

them to their own

this protectionwould expose
to sell their lands without
inexperienceand improvidence, to the cunning of the shameless horde of
white land grafters.
"

It

was

claimed

that at least the mixed-bloods

are

competent

to

handle

their property, and developments have shown

the fallacyof that claim.
full-bloods
little
the
but
fortunate.
are
more
Totally unprepared
Many of

they have had thrust upon them individual ownership of their lands. In
1906
Congress provided that full-blood Indians might sell lands inherited
from deceased
relatives. As the rate of mortality is high among
these

RECOMMENDATIONS

people,there

are

made.

great number

their

In

such

many

inheritances

for

169

inheritances

and

of instances

such sales have

many

they have

been

swindled

been
of

out

pittance.

"Congress unwisely permitted these full-bloods to lease most of their

without supervision. Thousands
land for five years
of them were
induced
lease
white
their
their
to
homes
and
little
land,
by
speculators
including
cultivated farms which
experien
Inwere
capable of making them comfortable.
in such transactions, they gave the white man
their home
for
for little or nothing,the consideration depending on
five years
the extent
of fraud practicedon them.
The speculatorin turn sublets the land to a
and makes
handsome
renter
a
profiton the transaction. The Indian was
forced

then

to

the

on

move

land

of

relative, or

into the hills

on

improved
un-

practically
nothing to sustain his family. In many
is
only
paid the Indian and the lessee refuses to
The Indian in his helplessness
knows
no
more.
remedy and suffers
pay
almost a total loss of the consideration
This situation is
agreed upon.
in the Choctaw
Nations.
and Chickasaw
particularly
distressing
land, with

the first year'srent

cases

leases

"These

extended

are

comprehend, and

cannot

for the Indian

from

by methods
out

once

which

the

of the Indian

of possession it is practically
impossible
removed
the restrictions are

When
get his land back.
sale of this class of land, which
to

the mind

is looked

forward

by the

to

the
people holding them, they will make the most of their advantage over
Indian, by making it practically
impossiblefor the Indian to get any other

buyers than the lessees,who

is evidenced

will

buy

in another

now

on

their

own

The

way.

terms.

Indian

This

mean

Department

vantage
adcan

sell part of the Indian's allotment for the Indian's benefit,but in many
of
sale for an
adequate consideration is defeated by the presence
a
cases
leases often taken
else

anyone

for
by white speculators

buying the land,

or

to

demand

no
a

than to prevent
other purpose
heavy tribute for a surrender

of the lease.
"The

newspapers

and

the court

files of the eastern

half of Oklahoma

for several years have been filled with the stories of the Indians' undoing
If
Indian.
which explainsthe swift impoverishment of the mixed-blood
the mixed-bloods
would

could

not

stand

up

againstthis condition, what

chance,

the full-bloods have.'*

of the aboriginal
hardy pioneer ventured within the domain
what
himself
he
found
are
among
proprietorsof this country
often described as "hostile"
people. It is a strange caprice of fortune
white
man's civilizing
the
influence, the description
that with the coming of
"When

the

170

THE

AMERICAN

be

shifted from

"hostile'* should

INDIAN
the Indian

white

the

to

man,

the

and

self
his own
land, should discover himremaining upon
less
hostile
white
Perils
of
bloody
perils
p)eople.
by
but more
insidious and relentless;the thirst for blood supplanted by the
thirst for the Indian's property; the Indian's ambush
exchanged for the
of
ambush
white man's
of intrigue and deception;conquest of the stout
heart and arm
and deceit and of the
routed by the conquest of the pen
brain befuddled
by the devastating alcohol.
"The
Indian is groping his way
through the dusk of his day upon
earth and soon
he will pass from our
sightand the sound of his footsteps
As he proceeds falteringly,
is comwill cease.
this shred of a great race
forted
the
guideby no expressions of good will. The road is rough and
The only lightthat would reveal
and hard to read.
posts are far between
his path to him
shines distantlybut faithfully.From
this light,from
the voices and counsels of a few distant friends unselfishly
striving for
the only promise of amelioration."
him, comes

submissive

red

man,

the

surrounded

Miss
me

the

which
be
the
new

to

Barnard's

assistant, Mr.

followingtwo

paragraphs

the Department

Huston,

indicative

as

of Charities

at

Lake

to

of the essential things for

Corrections

and

dictated

Mohonk,
is

fighting. It

must

the second paragraph from the end is not aimed

at
of fact, that the
personnel. It is merely a statement
attorneys labor under disadvantage.
1st.
To elect a Legislaturepledged to appropriate suflScient funds

understood
Indian

make

that

OflSce

effective the

Department
of Government,
Federal

only arm
authority to intervene
Indian

minor

in the

of Charities
or

probate

State, which
courts

and

Corrections,

is clothed

of Oklahoma

on

with

the

"

legal

behalf

of

heirs.

To enact
2nd.
law embodying adequate probate procedure. The
a
homa
probate procedure recentlyagreed to between the probate judges of Oklaand the Commissioner
the same
of Indian Affairs is substantially
procedure which was
prepared by M. L. Mott and put into effect in five
out of the eight counties of the Creek
Nation several years previousto the
Mr.
in a bill
Mott
had this procedure embodied
present administration.
which passed the lower house of the Oklahoma
Legislaturetwo years ago,
but which
defeated
influence
of graftersin the Senate.
the
was
through
knew
that the probate procedure, depending for its force and effect
Mott
stituency
merely upon the personal agreement of county judges elected by a conhostile to

minors,

unless

the

the

Indians, would
had

same

penaltiesfor violation

of

same.

the

force

be

ineffective to

of law, and

protect Indian

provided adequate

RECOMMENDATIONS

171

Finally,all good citizens in the United States must rallyto the support
are
making a fightfor simplejusticeand decency in Oklahoma.

of those who

If the better element

of oil,
in that State is defeated by a combination
coal,gas, timber, land, and asphaltinterests,the taxpayers of this country
will be

called upon
to support
100,000 homeless
States are
100,000 citizens to be

calamity is permitted to
shall have

been

look to

to

us

written.

discussion

of Indian

Affairs.

in all American

page

OKLAHOMA

ON

Congressional Record

of Congress.

Botli branches

10, 11, 12. 13, 17, 16. 17, 19, 20, 26, 28; March.

history

dependent people

promises.

our

BIBLIOGRAPHY

PARTIAL
Lengthy

of all

one

else
if this

and
dispossessed,

helpless,a trusting,and

the final

keep

the blackest

occur,

Nowhere

paupers.

in the United

for 1914.

Jan. 22; Feb.,

4; also Dec.

May

10, 11, 12, 21. 26, 27, 28. 31; Apr., 24, 28, 29;

20.

1913.
Detailed

reviews

of satisfactory conditions

recommended.

Letters
In

the

P.

29.

Board

expressing
Civilized

Five

Tribal

"Restricted"

be

the

Memorial

same?

Affairs.

Patrick

the

retention

the

urging

or

Committee

of the

use

of protection;

need

some;

Secretary of Interior.

and

of,

work

for the

Hurley.

J.

Five

of the

Civilized

The

Choctaw

Thirty-first Annual

Report

P.

Lake

Report

District

of

Agents

Affairs.

Indian

on

lation
legis-

1869-1890.

Conference.

Mohonk

Session, Dec.
Education

Veto

H.

Nations,
R.

Five
Five

Civilized
Tribes.

Report

the

to

Mohonk

Lake

Rights

Law

the

its Administration

and

Conference.

P.

35.

1913.

mitted
Sub-

Mississippi Choctaws.

of the

1913.

Jr.

The

Tribes

to

J. P.

"

Tribes, Should

Civilized

Relative

19213.

G"or^" Vaux,

"

the

in the

Taxation
1907.

Among

Red
the

Secretary

135.

Interior.

of the

Twenty-eighth

Broum.

P.

Dec., 1912.

Man.

Annual

June

Report

30, 1912.
Lake

Mohonk

ference,
Con-

the

in Indian

Five

Territory.

Civilized

Tribes.

House

J. P.

"

of Representatives

Quarterly

Broum.

Doc.

No.

34.

of the

Journal

Fifty-eighth Congress.

Indians.

Soc. Amer.

Oct.-

416.
of the

Message

inherited

to

Schools

6,

P.

1913.

Chickasaw
with

of Five

79.

School

on

and

Indians

Thirty-first Annual

Murray.

in connection

Commission

Reorganized
1910.

H.

Tribes, Conditions

of the

Report

"Unrestricted"

and

William

"

for consideration

to

Printed

1912.

President

to

reports

indorsing

cooperation

Washington

Tribes; statistics of

Civilized

of Five

Commissioners

1913.

Toward

Dec.

favorable

the

Tribes.

Choctaw-Chickasaw

3rd

of Indian

estates

President

in the

Five

of the United

Civilized

Tribes

States,

without

in Oklahoma."

approval
Senate

Senate

Doc.

7978, entitled

BUI

899, 62nd

Congress,

"An

2nd

Act

Relating

Session. August

6. 1912.
and

Laws

Regulations.

Suppressing
Lake

Mohonk
Indian

Ending

June

Hearing

the

Relating

Liquor

Conference,
Appropriation

Traffic
1907.

to

Indians

in Indian
P.

and

their Lands.

Territory

and

"

H.

Oscar

Oklahoma.

"

Lipps.

William

1913.
E.

Johnson.

Twenty-fifth

Report

27.

Bill,Hearings

before

the

Committee

on

Indian

Affairs, U. S. Senate.

Parts

1, 2, 7. and

5.

30. 1915.
before

Committee

on

Indian

Affairs

of the

U.

S. Senate.

Appropriation

Bill.

Jan. 28

to

Feb.

10. 1905.

THE

172
Suits
Nations

in Court

Heirs

Grace

Cox

Letter

Indians.

from

inclusive.

Status
The

Needs

and

The

the

Tribes.

Committee

funds
30,

Problem.

Indian

Civilized

Civilized

Five

Vrl

78.

Oklahoma

which

Chickasaw

and

Congress. 3rd Session.

1913.

Determination

of

relates

the

to

Indian

on

Affairs, transmitting

of the

account

on

Five

detailed

Tribes

Civilized

from

statement

1908

1911

to

1911.
Hon

"

Tribes.

Affairs.

S. Sherman.

James

Thirty-first Annual

John

"

Oskisen.

M.

Tribes

Annual

Twenty-seventh

Conference

Mohonk

Lake

Report

Annual

Twenty-fourth

Conference.
Lake

Report

1913.

P. 16.
ference.
Con-

Mohonk

Sill Indians.

of

Employ

They

11.

Territory

Century

425-431.

pp.

Attorneys.

William

of Hon.

Speech

"

H.

Congressional

Murray^

1914.

City.

Oklahoma

1909-14.

Report

Indian

Pp. 257-297.

VIII,

1886.

Why

"

Feb.

Chapter

Cherokees.

Jackson.

51.

Book.

Red

The

Hunt

Helen

"

No.

Fort

Affairs

of Indian

Choctaw

the

1010. 62nd

No.

P. 38.

Dbhonor.

Record,

authorize

"To

Doc.

74.

of the Five

Territory

Indian

of the

various

Session. June

of Publicity in Indian

Need
1906.

of

from

2d

and

P.

Indians.

Purposes."

of Comm.

Chairman

to

Congress.

1909.

Chickasaw

for other

Jan. 22. 1914.

S. Government

U.

INDIAN

and

and

Decision

disbursements

and

Senate. 62d

Mohonk.

Choctaw

Case.

of Interior

Dept.

of all expenditures

The

the

of Claims

Inheritance

of Deceased

Lake

by

of Claims

bring suit in the Court

to

The

AMERICAN

of.

Condition

William

"

H.

Member

Kelcham,

of

Board

Commissioners,

Indian

Jan. 5. 1914.
The

Indians:

Shawnee

of the

Reports

Civilized

Five

Seminole.

Indian

Third

P.

1896.
Choctaws

and

Our

Chickasaws.

H.

KaU

R.

1917.

National

Kiowa

Agency,

Eastern.

Annual

of the

288.

I. P. 260.
I. P. 245.

Board

of the

of Indian

of Indian

Interior.

P. 14.

1872.
P. 5.

1871.

Annual

P. 348.

1900.

Commissioners.

Commissioners.

Twenty-eighth

of the

Report

of Indian

Board

of the

Report

of Charities

Commissioner

Before
354-456.

The

Condition

Sad

Committee

the

338-353.

Anadarko.

General

Agency.

Oklahoma.

on

of the Oklahoma

General

Kiowa

Condition

Oklahoma.

"

of the

Report

Training

School, Oklahoma.

Training

School, Oklahoma.

Report

Relative

to

Indian

of Representatives.

Oklahoma.

Agency,

Condition

Cantonment

House

Vol.

of the

Cantonment
Mott

I. P.

of the Department

Board

Hearings
pp.

Indians.

of the

Kiowa

Burke.

II. P. 500.

Vol.

of the

1894-1895.

I. P. 463.

of Indian

Board

sioners.
Commis-

and

Commissioners.

Corrections

P. 52.

1873.

of Oklahoma.

of the State

Dec.

Indian

Affairs.

Indians.

S. Senate.

U.

K.

Warren

"

Indians.

of Agency

Moorehead.

Report

"

63rd

First

Congress.

1913.

of Department

of the

P. 293.

Habits

Pawnee

City Historical

Kansas

Spencer.

Barnard.

Problem,

Agency,

Interior. 1904.

Vol.

of the

Report

Fifth

Reports

Contracts.

McMurray
on

Condition

Tribes.

Indians.

Vol.

Indians.

Report

Annual

Report

Annual

\9U."

to

Jacob

13.

Fifth

to

Rev.

"

I. P. 362.

Indians.

Oklahoma.

Civilized

Vol.

Vol.

Indians.

of American

General

Cherokees.

Indians.

of American

Annual

Five

Indians.

of American

Fourth

Territory.

Osages.

Session

of American

Agency.

the

to

of American

of American

Handbook
Fox

and

10. 1908

Handbook

Handbook

Cherokee.

First

Commission

Handbook

Chickasaw.

Sank

Dawes

Handbook

Choctaw.

Folk-lore.

Traditions, and

Customs.

Tribes.

Handbook

Creek.

Their

P. 382.

Society. 1907-1908.

Dec.

Indians

of the
"

"

1912.

"

Report

Department
Report

Report

Guardianships
13,

Department

"

of.

of the
of the
in the

of the

Department

Interior. 1904.
of the

Department
Department
Probate

Report.

Interior

of the

of the

Courts

of

1900.
of the

P. 332.

Interior. 1902.

P. 287.

P. 302.

Interior, 1904.
Interior, 1903.
Oklahoma.

"

P. 283.
P. 252.

Honorable

Charles

H.

CHAPTER

XVII.

CLOUD.

RED

MODERN

TIMES

Oglala division

of Teton

OF
He

belonged

the

to

the forks of the Platte

is said

It

of enemies

and

River
he

that

GREATEST

THE

died at Pine

counted
with

eighty times

coups

He

Sioux.

Ridge,

that

"

INDIAN

South

is, he

was

Dakota,

touched

the

born

at

1909.

bodies

his

coup-stick.
of the Sioux
band
Iteshicha.
The
he belonged is known
to which
as
of his life has ever
been
As no
published, I intend
comprehensive account
this entire chapter to him
his activities.
first comes
devote
and
He
to
in 1865, when
undertook
into prominence
the Government
build
to
a
road from
Fort Laramie, Wyoming,
Red
to the gold regions of Montana.
of troops and
held same
Cloud
prisoners for two
captured a detachment
Commissioners
and
then released
without
weeks
them
sent
were
injury.
from
out
Washington that fall to treat with him, and he refused to meet
"

them.*

with

Of

individuals

the

of Sioux

something

who

can

be

exerted

Sitting Bull and Red Cloud are

plainsman worthy of the name
the past with
in the

'60's

Plains.

The

of Red

Cloud

ago,

Cloud's

'70's

or

War

warriors.

of any

by the Sioux
filled with

are

influence

upon

other

various

bands

upon

of the
has

the frontier

on

of these

sons

of the

frequent mention
Indian; and the pictographic

American

themselves

evidences

tanned

prowess
said in his

buffalo

hides,

many

of this chief.

pictographic history of
not prominent
was
parents were
tribe.
the
calls
He
this
"Star-passed-by-with-a-loud-noiseyear
among
winter."
The
Sioux, in their winter-counts,
designate each year by some
Cloud's
For
winterinstance, in Red
particular or striking occurrence.
is called
winter
or
Winter-in-which-many-died-ofone
counts,
census,
Winter- we-killed-one-hundred-white-men."
There
smallpox"; another,
several of these winter-counts
made
are
by different chiefs in possession
of the Government,
which
and only
to the naming
of each year,
as
agree
Makh-piya-luta,

his life,that

he

or

born

Red

the

officers stationed

Army

and
dash
testifyto the courage
records
contain
more
Department

than

made

accounts
years

Red

an

by a search of the records.

Perhaps
than others.
more
popularly known
Every
time during
has had an
at some
encounter

learned

Cloud,

in the year

1822.

His

"

"

"Handbook

of American

Indians,

page

358.

of Ethnology, in an
illustrated article entiUed
fGarrick Mallery, in the Fourth
Report of the Bureau
of Lone
winter-counts
Indians," includes the Dakota
Pictographs of the North-American
Dog, an
the winters from
tribe of Dakotas, which
1800-'01 to 1876-'77.
covers
aged Indian of the Yanktonai
**

AMERICAN

THE

174

in minor

vary

time, from

1800

to

of them

Two

details.

surprisingly
long period of
have been carefully
studied by ethnologists
translations prove
them
of specialvalue

Both

1877.

INDIAN

cover

and accurate
interpreters,
students.
to history
Of the extreme
youth of Red Cloud we know nothing. An old Indian,
when asked at Pine Ridge, shrugged his shoulders and said,"All great men
All Indian
once
were
boys." He was trained as became a young Lakota.
General
children learn to ride when
extremely young.
Dodge says that,
Plains
the
whether
officers
call them,
most
or
tribes,
as
men
boys,
or,
the
finest horsemen
in the worid.
Cloud
Red
"Horse
Indians," produced
not
to distinction through merit.
was
arose
a hereditarychief,but
and

Red

Cloud

sixteen

about

was

when

he

became

leader

himself in skirmishes and battles

boys, signalizing
The
and other hereditaryenemies of the Sioux.

other

with

Pawnees,

the

various

the

Crows,
winter-

occurred between
the Crows
that many
severe
engagements
the Sioux, and it is doubtless true that he charged and yelled,scalped
tell us

counts

and
and

tortured

manuscript

his companions.
as
energetically
is well acquainted with Red

just as

Allen, who

C. W.

Mr.

some

before

ago,

years

the

chief presents his version of Plains

merits publication. Heretofore
have
we

the

Between
on

among

the Plains, and

the old Santa

Fe

most

of the

Indians
States

miners, penetrated

were

of these occurred

trail. It

United

there

1849

was

had

only

but

few

the

white

attacks

the south, in

to

man's

ratives.
nar-

againstWhites
Texas, or along

until and

not

troops but
various

to

chief's memory
failed. Because
history,the work is unique and

during 1849 that extensive

wagon-trainsincreased, the
seriouslyinterfered with. Expeditions,not

was

California.

in towards

emigration set
hunting
only of

and

1840

Cloud, prepared a

As

the

of adventurers,

parts

of the

buffalo

great West.
higherthan

hunters, and
these
Among

fired
a dog, and
regarded an Indian no
of
Indians
without
the
p
rovocation.
peacefulparties
hunting
slightest
upon
from the East who knew
often in charge of men
nothing
Wagon-trains were
their habits, and
whatever
of Indians
or
becoming insanely frightened
at the approach of either friendlyor hostile red men,
opened fire without
the slightest
of
It
therefore
is
not
thought
surprisingthat
consequences.
all the Plains Indians soon
assumed
hostile attitude toward
a
being
any
travelers

with

were

white

I have

home, and

men

who

skin.
talked

with

they have
ever
calamity
greatest

many

old

Indians

of Pine

Ridge,

Red

Cloud's

the
agreed that the destruction of the buffalo was
Ihe
their
could
race.
brought upon
forgive
They

RED
The

illustration is

Brown,

CLOUD

AND

reproduced from

of Andover.

The

date

is

PROFESSOR

photograph

MARSH
in the

possessionof

uncertain, but supposed

to

Miss

be 1874

or

Fannie
'75

REDCLOUD

177

they held up several large wagon-trains,killed or

of this
the news
appropriated the goods. When
affair reached
were
Washington, Colonels Carrington and Fetterman
where
the Plains Indians, and were
sent
ordered to subdue
to Wyoming,
they established Fort Phil. Kearny on the Piney fork of the Powder River.
the part of the Government
this movement
Not
on
only was
necessary
of the Sioux, but it was
road
desired to open
of the hostility
because
a
River
country to Virginia City and other mining
through the Powder
Part of the territorywas
in the mountains, and also to the coast.
towns
of it as huntingthe
Dakotas
had
the
but
most
owned
Crows,
usurped
by
conferences
themselves.
Several
between
the
authorities and
for
grounds

fled from

Minnesota

captured

the escorts

the Indians
no

and

fest,
manidissatisfaction among
the Indians was
will lose," said they, "all our
be effected. "We

held, but

were

could

settlement

as

Red
Cloud
and other
hunting territoryif this route is established."
and
chiefs (Crazy Horse, American
Horse, etc.)saw
oppK)rtunityfor war
of warriors
flocked to his standard.
openly urged hostilities. Clouds
great reputationas a leader.
During the long and tedious strugglehe won
said:*
forts
"Several
General
established,but they only
were
Dodge
A
of wood
inside
the
load
for fuel could
what
was
palisades.
protected
best

not

be cut

During

outside

without

these

troublous

conflict."

times

Fort

Laramie

was

the

center

portance,
of im-

coming and going,troops and supplies

When
Colonel
Carrington and his troops left
arrivingfrom the East.
Laramie, June, 1866, they were
constantly watched
by Red Cloud, and
that
visit
of
Indians
the
reliable
states
at headquarters
some
a
report
ui"on
informed
of
his
in
commander
detail, during the
the
was
movements,
the troops was
entire journey. With
Capt. Frederick H. Brown, noted
of
for his bravery and contempt
of Indians, and after the establishment
J. Fetterman
of his own
the post he infused in Col. William
spirit.
some
Both
officers declared that a nervy White
could put to flighta hundred
When
Brown
Colonel Carrington'swife
Sioux.
told
one
evening.
calling
that he must
have Red Cloud's scalpbefore he returned East, but, instead.
Cloud
took his scalp on
the day of the Fetterman
Red
fight,December
peace

conferences,Indians

21, 1866.
warriors harassed
the garrison of Fort Phil. Kearny constantly,
The
It became
out
to send
killingsmall partiesof wood-cutters.
necessary
drilled
with every
wood-train.
Cloud
Red
to eighty men
a guard of fifty
his warriors daily,seeming to possess
a
system of signalsequally as good
"

Our

Wild

Indians,

pp.

83, 84,

by Col.

H.

I.

Dodge.

THE

178

AMERICAN

Carrington,in his descriptionof the

occasion Red
Cloud's signalscovered
at the post, says
events
on
one
a
line of seven
miles, and were
rapidly and accuratelydisplayed. Again,
of soldiers were
killed. On the 21st the picket
December
6, a number
on
surrounded, and ninety-sevenmen
were
signaledthat the wagon-train was
as

those

sent

to

but

not

at

Colonel

it

ascertained

was

attacked; in fact, the teams

he

that

use

its relief. Afterward

Cloud

Red

and

in

the fort.

INDIAN

had

might

it is not
under

made

feint to draw
them

engage

for

necessary

that the train

escort

troops

some

successfully.The
to

me

and

Fetterman

and

enter

Brown

was

in

came

threatened

safelythat

distance
worid

was

knows

into details here.

The

the post
the result,

entire

fellbelieved

that

of troops well held in hand."

Cloud's name
Red
was
own

camp,

people

he

and

he

arose
was

no

Indian

heard

mand
com-

killed,including several citizens

accompanying it. Col. H. B. Carrington,in his officialreport, says:

officers who

night.

from

force could overwhelm

throughout the land, and

"The

that number

among

his

be supreme
of recruits joined his
chief; hundreds
medicine
dance
and heralded
as
given an immense
to

invincible.

Major James

Powell

attacked

by a largeforce
Spotted Tail. In this fightRed
and his warriors exhibited, with scarcelyan exception,the greatest
Cloud
shown
Unknown
by Indians in the history of the West.
bravery ever
of iron, were
mounted
to the Indians, specialwagon-beds, constructed
on
blacksmiths.
wheels by the Government
As soon
the attack began,
as
these from
the trucks and placed them
the troops removed
in a small
The iron was
circle,the men
concealingthemselves beneath.
sufficiently
armed
with the first
were
heavy to stop or deflect bullets,and the men
thus better equipped
repeating rifles brought on the Plains. They were
Red Cloud charged no less than eightor ten times,
than their adversaries.
of his dead falling
frequentlycoming within thirty or forty feet, many
from
the improvised fortification. The
less than twenty or thirtyyards
how so small a body of men
could fire with
Indians could not understand
such rapidity. Red Cloud said to Spotted Tail, as the two sat their horses
yards distant,that he believed the Americans
on
a littleknoll a few hundred
ceased firing.The entire force of the
had "medicine
guns," which never
hurled against the enemy.
Red
Cloud's nephew
Sioux and Cheyennes was
himself by riding among
the foremost
and the two
chiefs
distinguishing
accompanying the charge. One Indian fell near
enough to touch the
the Whites
beds with his coup-stickbefore he died. But for the protection,
would have been wiped out of existence, for nearly every
spot on the outer
August

under

2, 1867,

the command

of Red

Cloud

and

was

REDCLOUD
surface of the iron

179

An Indian
largeas one's hand showed a bullet mark.
afterwards
that
lost
1137
in
the
Dodge
they
fight. A
famous
scout
said to Major Powell that at least a thousand
struck,
were
and the most
conservative
estimate
four
at three or
places the number
hundred.
Not
in these charges,but
only was
great bravery manifested
of the dead and wounded
after the battle many
recovered
in spite
were
of a heavy fire kept up
the
the
In
Fetterman
by
fight Red
troops.
Cloud
had
victorious.
been
In the Powell
he
was
badly
engagement
as

chief told Colonel

defeated.
These

fights,and the series

August 13

two

the Sioux

what

about

desired

"

treaties held

of peace

Commissioners

Peace

September

to

the evacuation

and

13,

the Indian

by

brought

1867,

of several

destruction

forts in favorite

annuities

rations,and

1868.

1868-'69

In

tribes and
Cloud

hunting territory,the promise of extra

paved the way for the great Dakota
treaty of

made

scorned

William

Hon.

Blackmore

of London,

lastingfriendshipwith

man's

the "white

road"

Red

and

Cloud.

visited the Plains

At

refused to have

that
his

time

standing side

(Blackmore)

by

well, and that for

the

just over

the treaty Red

Cloud

himself

became

distinguishedas a councilman
Spotted Trail, uncompromising, and

century Indians

SittingBull,

went

and

to

war

no

and

but instead

more,

treaty maker.

He

with

was,

the fulfillment of every

insisted upon

shaman, had

"medicine"

made

for most

of the battles,

into prominence. To the Indian "medicine"

the year 1870 came
much.
Upon going into action he placesimplicitconfidence in the

about

means

efficacyof his medicine first,in his own

courage
became
being very crafty,a schemer and a politician,
maker"

medicine
dozen

of the Dakotas.

and

the

among

his friends

his miraculous

soldiers.

SittingBull
owes

chief

claimed

through

fighter,and

Before

his

the

medicine
seldom

was

the Custer

SittingBull,

second.
known

as

the "battle-

fighthe made

several

tributed
hastilydisAfter the fight
warriors and sub-chiefs.
of the victory, saying that it was
honor
the
alone that the Sioux prevailedover

sacks, filled them

medicine
them

he

in Canada

bloodshed

border

of the later treaties.

condition
and

American

rampant.

were

After

see

we

the patron of the great South Kensington

that the
did he do this? Because
he knew

Why

the Indians

lived unmolested, whereas

robbery

of Mr.

side with

museum.

British treated

Red

photograph

an
taken; but it is noteworthy that he made
exception in favor
Blackmore, and in the first portraitof this distinguishedred man

him

and

with

the

"mystery,"

warrior, claimed

reputation among

the Whites

and

littledistinction
as

the

leader

as

of the

AMERICAN

THE

180

forces

the Little

on

Cloud

Red

INDIAN

Big Horn to the misdirected energy of

friendlywith SittingBull, but was seldom

was

him

either in councils

The

latter

or

the field. The

upon

the newspapers.
associated with

present marked

two

contrasts.

the tact

outspoken in his hatred of the Whites, lacked

very
in his later years, and
and judgment displayed by Red
Cloud
of the two.
decidedly the inferior man
SittingBull's temper was
was

ruffled,and

even

persistedin open
his language,he
that

make
So

Miles,

easily

15, 1890) he

killed December

was

of Government

censure

told General

idea of

authorities.

To

the occasion

of their first meeting,

upon

give an

"God

when

Red

Cloud

settled down

turbulent

element

portion of
not

through
care

his reservation

upon

SittingBull continued to range

Tongue, Powder, Yellowstone

of the

the

(he

1890

as

Almighty made me; God Almighty did not make

Indian, and I'll fightand die fightingbefore any white man
fulfilled.
Indian."
His prophecy was
me
an
agency

agency

were

late

as

appears

an
can

inson,
Fort Rob-

near

the Plains and

about

me

in the

valleys

of the
Big
far
the
Cloud's camp
greater
joined him, but by
followed SittingBull until after the Custer fight
of Yale, passed
Professor Marsh
1874-'75, when
and

Rivers.

Horn

Some

those

in Red
who
In

Oglalas.

the agency,
he noted that there were
some
of the authorities.
He reported that the

of poor quality and insufficient,

and
also
the
Indians
that
Carpenter
complained
were

dogs and wolves to

goods purchased by

avoid

starvation.

13,000 Indians

under

provisionsissued them
tardilydelivered. Lieutenant
were
compelled to eat ponies,

Professor

Marsh

stated

that

the

carefullyand honestly delivered

and distributed, would
all
lished
pubsuffering.Eastern newspapers
prevent
defeated.
Marsh's
and
the
"Indian
of
was
politicians
charges,
ring"
Marsh
well received by Red Cloud, who accompanied him East. The
was
two
were
photographed together,holding the peace-pipe in common.
The Sioux called Professor Marsh
the "Big Bone Chief," because he hunted
the

fossils in the

Bad

Lands.

howled

the

"hostile

about

the Sioux, Marsh

knew

he

and

came
was

Government,

to

And

while

Injuns"
went

Bills and

and

in that

be trusted!

engaged

Dicks
in

wild country

{See page

176)

of frontier fame

frequent fightswith

safe.

The

derers"
"mur-

JACK
Son

of the War
W.

K.

Chief

Moorehead.
as

RED

of all the Sioux.

did

The

CLOUD
Pine

Ridge,

older Indians

his father

in the

say

Photographed by

1909.

Jack

looks

early seventies

exactly

CO

"

"

b"

'C

-J

"

b
"^

fi

(XJ

CLOUD^S

RED
not

talked

returned

their agency.

to

Indian

in the usual

to

Affairs to

that

they

Some

wheat.

and

corn

be not

the

there

go

Cloud

sent

old Ponca

would

be

Tail

Spotted
up

the entire tribe.

the

to

provided they

River, where

and

brought

was

of

Commissioner
some

begged

the river and

sold

assured

that

Being

reservation, they

sent

to

sented
con-

reservation

new

in

spring.
I

best describe

can

words:*

"In

the

not

break

to

Commissioner
When

he

who

from

of all!

worst

headed

for

wait

to

Helen

word
sent

himself

to

to

us

want

return

hear

to

have

You

but

begging
runner,
Finally,in May, the

hold

with

council

from

you

are

you

"

them.
toward

ment
Governthe
are
a

men

the
bald-

thing to do here, and that is to give

written
Here
are
Clay Creek.
your
order, and everything here is not on

one

White

to

word

one

passed,

swift

by

Chief

words, and

if you
don't give this
wheels inside of ten days, I'llorder my
men
young
in
this
of
the
I
don't
!
want
everything
part
country
from

March

their friend. General

to

little longer.

Jackson's

Hunt

for the removal.

messages

Affairs went

speak.

I don't

old liar!

order

of Mrs.

use

Spotted Tail sprang

up, walked
his hand the paper
containingthe promise of the
*A11
them
to White
Clay creek, and exclaimed:
bald-headed
and
the
ones
Washington are liars,

return

come

by
came

chiefs sent

with

but

away,

to

him, waving in
to

The

them

of Indian

rose

ensued
orders

no

orders.

April passed
no
Crook, who repliedto
them

what

spring

"

an

Red

injury of

the

to

the Missouri

to

there, for whisky

sent

their young
to the
men,
their supplieshad all been
to

to

suggested

one

the Indians

remove

good soil assured

183

to
Washington,
delegation of Indians went
flattered, promised, and
patronizingmanner,

it themselves.

use

were

YEARS

LATER

to

and

down

tear

to

hear

burn,

anything more

I've got nothing more

to say to you,'and he turned his back
have
the Commissioner
and walked
Such language would
not
on
away.
been borne from unarmed
from
it came
and helplessIndians; but when
a

you,

and

chief with 4000

The

order

and

the whole

the

Indians

while

been
Red

emergency

*Mrs.

Jackson's

Sioux

body
the Secretary of
found

were

promise of the

It had

In less than

of these

indicated, and
*The

warriors at his back, it was

armed
written.

was

decided
Cloud
which

and

to be

on

another

to

move

says,

quite determined

in council

in that
that

his followers
arise.

"Century of Dishonor,** page

183.

Tail

themselves

'on wheels'

the country they had

naively,in his report:

to

respect

Spotted
held

affair altogether.

days everything was

the

Interior

the

Government

might

ten

move

westward, and

faithfullykept'."

was

would

do

the

in readiness

talking,
for any

Crazy

Horse

as

settlers and

up

Whites.

the

Sioux.

to

the

prominent

most

warfare

A continual

Hills,

in the Black

discovered

was

committing
territory,
promptly retaliated, and
en

new

They

Custer

General

sent

Gold

flocked into the

miners

depredations against
Government

attention

our

against the

kept

and

SittingBull as
during 1876-'76.

chief, and

war

of the shamans, engage

was

INDIAN

AMERICAN

THE

184

miners

the

remove

from

the

route
our
new

scattered the obnoxious

and historyrecords that he successfully
gold-fields,
shot was
fired at Indians.
invaders.
not
one
During his famous march
Cloud
had kept his treaty promise, but peace
not
Red
was
long to be
ization.
of civilmaintained.
The
frontier towns
fill
with
to
outcasts
began
up
the
of
of mischief, they instilled into the minds
Breeders
Oglalas
said
love of gain. **You should have more
rations,".
more
they.
money,
"These
lands to the north (Black Hills)are full of valuable mines which
will show
how
and we
to develop
Drive
out the miners
are
you
yours.
from his expedition and the miners
the country." Custer had returned
flocked
back
Deadwood.
Buffalo-hunters
the gulches about
to
were
beheld
Cloud
fast destroying the great north and south herds, and Red
death-knell
the encroachments
with a heavy heart.
The
of his people's
freedom
and prosperity on
the Plains was
sounded
in the noise of the

train, the blast in the mine, and

the hum

in the town.

Civilization

was

die! He could not go to war

must
himself, he must
advancing, savagery
look after his people on
the reservations; but he sent many
of his best
beries
and robwarriors to join Crazy Horse
and American
Horse.
Murders
followed in rapid succession.
Custer was
ordered to the Little Big
Horn
of the hostiles.
to destroy the villages
As to the battle which
of Ethnology Report,
followed, the Bureau
1888-'89,gives a series of pictographicpaintingsmade by Chief Red Horse,
which

unfortunate

wild

turnipssaw

by

herd

runner

There

affair.
a

came
was

up

time

no

hastened

there

were
were

says

as

only refer

can

hold

the
them.

French

he

the main

would

of

Before
and

of the

side of

briefly. People digging

Supposing it to be made
the village(scatteredfor
any

persons

said, "Soldiers

The

Sioux

it

to

end

council.

if the whites

from

possess

of dust in the distance.

in great excitement
to

we

chiefs shouted

take the whole

armed

were

are

coming."

their orders.

but
village,

as

riors
war-

of the camp,
the flanks as well as the
the river. Red Horse says
attacked, and the troops forced across
with long yellow hair. One wore
two
coat.
men
a buckskin
up

Captain
Horse

accurate

along the river)nearest

At firstit seemed

front

cloud

most

of buffalo, they informed

three miles
a

the

considered

are

that

was

the

body

bravest

repeatedly covered

the

man

the

retreat

Sioux

ever

of his

men.

fought. Red
Finally the

RED
soldiers
but

gained the top

the Sioux

begged
At

Pine

Ridge

LATER

of the hill and

all killed. Red

were

and

CLOUD'S

said

Horse
take

to

began

throw

to

185

up

little earthworks,

of the soldiers became

some

them

YEARS

prisonersbut

demoralized

kill them.

to

not

told that Flat

Hip, an Uncapapa Sioux,

Hip died of consumption a few years
after the battle. No one
knew
of death,
positivelyas to Custer's manner
but two
dressed alike, were
noticed for their bravery. Oglalas at
men,
Pine Ridge said SittingBull was
medicine
not in the fight,
but made
while
it was
in progress.
Eastman's
is probably more
account
correct.
of 1876, and were
returned
Many Sioux surrendered after the summer
to their respectiveagencies. SittingBull and
his most
faithful followers
claimed

fled to

have

to

agency

was

killed Custer.

Canada, where

he

Flat

remained

time.

some

General

MacKenzie

took

fectively
nearly all of Red Cloud's horses shortly after the Custer battle, thus efpreventing further hostilities.
September 3, 1877, a soldier ran a bayonet into Crazy Horse while
the latter was
confined as a prisoner of war
in the guard-house of Fort
Robinson.
but

resulted
a

The

murder

for the interference

brave

in

occasioned
of Red

of revenge.

war

much

talk

Cloud, who

Crazy

Horse

was

the

among

counseled
a

Sioux, and,
would

peace,

desperatebut

have

withal,

Indian.

latter part of 1876

Cloud
and
General
1877, Red
gave
to help him
a party of young
men
fightthe Cheyennes, which was
of the Whites.
at the hands
greatlyto his credit,consideringhis treatment

During

the

Crook

After

the removal

of his

people

Pine

to

Ridge

he

agency

was

what
some-

dissatisfied because
also

appealed

lawless

of the poor land given him as a reservation.

He
for
reimbursement
for
the
stolen
Washington
ponies
by

to

There

voluminous

reports, Congressional and Interior

speeches of Red Cloud and his people, and all
less pathetic. They ask for fulfillment of treaty stipulations,
for
or
more
due, and for cattle and goods. At the time of the visit of the Congressional
money
Committee
in 1883 he had 8000 people under him.
The flagfrom
Fort Robinson
incident
the
there
is
was
there, and, by
an
agency
way,
that
regarding
flag. Their Agent had cut and hauled a long pole, upon
which he proposed to raise a flag. Red Cloud said he wanted
no
flagover
his reservation, and so his men
but the Agent
cut to piecesthe flagstaff,
saved the colors and sent them
to Pine
Ridge.
men.

Department,

Red
I know

filled with

Cloud

Whether

last achieved

he believed
that

*Gjnunissioner

are

he used

of Indian

in the

prominence

coming

his influence

Affairs,Report 1890,

to
page

of

an

in the Messiah
Indian

preserve

Savior

peace.

49; 1891, pages

125, 410.

craze

is

of 1890.*

uncertain, but

the

When
few

miles

protests,

smuggled
a

severe

the

of the Wounded

news

distant,

of the

most

fled north.

lodges and

him

Knee

to

reached

massacre

friendlies

Cloud

Red

compelled

were

INDIAN

AMERICAN

THE

186

and

"stampeded,"
his daughter and
Jack

them.

accompany

of camp,
and his daughter led him
blizzard, back to Pine Ridge. I mention
out

faithfulness

of the

Pine

in

son,

Red

Ridge, a
their

down

tore

Cloud,

spite of
his son,

eighteenmiles through
this incident

to

show

man.

Eightynearly blind and aged rapidly after 1890.

Continual
is a long time for an
Indian
to live.
seven
years
exposure,
food supply, and frail habitation, break down
the constitution,
uncertain
and one
Indian
of
than
an
more
During the
sees
rarely
sixty years
age.
last years of his life Red Cloud enjoyed the comforts of a two-story framehouse.
It was
as
a
specialmark of honor.
given him by the Government
of the troops he kept a littleAmerican
flagand a white
During the presence
the
fate of his race,
above
bemoaned
it.
He
flagconstantlyfloating
peace
and from his conversation
could easilydiscern that he had done his duty,
one
had
defended
the claims of the Dakotas
in adversity as in prosperity.
with him
Over
I
had
several
conversations
through
twenty years ago
the interpreter.He dwelt upon
the happy "buffalo days", and the free
life of the Plains sixty years
We
stepped outside the house and he
ago.
told me
the valley,for his eyes were
to look about
over
dim; but he knew
its character.
I cannot
the
of
his
words
exact
speech, but it was
give
Cloud

Red

somewhat

along
for

not

to

There
land

rich soil in

this barren

see

affords

of the

most
own

"You

which

wheat.

and

corn

other

are

is poor

and

well-watered

creeks

must

we

which

worthless.

country

have

We

waste.

good grazing,but

so

use

have

little land
of it

some

bottoms

it in

promised

to

that

I could

week

feed and

support

Now

us.

I, who

used

like

of it! I, who

Think
extensive

fastest pony, am
on
through
put down here!
my
for my
to go five miles for wood
fire. Washington took our

ride

I have
and

follows:

as

the creek

this, but
used

was

to

control

Why,
lands
5000

beg for that

Washington
hungry.
which I own.
If I beg hard, they put me
the
in
guard-house. We have
trouble.
Our
girls are
getting bad.
Coughing sickness every winter
best people. My
heart is heavy, I am
(consumption) carries away
our
I
much
do
wish
there
to
I
cannot
some
old,
was
one
more.
Young man,
help my poor people when I am gone."
Indian should not
It is a singularanomaly that the character of an
be gauged by the same
standards
in
measuring the virtues and
employed
worth
of a white man.
To my
Cloud's high character places
mind
Red
of color.
him on
of America, irrespective
an
equalitywith prominent men
warriors,

must

tell

when

am

I must

RED
In

CLOUD'S

LATER

consideringthe Indian, while

YEARS

187

tages
recognizethe disadvanunder which he has labored, yet I am
persuaded that very few realize
the great, almost overwhelming diflSculty,
which must
before
be overcome
a
truly strong and high character can be developed. With but few exceptions,
who went
the frontier as a scout, miner,
on
nearly every white man
side of his character when
trader, hunter or explorer,exhibited the worst
Indians.

among

far from

It is natural

most

that when

restraint,untrammeled

persons

is in

man

and

new

by laws, unchecked

wild country,
society or the

by
all that is bad in him comes
to the surface.
refininginfluence of women,
died in defense of a woman
child,underwent
Many men
or
great hardship
comrade
in
exhibited
to succor
a
danger,
personalbravery in the defense
of claims, wagon-trains, ranches, etc., but, admitting all this in their
destitute of a regard for the rightsof Indians.
of them
favor, most
were
Such men
inspiredhatred in their dealingswith the Sioux.
The
but
Indian became
bad, and saw
acquainted with all that was
little of the real good of civilization. He heard more
oaths than prayers,
saw

not

saloons

more

churches

than

calculated, by their acts,

for the white

to

schools.

or

If the Plains tribes had

race.

The

inspirehim

with

whom

men

any

associated

he met

confidence
with

or

were

respect

better class of

citizens before

they had learned the vices of civilization,I am satisfied that

not be compelled to write so dark and tragica narrative;
he feel constrained
to hold them
up as fit subjectsfor pity and

the historian would

nor

would

compassion.

Considering that Red

whose

Cloud

came

in contact

with

class of white

men

respectablecommunity; his
presence
of his
his
submission
his
to the unjust acts
character,
forbearance,
high
of America,
the great men
places him, in my opinion,among
conquerors,
exhibits a degree of
regardlessof color, birth or ancestry. His career
mental
and an acquaintance with
nature
capacity,a knowledge of human
would

the

affairs of

Red

Cloud's

Fort

Robinson

men

which

bearing

be

not

we

towards

tolerated

would
the

not

in

of

expect in the mind

Government

in the

savage.

Leavenworth

and

dicates
treaties, in having secured his end in both instances, inorder.
knowledge of diplomacy of no mean
His people were
with a high civilization which
suddenly confronted
follow.
For centuries they had been
they could neither understand
nor
schooled in the simple life of the Plains (and it ranked
below the culture
of the bronze
of man
in Europe), unmolested
by any extensive or
age
with their lot. To be suddenly brought face
exterminating war, content
of temporary
to face with a question,the issue of which
not
matter
was
a
a

supremacy,

but

involved

the very

existence

of themselves

as

nation

"

INDIAN

AMERICAN

THE

188

have

available young
and fought
man
bravely met it,mustered
every
their superiorforces for a period of nearly thirtyyears, and then to have
ceased only when
resistance was
no
longer possible presents an heroic
All
this
rior,
spectacle.
through
stormy period,Red Cloud figuresas a brave warcounselor,and staunch advocate of the welfare of his people.
dignified
After the treaty, he and his immediate
followers, or those directly
to

"

under

their part of the agreement,

although the
one
man,
pretext for violation. A weaker
every
h^ve taken his warriors, as SittingBull did, and

his control, observed

white

them

people gave

of less character, would

have

not
fought until there was
Red
Cloud
possessed more

It has

been

assisted the young

in
men
There is no direct evidence
tortured

livingperson

his control
Creek

were

several subchiefs
of the forts.

one

the

with

of it died

whiskey

cruel than

they

the

had

which

the

some

of

were

Whites,

he

says

many

never

that those

of Washita,

and

of the dead.

bodies

and

Crazy
held

as

years

under
Sand

the

Seventh

the

or

temporaries.
con-

fight,he

citizens at

murder

surrendered
that

body,

Colorado

battle

of his red

any

Fetterman

himself

Cloud

dead

cites the

He

also says
under

in terrible agony.

bitter enemy.
In his later years
but when younger
he

Horse

and

hostages
ago,

in

visited

presented the
who partook
contained
Nineteen
strychnine.
He claims that in all his fightsand raids he
the guise of

friendship,and

either

was

staunch

friend

man's

God,

the evil
a

Red
a

perpetrated cruelties like these; that he

never
or

this.

mutilated

of the Sioux

camps

Indians

to

as

Knee.

He

after

scalpingand mutilatingthe

nor

after

than

kindness
that

soldiers in the

Wounded

at

human

aflSrmed

more

the

massacre,

Cavalry

no

left.

man

good

That
but

reportedto

held

he should

far he

have

the faith of the Catholics,

said that he believed

in

no

white

propitiated
Spirit,Waukantanka,
help his people and was
the Great Spiritin the hereafter.
meet
and

the Great

to

spiritalso; that,
man,

so

but

he rather inclined towards

was

if he tried to do his duty,

not

agreed with

fear to
the

missionaries

of different denominations,

because

in discord among
the
themselves
to just how
as
they were
Spiritshould be worshipped, he considered that not one of them
better than another; that his religionwas
was
as
good as theirs, and that
he would
do as his heart prompted him.
He has always been a little vainglorious,
than other
but not more
so
exhibited
His
residence
Pine
a
at
men.
prominent
Ridge
twenty years'
lamented
He ever
the fate of his people,but
quiet and gentle demeanor.
there was
such as one
bitterness,and his bearing was
no
might expect in

Great

man

who

has faced

death

upon

the field of battle.

CLOUD'S

RED
After

his removal

on

man,

trivial

Pine

Ridge,

charge, and

confined

his warriors
attack

the

When

armed, and

189

this great
diately
guardhouse. Imme-

petty Agent arrested

him

in the

of Indians

great number

prepared

to

agency.
some

and

to

YEARS

LATER

of the

children

subchiefs

after his release said, "Let

fight until

and

that

us

kill

our

is

preferableto
gone,
starvation here on the reservation,"he is reportedto have made
a dignified
and manly speech,in which he maintained
that the Almighty had decreed
that they should
continue
the reservation, virtuallyas prisonersof
on
their conquerors,
shed,
and resistance would
only result in sufferingand bloodand could accomplish no good.
An intelligent
the Plains amidst surroundingsnot
reared upon
savage,
calculated to develop other than the lowest desires, and possessinga primitive
idea of the true type of manhood, he has presented us with a career
which
shall endure
in American
historylong after the frontiersmen shall
have been forgotten.
women

we

W^c\T

are

i^^Ti

ce

([iLLirririLff
pi LLLTLLLf
Sung by
in the East

and

I have
Indian

song

party of Warm
gave

no
ever

1^^

A few of these Indians traveled

Spring Indians (Oregon) about 1889.
This song is repeated many
times, rapidly.

entertainments.

Sioux

war-dance

brought

to

my

music, but
attention.

the

above

is the most

weird

XIX.

CHAPTER

SITTING

BULL"

IRRECONCILABLE

THE

other prominent Indians, this man

and
matic
drapresents a stern
figure. He has been praised and censured, flattered and abhorred;
is an
called brave
He
by some,
cowardly by others.
anomaly if we judge
him
More
properly, he typifiesthe Plains
by Departmental standards.
of place in the reservation
life of 1880-1890.
out
spiritof 1840, and he was
stitutes
told
white
he
refused
He
to
lied;
bluntly
people they
accept subwith
falsehoods
for solemn
treaties; he met
trickery of his own.
tion,
his hand
He lived and died a strong, resentful man
against white domina-

Among

"

even

white

as

Sitting Bull
medicine

and

of the

Sioux

bull")

Indians.

division.

born

was

buffalo

"sitting

the

Hunkpapa

Indians,* he

of American

of

shaman,

or
was

against him.

were

Yota^ka,

{TataPka

man,

Tetons

hands

men's

He

He

the

to

presents

(after boyhood)
his

1857,

name

"He

presents

character

of the

wars

when

1866,

he

warpath
continuously from
on

the

of the

one

to

contests

with
in

reservation

or

the

Custer's

troops

led

campaign
on

was

Handbook,

in the
Vol.

hills

II. p. 583.

of

He

Big
to

warpath

medicine

name

in

man

band,

took

an

known

widely
against Ft. Buford.

followers

from

I quote.

being especially

active
to

part
the

Sitting Bull
tribes

various

raiding the frontier posts

Museum

at

former.

in

His

Washington

the
in

whites
was

almost

making
autographic
refers chiefly
or

horse-stealing. His refusal to go upon

and
to
begin against him
in the surprise and
annihilation
resulted
to

General
which

great

His

enemy.

of which

own

especiallythe

Medical
and

2,500

in

either

Shoshoni,

Little

this battle, in which

Bull

1876,

Crows

1876

followers

to

in the Army
the

raid

band

the

his

first became

his

1869

on

most

American

Sitting Bull.

peacemaker.

memorable

with

Crows

pictorialrecord

of

the

became

brief sketch, part

influence

'60's, and

led

the

war

to
a

rapidly acquired

skillful in the

on

Horn,

changed

was

Handbook

The

Plains

Four

was

his first coup

but when
he

counted

and

Crows,

the

to

Handbook

all our
Indians
in any
picturesque characters
period of
among
called
manifested
and
He
a
as
history.
Jumping Badger
boy
was
buffalo
deal of abilityin
hunting in his extreme
youth.
the
the age of fourteen
he accompanied
his father
At
on

against the

noted

belonged

According

in 1834.

was

Sheridan

Horn

3,000

River,
Indian

'making medicine,'

and

in June.

Montana,
warriors

were

his accurate

his
of

During

engaged, Sitting
foretelling of the

BULL

SITTING

191

of the affair with higher honor than he

him *to come
out
possessedwhen he went into it' (McLaughlin). After this fightthe hostiles
of the western
separatedinto two parties.SittingBull, in command
party,
number
of his followers
attacked
General
Miles
and
a
routed;
was
large
by
surrendered, but the remainder of the band, includingSittingBull himself,
escaped to Canada, where they remained until 1881, when he surrendered
confined at Ft. Randall
and was
under promise of amnesty
at Ft. Buford
until 1883.
Although he had surrendered and gone upon a reservation,
It was
through his influence that the
SittingBull continued unreconciled.
at his camp
Sioux refused to sell their lands in 1888; and it was
at Standing
that
Bear
Rock
his
invitation
and
at
organized the Ghost
Kicking
agency
his
followed by an
demand
for
arrest
the
reservation.
The
dance on
was
of his people to rescue
him, during which he
attempt on the part of some
shot and killed. {See page 12Jyj, Although a chief by inheritance,
was
it was
rather SittingBull's success
as
an
organizerand his later reputation
into prominence. According to
that brought him
sacred dreamer
as
a
like
student"his
of
a
judgment, knowledge of men,
McLaughlin,
accuracy
and
natural
observe
to
a
deep insightinto
phenomena,
disposition
into contact
Indians and such white people as he came
affairs among
with,
He stood well
his stock in trade, and he made
made
*good medicine'.
position,
his own
respected for his generosity,quiet dispeople and was
among

battle enabled

and

adherence

in brief is

This

conception
and

1890.

"The

account

an

to

Mr.

in many
W.
F.

space

to

him,

SittingBull's favorite
the

commissions
man:

son

had

He

"God

and

called Louis."

was

it fails to

of his life,but

wives

two

Pretty Plume),

give a thorough

of the War
Johnson

reports, between

Department

wrote

book

his

upon

as

has Mr.

declaration

from

Washington,
me.
Almighty made

Major McLaughlin
Mooney and others.
which
is

an

He

he

to

the

made

never

inflict

to

wont

was

index

titled,
en-

career

has devoted

Life of SittingBull," in 1891;

great deal of

peace

eldest

as

man.

is referred

He
1860

of the

known

was

His

ideals.

Indian

to

(one of whom

the father of nine children.

was

steadfast

of his death

the time

at

character

me

an

on

of

agency

Indian."
Attuned
man,

many

and

his whole life. He

this strong chord, was
the dislike of his Agent, Major

to

he

others.

incurred
I do

was

altogether

him

associated

the seventies.

not

coward.

with

agree

with

not a pleasant
McLaughlin, and
Major McLaughlin, that SittingBull

If he had

been

the hostile element

Neither

would

he have

such,

we

was

would

not

in the later sixties and

opposed

the authorities

have
all
at

found

through

the time

of the Ghost
and

dance.

He

probably execution,
His boyhood, as was
his

spent among

was

he
I suppose
the

other

Bull

that

not

and

it did.

that of Red

must
opj"osition

Cloud

he

is not

and

mentioned

necessarilyimply

not

the

to

man

reservation
At

that

people
war
parties.
was
present during

he

naturallyrecord
was

knew

bring imprisonment,

other

prominent Indians,
village,and occasionally

in the chase, about

own

fact that

oflScers does

would

INDIAN

the

accompanied

1869, and

AMERICAN

THE

192

names

seek

by

that he

of such

interviews

the

Fetterman

massacre

in

Colonel

Carrington and
absent.
Carrington

was

Indians

he met,

as

until he became,

and

Sitting

against his will,

Indian.

the Custer

fighthe

the medicine.
I have not presented an
that practically
Big Horn, for the reason
other
writer
of
modern
has
mentioned
it
at
days
length,and several
every
have devoted
chapters to the subject.*
He made
the medicine
for the fight,and I have understood
from the
Sioux at Pine Ridge that SittingBull sat on a hill,some
distance from the
of the
action, and went through with his incantations in plainview of many
warriors.
McLaughlin states that SittingBull and his family fled when the
of the fightwas
attributed,
shootingbegan. Be that as it may, the success
in no small part, to the eflScacy
of SittingBull's medicine, and he became
account

great

made

of the battle of the Little

thereafter.

man

After

the

Custer

fight the Indians

military,and

separated

into

parties,one
soon
tinuing
SittingBull, conoflScers pursued them, and SittingBull
fighting. Various army
continued
his flight
towards
the north, to escape capture. The pursuitby
General Miles occupied some
time and the Indians were
harassed,
continually
and driven here and there, until finallythey found an asylum in Canada.
Toward
the close of the seventies a Commission
was
appointed to visit
him, and persuade SittingBull and his followers to return to this country.
surrenderingto

In view

the

of the dislike
that

in his treatment

on

two

the other, under

the part of our

authorities toward
should seek his return.
He
was

they

comprehensib
him, it is in-

abrupt

very

of the

Commission, and publiclyshook hands with Her

Majesty's representatives and declined to return to this country.
His later life was
embittered
much
by his confinement at Fort Randall,

promise made him.

of our
He knew
more
possesseda grim humor.
he admitted, and always availed himself of the opportunity
better of white people. McLaughlin tells this story:
contrary

to

the

SittingBull

ways
to

than

get the

"

Consult

Writings of Doctor Eastman, Doctor Joseph K

George A. Custer, Colonel Richard I. Dodge, etc.

Dixon, Major James

McLaughlin, Mrs.

SITTING
"He

good

not

was

it

him, whether

to

in any
and
love-affair,
not

was

nice

tried to

induce

Bishop,

who

was

to

put away

people.
man

was

The

the evil of his ways,

and the bad influence
him
if
he
would not put away
finallyasking

shown

when

sort, and he
he had a

that

Bishop Marty

He

went

Bishop pointed
he exerted

to

see

out

to

the
him

the

people,
SittingBull

among

of his wives.

one

looked

crafty.

was

"

*You

he
good.'^*
"

that

wife

one

away

be taken

would

woman

put

one

and

of.

care

I like them

away;

differently.'
Bishop admitted that

the second

could

'You

making
"

it

both

You

and

be hard, but

might

both

them

put

without

away

'The

"The
both

should

keep

would

not

like

should

one

be put

injuring either one,*

Dawes,

Bishop

1883

A.

been

good

man,

thinking he

is my

gown

him

gave

as

up

my

wives, and

and
incorrigible,

the black

Congressional Commission
Logan, Angus Cameron,

Standing

Rock

agency

because

great discontent

the Government,

goods promised them

be

the old chief retained

H. L.
composed of Honorable
T. Morgan and George G.
There
investigateconditions.

John
to

of the

failure of the

although they were

forthcoming and were

division of the reservation.

Government

Committee,
that what

Friend

The

to

lOS-lOJ^.)
ill will

no

insistent that the cattle and

After the conference

said to the
two, the Chairman
to say to the Committee."
The

will get

gown

fulfillthe stipulations
set forth in the treaty of 1868
{See pages
of their rights,exhibited
of the Indians, while mindful
Most
toward

I will do

friend,'.
rejoinedSittingBull, *and
both

to the end."*

John

Vest, visited

the

headway.

some

black

his wives
In

reply of

the

that,' was

do

this for him; I will put away

white wife.'
a
me

My

be

wife.

I could

'But

"

assume

would

that

SittingBull.

said

had

put

them

*'The
"

the

I cannot

*But

treat

away;

I should

first wife.'

your
"

was

think
asked.

*It would, and

only
to

never

heard

of his wives.

one

visitingthe missions.

was

what

took

of other

property

or

woman

of the

measure

him

193

character, SittingBull; he

typicalof his

sense

the

BULL

"Ask
interpreter,

rather

againstthe

had been

in session

SittingBull

further
a

day

we
having the services of excellent interpreters,

followed

Indian, p. 65.

is

literal translation

of

or

if he has anything

SittingBull's

may

words.

THE

194

As

they

are

the

do

was

the mind

of

Indian

an

responsiblefor

who

the

lived in the past, I

utterance

reproduce

in full.
"Of

Bull:

I suppose

so.

it is

I will

course

only

such

men

speak
as

to

if you

you

desire to

you

desire

speak

to

me

who

must

anything."

say

The

here

"We

Chairman:

for them, but any

speak
to

the mind

conversation
Sitting

INDIAN

and
interesting,

very

of these words

AMERICAN

the

supposed
who

man

desire shall talk for them

Indians

would

select

desires to

the Indians

speak, or any man

glad to hear if he

will be

we

to

men

has

anything

say."
Sitting

"Do

Bull:

know

not

you

who

that you

am,

speak

as

you

do?"
Chairman:

The

anything

to

Sitting

The

Sitting

whatever

The

like

Bull:
who

men

will of the Great

you

say

you

Spirithas

know

do not

chosen

between

and

you

Spirit,and by

his

who

I want

am.

to be the chief of this

anyone

to

us

capacity

you

be here

may

will listen to you;

we

"Yes; that is all right. You

and

the
made

pointed out
his heart
power

in

today,

otherwise

if

will

we

of the Indians

"good."
is here

came

his hand, and

very

having

harshly and

told

He

selves
your-

here to
at

give
the

once

SittingBull that
apologize,he

should

longer speech. In this he asked for

that the Whites

man

conducted

body).t

Committee
much

have

drinkingwhiskey, and

(Here Sitting Bull waved

room

was

of the

been

have

little later,some

treated

That

difference

it is sweet, because
sweet, and I know
have
its tongue to me;* and yet you men

whatever

anything

say

left the

Indians

t The

and

us,

"In

advice."

some

out

puts

me

Chairman:

Sitting

had

agency."
here by the

am

any

this council."

dismiss

you

know

not

myself."

desire to

you

do

that if the Great

it is

country

you

heart is red and

My
near

passes

to tell you

"I

here to talk with

come

he

"I

Bull:
chief.

am

recognizeme; do you know who I am.^^"

are
SittingBull."
you
know
I am
SittingBull, but do
say
you

this

at

have

hold?"

positionI
Indians

if you

SittingBull, and
you."
are

know

"You

Chairman:

the other

that you
glad to hear

you

"I

Bull:

what

will I

"Do

Bull:

Chairman:

The

know

we

say

Sitting

"I know
will be

was

were

responsiblefor

firm believer in

exhibited.

signs,

many

the destruction

he
peared
ap-

things;
of the

AMERICAN

THE

196

INDIAN

and General Terry sent me

word afterwards to come
in,because
that
make
him
word
would
I
I
to
and
not
sent
promises
big
me,

I told him;
he had
throw
him

my
to

country

that I considered

away;

just four years

business of my own,

for

wait

it all mine

that I had

me;

gone

and
still,

I wanted

there to attend

over

doing justas other people

and looks carefullyfor
goes
the Indians are
when
it he will find it, and that is what
doing now
they
the things that were
ask you
to give them
promised them in the past;
and I do not consider that they should be treated like beasts, and that is
Whatever
I have grown
I have.
wanted
the reason
you
up with the feelings
have
and
I
called
when
The
I have obeyed,
Great
of me
come
me.
you
he had againstme
in the past had been
Father sent me
word that whatever
forgiven and thrown aside, and he would have nothing against me in the
not
to
future, and I accepted his promises and came
in; and he told me
white
man's
from
the
I
told
him
I
would
path, and
not, and I
step aside
am
doing my best to travel in that path. I feel that my country has
and I want
it to have a good name;
it used to have a
gotten a bad name,
and I sit sometimes
who
and wonder
it is that has given it
good name;
the
who
bad
You
can
name.
are
a
only people now
give it a good name,
of my country and respect it. When
to take good care
and I want
we
you
sold the Black Hills we got a very small pricefor it,and not what we
ought
to

some

have

to

the

If

do.

would

loses

man

and

people were

my

back

anything and

I used to think that the size of the payments

would
smaller
all
the
time.
they are growing

received.

all the time, but

same

tell the

Great

remain
I want

everything I have said, and that we want

some
promises he has made us; and I don't think I should
with anything about giving up any
land until
be tormented
part of my
fulfilled
I would
those promises are
rather wait until that time, when
business he may
desire. I consider that
I will be ready to transact
any
you

to

benefit from

Father

the

"

country

my

takes

the Missouri; and

not

as

we

Hills,and

that all of this land

from

belongs to

me.

the Powder
Our

River

to

reservation

is

it to be, and

want

for land

runs

he has

taken

I suppose
the Great Father owes
from us in the past. You
white

us

men

follow your ways, and therefore I talk as I do. When

you have
pieceof land, and anything trespasses on it,you catch it and keep it until

advise
a

largeas
now

money

in the Black

you

us

to

get damages, and

tell all this to the Great

my

benefit of my
country taken

am

looking ahead

the

children,too; and

am

doing the

Father

children, and

for
that

same

me.

thing now; and I want you to

I am
looking into the future for

is what

I mean,
when
I say I want
of for me.
care
My children will grow up here, and I
for their benefit,and for the benefit of my
children's

even

beyond that again. I sit here and look around

me

BULL

SITTING
and

now,

see

people starving,and

my

increase in the amount

an

be

able

197

Father

the Great

I want

of food that is allowed

that

so

now,

us

make

to

they

may

live."*

to

SittingBull's speech,we have the thoughts and the desires of the

that
native Indian.
It is the speech of a strong man.
Omitting much
followed, I desire to state that General Logan repliedin a severe
manner
to SittingBull.
There
is a great deal of good advice in Logan's speech. It indicates
In

the

the

domination
of the

82

page

wished

authorities
the

report

said that Two

Bears

exercise

to

following words
desired

to

occur:

few

say

the

over

words

On

Indians.
the

"Here

"

preter
inter-

the Committee,

to

the Committee
given."
should speak,
dominated
and had the right to designate such Indians
as
white men's
withhold
from
those
talk.
Most
who
desired
to
or
permission
Where
councils are foreignto Indian methods
of council.
the white man
of
the
council
friction
make
one-sided
to
affair,
was
sought
quite certain
a
to develop.
and

permission

Commission

voluminous

very

There

was

the

However,
made

This

did

in the

conferences

peace

early days,

and

found

himself

SittingBull
tolerant

was

subsist

to

never

was

of the
the

on

white

bounty

an

and

man

of the

believed in his father's medicine

of faith could
If
rather
would

have
have

the authorities

and

His

man.

with

died

he

because

compelled

was

Foot,

Crow

son,

own

He

Truly, greater proof

him.

be

had

wished

the

fightingspiritof
SittingBull, under
He

bloodshed.
his followers
Senate

his ways

white

lived in the past.

He

produced.
been as cowardly as McLaughlin states, he would
He
surrendered.
to Canada.
Instead, he fought his way
spent his days on the reservation, meekly accepting whatever
not

SittingBull

Bismarck.

Indian.

agency

Laughlin
Mcof his

much

and

SittingBull a pretty handful,

is probably entirelyjustified.

dislike of the Indian

we

such

not

an

and

Indians

for the

it could

what

with
lack Congressional committees
at the present time, and
Indian as SittingBull, most
trouble.
might have had
any of them

do

of

that

indicate

Congress.

to

report

numberless

were

would

was

He

was

into

to

dole out

the Sioux.

to

him.

I think

But

that

he

possessedof

man

different environment, would

a

man

of blood

unscrupulous

and
"

so

action; although the

iron, and
was
cause

Report, No. 283, 48th Congress, 1st Session, pp. 79,

the incarnation

was

have

accustomed

Bismarck

"

for which
80. 82.

the

become

an

to

he
he

of

ability
Indian

scenes

tried to

fought

of
lead
was

THE

198

INDIAN

AMERICAN

well-nighhopeless. He realized that one person cannot

single-handedfight
He brooded
his support was
a regiment,yet he often fought when
meagre.
littlegood in the white race.
the past greatness of his people. He saw
over
consider him a
If we
to judge SittingBull by our
standards, we must
are
"bad Indian."
Bull
Sioux
of
If we
the old type,
to analyze Sitting
are
as
a
fulfillits obligations,
who
and
desires to have
Government
our
a
man
having established certain Indians upon a tract of land the boundaries of
which
defined, expects them to live there and enjoy peace,
are
definitely
libertyand happiness.SittingBull was right. SittingBull could not fathom
the intricacies and the duplicityof the average
white man's mind.
During
his stormy career,
he had met
bad than decent white
more
faith in the medicine
of his fathers, and he lived and died
He

consistent

was

in his beUef

and

consistent

in his hatred

had

He

men.

in that

faith.

the end.

to

Standing Rock, where those who

sought to cultivate the good will of the Superintendent carried stories of
his doings. Doubtless
these lost none
of their force in the transmission.
had

He

He

could

been

not

dissatisfied with

life at

dance, visit his relatives

continual

espionage. To

hastened

the end.

man

or

friends at

of strong feelings
this
all were
against him.

distance, because

of

intolerable and

was

"They have taken

take
and
lands,
now
our
health,
our
our
our
religion." Well
they
game,
he
have said these words
did another prominent Indian.
might
as
So he broke
his peace-pipe
deliberately. All his followers saw
him.
it
He had kept it since his return
from Canada
in 1881.
But now
break
"I
This
to
was
was
destroyed.
equivalent
saying to Washington,
with you." The word was
carried to McLaughlin, and the policeredoubled
their watch.
The end came
speedilyand the curtain fell upon the last
of SittingBull's life.
act
A parallel
between
is easilydrawn.
They
SittingBull and Geronimo
not
were
pleasant persons.
They rendered an eye for an eye and a tooth
for a tooth, and by so doing they won
than did the leaders of the
more
California, or the Chippewa bands, whose last days have been pathetic
He

believed

"

"

in the extreme.
The
him

were

times
such

in which
as

SittingBull lived, and the incidents surrounding

will produce an
unscrupulous, crafty,and cruel man.

Yet, with all of that, we

words

of his

must

prediction were

admit

that he

verified

"

he

was

never

great

and

man

became

that the

reservation

Indian.

After
Eastman.

writing this chapter, the proofs

His reply is interesting.

were

sent

to

my

friend

Dr.

BULL

SITTING

Mass., Sept.

Amherst,
Dear

Mr.

30, 1914

Moorehead:

I have

Sitting Bull. You are

right in believingthat he was present at the Fetterman
fight. In regard
stories of Indians
to the Custer
fight,I have carefullycompared many
who
relatives. SittingBull did
there, includingseveral of my own
were
He
neither was
he "making medicine"
not
at the time.
run
was
away,
Reno
side
of
the
Custer
the
a
nd
when
the
at
first,
later,
on
fight
appeared,
heard in a loud voice urging the young
Most
to be steady, etc.
was
men
he
I
with
that
and
do
not
coward,
certainly agree
was
no
agree with
you
According
Major McLaughlin in his estimate of SittingBull's character.
to all my

of his

study

career,

distinction

won

interest

researches,he

ruined

was

was

medicine

no

have

had, and
has not

as

warrior.

chapter

your

which

far-sightedwe

most

he

with

read

statesman,

of the

one

representedhim

I have

in my

yet been published. In his earlydays,

acter
After he came
in from Canada, his char-

the humiliation

by

but

man,

such

as

on

to

which

he

subjected,followed

was

his exhibition

all over
this country and Europe by "Buffalo
Bill,"and
by
being lionized and his photographs and autographs sold,etc. Then he was
and again humiliated, and crushed
by the
brought back to the agency
both spoiledand embittered.
weakest
The
thing he
Agent until he was
did

ever

to

was

As

Red

to

take up
Cloud's

of Indians

dance

warriors, it

craze,

which

led to his death.

that the number

be remembered

must

a fightwith U. S. troops is nearlyalways exaggerated

engaged
of counting the warriors,
military reports. They have no means

in the
and

the Ghost

in

their estimates

Custer

are

than

more

fight,for example,

not

liberal,for obvious
than

more

1,400

At

reasons.

warriors

were

the

probably

present.
You
to

say

of what
and

welcome

are

to

you

the

I do not

say.

conditions

of the

at the time, will tell their

or

an

use

that I like the tone

Indian

the savage

on

white

own

any

ear

all of this letter in your

period, and

the Indians'

story. It is not

the reservation
man's

or

book.

I wish

and agree with most

of your work very much
desire to idealize SittingBull, but what he did,
estimate

own

the story of

an

Indian

is very
apt to say things to
for the favor he may
receive.
who

Yours

of him

Agent,
soothe

sincerely,
Charles

A.

Eastman

(Ohiyesa)

XX.

CHAPTER

Shortly after 1850, it became

of Indians

to

apparent

our

authorities

that

cation
edu-

Government
important service that our
them.
this
schools
could
render
and
policy,
Pursuing
appropriations,
both governmental and sectarian
(as well as non-sectarian) have increased

page

17,500

was

of the Indians

until most
25

the

EDUCATION

Indian

have

Honorable

the

to

most

listed

children

been,

or

in school.

are,

Commissioner's
out

as

I have

in which

report

referred

there

are

on

but

of school.

Naturally, this tremendous

activity on the part of all these good
people, has had an eflFect on the entire Indian body. If there have been
This should
retrogressions,it is not the fault of the educational
system.
be

subject is

The
devoted
to

in the

understood

two

beginning.
so

that

comprehensive

its consideration.

to

But

we

must

this

entire

needs

confine

volume
our

could

be

observations

chapters.

Between

1850

and

1875

the

education

of Indian

children

confined

was

could
philanthropic organizations. Indians
of collegiateeducation
avail themselves
in the East, notably at Dartmouth
founded
for the education
of Indian
College, which was
youth. But there
been no systematic, or persistentattempt
Indians
to have
to educate
seems
R.
H.
U.
S.
of
until 1879, when
the
education
Pratt,
A., began
Captain
Indian
boys and girls. In September that year, the Carlisle barracks
transferred
Department to the Interior Department for
by the War
were
school purposes.
the
end of October, General
Indian
Pratt gathered
By
The
number
steadilyincreased; in 1905 there were
together 136 Indians.
time the school cares
about
and
at the present
for, during
thousand;
a
the course
This
school
of a year, something like 1200
remarkable
pupils.
had up to 1905
admitted
istration,
5,170 Indians.
Early in General Pratt's adminof the boys and girls
inaugurated. Most
an
outing system was
citizens of Pennsylvania, New
York
were
placed in families of prosperous
the
months.
This
Massachusetts
during
summer
or
brought them in direct

to

various

contact

missionary

with

the

best

and

elements

of

the

white

race

and

served

double

of living,
methods
only taught them industry and proper
purpose.
but brought home
the
difference
between
to the youth of both
vast
sexes
the life of white citizens in Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, New
York, New
of the
with which
Jersey or elsewhere, and the frontier element
so
many
Indians
that
all
had
in
This
does
not
contact.
come
necessarily imply
Indian
undesirable
citizens.
It
reservations
were
living near
persons
It not

EDUCATION
that

means

the

impress

individuals
life has

entirelytoo

many

Indian

any

set

had

its

the fact that

very

the

merely

its

and

race,

(or white)

writers

pernicious effect.

Beyond

with

the term,

of progress,
and
a
civilization.
our

those

who

not

such

that

of Indian

Other

in contact

came

understand

we

the Indians.

on

and

white

feature

did

example

have

question
stantial
"sub-

not

were

not

is

responsiblefor many
widespread inclination to

evils,
accept

of

veneer

General

respect for the

This

their

by

persons

standard.

importance,

general lack

white

effect

the Indians

citizens,"as
and

low

tremendous

emphasized

with

201

not
plans, therefore, were
only sound, but of great
of
Other
schools
have followed the exthe
race.
uplifting
cellent
example set by Carlisle,and it is now pretty generallyrecognizedthat
the Indian youth must
be made
to realize that the majority of American
citizens are not of the type of the Indian
trader, the grafter,the squaw-

benefit

Pratt's

in the

etc.

man,

illustrations

The
will give
Haskell

an

and

General
when

years,

replaced a

presentedthroughout

of the

idea

various

For
education
need

Pratt
he
few

remained

was

years

and

to

succeeded
ago

by

Service, and

Mr.

charge of
by Major

Carlisle,Chilocco,

Moses

Carlisle for about

William

A.

Friedman.

twenty-five

Mercer,

The

H.

is

colleges of the United

win

in

It is now

be referred to in detailhere.

not

Indian

succeedingchapter

at

who

was

superinpresent tendent
of experience in
established by

Lipps, Esq., has had years

maintaining the high standard
of his successors.
Pratt and followed through the administrations
in
this
the higher
there
school
toward
was
some
a
leaning
years
and
of Indians, but that policy was
carried to any extent
not

Indian

General

the

other schools.

in charge, Oscar
the

this and

activities followed

who

is

bright,and
suflSciently

scholastic

Government

States

afford

abundant
the

opportunity

energy

It is neither necessary
the higher education
attempt

honors.

should

has

recognized that the schools

nor

and

for any

determination

advisable

of Indians.

that

the

Most

of

schools,
trained
originally
be
termed
l
eft
what
secondary
might
ability,
schools and entered colleges. There
to me
at this moment
Henry
occurs
Roe
Cloud, a Sioux, who graduated from Yale a few years ago; Doctor
A. Eastman,
Charles
a
distinguishedauthor and lecturer, Dartmouth;
Charles
E. Dagenett, Supervisor of Employment,
United
States Indian
who
C. Parker,
Business College;Arthur
Service,
graduated from Eastman
State Archaeologistof New
Professor
studied under
York, Albany, who
Putnam
of Harvard;
Rev.
Sherman
Coolidge, Arapaho, graduate of

the successful Indians

today

and

marked

such

as

exhibited

were

in Government

DR.

CHARLES

Educated

A.
at

SIOUX

EASTMAN,

Dartmouth.

Writer

and

(OHIYESA)
Lecturer

outdoor

INDIAN

AMERICAN

THE

204

recreation, exercises

and

athletics

have

had

beneficial

effect

the student body. The football and baseball teams, as well as the track
squad, have made Carlisle a formidable rival of Harvard, the University
of Pennsylvania, Mercersburg and numerous
collegesand schools. The
trained at Carlisle and
famous
athlete, James
Thorpe {See page 39), was
first prize
awarded
in Stockholm,
at the time of the Olympic games
was
football
has on
The
eleven
the
athlete
world.
in
the
as
sturdy
ranking
material
best
football
than one
occasion
been pitted against the
more
produced by Harvard, and the West Point eleven, during the annual fall
told me
contests.
by
an
interestingstory was
Apropos of these games
eleven
the
Carlisle
had
He
an
interpreterin Minnesota.
played on
many
of the team
At that time most
was
pewa)
composed of Ojibwa (Chipyears ago.
stood
underall of whom
with a few Sioux and other Indians, practically
of
The
of
less
the
more
or
signalswere,
Ojibwa language.
course,
came
called out by numbers, but during one
of the plays, the quarterback beconfused.
misunderstood
and the opponents gained.
The play was
He became
system and called out to the other
angry, dropped his numerical
playersin Ojibwa what they should do. The succeeding play was a success
and from that until the end of the game,
the quarterback called out his
in
the
and
was
won.
signals Indian,
game
In all schools girlsare
trained in the domestic
arts, and this covers
conceivable
connected
with
home-life.
Both
boys and girls
duty
every
includes
the common
in
which
education
are
thoroughly grounded
primary
and accounts,
branches, and a suflScient trainingin the handling of moneys
the buying and selling
of produce, and generalmercantile affairs to enable
them
with the white people in managing their farms.
to cope
What
is said of Carlisle is also applicableto the great Chilocco school

on

in Oklahoma.
and
and

Chilocco

Indian

School

The

school

is located

primarily for the

exclusive

of the

Poncas
Five

for years included

restricted numbers

and

Pawnees

Civilized

of the Five

Tribes.

The

17,

1882,

Comanche

Agencies.

and

other

and

However,

the

established

was

of Oklahoma,

Indians

student

body

has

all parts of the country, and since 1910

Civilized Tribes have been admitted.
W. J.

the first superintendent. A

Hadley was
and April, 1911, Edgar

May
Kiowa,

pupils from

Chilocco, Oklahoma,

at

youth from

established

was

opened January 15, 1884, with 123

Wichita, and Cheyenne and Arapaho

A. Allen,

dozen

Esq., was

other

men

held this oflSce,

appointed, and

stillremains.

has done excellent work.

his management,
The maximum
time at this school during the
attendance
at any
one
and the total attendance
561
692.
Since the school was
past year was

school, under

EDUCATION
established

in

In addition

it is

Indian

youths
of

years

success

1500

schools

The

in 1868

how

industrious

and

by

than

the Government,

both

colored

and

Normal

General

and
Agricultural
Armstrong. After ten

C. S.

included.

Indians
in trainingnegroes,
were
boys and girlshave been trained at
are

fewer

be

not

conducted

Hampton

by

have

students

many

would

Virginia,where

Hampton,

trained.

are

that five-sixths of them

The

at

established

was

time about

the non-reservation

to

is the school

there

Institute

impossible to tell
likelythat the number

it is

1884

through it,but

gone
5000.

205

four years.
There are
course
covers
connection
a
nd
In
the
trades.
agriculture,

place.

Since

that

It is stated

credit to the institution.

are

academic

this

normal

and business,

courses,

with

the school

there

is

together with a model farm, dairy, orchards,

The
equipment is about sixty buildings.
The Government
for
each of its 120 Indian pupils.-There
$167
a
year
pays
has been any discrimination
of his
never
against the Indian on account
color. This is seen
in many
of our
Eastern institutions where Indian boys
received on the same
But there is a feelingagainst
are
footingas Whites.
the negro
of
but
not
a
ciate
feeling hostility, a general disinclination to assowith him on terms
in some
of the schools.
of equality. That is seen
The negro is received as a student, but not as a social equal. I have always
thought that the mixing of negroes and Indians at Hampton was
sary.
unnecesis not a Government
school, but is maintained
Hampton
by private
subscriptionand the Government
per pupil for Indians
pays a certain sum
and Hampwho are there educated.
The system has worked
satisfactorily,
ton
it would
But
has turned out many
excellent and worthy graduates.
a

stock

farm

of 600

acres,

poultry yards, gardens,

etc.

"

be better, it

to

seems

if the Indians

me,

separate schools, just as

Whites

and

students

are

in the

negroes

world

The

or

herself to

association

the Indian, and

suggest that the

The union
races.
either, and
my

way

of

it is

school.

and

educated
the negroes
in
were
it advisable to educate

consider

Harvard

At

University,colored
sity
generalUniverand they are on an

the

in the classes and

discrimination

equality with

the

there is a line drawn

himself

do not

we

same

and

admitted,

life,there is no
absolute

today

made

white

through
againstthem,

between

in the

But

students.

them, and

no

man

or

real life of the

woman

can

blind

this fact.
of Indians

careful

policy be
even

more

negroes

true

in Oklahoma

of the situation

discontinued

of the negro

thinking.

and

study

and
of

there

has
would

not

lead

helped
one

to

in the best interests of both

the

white

is not

the

advantage of
negro-Indian marriages,according to
the

to

THE

206

AMERICAN

INDIAN

boarding-schooland the non-reservation school

did not entirely supply the needs of the Indians, and so was
organized
ministration
made
Mr. Leupp, who
the day school.
a
great improvement in the adof day schools,hit the nail on the head when he stated:
of little red
"To
the most
me
patheticsight in the world is a score
and required to recite lessons
coralled in a close room,
children of nature
of one
of
and go through the conventional
in concert
daily programme
that has
schools.
The white child,born into a home
our
graded common
of its time within four
a
building for its axis, passing most
permanent
solid walls,and breathingfrom its cradle days the atmosphere of wholesale
and the mechanical
is in a way
prepared for the confinement
discipline,
little
instruction.
of
of
The
Indian, on the
our
juvenile
system
processes
from a long line of ancestors
who
have always
other hand, is descended
lived in the open
and have never
done anything in mass
routine; and
what sort of antecedents
these to fit him for the bodily restraints and
are
mental
exercises of his period of pupilage? Our ways
the cut-and-dried
he is pretty well grown;
but in his comhard enough for him when
parative
are
usually his condition when first captured for school
babyhood
conceive of nothing more
I can
trying.
purposes
told me
who
toward
eminent
educator
once
an
"My heart warmed
make
Indian children he would
that if he could have the trainingof our
of
midst
the
first
in
the
his teachers spend
the ground
two
years lying on
from the
to them
the little ones,
and, making a play of study, convey
of
all
edge.
knowlnatural objectsright at hand certain fundamental
principles
be impracticable
I dare say that this plan, just as stated, would
slow to respond
whose purse-strings
under the auspicesof a Government
are
classes
But I should like to see the younger
to the pullof any innovation.
It

that the

found

was

"

"

"

in all the schools

hold their exercises in the open

air whenever

the weather

permits. Indeed, during the last year of my administration I established

few experimental schoolhouses, in regions where
the climate did not
a
had no
side-walls except fly-screen
present too serious obstacles, which
nailed to studding, with flapsto let down
the windward
sides in stormy
on
weather."*
The
most
part, are of simple construction.
adjoining,or the teacher occupies the ell or
is usually attractive land large enough for a
detached
cottage. There
in
the northern reservations, the day schools are more
or
garden. Except
of them
less open-air affairs. In many
the children are provided with a
luncheon
at noon.
Among the poorer Indians, the school luncheon furThe

day schools,for the

teachers'

quarters

and

The

Indian

his

are

Problem,

built

page

126.

EDUCATION
nished

only substantial meal the Indian

boys and girlssix to thirteen
agree
separated from their homes during the entire

the Government

by

children

receive.

constitutes the

Most

year.

wholesome

that

observers

of age should not be

The day school surrounds

years

207

environment

and

them

encourages

with

during school hours

the children

work

to

at

home

in the

garden and promotes real education, culture and advancement.

considered
boarding-schools on reservations were
by Mr. Leupp

field and
The

educational system.
He aptly states:
an
anomaly in the American
"They furnish gratuitouslynot only tuition, but food, clothing,
lodging,and medical supervisionduring the whole period for which a pupil
is enrolled.
In other words, they are
almshouses.
simply educational
stimulate
of
to
a
Nay, though ostensiblydesigned
manly spirit independence
in their beneficiaries, their charitable phase is obtrusivelypushed
to

be

"

forward

as

Indian
to

attraction, instead

an

almshouse

to

repugnant

so

in certain

parts of the

neighborsentertain of him
Was

is that of

Thus

which

makes

is fostered

the

in the

from learning
privileges;
as
a
right;with the
the only conception his white
West
beggar as aggressiveas he is shameless.
unearned

demand

them

perpetratedupon a weaker by a stronger race?"*

boarding-schoolshave somewhat
changed their character, and
since Mr. Leupp's administration.
certainlyreduced in numbers

ever

The

they

sentiment.

to accept
ignoblewillingness
he gradually comes
to

an

accept them

result that

His

of wearing the brand

Caucasian

are

worse

wrong

Honorable

successor.

G.

Robert

Valentine,

recommended

their

striction,
re-

and

The

the present administration

has stillfurther curtailed them.
schools are
far preferable,
also are
the non-reservation
schools.

day

who

Indians

are

exceptionally
brightneed not
opportunity to study

will find

schools, but

like Eastman
Of

Indian

be offered.

at

education

Dartmouth;
at

the

Roe

reservation

attend
under

Cloud

present time

better
at

there

boarding-

conditions

where;
else-

Yale.
is little criticism to

to be toward
agricultural
tendency seems
trainingwith
the
suflScient grounding in primary and secondary education
to enable
a
familiar with
and become
letters,keep accounts
pupilsto write intelligent
American
ment
history,etc. This is all that need be expected of the Governbe
obtained
and
advanced
in
the
schools,
learningmay
colleges.
While all this is true, we
must
record, that in the earlyyears of Indian
education
These
made.
have had their effect on
grievous mistakes were
the Indian body at large. Chief among
schools
thesfe were
the contract
established years
schools
located
of
These
act
were
by
Congress.
ago

either
*

Leupp,

on

page

The

the reservations
187.

and

known

as

boarding schools,or

at

distance.

THE

208

Years

ago,

of Indians
up

to

of money

sum

IN

CLASS

children.
it
so

the Government

erected in

were

thither

into
with

pupils. The

for the

support

JUDGING

CORN,

whether
forgotten"
One
on

small

those

of localities,and

number

AGRICULTURE

I have

to

head

per

quite a sum.
prevalent was

returns

and educating
pushing allotting

was

of pretty much
everything else,there sprang
which
I am
happy to say has been abolished.

gather Indian

was

children

INDIAN

the exclusion

to

pernicioussystem,

Schools
and

when

AMERICAN

of the

it

The

quarters.
the

and

CHILACCO

$200

was

schools

Extensive

conducting
at Washington and

great favor

expand until the Government

the

so,

oflScials awakened

Indian

SCHOOL

per

capita,but

trachoma

children, the

more

school.

and

$400
and

hither

quite a

of these

INDIAN

or

sent

were

allowed

education

tuberculosis

reasons

of these

account

agents

Government

became

crowding of the

larger financial

enrollments

were

garded
re-

the system continued

to
effect.
to its distressing

EDUCATION
Honorable
Indian

O.

"

"Referring further to the inquiry in

when
I took charge of the contract

that

that

only

not

The

can.

and

same

pupils
in

true

was

sleepingin one bed, but the beds

packed in almost like sardines in

were

of the other

some

this condition

that
state, however,
those schools are
now

schools.

It is needless

to

that
so
immediately remedied
the
best
have
in
the
we
boarding-schools
among
abolished
The
contract
and
the
was
system
superintendents
bonded
oflScers and under
the direct supervisionof the Indian

service.
are

boarding-schoolsin the Five

three

and

two

were

double-deckers

were

letter,I might add

of those schools conditions

ago, I found in some
shocking. For instance, in the school near
Okmulgee,

almost

were

Oklahoma,

former

your

four years

Civilized Tribes

Lipps, supervisor in charge of the United States

schools as
me
regarding these contract

H.

Carlisle, writes

School,

follows:

209

now

was

Office."
It is unnecessary
authorities

to

experiment; and

an

into

go

details,and

The

Washington.

at

mistakes

whole
needs

must

be

should

we

blame

not

of education

matter

made.

is, beyond
great deal of the tuberculosis and trachoma
There
is absolutelyno
to the crowding in these schools.
A

due
such

system

fact that

surprisingthat it continued

it is

and

children

from

home

came

these

the

largely

was

long

as

schools

for

excuse

it did.

as

die,

to

question,

to

or

The

become

tional
educapermanently disabled, had a deterringeffect on the Government's
policy. It was
quite natural that Indian parents did decline to
send

their children
send

would

his

disease.
a

scheme

for

under

daughter

Yet

we

of education

were

which

such

conditions.

school

if

No

white

parent

tracted
doing that child conexpecting the Indian to cheerfullyaccept

to

would

we

not

by

so

countenance

ourselves

among

moment.

tried to ascertain

I have
who

school

to
or

son

home

came

and

statistics.

Miss

Normal

and

writes

me

that:

"The

death

but

no

and

died.

Caroline

It has

W.

good

many

far gone

of children

been

Andrus

sent

impossible to

of the Indian
date

AgriculturalInstitute,under

school

to

away

secure

reliable

any

Record
of

Office, Hampton
September 2d, 1914,

"

rate

high

was

physicalexamination

Homesickness

the number

died

probably

among

then

was

within
had

Indians

be for

when
so

for the first few

years,

requiredbefore
weeks

or

they left their homes,

months
after they arrived.

good deal to do with

with tuberculosis

might get togetherwould

few

our

they reached

small

number

it, but
here.

some

were

tainly
cer-

Any statistics we

that I think

they would

210

AMERICAN

THE

INDIAN

largedormitories,but have
and therefore no over-crowding."
of two students in a room,
an
average
In a table of statistics presented in a later chapter will be observed
that under Question IV, "In your
opinion has there been a high percentage
from tuberculosis sent from schools
children suffering
of deaths among
addressed
the past ten years?" we
to their homes
a
great many
persons,
give no
includingteachers, and asked their opinion. Many of these can
think
accurate
information, having been
recently appointed. Others
whereas
others
claim
that
that the death rate has not been very
high,
from
school merely to die from
Indians
returned
consumption or
many
It would have surprisedall of us, I think,
blind from trachoma.
to become
For instance,
could statistics be compiled with any
degree of accuracy.
during the long period that Carlisle has been maintained, it would be
of the
illuminatingto place before the public in tabulated form how many
Charles F. Lummis, Esq., of
have died.
Indians are livingand how many
California, who has devoted a great many
lems,
years to the study of Indian probeducational
is of the opinion that in the early years of our
system
Indians.
almost
has
made
He
as
we
consumptives as educated
many
Be that as it
uttered this opinion in several of his articles in past years.
at present the physiciansin charge of the schools and physicianson
may,
the reservations are doing all humanly possibleto end this evil.
But the oppositestillobtains in some
quarters. We have been properly
disease and we
have
ambitious
to keep the schools free from
promptly
children who are not strong or healthy,with the result
sent to their homes
disseminated
While
this was
the reservations.
that disease was
on
good
be useless,particularly
as

for the school, it

was

very

we

bad

have

never

for those

used

who

lived at home.

THE

212

the heroes

place among

INDIAN

AMERICAN
of peace.

In return

for his

simple trust,

we

dered
mur-

and

daughters.
wide diversityof opinion among
to the
as
a
persons
educational
for
Indians.
This
is
not
of our
fined
congeneral
policy
who
those employed by the Interior Department,
serve
as Superintendents
and teachers.
It is more
largelyshared by missionaries and

his

sons

has

There
wisdom
to

been

other observers.
of the

Many

statistics also wrote

valuable

in that

with

present policy. It

our

mechanics,

than

to

well to consider

the

fit

opinions of
and

in the great West,

the

omit
that

to

them
be

of the

to

attempt

They

enable

and

who

lumbermen,

of them

make

to

agree

Indians

give the

to

are

who

etc.,

weavers,

higher callings.It is
several persons
munities
residingin separate comI herewith
but
their
statements,
append

one

of them

remark.

more

is not

provided

for

make

to

them

not

are

to

As

them

leap from

can

the fact

see,

largelyto

that

touch

the

education

the

in life. It

the bottom

having them

the
successfully

as

I think

their condition

yet far enough advanced

follow

far

is due
satisfactory

for them.

far above

and

of civilization without

ladder

between.

high

is too

an

These

women

all those

thus:

in the rudiments

many

of the Indians

education

of the

nature

me

make

to

me

the condition

given

and

of

of the writers.

names

"Allow

so

up

table

for my

length.

men

will omit

We

stockmen,

carpenters,

attempt

to

from

be summed

may

data

considerable

come

people.

training;to ground them

vocational
farmers,
rather

the

with

me

at

sincere; they

are

with

in direct contact

are

their views

out

they

furnished

who

persons

seems

to

the top rung

those that lie

to

in civilization and

culture

higher pursuitsof civilized social

Thus
the present educational methods
try to put them.
of equal
unable
with Whites
to compete
when
leaving school, they are
farmeducation, while they are unwillingand often unqualifiedto take up ing

life,againstwhich

or

mechanics.

Naturally they all will

only occupation that would
or

other

manual

labor.

But

a
living,and the
will
self-supporting
ten
more
or
having passed
years

have

make

to

work

them

for

proper

and

be

farming

at

Carlisle,

coming home to the reservation, serious work is no

is
for amusement
liking. Playing and spending money
and care
for. If they get a positionin the
about the only thing they know
Indian Service, they get along as long as they are able to hold it. But the
of grumblers
they join the army
day they are discharged for any reason,
the Indians are
and idlers, and help to raise the howl
cheated, robbed
etc., and

Hampton,

longer

to

their

"

and

trodden

under

foot.

COMMENTS
The

ON

EDUCATION

213

long as they go to school they are coddled and furnished

only children of well-to-do parents are in a position
Then
when
to enjoy.
they are finished,so that they have to stand on
ever
their own
feet and make
their own
they are not able to do it. Whatliving,
with

fact is,as

everything,as

has been

used

for their education

is

then

worn,

thrown

It has

away.

hateful to
honest work
them, has made
spoiland enervate
hood
them, has certainlynot fitted them for the task of earning an honest livelibeen

used

to

suited

their condition

to

of life.

school education
is my
opinion that a thorough eighth-gradecommon
along with a good training in industrial and economic habits would
suited to their
bring far more
satisfactoryresults. It would be more
"It

present stage in their advancement

then

civilization,
they would

towards

more
easilytake to farming and other general work, and train them to be
have been trying
self-supporting.This would fillout the gap, which men
semi-barbaric
to bridge over
by forcing an intellectual education upon
Indian
children.
that
This is, however, not
a
higher education
saying

should

be denied

that

those

to

inclination,talent and

show

for

character

advancement."
Wisconsin

Correspondent,Keshena,
"The

white

country

The

children,and

own

the

people will

schools.

allow

not

Indians

in

our

have

any

matter,
work.
"The

influence

I wish

want

them

home."

to

use

children

are

the

do

to

go

the

for their

stated above.

as

Government

influence.

your

better

when

You

in

action
be doing

would

parents

If you
this

school.
to

educated
the

and

home;

near

no

public Government

rouse

can

would

remain

is

want

and

you

Indian

children
at

Indians

the

to

schools

opportunity to give their children

school.
In two
of a grammar
places

here the circumstances

care

"What

children

any

ordinary,elementary education

under

Indian

places have

some

left without

are

the

near

home.

also like to

good
The
have

Correspondent, Ukiah, California

The
are

next

letter is from

trifle ambiguous.
He

any

is

I know

full-blood
the

man

work

Indian.

Some

be

who

to

one

his

of the

sentences

labors under

advantages.
dis-

ignorant fellows.

more
doing
good
among
"Any Superintendent will say that, let a discoveryof oil be made upon
child's land and that boy or girlrises in distinction,
develops relatives,
a

THE

214

AMERICAN

INDIAN

Then
of the first
one
guardian at an alarming rate.
discovery,is to take the child from school. They can^t
bear that the searchlightof learning be turned
into the black comers
of their schemes.
is indeed alarming! I believe
The situation in Oklahoma
there are more
and
land
in
Eufaula
than
in any other
men
lawyers
littletown
outside the State, in the United States, and we
know
they have
and
fortunes
of
the
the
at
are
acquired
benighted Indian
acquiring,
expense

friends,and

and

his allotments.
"In

The

fond

after this

moves,

time

the

rich Indian

his fortune, the

'benighted Indian' will be spoken of in the past tense.

localityis truly an object of pity. The weight of

in this

of uncertainty, indecision

world

If the Indian

indeed.
lives,is pitiable

and

fear in which

he

is sagaciousat all,it has to be

brought
by the slow process of education and this drawing out' process is worse
than
the
pouring in'. Eternal vigilanceand a world of patience,all
and good judgment, are the tools with which
sense
tempered with common
These
to work
this
institutions
grafting,and schools, schools.
against
should be continued
indefinitely.As an illustration to the fact that the
Creek tribe is waking to the possibilities
these schools afford
our
capacity
is 125 and I venture
could have enrolled 300.
It was
to say we
pitifulto
them
closed early in August!"
turn
yet our files were
away,
*

out

"

Correspondent, Eufaula, Oklahoma

"Those
for them

educated

from

the

reservation

have

too

much

done

they learn and see the easy side of

life and the methods
it
be obtained easily but when
which
can
by
they
home
the pictureis not so alluring,
return
and when
they find that they
must
depend upon themselves
they also realize that they did not learn
how
to depend upon
rule give up and go
themselves, and they as
a
back
in
life more
and
the
to the old Indian
less,
or
majority of cases
altogether.
"In my opinionIndian Agents should have full control of their Agencies
and Indians in order to push their people to the front. Indians like men
who
do things,but in so many
the Agent must
to
can
cases
higherauthority
go
and this delay has a bad efiFectin most
The Agent should be strictly
cases.
for his action
there should be frequent
responsibleto the Commissioner
and searchinginspectionsof his work and if it is found wanting,he should
to

make

life

away
a

pleasure
"

"

"

be

removed."

Correspondent,Anadarko, Oklahoma

EDUCATION

ON

COMMENTS

215

correspondent living in Sapulpa, Oklahoma, writes at length

Happily,
concerning the immorality in Indian schools ten years ago.
A number
of correspondsuch thingsare not possibleat the present time.
ents
have referred to most
distressingmoral conditions (in past years)
should
in certain schools.
It is incomprehensible that such conditions
ingly
exceedthe children was
have been permitted to obtain.
The
effect on
bad, as it is impossibleto keep such things a secret, especiallyin
assembled
where two or three hundred
communities
are
together.
persons
One

IMPROVED

There
not

statistics available

are

refer to them.

set

them.

While

these

they
from

of them

many

on

HOME

are

we

have

cannot

THE

IN

this

Suffice it to say

in past years,

Too

INDIAN

unpleasant subject,although I shall

that because

expect

and

present

own

towns,

and

are

not

tone

among

was

willingto

not

detriment, by the bad

of

Indians

vented
pre-

all Indians.

diversityof opinion as

strike at the greater evil. Far too many

such schools as Carlisle are
inclined to
in

immorality

high moral

profitedto their

varied

SOUTHWEST

to

ample
ex-

detail,

on
returning
pations
clerkshipsor occuperform tasks requiringhard
our

look for

THE

216

labor.

AMERICAN

INDIAN

along the paths of least resistance.

of them, which gives rise
quite a number

does

This

moved

They

not

to the

apply
popular
There
is also another
conception that educated Indians will not work.
home
The Indian comes
and he finds that he
problem to be considered.
does not regard the community and people as he did previous to his education.
His case
of a small farmer in one
be compared with the son
may
of the eastern
states, who, given advantages of a higher education, comes
home
satisfied
without
mind
what
he shall do and is disdetermining in his own
life and
with his surroundings. Formerly, the farm, the home
the neighborhood did not appear
to him
to bespeak a small and
narrow
to all,but

world.
Such
He

feels himself

He

white

young

has

and

poverty
Unless

is best in the East, and

the dull monotony

he is

willingto put

his hand

he is pretty apt to fall into ways

annuity,or sell a pieceof land.
of the most

one

has

this.

overcome

competent

pointed out.

says:

Mrs.

the

to

of idleness,to draw
of the

One

in the

workers

Elsie E. Newton

inheritance

problems

great extent, due

and

plow

to

United

in Indian

the Indian
States

in answering my

money,

education

himself,

Indian

circular at

as

Service

length

"

"For

in their home

success

home

near

is better

highly trained

away

adapt

of the old and

where
In

latter
me,

addition

themselves

traininghas

it is

environment,

state,

or

said

on

to

the

at

or

in itself. If

good
diflScult,
just as

more

home

to

educated

been

in the

case

conservatism

struggleagainst such

ditions
con-

to

all that has been

that there is yet another

the

reason

preceding pages,

why

some

it must

of the educated

would
this
desire. And
as
we
satisfactorily
progress
all.
it
o
f
With
it
is, perhaps, the most
such,
is,
seems
significant
after due deliberation,due to the impression that after all, our
do

institutions.

do and

home,

difficult economic

not

civilization holds
Indians

the

he should."

be remembered
Indians

from

the Indian

environment,

if
qualified,

of Whites, to

to

It is,to

opened to the
community life.
work for his living,

his eyes are

Indian
or

of reservation,

or

is to

dissatisfied.

becomes

He

failures in life. It is similar with the Indians.

become

men

all that

seen

of his environment.

out

who
how

This
have
to do

as

littlefor the Indian.

let

statement,
been trained,or

me

He

has lost faith in

repeat, appliesonly
have

been

it,but stillpersistin the old

to

us

and

in

our

the educated

told year upon

to
year what
This also has a direct

ways.

bearing on the greater question, the lack of progress in the entire Indian
body; for education, property, health, citizenshipand all the rest are
but a part of this great problem. I shall further discuss it in a subsequent
chapter.

addition

In

the

to

in the Handbook

217

education
presented
of articles,
quite a number
followingbrief bibliographywhich
Indian

long bibliography on
Indians, there

of American

reports mentioned

speeches and

EDUCATION

ON

COMMENTS

in the

are

Indians will do well to consult.

problems among
all phases of education, although in the
These
in a general way,
cover,
and industries,
irrigation
general references, in the chapters on agriculture,
education.
which
there are
references
to
general
might
apply
many
of educational

students

The

Graduate

Carlisle

Mohonk

Conference.

History and

1908.

Carlisle

Indian

Indian

Education

Educating
The

Red

Indian

Indian

Carlisle

before

Civilized

for Citizenship.

Indians

June.
of

Annual

Twenty-ninth

Lake

of the

Report

Industrial

School.

Brig.-Gen. P. H.

"

63rd

of the

joint Commission

the

The

PraU.

of the

Congress

Library

Hamilton

United

States

vestigate
In-

to

Tribes.

J. P. Brown.

"

Indians.

Journal of the Society of American

Quarterly

Francis, Jr., Chief

John

"

of the

Education

lengthy

Division

of the

Indian

Bureau.

P. 430.

1914.

Handbook

Indians.

full bibliography

and

J. Nori.

P. 416.

Man.

Education
and

Siceni

"

1914.

the Five

Among

1913.

Students.

Returned

Hearings

School.

Affairs.

the

P. 17.

of the

Purposes

Association,

Oct.-Dec.,

and

1911.

of

of publications

Indians,

American

History and

Some

School, Chilocca, Oklahoma.

414.

p.

activities,

educational

of

account

training.

Indian

dealing with

Work

of the.

Indian

"

School

Journal,

June, 1914.

791

pp.

553.
N

Indian

School.

Day

of Government

and

Purpose

day schools

Table

Results.

during fiscal

ended

year

and

giving location, capacity, enrolment,

June

30. 1904.

of the

Report

"

attendance

average

of the

Department

Interior,

1904

P. 41.

Indian

Education,

Interesting facts concerning.

Indian

Education,

Present

Indian

Education,

The

Educational

Fort

of

1904.

P. 39.

Report

Indian

Five

in the

in the
of the

School,

McDermitt

Tribes.

Five

on.

The

P. 518.

Man.

Feb.,

1914.

P. 211.

Red

C. Kellogg.

Laura

"

Gabe

"

Tribes.

schools

Five

E.

Parker.

J. B. Brown.

"

Indian

during

Civilized

Tribes.

Mohonk

Conference,

Lake

Little

Institute, Lawrence,

non-reservation

Figures

Peairs.

1914.

Quarterly

Indians.

Journal Society of American

Twenty-eighth

Annual

Report

of the

Lake

Mohonk

Twenty-eighth

Annual

Report

of the

Lake

Mohonk

P. 79.
Conditions

Flandreau

Haskell

in the

Schools

Reorganized
1910.

and

Facts

ff. B.

June,

P. 51.

1910.

Thirty-first Annual

The

School

Reorganized

Conference,

Future."

Journal,

P. 36.

Jan.-April, 1913.

Conference,

Some

and

School

Indian

"

Day

History
School

Kanses.
fiscal year

"

of the.

"

John

"

Indian

ended

showing
June

Journal,

Indian

location,
30,

States

Indian

Service.

P. 24.

School

The

Illustrated."

Table

Supervisor, United

B. Brown,

1913.

1904.

School

date
"

of

Report

April, 1914.
Journal,
opening,
of

the

P. 356.

March,

1914.

P. 298.

capacity, attendance,
Department

of

the

etc.,

Interior,

Higher

Education

July-September,
Industrial

Conference,

Mt.

for the

Education
1906.

Indian

Moral

Education

Report

Indian

Quarterly

BurneU.

Charles

"

Service.

School, A Short

Vital

of School

Interest

in Indian

in Public

Segregated

Indian.

the

in the

Morals,

the

Session, Dec.

M.

Journal

of the

Society of American

Indians.

Doxon.

Annual

Twenty-fourth

of

Report

the

Lake

Mohonk

H.

"

Peairs.

B.

Annual

Twenty-ninth

Report

of the

Lake

Mohonk

P. 36.

Education,

Indians

for

Activities

Moral

Educating

Joseph

"

P. 37.

19 IL

Pleasant

Indian.

INDIAN

P. 285.

1913.

Educational

Conference,

3d

AMERICAN

THE

218

Taxation

in.

"

Schools.

Colonel

Schools."

History of the.

"

MiUon

Fairchild.

MiUon

Fairchild.

Roosevelt

Peton

on.

"

Carter, Indian

in Indian

"

Territory.

Indian

School

The

Indian

Indian

Office.

House

The

School

The

Red

Journal, May,
School

Man.

Journal,
Red

P. 445.

1914.

Journal, September,
December,

March.

Man.

June.

of Representatives.

Doc.

1912.

P. 310.

1914.

P. 427.

34.

P. 7.

P. 157.

1914.

No.

1913.

Fifty-eighth Congress

6, 1904.

Indian

University

Unnecessary.

"

M.

Friedman,

Lilt. D.

The

Red

Man.

January,

1914.

P.

182

include

may

practically
so; again,as employed by

or

synonymous,

most

serious

name

those

were

when

outbreaks

modem

have

part of civil authorities.

the

on

less than

much

or

more

hostilities

recent

writers, a

some

employed by others.
of the Apache have been hostile since they have been known

much

Although most
to history,the
mismanagement

INDIAN

AMERICAN

THE

220

Chiricahua

of the

Victorio,who, togetherwith

The

to

important

most

Cochise, and

under

later

Mescaleros,

Mogollones, and

Mimbrenos,

500

attributed

been

N. Mex.
in W.
assigned,about 1870, to the Ojo Caliente reserve
Cochise, who had repeatedly refused to be confined within reservation

were

limits,fled with

Apache

1,900

his band,

were

settlers caused

but

the

on

their removal

fled to the Mescalero

returned

in 1871,

reservation.
to

reserve

on

Tularosa,
Pecos

which

at

time

60

r.,

m.

while

the N.W.,

to

Cochise

1,200

to

neighboring

Complaints from
went

but

1,000

another

on

militaryagent in 1873 to compel the restoration of

stolen
cattle
the rest, numbering 700, again to decamp, but
caused
some
captured. In compliance with the wishes of the Indians,
they were
soon
returned to Ojo Caliente in 1874.
Soon afterward Cochise died,
they were
and the Indians began to show
such interest in agriculturethat by 1875
there were
1,700 Apache at Ojo Caliente, and no depredationswere
reported.
In the followingyear the Chiricahua
abolished, and
in Arizona was
reserve
325of the Indians were
others joinedtheir
removed
to the San Carlos agency;
of
kindred at Ojo Caliente, while some
either remained
the mountains
on
raid.

of the

Efforts

their old reservation

Indians

from

or

fled

centration,which

was

April,1877, Geronimo

homes
in

tested
and

the old reservation, and

border.

the Mexican

across

their ancestral

was

the

removal

Chiricahua

other chiefs,with

This

of

in pursuance

the remnant

in

removal

policy of
Arizona.

of the band

of
con-

In
left

dations
refugees,began depre433 were
captured
and returned to San Carlos.
time the policy was
At the same
applied to
the Ojo Caliente Apache of New
Mexico, who were
making good progress
in civilized pursuits;but when the plan was
put in action only 450 of 2,000
Indians
found, the remainder
were
forming into predatory bands under
Victorio.
In September 300 Chiricahua
mainly of the Ojo Caliente band,
These
escaped from San Carlos, but surrendered after many
engagements.
returned to Ojo Caliente, but they soon
off again. In February,
were
ran
1878, Victorio surrendered in the hope that he and his people might remain
on

in S. Arizona

on

their former

Indians

to

go

to

again appeared
made

for them

and

evidentlythe Mexican

N.

Chihuahua,

reservation, but
San
at
to

another

Carlos, with the

the Mescalero

as

in May

attempt

same

agency,

settle there; but,

but

result.
and

was

made
In June

arrangements

the local authorities

to

force the

the
were

found

fugitives
at

last

indict-

THE

DESERT

INDIANS

221

against Victorio and others, charging them

ments

this chief, with

from

the

his few

reservation

increased

force of

the Chiricahua

and

struck

resumed

with murder
and

Victorio

Chihuahua.

On

he suffered.

In these raids 200

and

Mexico,

inhabitants

the

of New

robbery,

made

was

for

they were

engaged
eros
Mescal-

350

repeated raids
Mexico,

an

murdered

were

joined before April,1880, by

was

the

to

call

in which

while 70 settlers

success,

refugeesfrom

terror

and

Mescaleros, fled

some

marauding.

with remarkable

met

Chiricahua

followed

followers

military,but in the skirmishes

during a singleraid.
and

immediate

which
and

Arizona,

later
was
April 13, 1,000 troops arrived, and their number
greatlyaugmented. Victorio's band was frequentlyencountered by superior
of the time by only 250 or
forces, and although supported during most
this warrior usually inflicted severer
300 fightingmen,
punishment than
in Mexico,
a

force

but
he

killed.

were

of

eluded

Victorio
continued

citizens of New
time

one

the band

fled

and

capture

divided.

comprising

his

more

many

hundred

scouts,
border, where

Mexican
both

on

United

by

Indian

sides of the
States

losses and

and

national
inter-

Mexican

his band

became

Victorio's party,
October, 1880, Mexican
troops encountered
and children, at Tres Castillos;
100 warriors, with 400 women

the Indians

surrounded

were

became

refused

and

tinuing
evening, the fightcon-

in the

attacked

of the
night; in the morning the ammunition
nant
exhausted, but although rapidlylosingstrength,the remthe

throughout
Indians

as

virtuallysurrounded

the

across

bloody campaign. Pressed

boundary, and at times harassed by
suffered severe
troops combined, Victorio finally
In

Mexico, and
was

several

2,000 cavalry and

than

more

At

until Victorio, who

surrender

to

times, finallyfell dead.

hostility. Victorio

This

disaster to

succeeded

was

the

had

been

Indians

several

quell their

not

collected

who

by Nana,

wounded

did

the

divided

from
the Mescaleros
Carlos
and the San
force, received reinforcements
Chiricahua, and between
July, 1881, and April,1882, continued the raids
border

the

across

these hostilities
of San
In

to San
on

Juh

1880

Cibicu

cr.,

pretended

power

In 1881

owing

services, his adherents

avowed
Whites.

prophet

Since
was

were

Geronimo

to

that

again

was

in progress

Carlos

and

Carlos.

until he

were

revive

the

awaited

arose

to

followers

108

and

the

After

were

paying

serious

of Arizona.

Mountain

returned

Coyoteros

Nakaidoklini,
him

of the

his

doklini
Nakai-

presence

assuming
aspect, the arrest
but
he
the troops were
surrendered
as
ordered;
quietly,
afiFairswere

who

for
liberally

until August, when

failed because

his incantations

While
the Chiricahua

captured and

named

the resurrection

Chihuahua.

Chihuahua,

settlements

the White

among

medicine-man
dead.

in

back

Mexico

strikingterror
with

trouble
to

driven

in New

of

of the

making

the scouts

camp

Nakaidoklini
continued

and

the next

"In

the

threaten
which

the

Indian

affairs

an

on

dozen

consumed

then

crops;

San

on

After

a sharp fight
repulsed. Skirmishes

reinforced, and

Meanwhile

persons.

discovered

was

made
the

on

dash

white

of that

of the water

coal

the Indians

twenty -six followers

much

so

them.

were

were

influx of miners, and

grand jury of Arizona

Indian

adherents

with

1883, Chato

murdering

brought

his

day, but the troops

Gila

upper

and

opened fire on

in small bands.

March,

Mexico,

New

INDIAN

other Indians
killed

was

surrendered

soon

on

AMERICAN

THE

222

the

stream

into

settlers
as

to

reservation,

investigationby the Federal

Oct. 24, 1882, charged the mismanagement
of

Carlos

to

res.

PIMA

an

local civil authorities.

ARIZONA

HOME,

Aboriginalhouse type

"Gen.
induced

G. H.

about

by their

Crook

having been

reassigned

to

the command,

in 1882

and subsist
to the reservation
1,500 of the hostiles to return
about
the
three-fourths
of
exertions.
The
tribe,
others,
own

path;
repeatedlywent on the warwhen
promptly followed by Crook they would surrender and agree
but would
break their promises. To this officer had been
to peace,
soon
assigned the task of bringing the raiding Apache to terms in cooperating

refused

with

to

settle down

the Mexican

to reservation

troops of Sonora

life and

and

Chihuahua.

In May,

1883, Crook

THE

DESERT

INDIANS

223

of the Rio Vaqui with 50 troops

boundary to the headwaters
of Chato
and Bonito
was
Apache scouts; on the 13th the camp
with some
discovered
and attacked
loss to the Indians.
two
Through
had with the
was
soon
captives employed as emissaries,communication
had surrendered.
On July 7 the
others, and by May 29, 354 Chiricahua
assumed
War
Department
policecontrol of the San Carlos res., and on
placed under the sole charge of Crook, who began
Sept. 1 the Apache were
crossed
and

the

163

in the ways
of civilization,
with such success
that in 1884
of
and
fruits
harvested.
In Feb.,
were
over
4,000 tons
grain,vegetables,
curtailed, an act that led to conflict of au1885, Crook's
thority
were
powers
to

train them

between
the civil and military officers,
and before matters
could
left the reservation in May
and fled to
adjusted half the Chiricahua
their favorite haunts.
Troops and Apache scouts were
again sent forward,
skirmishes
took place, but the Indians
and many
and again
were
wary

be

and

Arizona

Mexico

New

were

thrown

into

of excitement

state

and

the American
of 73
border, resultingin the murder
by raids across
white people and many
friendlyApache. In Jan., 1886, the American camp
attacked through misunderstandingby Mexican
under Capt. Crawford
was
death.
Indian
By the following
irregular
troops, resultingin Crawford's
March
tired of the war
and asked for a parley,which
the Apache became
Crook
granted as formerly,but before the time for the actual surrender
of the entire force arrived the wily Geronimo
changed his mind and with
band
his immediate
again fled beyond reach.
people, the Apache practisedagriculture only to
"Being a nomadic
dread

limited

They

before

extent

subsisted

chieflyon
maguey) and

their permanent
establishment
the products of the chase and on

on

reservations.

roots
(especially
found
Although fish and bear were
in their country they were
food.
in abundance
not eaten, being tabooed
as
attained high skill in making baskets.
They had few arts, but the women
shelters of brush, which
Their dwellingswere
were
easilyerected by the
well
and
their
arid
environment
and constant
to
were
women
adapted
the Apache vary greatly,but are rather
shifting.In physicalappearance
above
the medium
ceived,
height. They are good talkers, are not readily deand are honest in protectingproperty placed in their care, although
they formerly obtained their chief support from plunder seized in their
forays."

that

of the

Of

the other

4,000 Pima
These

and
three

they constructed

Indians

berries.

in the

southwest

there

are

some

Yuma,

3800

nearly 6,000 Papago.

bands

occupy

extensive

the

lower

Colorado

basin.

At

one

ditches and raised large crops.

irrigation

time
The

THE

224

AMERICAN

history of the Pimas

Mr. Humphrey.
the

As

from

has

been

settled

country

INDIAN
forth at

set

white

up,

the Gila, Salt and other streams

of them

Many

their ancient

schools,and

case

located

settlers

appropriated the

and these Indians

water

reduced.

larger portion of the Papago left

the public domain, seeking only to be

on

persons.

of all other

Indians, the Government

Agents, Superintendents,physicians,and

wherever

much

were

and

The

paupers.

and

white

in the

As

found

homes

from

removed

became

Jackson

length by Mrs.

there

are

considerable

number

has

established

be
employees may
congregated

of Indians

together.
It became
as

well

as

that the very existence of the Pima and the Papago,

threatened
because of the changed conditions,
was

known

the Yuma,

the influx of Whites, and

citizens in the full sense
Indians.

With

the haste

on

of the word.

our

part

Water

make

to

is the very

of these Indians
life of all desert

people appropriatingthe bulk of it, very little was

various irrigation
schemes
foot.
set on
were
It would be very
discuss
how
that
have
their
t
o
we
interesting
improved
in some
condition and made
available a largeacreage
places,yet in others
we
ground and thus ruined
carelesslysank wells deep into alkali-bearing
forbids
discussion
unnumbered
but
of
this subject.
acres;
space
late last year, through its ChairThe Board
of Indian Commissioners
man,
white

left for the Indians.

Honorable
Director
Unitarian
various

Hence

George Vaux, Jr.,commissioned

of Catholic

Missions, and

Association, and
Indians

and

both

recommend

Rev.

Samuel

members
what

of

should

Rev.

William

H. Ketcham,

A. Eliot, President
our

be

Board,
done

to

of the

visit these

for them.

Their

published in pamphlet form, but merit wider circulation.

I herewith append their remarks
the Papago.
on
'*Land,
Approximately 5,000 Papago Indians are living,as they
have lived since they were
in
the public domain
firstknown
to history,on
and Pinal Counties.
Pima
They are an industrious and self-supporting
been theirs for many
the habits of life that have
people and maintain
able to
other home
than the desert and are
no
generations. They know
would
sustain life under conditions which
be diflBcult,if not impossible,
less
for white people. These
Indians on the public domain
are
more
or
in
from
their
farms
four
times
each
to
nomadic, moving from two
year
the valleysto the ranges on the foothills. They are scattered in some
fifty
On
tract of desert and mountain
over
a vast
or sixtysmall villages
country.
tained,
obbe
their farms, which they break out of the desert wherever
water
can
raisingbeans, peas, squashes,
they raise two crops a year, in summer
findingswere

THE
and

melons

DESERT
in winter

and

com,

schools
**

these

among

have

These

the

lands

desert nature

prospectors.

or

time

some

Their

their

made

the

family

tribal customs

maintained

Papagoes and
chapels and schools
the public domain

parts of the land

the better
settlers

mules.

missions

are

excellent.
and

few
of

Presbyterian Board
villages.

in the chief
have

homes

title whatsoever

no

from

to

immemorial

time

of their country is such that thus far they have had little
white settlers. The time is, however, fast approaching when

with

contact

for

Papagoes on
where
they have

The

and

little barley. Each

nomadic

has also several

Missions

and

225

family life,while exceedinglyprimitive,are

of

Fathers

Franciscan

wheat

cattle,horses

some
villageowns
good and the habits
or

The

INDIANS

which

railroad

will be desired by white

they occupy
the
project,
Tucson-Ajo Railroad, has
Rosa
of
Santa
Valley for the purpose

already put a survey through the

transportingthe output of the Ajo Mines in Southern Arizona to market
If this project is completed it
and opening the country to settlement.
into this territoryand inevitablyimperil
the coming of Whites
will mean
the continued
occupation by the Indians of the irrigablelands. In order
the rightsof these people it is our
of
to preserve
judgment that a number
drawn
lines to be recommended
Order
Reservations
Executive
by
upon
be made.
The reservations
the Department of the Interior should at once
for
the lands adjacent to the villageswhich
needed
contain
should
are
of water
and sufficient sources
farming and grazing purposes
supply for
and
and
domestic
The
sites
the
stock
water
use.
sources
village
irrigation,
should

held

be

been

not

and

prospects of these

of the

white

with

then

men,

be

heretofore

who

deserve

Indians

to

actual

residence

greatly imperil the

character

Any delay
Indians,
self-sustaining
and

where

cancelled
will

made

the

have

never

sympathy

and

who

had

any

protection

Government.

"An

equally urgent situation exists on

population on the reservation
This is the only part
San Xavier.

almost

itself. The

Indian

the

at

Agency

there

should

established.

has

trouble

allotments

The

common.

public domain

the

upon

in

is water.

The

remainder

is arid and

the
is

Papago Reservation
mostly centered about

of the reservation

uninhabitable.

These

where
Indians

tribal laws and

and well governed by their own
self-supporting
be
chiefs. Their farms are
wherever
water
secured, and
can
productive,
they have good habits, so long as they remain beyond the evil influences
welfare is obviously dependent
of the neighboring city. Their continued
has acquired
of
The
Tucson
Farms
the supply
water.
Company
upon
practicallyall the land between the Agency and the City of Tucson, and
is opening this land for cultivation.
The Farms
the
Company also owns
are

also

AMERICAN

THE

226

land

bordering the reservation

INDIAN
and

the east

on

considerable

tract

conflict

to

the

the water

as
naturallysome
The welfare of the
rightsbetween the Farms Company and the Indians.
City of Tucson can evidentlybe promoted by increasing the agricultural
Company and the plans by
productivenessof the land held by the Farms
settlement are well-devised,
which the Farms
Company hopes to encourage

of the reservation.

south

borne

be

it must

but

priorclaim

expected that there is

the Indians

for both

the

the incoming white

and

lived at

supply.
Valley enough

Cruz

settlers,but the

to protect the rights of the Indians

vigilancewill be necessary
is absolutelyessential to their well-being.
which

"The

trust

of the

course

Company

oflScers of the Farms

The

years.

of the Indians

most

will expire in the

their allotments

hold

which

patents under

San

the water

upon

Santa

in the

to

have

Indians, who

the

that

in mind

generations,have

for many
It is hoped and
Xavier

water

is

There

to

utmost

the water

the Agency
three
or

near

two

next

evidentlyexpect

at

that time

improvements which
to -acquiretitle to the Indian lands togetherwith any
It is much
to be feared
have made.
the Indians or the Indian Service may
will too

that the Indians

readilyyieldto this temptation to sell their lands.

earnestlyrecommend

We

that

these

trust

patents

thus protected. It appears

badly surveyed, and the present fences

Indians
were

be

that the lines of the

allotments

conform

do not

to

extended

boundaries

or

If, therefore,

the survey.

and

the

originalallotments
an

of the Indian
Indian

should

will very
probably be sellingthe land occupied by
We
Indian.
of another
recommend,
therefore, that new

sell his allotment, he

the

homestead

allotments

be made

to

the

Papago Indians

livingat San Xavier, and that

allotment.
By the adoption
patents be dated from the time of the new
will
be
lines
of
the
allotments
of this plan not only the
correctlyadjusted,
trust

will be

but also the Indians

'*We

and

the Tucson

San

at

in the
own

and

Xavier.

it is obvious

buildingsof this ranch and

the property.
title established.
and

control

have

Irrigationis

been
on

The

that the Government

suit should

must

be pressed to settlement

of the Indian land at San

plans for the irrigating
and the report of the Superintendent of

''Irrigation,The
Xavier

62d

protectedin the possessionof their lands.

the Government
there is litigationpending between
title
in
the
Farms
the
to
to
regard
Berger Ranch
Company
The Agency offices and residence have always been located

understand

well studied

file at

the

Indian

Congress, 3rd Session). We

suggested,but only

if the

Bureau

the adoption of the

recommend

trust

words, it is obviously undesirable

patents

(Senate Document

can

for the

first be extended.
Government

to

No.

973,

plan there
In other

expend

con-

DESERT

THE

INDIANS

227

of money
for irrigating
in the course
of
Indian lands which
the property of the Tucson
It
become
Farms
two
Company.
years may
will increase the value of the Indian
lands
is true that better irrigation

siderable

sum

the

and

will

Indians

would, but it is
to

for their property than they otherwise

in price will simply accrue

more

secure

be feared

to

this increase

that

the benefit of the saloon

keepers at

other

persons

eager

to

industrious
self-respecting,
we
vagabondage,
earnestly
recommend:
(1) The extension of the trust patents under which they now
hold their lands, and
(2) the prompt
adoption and carrying out of the
which
will
obtain
an
adequate and reliable supply of water.
plans by
they
The
''Schools.
Government
maintains
only two small day schools
for the Papagoes, whether
the
reservation
the public
on
or
living
upon
A few elementary schools are
domain.
also maintained
by the Catholic
for
the
and Presbyterian Missions.
It is not
Government
to
necessary
reach
these
schools.
than
small
more
duplicate
a
They cannot, however,
further and more
careful
proportion of the school population. Without
best
the
of
do
recommend
of
wish
centers
not
to
population,we
survey
the establishment
of any considerable
number
of Government
day schools.
water
They will naturally be established where permanent
suppliescan
be developed. We
that
be
believe, however,
provisionsshould at once
made
for the opening of day schools at the villages
known
Indian Oasis
as
natural centers
and Coyote, which
of population within the proposed
are
We
Order Reservations.
Executive
understand
that plans have already
new
the Indians.

upon

prey

from

peaceful Indians

and

formed

been

those
and

The

health

other

on

trachoma,

but

Indian

at

Oasis.

Tucson,
are

the

too

or

Industries.

and

both

Papagoes
is

There

are

are

not

different

culosis
great deal of tuber-

no

for the welfare

of the Indians.

the Papago

livingon
good

own

of the

and

habits, the

missionaries.

Maricopa

often demoralized

encouraged

themselves

the

among

be well protected because

influence

Grande

of the first of these schools.

We
hospitalprovisionswhatever.
the establishment
of field hospitalsat San Xavier
These
hospitalsshould be of slightconstruction,

to

seem

Casa

"Native

be

there

settlements, their

white

officers,and
and

and

and

reservations.

they are greatly needed

"Liquor. The Indians

public domain

these

save

conditions

Indian

earnestly recommend
and

to

demoralization

for the establishment

''Health.
from

In order

and

Tucson

are

much

and

on

the
from

vigilance of the Agency

The
Indians
living near

exposed

more

to

temptation

vicious.

It is highly desirable

in the industries

also in the arts

Reservation

of their remoteness

which

that

the

Papagoes should
by which they have always sustained
they practice. They are remarkably

AMERICAN

THE

228

successful desert cultivators.

farming

than

methods

of

the Whites

farming

teach
be

can

we

to teach

more

them.

brought

farmers, and

tactful Government

have

They

can

which

INDIAN
Whites

about

Nevertheless, there

desert,
certain

are

their attention

to

commend

by skilful and
present activityof these

the

particularthe Indians can be helped in the use and conservation

for domestic
securing of water
apart from
purposes
of
has
his
at
Superintendent
Irrigation
now
disposal
sources
appropriationwhich he is using to discover and develop new
Indians
and
in
the
their
to
own
teaching
supply
drinkingseparate

officers. In

of water, and in the

its use
for stock.
The
a

small

of water

from

water

the water

INDIAN

BUILDINGS
On

"The

Indians

Papago
The

people.
now
seriouslythreatened.
protect them
Indians

Government

in their land

will become

Arizona.

There

neglect of

the

for the stock.

used

OF
allotment

an

at

are

does

is abundant
at

present

very

water

primitive,but self-supporting

on

the

evidence

and
to

Their

part of the

rights,\\allbe

outcasts

this time

Okla.

little for them.

failure

and

homeless

Papagoes

Wewoka,

near

TION

CONSTRUC

RECENT

most

menace

justify the

will result in the

livelihood

Government
disastrous.
to

all

is
to

The

southern

conviction

corruption

that
and

DESERT

THE

INDIANS

229

grace
degredation of these worthy Indians, and write another chapter of disbefore
in the historyof our
Now,
dealingswith our Indian wards.
of prevention now,
irreparableharm is done, is the time to act. An ounce
later. To prevent the threatening abuse,
will be worth
pounds of cure
fare,
weland to promote
their permanent
to protect these deserving Indians
that

it is necessary;
1st, To establish
where
part of the public domain

Executive

on

always

Papagoes have

5000

some

Reservations

Order

2nd,
provide for their efficient administration.
at San
extend
the trust
To
patents of the Indians holding allotments
of their lands.
Xavier
and provide for the adequate irrigation
3rd, To
establish schools at Indian Oasis and Coyote, and hospitalsat San Xavier
made

and

their homes,

Oasis."

Indian
The

in

Pueblos

number

present

and

of stone

communistic
elsewhere

and

very

adobe

interestingspectacle. Living as they do

villages,
carrying on a highly developed

life,practicingceremonies

like of which

the

does

exist

not

the
anywhere
they
ethnologicalinvestigations.Mrs. Matilda Stevenson
of American
Ethnology relating
through the Bureau
if

in America,

in the

world

have

"

been

subject of numerous
published a volume
Hamilton
The late Frank
to the ethnology of these strange folk.
Gushing
mastered
the
lived for years in Zuni Pueblo, was
adopted,
language, joined
and
with a great deal of valuable
the secret society,and presented us
Fewkes
After Cushing's death. Doctor
J. Walter
technical information.
in studying the various Pueblos.
of the
Mr. Charles L. Owen
spent years
Field Museum,
Chicago, and other investigatorshave approached the
of books relating
subject from various angles. We have, all told, a score
to

the life and

beliefs of the Pueblos; their famous

repeatedlydescribed

until it would

of the Pueblo
Few

and

the

themselves

the relation between

tribes in America
that

that not

seem

publication. Others have concerned

have

been

has

been

singledetail has escaped

with Pueblo

the Pueblo

and

arts, the

origin

the Cliff Dweller.

thoroughly studied, and it is safe

more

various

dance

snake

to

Institution, the

of

the Smithsonian
departments
published 5,000 or more
relatingto these
pages
As
the
from
handed
down
are
people.
peculiarcustoms
antiquity,we shall
future time and adhere to our
rule of confining
study them in detail at some
this book
the modern
Pueblo.
to
The
by
following report submitted
Messrs.
Eliot and Ketcham
is self-explanatory
their activities,
and covers
their needs, and
warns
us
against the dangers with which
they are
say

past thirty years,

have

threatened.
''Land,

The

of the boundaries

primary need of all the Pueblos

of their grants.

The

encroachment

is for

determination

of squatters

on

the

constantlyincreasingand producing friction and litigation.

not
always blameworthy because the limits of the
trespassers are

Indian

lands

These
Indian

is

lands

are

definite marks
have

INDIAN

AMERICAN

THE

230

been

bounds

or

There

indistinct.

so

with

is urgent

indestructible

established,vigorous action

need

monuments.

should

be

taken

of surveys
When
for the

and

eviction

of trespassers who
have not established a legalright to occupancy.
an
earnestly recommend
appropriation for the immediate
survey
the Pueblo

of

these

We

of all

grants.

Congress prohibitingany Pueblo Indian

will prevent endless misunderstandings
and litigation.All the land problems of the Pueblos
would
be settled by
all
their
lands
in trust with
the
of
the
Indians
to
accepting
proposal
place
of action
the Department
of the Interior. We
believe this proposed course
to be wise and just.
"The
liquorquestion is at the front in nearly every pueblo. Illegal
sellingand bootlegging are very prevalent and as a rule public opinion
of liquor. In spite of the
the Indians does not condemn
the use
among
bad whiskey is demoralizing
vigilanceof the oflBcers of the Government
of these Indians.
their
The
efforts of the Superintendents and
many
policemen for the suppressionof this traflBc should be heartilysupported
by the Indian Office and the superintendents should be authorized to
employ additional policemen.
"The
prosecution and punishment of land thieves and liquor sellers
We
the attorney for the Indians.
larly
particuput a very heavy burden upon
"We

from

recommend

an

Such

sellingland.

commend

Wilson, who

the

with

Act
an

of

Act

able, alert and

very

small

resources

"We

him

commend

at

and

without

C.

at

$3,000 and

that at

least

for the prosecution of the suits

the good

sense,

Perry, Lonergan, Coggeshall and

Indians

Francis

remarkably successful in
would rob or degrade them.

has been

protectingthe Indians and punishing those who

that his salarybe put
We earnestly recommend
$1,000 be allowed

service of Mr.

disinterested

pampering

or

now
pending.
vigor and assiduityof Superintendents
Mr.
these
Snyder. They understand
ests
pauperizingthem have their real inter-

heart.

''Irrigation.Owing to the sandy nature of the soil of the Rio Grande

recommend
canals is excessive.
We
Valley the seepage from the irrigation
that the canals at Isleta and Laguna, where
conditions are
particularly
A
be
concreted.
reservoir
is
needed
Taos.
at
bad,
urgently
''Health.
In spiteof perniciousinbreedingand unsanitary conditions
the health of the Pueblos
in
is comparatively good. Instruction is needed
elementary sanitation.

THE
*'

Education.

the

boarding
opinion that the best education
day schools. Boarding schools
the Pueblos
have always lived
for them are the day schools in
at

for these
are

in
or

SOUTHERN
Modem

new

The

They

day

schools

school
are

age.

and

instruction

are

pictographsin the

well

at

and

Indians

can

are

efficiencyof

clearlyof

be obtained

the

in the

Indians, but
adapted to nomadic
best schools
the
and
villages
permanent
the
villages.The
immediately adjoining
well

LTE,
rear.

planned,but

COLORADO
1902.

Photograph by E.

there is urgent need

R.

Forrest

of

more

of them.

at Isleta are
a
disgraceto the Government.
for half the children
unsanitary and there is not room
New
school buildingsshould also be provided at Acoma,
is greatly needed
A farmer
Encinal.
to give agricultural
Isleta and Laguna. The needs of the boarding schools have

accommodations

unsafe

of school
Acomita

Indian

231

heartilycommending the work

Albuquerque and Santa Fe, we

While

schools

INDIANS

DESERT

and

AMERICAN

THE

232

INDIAN

been

of the superintendents.
set forth in the recommendations
suflSciently
for appropriations
We especially
the application
commend
to buy additional
land at Albuquerque and to build a dairy barn at Santa Fe.
"We
recommend
the applicationsof SuperintendentsLonergan and
Coggeshall for additional policemen, and for authority to hire laborers
when
needed.
It is absurd to have to request a physicianto milk the cow
for a superintendent to personally have
the chain for his
to
or
carry
surveyors.
"

The

must

be

and

their

trainingof
slow.

the Pueblo

Their

inherited

Indians
habits

for lifein
and

civilized environment

exceedinglyrigid
progressiveIndians
have now
them
a
They need not only
among
very hard road to travel.
moral
actual physicalprotection. The
tendents
superinsupport, but sometimes
should be encouraged tactfully
break
the
but firmlyto
personal
up
to protect the rightof the individual
despotism which often rules the villages,
the gradual adaptation of the pueblo
to personal liberty,
to insist upon
prejudicesare

life to its

stubborn.

environment.

new

The

The

customs

are

educated

Pueblos

are

or

in

now

transition

stage.

hard
some
They
some
pass through
leadership
experiences.They need the consistent,sympathetic,courageous
of their guardians,in whose good intentions they are beginning to trust."
In closingthe chapter on the desert Indians I desire to suggest that
the older Pueblos
be permitted to continue
their weaving and potteryin our
It is perfectlyproper
to train the young
making in their own
way.
but
the
of
the
should
be
native
old
Indians
arts
arts,
encouraged.
superb
With
the death of these old people,the art will deteriorate and disappear.
I mention
this particularly
for the reason
that several well-meaning,but
to Zuni and attempted
misguided persons sent one or two representatives
it without

cannot

to

instruct

the

them
continued

to

on

in

women

glaze the pottery

large scale,would

disappearing.
The population is
and

snake

societies

of them
and
are

admission
fast

is

now

life of these

world.

With

the

to

result in

ruining an

art

which

is fast

stationary. The ceremonies of the antelope

and more
graphs
photopublic. Recent
becoming more

about

of white

hundreds

charged, for
people

extension

"

the

dances

They
people who

and

live, as
to

ceremonies

attendant

it

were,

the allotment

will

automobiles,

persistedbecause

have

employees

the real life of the Pueblos

and

teams

persons,

of education,

effort of Government
new,

and

of pottery.
They even
suaded
perif
tiles. The movement,
make

commercialized.

curious

continual

are

show

becoming

insert the

manufacture

the

feelingsand

bitter

break

soon

pass

in

system,

down
away

the

of the
different
and
old

forever.

the
and

GERONIMO

Photographed

at

Fort Sill,Oklahoma,

about

1905

GERONIMO

during

the next

few

into Mexico

went
men

In

trade.

One

returning from

were

children

who

told

peacefulcamp
children.

them

and

"

1858, when

years.

to

Geronimo

the

Geronimo

had

attacked

and

men

aged mother,

his wife

and

and

women

the

camp

of the

most

band

the other

and

by crying

met

were

the

twenty-nine,his

was

while

Mexicans

massacred

lost his

he

afternoon

visit, they

that

had

235

"

and

women

his three

small

children.
decided

They

for survivors

to retreat

in order

Arizona

to

kill them,

and

the Mexicans

as

searching

were

the

all
remaining Apaches
to
Indian
night.
mourning period, according
etiquette,prevented
relatives than anyone
Geronimo, who had lost more
else,from eating or
speaking. He traveled two days and three nights without food and did
his mouth
not open
until the third day. I quote from his book:
to

traveled

The

"

"Within
the
of

few

settlement.
There
were
days we arrived at our own
that Alope had made
and there were
the playthings
I burned
them
our
all,even
tipi. I also burned
my

decorations

"

little ones.

our

mother's
"I

lodge
was

and

father's grave,
who had wronged

but

my

to

remind

I had

The
bands

mountain

property.

quiet home.

our

vengeance

happy days,

my

visit

troopers

his grave or saw

anything
ache for revenge
would

near

came

True, I could
the Mexican

upon

heart

travel

Mexico.

certain

known

meet

follow

at

unmounted

invariably scattered

mountain

They

supplies.

Geronimo

of 1859,

year

went

trails,whereas

light,and

on

"

without

horses, for

every

water-hole,

On

foot the band

It

rendezvous.

common

visited other

later,a largeforce

was

horseback

they

could

scatter,
possible
well-nighim-

Apaches, as all the military reports admit.

and
inaccessible, waterless
sought the most

ranges.

Geronimo

acted

villageand

as

Geronimo

includinghimself, were
of the Indians
Geronimo
art

than

guide, and

killed

were

troops attacked.

The

summer

"

singly and
to

They

Old

and

arms

in the

the country thoroughly

Knowing
could trail unobserved.
they
valley

and

follow

must

more

vowed

collected

Apaches

of his tribe, and

(on foot) entered

strategic reasons.

by

in

whenever

and

me,

of former

me

her

Mexico."

upon

the

destroyed all
again contented

never

were

by
says

the

that in

charged by
killed and

came
Arispe eight men
The
next
Apaches.
day the
near

one

from

Mexican

part of the field four Indians,

four soldiers and

the four

out

troopers

were

in the final

fight,two

slain,two

of them

himself.
of

was
trailing

among

other

developed
Indians

on

among

the

Apaches and Comanches

Possibly a few Dela-

this continent.

be

might

wares

excepted.

chieflydue

The

the fact that

to

INDIAN
of Geronimo's

operations,as
lieutenants, Cochise, Naiche, Mangus-Colorado,

of his able

those

as

AMERICAN

THE

236

success

the trail

them

to

was

an

book.

open

well
was

As

an

illustration of the skill of the desert Indians

the
the

of Pedro

case

Comanche

Colonel

Espinosa, who,

and

Dodge
and

in this respect, I would

cite
nine years old was
captured by

when

Comanches

for years
lived with the
marvel
of him that he was
a

says

relates

to

even

and

Apaches.

the Indians

selves,
them-

incident:

this

in pursuitof a party of murdering Comanches, who

of soand the trail abandoned
scattered,
by a company
pursued,
called Texas
the
after
On
the scattering,
Espinosa
eighth day
rangers.
"I

had

was

sent

once

been

took

the trail of a singleshod

rocky Guadalope Mountains,

the foot of
a

smile

grim

intended

he

them

handed

hide

When

to

me,

ridden

fairlyinto the rough,

and picked up from
by the Indian. With

informed

and

me

that

the

Indian

the roughest
days we journeyed over
and
in
the
most
mountains, turning
objectlessway,
twisting
apparently
for
in the whole command
not
a
man
being able to discover, sometimes
hours, a singlemark by which Espinosa might direct himself. Sometimes
what
I lost patience,and demanded
that he show
he was
us
following.
*Poco tiempo,'he would
and in a longer or shorter time,
blandly answer,
show me
the clear-cut footprints
of the horse in the soft bank of some
tain
moununmistakable
with
his
to
most
stream,
or
long wiping-stick
point
*sign'in the droppings of the horse. Following the devious windings of
this trail for nearly a hundred
at a loss, and
and fiftymiles, scarcelyever
examine
twice
the
to
or
only once
ground, he
dismounting, more
closely
finallybrought me to where the Indians had reunited."
On another
occasion, the Indians had fired the prairieto hide their
trail. The officer in despair went
to camp.
Espinosa, after working over
the ground carefullyon his hands
the lightashes
and knees, blew away
until suflBcient prints were
found to show
the direction of the trail. He
was
compelled to make several circuits, covering a total of six or seven
to

his trail.

were

we

stopped, dismounted,

the four shoes of the horse

tree

horse.
he

For

six

miles, and

after weary
hours spent in this work, the troops
and capture the Indians.
Espinosa and the Apaches

pursue

trail after dark

man,

from

Union

at

the outbreak
men

shot to death.
and
in advance

by

feelingof the

in San
The

account

indicates
of the

that

white

to

was

Colonel

found

selected to carry dispatches

He was
captured and

Reeve.

presentedby Dodge
this unknown
scouts

once

able to

able
ground with their fingers. This remark-

of the Civil War,

Antonio

were

of which

of

esting
Espinosa is very interfar
knowledge was

in Plains

man
we

have

heard

so

much.

The

GERONIMO

Apaches recognized that

tried by every
to
means
The

few

next

their

and

scalps. During

times.
In

Once, he

1861

women

men,

In 1864,

pack

train.

was

the

Mexicans

and

children.

while

dried

as

on

career

attacked

Geronimo

committed

the field.
winter

Apache

an

village,killing

Geronimo's

loaded

were

for winter

emphasizes

public. Many

expeditionsinto Mexico,
returningwith much plunder
he was
wounded
fightingman

people captured a mule

an
intoxicating
The Apaches began drinking this and Geronimo,
poured out all of the liquor. On this occasion

of the mules

the meat

they

several

left for dead,

fearing the consequences,

he captured a herd of cattle,drove
and

in their trail,and

occasions

raidingin Mexico,

Some

of the Mexicans.

drink

led

other
his

lay

it.

Geronimo

years

being defeated, on

seven

weakness

only

conceal

sometimes
many

237

the

with

mescal

cattle to

"

Arizona, killed them,

use.

in his book

outlaws, both

something

Americans

and

unknown

to

the

general

stole cattle and

Mexicans,

robberies

and
the blame
was
during these troublous years
of
has
all
that
been
the
latter
In
said,
always placed on
Apaches.
spite
their virtues, as the followinganecdote
attests.
not without
were
In 1883 two young
from the East, while prospectingin the mounmen
tains,
old Apache and a young
In attempting
saw
an
apparently his son.
man,
of the white men
fell and broke his leg.
to retreat
to camp,
one
the

The

old warrior

youth,

examined
tore

it up

limb, removed

the broken
and

carefullybound

the shirt of the

the broken

member.

the old warrior,

injured
un-

Then

indicatingthe direction with his fingersaid: "Doctor

Lordsburg
days," and silentlyrode away.
Up to 1870 the Apaches had had little trouble with the white people,
although in 1841, according to testimony presentedby Mrs. Jackson, they
had abundant
grounds for hostility.*
It was
until the 30th of April, 1871, that the real trouble began.
not
The
at Camp
Grant, in Arizona, of several hundred
massacre
friendly
and
children, brought on hostilities.
Apaches, men,
women
Beyond question, this and several subsequent raids on the part of
white people,were
responsiblefor the attitude of Geronimo, Victorio and
Cochise.
In 1873 and again in 1880 there was
hard fightingin Mexico.
"

In

1884

Geronimo
How

In
into
*

"

three

the
tent

was
men

many

early sixties
under

Century of Dishonor,

head
were

chief, and

war

United

States

promise, Geronimo
page

325.

fought his heaviest

killed in these actions is not

troops invited

states, that

they

the
were

ments.
engage-

stated.

Apache chiefs
to be given a

THE

238

feast.
Our

Geronimo

AMERICAN
"When

says:

chief,Mangus-Colorado,

INDIAN

in the tent
and

they

attacked

by soldiers.
cuttingthrough
captured." Heavy

were

several other warriors,by

the tent,

killed or
escaped;but most of the warriors were
Such
fightingfollowed.
Apaches as spoke English visited the oflScers
and advised them
where
located camps
were
they sought, and while the
for these

soldiers hunted
them

from
In

1863

He
if he

made

As

peace.

During the night some

him

Geronimo

camps,

and

his warriors,"watched

hiding-placesand laughed at their failures."

the favorite chief,Mangus-Colorado, was
put
had been told by General
West
that he would

our

in the

breast.

the old chief entered

threw

one

He

sprang

up,

and

he said:

through

stone

he

as

did

in the

house.
guardprotected

be

"This

the window

end."

is my
and

struck

the guard shot

so

and

killed him.
In the seventies
As

tried

and

soon

the United

they

as

entered

court-martial.

by

States
the camp

Victorio

in chains, remaining in shackles

For the next

being afraid

ensuing

anxious

that

defeated

the Indians

the

there

years

but

exterminated.
often

blow

to

The

as

industry,this action

General

followed

stored it,and

the next

almost

to

and

if I resisted to kill me.

"He
who

ready

the Apaches
fighting,
the frontier element

troops occasionally
repulsed. General Crook took
few of the Apaches were
horse
as

of General

the cattle
Crook's

were

was

the

severe

interview.

with

me

said: 'I

the

the

same

gathered

I put in

the crop
a
crop of oats, and when
in prison,
told your soldiers to put me
If I had been let alone I would now
have been

year

but

instead

of that

you

and

the

Mexicans

were

soldiers.'
never

gave

any

such

orders; the troops

at

Fort

untrue.'
spread this report, knew that it was
I agreed to go back with him to San Carlos.
"Then

Geronimo,

tive
incen-

an

not

harvest, you

good circumstances,

hunting

put

Geronimo's

was

in

was

the Indians.

and

headquarters

Apaches into Mexico and held an

descriptionof what occurred.*
"Said the General:
*Why did you leave the reservation?'
"I said: 'You
told me
that I might live in the reservation
white people lived.
One
I raised a crop of corn,
and
year

I quote

onimo.
Ger-

Our

the Apaches' cattle and horses, and as

Indians, preferringto fightor hunt on foot, and
away

to thrift and

to

and

Geronimo

and

considerable

was

more

were

taken

were

released

States authorities and

be

Apaches

they

was

for Victorio

sent

four months.

the United

to trust

troops

Story of his life,Recorded

by

S. M.

Barrett, New

York, 1906, page

133.

Apache,

GERONIMO
"It
what
for

hard

was

he said

On
and

be put in

to

me

the

fled.

He

says:

for

Geronimo

became

"a

were

reckless of

WOMAN

onimo's

American

If
if
we

we

our

no

gave
one

that

I offered resistance."

case

BASKET.

command

Crook's

quarter
action

CALIFORNIA

the reservation

to

Mexico

we

they would

to anyone

killed

Again, three Apache children

was
family
captured.
men.

I know

Indian"

TWINED

stayed in

troops in

Now

that he did issue the orders

in every sense
of the word.
because
felt
man's
that
lives,
we
every

bad

returned

we

that time.

left General

Indians

WEAVING

was
against us.
prison and killed;
soldiers to fightus; so

in

four

to be killed in

prison,or

the

"We

at

firmly believe

march,

hand

and

and

return

POMO

The

believe him

to

me

untrue,

was

239

seven
were

and

be

would

continue
asked

no

to

favors."

children,five
slain.

put
send

women

Later, all Ger-

THE

240

Naiche,
with

of the

son

Geronimo

and

end

The

border

grim

but

I have

According
Geronimo
under
that
a

in

to

me;

story

"He

Geronimo
"

"Then

friend."

of friends.

his

said

his

quit the

General

be

never

been

me?"

other

Miles:
that

him,

saw

with

witnesses,

the Government,
*A11 the oflScers

supported by
talked

Miles

preter
Miles, the inter-

chief and

General

to

General

and

critical a situation

so

has he not

side of the

and

way

it sounds

"

saying:

arms

warpath

Miles

in

one

to

General

Indian

family and

"I

surrender
Even

was

for years
useless.

for his band,

rest

retorted, "I

Why

of the

from

no

met

time it is the truth.'

up

gave

*I will

Geronimo

charge of Indians have

I hardly believe you.'

'This

said:

would

he

is your

restrictions.

been

that

narrative

the

resistance

driven

itself. Geronimo

in need
to

was

have

Miles

to live with

certain

further

other, found

When

asserted

been

when

the

to

scouts

said, "General
humor

fightingchief, Cochise, fought

suddenly. Geronimo,

certain conditions.

his

like

famous

Lawton's

Captain

under

INDIAN

surrendered

came

American-Mexican
told

AMERICAN

and

swept

live at peace
hereafter.'"
of
ground clear with his hand
spot

and

said:
"

*Your

shall be

past deeds

wiped

out

like this,and

will start

you

life.'"

new

that

It is unfortunate
the hostiles but

also

few

when

the

Apaches

friendlies and

were

who

some

taken

East, not only

helped the troops,

had

also

made
imprisoned in Florida,and Geromino
deported. They were
of the warriors committed
to labor sawing largelogs. One
two
suicide.
or
After some
the
removed
Fort
Sill.
to
Geronimo
were
prisoners
years
did not keep the terms
often complained that the Government
of the
were

Miles

I have

surrender.

this wrong.
Geronimo

did

not

The

foregoingsums

up

similar circumstances

by

see

that

General

Miles

tried to

right

corrected.

his

family

for two

years

contrary

"

to

the

of the surrender.

terms

not

was

heard

never

If he did, I stand

coward,

the Board

others, these

any

would

of Indian

Apache

in

brief way
the career
of spiritand
man

become

"a

Commissioners,

prisoners were

seventy elected to remain

About

white

near

bad
the

of Geronimo.

Under

independence, and who

Indian."
After many
appeals
Indian Rights Association and

removed

to

their

Fort Sill,Okla., and

ancient
have

been

homes.

given

farms.

Practicallyall of

them

are

doing

well

"

industrious

and

capable.

THE

242

Honorable

INDIAN

AMERICAN

F. H. Abbott, Secretary of the Board

visited the

Navaho

made

and

Commissioners,

of Indian

specificrecommendations

allotment

to

as

Samuel

irrigationplans. In December-January, 1913-'14, Rev.

and
Eliot

and

William

Rev.

members

Ketcham,

H.

visited the Navaho

officially

Commissioners,

and

made

A.

of Indian

Board

of the

to

report

the

Johnson, missionary located at

Indian Wells, Arizona, has repeatedlyurged in public addresses at Lake
Mohonk
and elsewhere the need of proper
protection of this, the finest
and women
remaining in North America.
body of aboriginalmen
Secretary of the Interior.

It is not

Rev.

W.

back

to

to go

necessary

R.

that these Indians

1850, to state

were

condition.
condition today,
They are in a satisfactory
satisfactory
and are the only band of Indians so situated in this country. The number
to be about
of them is said by Father Weber
25,000. Rev. Johnson, who
the reservation,claims there are 28,000.
traveled extensivelyover
Taking
in

into consideration

of

sheep they

possess

The

million head.

know,

but

dollars per

annum.

may

several

there

public domain,

has been

number

of their blankets

the

of the blanket

few years

one

Valentine

no

Juan

man

million

stated that

be remembered

It must

the

million to two

last year,
is
industry upwards of

of the San

on

number

The

wove

Commissioner

ago,

reservation

today.
from

women

of blankets.

sold north

are

Navaho

variouslyestimated

of blankets

the value

live oflFthe

that

least 30,000

sold $800,000 worth

the Navaho
many

thousand
at

are

river and

that

elsewhere

that traveling traders and buyers continually

the
borders
of the reserve.
The
totals obtained
by
beyond
penetrate
below
the
and
white
doubtless
far
t
eachers
is
employees,
superintendents,

oflF the

reservation, and

of business.

actual volume
As
desert".
from

high

mesas

knows,
to

the reservation

is

**

famous
painted
part of our
It is exceedinglydiversified in character, the landscape varying

everyone

deep

Fortunately,no

of desert.

from

canons;

to stretches
towering mountains
depositsaside from coal have been

mineral

separate occasions, in the

prospectors, in defiance of law, entered the Navaho
discovered.

of

On

three

When
gold, silver or copper.
in
Juan
the
San
along

"oldtimers"

informed

me

Accompanying
north

of Durango,

Navaho,
aside from
remained

was

that these prospectors were

last expedition,there

heard

never
were

several

their friends threatened

in

was

done, the

men

peacefulpossessionof their

never

estate.

of afterward.

men

on
reprisals

allegingthat the Indians had killed these prospectors.

talk,nothing

in search

reservation

again in 1897, several of the

the

Colorado, and

'80's,

peditions
conducting the cliflF-dwellerex-

and

1892

'60's, '70's and

from
the

However,

returned, and the Indians

It was
considered, in the

THE
'70's and
Navaho

'80's "bad

Navaho
719,360

acres.

Navahos

belong

acres

and

11,113,033

the

to

desert,the
is

certain

from

person.

as

Indian

fifteen

of pasture land.

acres

The

Navaho

keep

the

are

ancient

up

very

each

that

could

arts and

entertaining

of Indians

ceremonies.

have
or

have

444

absolute
444

acres

than

twelve

in the United

States

They not only enjoy a

probably the best and
Lipps hfisgiven a very

etc., in his book,

of their games,

account

you

high,dry mesa
might
(average)more

and sports, but they are

great variety of games
Mr.
in America.
strongest long-distancerunners
referred

figure of 25,000
would

Indian

have

not

only largebody

customs,

them,

to

mately
approxiCompany,

leaving 11,113,033

conservative

four-fifths is

made

often

statement

the

of which

acres,

Pacific Railroad

Fe

belonging

acres

But

11,887,793

the State of Arizona,

to

take

Each

who

depart

to

men

the Santa

to

misleading.

or

for white

embraces

reservation

approximately 55,400 acres

Consequently, if you

acres

'*

medicine

243

trails !

The

and

NAVAHO

to

which

I have

previous page.
They are exceedingly adverse to burying their dead and are quite
Of all the
willingthat white people should perform this service for them.
remaining Indian tribes,they furnish the best field for investigationat
the

on

present time.

Much

require additional
their

has

researches

concerning them, but

complete

to

it will

satisfactory
study

of

"descends

his

ethnology.
On

the death

of the head

brothers, sisters,uncles and

which

custom

written

been

in order

happen

not

children

possessedof

made

are

to

In past years

Polygamy

be

Juan, (Utah), long

the Navaho

probably

well-to-do had

white

believed
one

in

to

children,

own

right she and

her

want.*'*
men

possessedtwo

settlers

from

came

or

settled north

expected,for the Mormons

than

more

property in her

some

and
suffer penury
of the older

before

of his wife and

in its eflFects,
since if the wife should

number

to

was

to the exclusion

harmful

is often very

to be

family,his property

of the

aunts

polygamy long

ago,

wife, and the increase in

three wives.
of the San

the East.

Although
only those who were
polygamous marriages

by the Mormons.
wipe out this practiceand no more
steps
Men
than one
wife have
plural marriages are permitted.
having more
been encouraged to give up their plural wives, and this has been done in
some
mainly where there are no children by the marriage.
cases,
was

undoubtedly
The

"A

Little

due

Government

to

the

example

has taken

History of the Navahos."

Oscar

set

to

H.

Lipps, jMige

49.

E
H
o

"

"

THE

NAVAHO

245

The

Navaho
are
invariablykind and considerate to each other, and
The children
Indians.
most
family life is of higherplane than among
seldom
for
the
that
do
merit
not
punished,
good reason
ment.
punishthey

their
are

In the

The
will

love and

chief taboo

Navaho

the

person,

hatred

of very

case

children do not

eat

of the Navaho

fish.

the

finny tribe.

completely as might be expected.

is the fish.
that

of

body

An

Indian

He

was

that the

observed

it is sometimes
as

believes

He

spiritenters

of the

old persons,

protect them

Under

upK"n

circumstances

no

the death

of

very

horror

his utter

fish,hence

evil
and

student entered PhillipsAcademy,

employed in the dining hall and thus
earned his tuition. He informed
that his most
me
disagreeableduty, and
that which he loathed, was
the preparation of fish for the weekly Friday

Andover,

some

ago.

years

dinner.
When
us

in

we

in camp
at meal

were

at

Chaco

in 1897, the Navaho

canon

to

came

thing
Somerapidlydiminished.
be done.
The cook found that one
of the packing boxes had
must
largeblue codfish stamped on the side. He placed this box out in plain

view
to

largemmabers

and

their

the Indians
own

who

time.

had

larder

Our

assembled

to

eat

with

supper

withdrew

us

camps.

againstthe Mexicans and the frontier

led by the famous
scout,
of
Indians.
number
Kit
a
large
All of the Navaho
taken East
that could be captured were
to the Rio
Pecos.
Here they were
kept until 1867 under militaryguard, when they
restored to their country and given a large flock of sheep. In 1869
were
to
the Government
and
all these Indians
assembled
having diflSculty
The

Navaho

had

carried

on

raids

of Texas

for many
In 1863 a party of men
years.
Karson, invaded their territoryand killed

them

enumerate

stratagem.
as

people were

they entered.

were

fewer

some

habits, resorted

of their nomadic

because

The

crowded

The

Handbook

than

9,000.

in

an

enormous

of American
I cannot

Indians

believe

to

corral, and
that

states

novel

counted
there

that

this estimate

was

accurate, for it would be impossiblefor troops to round up all the Navaho.

fled north of the San Juan, or west
to the Colorado, on
Doubtless, many
of the troops.

the appearance

They
songs

continue
years

of

are

very

and

prayers.

for nine

study

highly religious
people and
The

Handbook

states

possess

that

some

thousands

of

cant
signifi-

of the ceremonies

to spend
for the shamans
nights,and that it is necessary
the
familiar
with
to become
complicated
i"erfectly

in order

ritual.
The

Indians

public lands.

To

crowded

before

were

much

meet

this need. Commissioner

permitted to settle upon

Leupp in 1908 extended

246

THE

AMERICAN

the reservation.

Father

Weber

The

white

cattlemen

INDIAN
all the details in his excellent phlet.
pamdignation
intheir friends set up a great uproar,

covers

and

held, and Congress was

importuned to prevent
meetings were
In fact, all sorts of pressure
the Indians from livingon the public domain.
although it
brought to bear to reduce the size of the reservation
was
for
and
None
of the Mexicans
Americans,
manifestly too small.
was
and politicians
of the southwest
the business men
whom
concerned,
were
so
were
livingon the tracts they sought to control. On the contrary they
"

RED

GOAT

AND

HIS

MOTHER,

Photograph by E.

lived in towns

R.

NAVAHO,

1902

Forrest

settlements removed
from the Indian country, and simply
or
these tracts
in charge of herders and
ranged their sheep and cattle over
The
the
whom
this hue and cry was
Indians,
cowboys.
Navaho, against
had
their
homes
the tracts, and were
raised,actually
dependent upon
upon
them
for their living. Many
lived in the same
of them
place for two or
three generations. During all the disputes,
shot, and no violence
was
no
one
occurred.
Yet all that was
mislead
done
to
Congress, as the
possiblewas
followingspeech attests.
"I want
to say
to the Senator
(Bristow) that possibly he does not
understand
the conditions as they exist in our
country. Possiblyhe is not

THE

NAVAHO

247

of the fact that every year, two or three times

their immensely rich reserves
from
to go

aware

white

American

these Indians

year,

allowed

are

with

interfere

to

public domain, causing the killing

men,
of anywhere from one
to a dozen
people. This is an unfortunate condition
of aflFairs. I can
the
Senator
that we
to
people down in our section of
say
the country can
deal with these conditions
if we
are
compelled to; but
this sometimes
of his property
becomes
has
a
question of all a man
rights,of protectionto his family and his children. Any white man,
any
American
in protectinghis
citizen,will then use such force as is necessary
family. All that we seek to do is to restrict the further location of these
Indians upon
the public domain
until Congress can
act again. The
mittee
comis being appointed, and I presume
will be investigated.
this matter
It has been investigatedbefore, and repK"rts made, and no
action taken.
the

citizens,on

"

But

this must

that

it will

it must

cease;

Weber's

comment

killed

was

of any
dozen
a

account

on

of from

to

one

is it that

no

of not

of

account

been

among

singleinstance

one

reservation,

leaving the

Navahos

the

where

disputes. If every year the killing

how
leaving their reserve,
by Navaho

land

grazing or

is occasioned

knows

one

on

page

2320).

"

"I regret that a Senator made

for sixteen years,
and I know
man

Kansas

from

Senator

17, 1913,

it is very apropos:
this statement.
I have

on

Navaho

or

June

"

Father

white

I tell the

stop; and

Record,
stop." {Congressional

anything

about

it.^"*

In past years I have traveled a good deal over

reservation.
the Navaho
J.
of my
Weston
friends,
Allen, Esq., of Boston, on behalf
Recently one
of the Boston
Indian CitizenshipCommittee,
of which he is vice-chairman,
made

ditions
investigationthrough the Navaho
country, and the conthem were
incorporatedin an able report to the Secretary
of the Interior.
Major John T. Shelton, the Superintendent at Shiprock,
details
who
has long lived with these Indians, while diflFering
in some

he found

as

from

the views

much

have
to

be

leads
must

in the main

issue that

them

All he

with his

the Navaho

among

needs

me

and

Honorable

the

since 1890,
ask

no

W.

writes

me

favors, and

should

be

not

charity,suggestion,

not

"

W.

Abbott,

F. H.

Navaho

is protection

industry.Doctor

steadilyprogressed, that they

permitted to continue on their

has

Wallace, who

the Indians

that
all

they

desire is

successful way.
observation
My own
should not be reduced; allotments
to believe that the reservation

not

values; more
*

Johnson

interference

trader

SniflFen,Rev.

superintended.
nor

been

of Mr.

with

yet agrees
too

of

tour

**The Navaho

be

made

in

schools
Indians.

any

should

A Statement

event

until irrigationhas

be established,and
of Facts."

Rev.

Anselm

above

disclosed
all dams

Weber, O. F. M.,

page

the

land

should
5.

be

AMERICAN

THE

248

erected

INDIAN

be
acres
during the spring floods so that more
may
in
for irrigation
brought under cultivation. There are vast possibilities
the Navaho
The last investigation
country, as Mr. Abbott has pointed out.
of our
Board
(Ketcham and Eliot) was
by two members
important, and
I present two of the seven
recommendations
they stronglyurged.
''Allotment
We
are
thoroughly convinced that the time has not yet
come

to

store

water

for the allotment

of the Indians

on

the reservation.

of civilization

he

The

Navaho

safelytravel.

is
He

as fast as
can
proceedingalong the way
He is steadilyimproving his dwelling,
is independent and self-supporting.
his stock and his method
of farming. He is learningEnglish,sending his
children to school, and increasinglyfollowing the advice of the white
dustrial
water
physicians. He is developing his own
forming good inresources,
life.
habits and gradually adopting white standards
of domestic
the Indians divide their common
resources
Following their own
customs,
with remarkable
fairness and live peaceably with one
another
and with
the Whites.
into an understanding
They must be permitted slowlyto come
of our customs
of privateland ownership and inheritance.
There is nothing
to be gained by hurrying that process.
Allotment
the reservation should
on
not be thought of for a good many
to
come.
years
"We
are
impressed with the exceptionalopportunity of the Navaho

reservation

for the

work

of field matrons

and

recommend

that

an

tional
addi-

should
work
in close
provided for. The field matrons
with
teachers
and
cooperation
superintendents,
physicians.
"In generalwe
believe that the condition of the Navaho
is promising.
The
people are virile,industrious and independent. With the exercise
of ordinary good judgment, patience and tact, there need never
be any
serious problem in connection
with their development."
Doctor
Joseph K. Dixon, representingthe Wanamaker
Expedition,
visited the "painted desert".
He took some
remarkable
motion
pictures
of Navaho
herders driving thousands
of sheep down
to the waterholes.
As I observed
life
these pictures,portraying the peaceful,industrious
of these red nomads
and
all
of the desert, I wished
that
men
fondly
unable to observe Indian life as it is in the Southwest, might see
women
them.
these sturdy
interesting days spent among
They recalled many
folk.
The
natives living as do the Navaho,
object lesson
present an
to all "reformers", and
will heed
it is to be devoutly hoped that we
the lesson and "let well enough alone."
will destroy
To do otherwise
the initiative of a self-supporting
and
upright people, and deprive the
world of a primitivestock of exceptionalphysical stamina
and mental
ability.
force

be

THE

250

to

July

1st.

AMERICAN

It therefore

INDIAN
in
possibilities

aflFords great

the

way

of water

and

timber

storage.
He
on

the

recommends

detailed

reservation, and

introduction
While
is much

the

study of the
improvement of

tuberculosis

is found

prevalent,and

more

and

The

women.

in about

NAVAHO

is

hospitalat

Association,

is maintained
with

Navaho

sheep, by

the

by

an

the

of the

10%

Navaho,

trachoma

story of afflicted Indian

hospitalfacilities are totallyinadequate.

he records

WINTER

Photographed by

There

the

tracts

of better stock.

children, men

Indian

eoalbeds

the usual

HOGAN

E. R. Forrest

1902

Wells, Arizona, maintained

by the National
Fort
Defiance, while another
Episcopalhospitalnear
Indian

Presbyterians at
is at the

Ganado.

Government

The

only large hospital

at Fort Defiance.
adequate equipment
Doctor
the confidence of
Wigglesworth, physician in charge, who has won
these Indians by long years of constant
labor among
them, does all in his
the field is entirelytoo extensive to be
to alleviate distress, but
power
Mrs.
covered
in charge
Mary L. Eldridge,for many
by one man.
years
of a mission near
the Indians.
Farmington, N.-M., does medical work among
is a small Government
There
at
Shiprock.
hospital

school

THENAVAHO
The

medicine

men

251

the

cause

officials and

Government

Mr.
Allen
a great deal of trouble.
their
activities.
reports explaining

presents

Indians

missionaries
in his

of incidents

number

will not

take

Many
instance
than one
hospitalsthrough fear of the shamans, and in more
sick Indian has been removed
a
by his friends from the mission hospital
during the night, and carried off to the villagewhere he might be treated
by the shaman.
treatment

in the

INDIAN

MQDERN

HOUSE,

This type is inferior in construction

facilities are

Educational
school

age.

In

the children.
sent

are

Allen

When

home

of the

many

that

suggests

tuberculosis,be appointed
one

be

near

women,

since

inadequate

the school
more

of the

center

selected

manyj of

from

these

to

to

pre-statehooddays

has

the school

physicians,qualifiedto
to

service

among

square,

the
with

children

Mr.

trachoma

and

treat

and

do

not

take

kindly

that

to

treatment

each

located

field sanitarium

territory. He also suggests that young

the larger boarding schools, be trained

Indians

they

attendance.

Navaho,
a

of

afflicted numbers

medical

die without

of

for half the children

care

develops among

fiftymiles
assigneda territory

the

built in

the houses

schools, trachoma

tuberculosis

from

to

OKLAHOMA

SYLVIAN,

Navaho
as

nurses,

by white

THE

252

and

persons,

AMERICAN

it is diflScult to

INDIAN

competent

secure

who

nurses

willingto

are

desert.
long in the small frontier hospitalsof the Navaho
Shiprock, Superintendent Shelton has developed a large school
with extensive farms and industrial buildings. The settlement at Shiprock
of the show placesin the Indian Service.
is justlyconsidered one
Here the

remain

At

desert

is made

children
He

blossom

to

in his school

and

is thus able to make

those

who

homes

Mr.

rose.

his scholars

keeps
showing

better

receive the children

after four

the

as

five years

Shelton
until

in his farms

they

reach

adult

age.

gardens than

and

earlier age, and return

them
of training. Mr. Shelton's work at
at

small

few

admits

to

an

do

their

Shiprock
else,and his recognizedabilityused
one
by some
field to develop another section of the reservation further west.
in a new
of
to raise the standard
By creatinganother Shiprock, he could do more
of livingamong
his people.
Superintendent Parquette at Fort Defiance is extending education
work throughout his reservation, and reaches a largerpercentage of children
of school age than are being reached elsewhere in the Navaho
country.
In concludinghis report, Mr. Allen pointsout the failure of the returned

could

student

or

be carried

now

to

make

on

good and

the

reasons

for it.

the
problem of the returned student is a serious one
among
back
Navaho.
The boys and girlswho have been for years in school come
to their people without
a
trainingfor taking care of the flocks, and are
outdone
home.
at
more
by those who remain
They are for this reason
less
looked
inclination
down
with the result that they have no
or
upon,
the habits of study and cleanliness which they have acquired
to continue
which
The
eflFortof the
at school and
not
are
appreciatedin the home.
old men
of the tribe is to keep the children who
from school from
return
of the family.
seeking any higher place than is enjoyed by other members
"The

If the young
education
an
in

men

and

and
who

the young
women
have acquired an

school, intermarried, the benefits

permanent,

but

many

of the

girlsupon

of the tribe, who

appreciationof

what

of their education
their return

have

from

received

they

learned

be

would
school

are

of the

more

given

boys
at best,
or
only to find that they are requiredto marry old women,
the uneducated
*camp girls'as they are called
girlsof the hogan. The
inevitable result is that they go back to the old life."

in

marriage by their parents

old

to

return

"

men

of the tribe, and

many

CHAPTER
The

Indians

small

and

XXV.
of the

Columbia

River

Shoshonean

with

stocks

described
have

live

to

the

bands

the Northwest
the

more

of 1877,

war

less

The

in many

documents

for

story of

of the

they

went

upon
in

killed, and

military had
In

Whites.

various

Perce

the

beds,

killed all the

the

Indians

the

attacks

and

these

1878,
women

This

was

due

settlers, and
The

the California
located

in

in 1878,
were

and
and

trouble

and

children

Nez

Perces

Indians,

to

"Chief

numerous

people that
soldiers

and

after

end

village of twenty
obtained

friendly Indians,

culminated

white

an

in the

Oregon

were

the

lodges.
very

savory
un-

encroachments
were

famous
and

forth

is set

in his book,

by

Oregon had

Perce

Nez

to

settlers

in

the

was

magnificent retreat
nearly the Canadian

on

came

of

all of the Indians

their resenting the

frontier between
almost

the

Modoc

Indians

gold-hunters flocking
Clark expedition. As

of these

of

outbreak

also

ments
allot-

in their

and

The

in which

harassed

so

Paiute

of travel.

the Bannock

the

to

othef

sawmills

lived

Indians

himself

number

in southeastern

Modocs

Many
on

war,

stock,

warpath.

encounters.

lava

with

Howard
by General
and Capture."

September,

reputation.
the

faith

broken

our

of the

educated,

Government

of the

trappers

and

Shoshonean

the

1870

of these
true

noted

most

and
coast.

narrative,
changed.
philanthropic lines rather than

occurred

wars

Salishan

The

by the Lewis

The

or

Joseph led his Indians

upwards of 1100 miles

Chief

Joseph. His Pursuit

Following the Nez
division

of

engaged.

mountains

border.

familiar

sold,

routes

the

various

individuals, irrigationschemes

many

with

number

in which

the

through

1880

Perces,

and

case

been

have

Indians

and

established

the

result, a

or

Nez

Utes,

in the

As

particularlyis this

made

country

new

about

to

in contact

came

inevitable

were

of the

most

life of the

entire

far from

located

diversified

many

along the Pacific

stocks

children

the

along historical

be

must

Crows,

reservations.

on

volume,

been

ethnologic. True, up
original condition, and

an

the

are

of other

remnants

in this

established, and
therefore,

today of

are

granted
projected or carried into eflFect,timber

either

to

which

among

NORTHWEST

THE

Yakimas,
Cheyennes, Blackfeet, and
bands.
Linguisticallythey are Athapascan,

Practically all of them

tribes

OF

Northwest,

great

chief

bands,
Northern

Paiutes,

INDIANS

killed

of

during

siege of the

California.
and

Here

withstood

impregnable stronghold
missioners,
ComSome
Peace
January to April, 1873.
headed
with the Indians
to treat
sent
by General Camby, were
After hard fighting the strongwere
treacherously murdered.
of troops

an

from

THE

254

hold

tribes (except

numbers

that

Cheyennes
long been

now

as

be

to

on

with

the Sioux

and

have

factor in Indian
at

Two

Lame

other

other

dwindled

so

life. The

the

tribes in

in

northern
have

Deer, Montana,

generationsago

and

Like

hanged.

the Modocs

reservation

fightingpeople.

in evidence

captured

largerbands)

cease

located

known

much

were

they

now

INDIAN

five of the leaders

and

taken

was

Northwest

AMERICAN

Cheyennes
to

attempt

an

prevent the usurpation of their hunting grounds and

part of the Whites,
their reservation
"I

they

am

Department
September 17th, writes me
finding conditions here about

date of

under

busy

very
at White

were

of the

One

and

grazing lands on the

Inspectorsrecentlyvisited

and

am

except that these Indians

Earth

have

not

follows:

as
as

been

bad

as

allotted

losingtheir land, but they are justas poor and are eatingdogs,
skunks.
Conditions
graceful
dishorseflesh, prairie dogs, porcupines and
are
be sure."
but will be properlypresented,you may
and

not

are

Indians,

Crow

The

offshoot

an

numerically the strongest of any

large reservation, abundant
very

of the Siouan

of the mountain

stock, in Montana,

are

tribes.

They possess a
agricultural
Cheyennes, they have been

grazing
in the case
of the
However,
as
possibilities.
the part of the Government
in spiteof all efforts on
backward
to educate
their
reservation
relates
the
them.
The
to
problem on
chiefly
grazing
for
leasinga vast tract of land to white men
privilege.The Indians were
The Whites
the pasturingof cattle and horses at so much
took
per head.
for the Indian
advantage of the Indians' ignorance and it was
necessary
conduct
I
the
Association
to
a thorough investigation. quote from
Rights
Association's report as
present improvement.
"The

Crow

to

lands, timber

former

conditions

Reservation, in Montana,

among

had

and

the

Crows, and

for years

been

the

controlled

of strong political
who
backing, and they
by a
ring of men,
of those Indians, through the
used it for their privategain at the expense
had formerly been employed in a bank
of
connivance
of the Agent, who
boasted

small

the

the leader of this ring was

which

principalstockholder.

For three years

real investigationmade

at
Rights Association sought to have a
the Department, but instead of receivingany encouragement,
blocked at every
turn.
its efforts were
Secretary Garfield had said to us,
but he refused to give us a
and
will
I
them,'
investigate
'bring me facts,

the Indian

that

point by

formal
When

permit

promptly

enable
was

us

to

seat

arrested and ordered

**When
afforded

to

Secretary

our

our

Commissioner

go

on

Valentine

Secretary every

to

the reservation

and

get those facts.

little later,he was

there for that purpose,
a
off the reservation at his earliest convenience.
assumed

courtesy and

however, he promptly
oflBce,
that
facility

were

required to

INDIANS

go

unmolested

OF
the

over

THE

NORTHWEST

reservation; and

when

255

the

result of

month's

siftingwas
brought to his attention, he not only ordered an immediate
but Mr. Sniffen was
investigation,
requestedto be present to represent the
invitation that was,
of course,
Indians
an
accepted.
"On
the basis of the information
gathered by our Secretary, the chief
the
Indian
Office
of
conducted
an
investigationduring October
Supervisor
"

and

1909, and his

November,

contrast

to

their

experiencewith
provocation,their

when, without
ordered

from

the

tent.

of the Crow

treatment

When

Indians

in decided

was

former

two
previous,
Insp"ector
years
was
brutallycursed and
submitted,
Supervisor'sreport was

main

the

witness

it

it
He made
proved to be one of 'confession and avoidance.'
of the conditions were,
plain,certainlyin a number of respects, what some
but he avoided
where
it belonged
the
placing the responsibility
upon
this
that
then Superintendent. It was
clearlyproved
Superintendent
knowingly and wilfullypermitted the violation of a United States statute
officialof
he regarded as his real superior,who was
NOT
an
by the man
the Government,
and that provisions of the grazingpermits had not been
respected. In spiteof this and more, however, the Supervisorrecommended
that the Superintendentbe assured of the confidence of the Indian Office
later
in his integrity,business ability
and moral character.'
A few months
standing
(in 1910),the Superintendent was forced by pressure to resign,notwiththe
confidence of the Indian Office in his integrity,'
etc.
He
succeeded
honest
and
efficient
and
conditions
was
by an
high-grade man,
the reservation have greatlyimproved. It is significant
that the revenue
on
derived from the grazingprivileges
under the new
will amount
management
during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1913, to $160,000, whereas under the
former Superintendent it was
$33,001.27."
in this chapter still possess
All of these tribes mentioned
sufficient

however,

"

for their maintenance,

property
conditions
Indians

are

have

lumbermen,

intolerable

not

become
etc.

and
as

some

of them

elsewhere, and

and are
self-supporting
Columbia
river
the
Along

most

great deal.
of the

The

educated

successful farmers, teachers,

the salmon

industry affords

and the vast extent of orchards

and women,
employment to hundreds of men
and vineyards presents an
opportunity for other hundreds of Indians to
earn
picking fruit and hops, harvestinggrains and hay, picking
money
apples,etc.
One
of the richest reservations in point of natural resources
is that
inhabited by the Yakima
of the same
linguistic
family as the Nez Perces
for many
I have known
L. V.
(Shahaptian). A gentleman whom
years,
the
has
ranch
and
has
lived
McWhorter,
reservation,
a
adjoining
Esq.,

"

gl

AMERICAN

THE

258

right,*the balance, if any,

of such water

payment

paid to

may

of them, if,in the

any

shall be

about

water

120,000

right for the

water

launched.

was

acres,

Indian's

twenty

have

We

no

for

space

McWhorter

Association.

Wapato

estimated

The

Project
for

cost

acres,

will be

of the House
Committee
Stephens,Chairman
Indian
closingparagraphs are characteristically

most

white

Ahtanum

white

to

We

only what

want

want

Rights
it

now

Affairs.

The

"

reservation

our

Indian

on

where

white

have

man

is

right. God

try hard

Attorney General
Interior hold
Reclamation

to

will

all water

own

make

law

court

settle

help ourselves.

not

and

man

the red

man

laws.

House
jointresolution 250' for
rights. This is good, but Secretary

and

try

and

have

done

make

to
us

250.

we

are

Jones

flat. We

bill 6693
want

you

law,
to

so

stop

Then

Attorney General will

bringingsuit in United States

the white
water
our
rights. We want
right. Our words are done.
We
to hear from you.
want
friend, help us.

to

man

be

honest

us

"Your

friends,

"(Signed)

We-yal-lup
"

"(Signed)

Louis
"

The

could

rightand obey the white man's

the resolution

justly. If this is not

"Our

we

the white

wants

do

water

our

this resolution

up

bill and

settle

settle all
to

to

and

friend in Congress introduced

"Our

treat

done

was

help us.

to

you

This

man.

We

live in peace.

Jones

the

to
land, the Secretary of the Interior gives three-fourths of water
have most
land to water, he givesnearly
Now, when red man
man.

all water

We

divide of

River

rob

protectedin part, if not entirely.

themselves
sent
a
long petitionto Hon.

J. H.

"On

to

attempt

"

8th, 1912, the Indians

June

of the

their support
notably the Indian
his
the fruits of
toil ripening,and

saw

that these Indians

appears

some

the

the progress

including storage, is $30.00

full discussion

rallied to

Friends

Yakimas.

and

advance

acre."

per

to

Indian, and

opinionof the Secretaryof the Interior,

will tend to improve the condition and

such payments
Under
this act
of said Indian, but not otherwise/
to

depositedin the

States, to the credit of the individual

treasury of the United

be

INDIAN

Utes

of them

of Utah
do work.

and

Wa-ya-ci-ka

(hisx mark),

Tribal Courts,
ChiefJudge of the Yakima
''Clan Chiefof the Ahtanum.

Mann,

CorrespondingSecretaryof the [Indian]Councils,

Colorado

never

have

been

They requirespecialtreatment.

progressive,
though
A

Government

INDIANS

OF

NORTHWEST

THE

259

conditions
them
in August, 1912, and
wrote
employee remedied
among
giving sensible advice, as follows:
me,
"What
good does it do to send out circulars on sanitary conditions
of these Indians are
in destitute circumstances?
and dairying,when
some
The poor Utes down
at Navaho
Springs need something to eat and wear,
and some
blankets to keep them
warm.
They sleepon sheepskinson the
floors of their tipis. They get but little rations.
pelled
They have been comsell
their
buckskin
and
Navaho
and
and
beadwork,
to
suits,
ponies
and their children.
blankets, to get something to eat for themselves
They
"

have

allotments, do

no

farm

not

INDIAN

"Here

at

soon

every

this reservation

in their lands

of the
as

and

Agent, and

possible. It
possiblemanner.
as

have

E.

Forrest, Washington, Pa.

PACK-TRAIN

Photographed by

defrauded

and

then

was

the

done

Indians'

knew

nothing, in favor of some

the Indian
other things of which

get. Although the checks

are

drawn

scheme

was

through

the

checks

were

Indian
had

no

in his

dollar.

sold
to

their lands

drawn,
for

knowledge
and

have

Indian

of which

which

charged to

rection
di-

away

trader

in

the Indian

horses, wagons
and

been

under

get their money

dishonest

trader

name

Indians

the

that

They

moneys.

MOUNTAINS

found

I have

make

to

way

THE

IN
R.

no

and

he did not
the Indian,

THE

260

credit is

no

One

sample.
of 160
a

was

saddle.
check

Indian

poor

for

drawn

for

pay

the Indian

He

same.

nothing, for

for his land,

Several

be

asked

to

the Indian

States laws

an

are

among
Government

has
are

not

another

account,

of which

bought

never

the transaction.

He

got

or

never

of the little pittancehe got

he has had stolen from
acre,

from

give
should

judgment,
for

each

their

what

opinions on

their letters.
further

the

among

Indians.

and

year,

strengthen its
A large appropriation

good, competent

men

break

the traffic. In my
opinion,it is useless
up
to grow
up and drink himself to death, and if the
with relation to the liquortraffic
too littleenforced

Indians, it is not

violators

extracts

in my

be

employed

educate

United

dollar

suppressing the liquor traffic

should

to

and

Then

of

sum

I submit

Government,

in

should

than

$245, the

So out

correspondents in the Northwest

"The
work

either check.

this horse

had

He

Then

for $165

Trader

books.

Indian

tent.

nothing of

just a

to his credit.

never

Trader's

against this

knows

and

to

be done, and

should

and

the

is

his allotment

Springs,had

the books

same

on

This

in favor of Mr.

saddle, bridle,and

little more

of that

out

of the trader.

on

saddle

of $67

sum

tent

mark

put his thumb

put

was

and

bought

never

in the

drawn

was

the bridle,saddle, or

him

This

credit for this check

No

he knows

the books

lives at Navaho

horse

INDIAN

on

who

sold for $245.

acres

check

to

given

AMERICAN

because

they

violated, but

not

are

sufficient assistance

yet secured

to

see

because
that

the

the law-

punished.

Correspondent,Pendleton, Oregon
"I

have

always

grazing areas on their

grazing-landsand
own
should

to

that

stock

the above

by

be

that

reservation
have

to stock

be made
the Indians

believed

unallotted

continuallyurged

this reservation.

their allotments

propositionsare

the

with

that

use

of

large

reimbursable

tools and

of Indian

priation
appro-

to

me

livestock and
as

that
priations
appro-

am

desirable

glad
sitions
propo-

AflFairs."

Deer, Montana

opinion, the reservation was

opened seventy -five years too
of
few
With
the exception
a
half-breeds,they were
absolutelyunprepared
for the opening of the reservation.
Humanly speaking,they are
In dealing with them, we
annihilation.
to utter
forgot that they

"In

doomed

have

largereimbursable

Correspondent, Lame

soon.

It has also occurred

being activelypushed

the present Commissioner

who

be the direct beneficiaries of their

should

encouraged by

Indians

my

INDIANS

who
or

that,

and

savages,

were

OF

century and

one

it took

NORTHWEST

centuries

261

ancestors
polish our own
than these redmen, at least one
intelligent
century,
would
be
make
these
civilized."
to
half,
people
required

vastly more

were

THE

as

to

Correspondent, St. Ignatius,Montana

ment.
charge,nothing had been done for them by the Governseeds,
etc., and
once
agriculturalimplements, wire,
dividual
organized each band and devoted the first efforts to agricultureon inworked
all
but
this
a
means
tracts,
together as
community. By
raised a good crop the first year, in one
instance going from almost
we
Since that time
starvation to plenty in the short space of four months.
not
a
singleration has been issued, and aside from supervisorywork and
teaching, which is given by myself and employees, all my Indians are
entirelyself-supporting.I am
unqualifiedlyand absolutelyopposed to
all ration and annuity distribution as it has been carried on in our
ment.
departall
I am
Indians
for
and supporting their
insisting
caring
upon
my
old people, and see that it is done.
of helping Indians is to
My method
work
both day and night to inaugurate methods
and give opportunities
"When

I took

issued

I at

enable

to

"I

them

have

work
an

is

Indians, that they have

that is done

as

of

contrastingtheir

it

were,

"I

to

have

strange

apparently no

matter

of

course,

situation from

their material

note

suggestionsas

no

salvation.

own

opportunity to
virginfield. So far

there

However,

their

out

unusual

beginning in

of

reason

to

had

out

I have

characteristic
sense

of

and

do not

to

year

year

remarkably

apparent

gratitude,and
seem

and

ideas, by

own

my

been

all

among

take

cessful.
suc-

thing
every-

faculty
strikinga balance, as
have

to

the

progress.

directed

reforms, except those

to

toward

against as in
others.
Here he has nothing except his labor to tempt the cupidityof the
Whites.
In the past he has been given many
ment
opportunitiesfor improveChurch, and he had the chance to become
through the Mormon
just
well off as the majority of the Mormon
here into
as
immigrants who came
the

Indian

the

desert

himself.

work

almost

entirelywith
the example

himself.

their bare
He

soon

as

the Mormon

its members,
as

with

had

he

is not

hands.

the

So

discriminated

the fault, if fault it is,lies

opportunity to

observe

and

profitby

of the poor Whites

who
started on desert ground under
environment
and made
themselves
homes; in addition to this

same
as

this State

In

sent

farmers, and

them.

This

was

Church

them

gave

done

to

them
with

able, the authorities

was

each

band,

tools and
every

oxen

band

not

as

and
under

called'

the

just
of

some

preaching missionaries,but
instructed
my

them

how

jurisdiction.As

to

use

these

THE

CHALLENGE.

Copyright by L.

V.

NEZ

McWhorter,

who

PERCE

WARRIOR

photographed
permits publication

the

Indian, and

INDIANS
missionaries

OF
without

sent

were

NORTHWEST

THE

any

pay,

and

263

were

families to support, and graduallyreturned

the Indians to carry on their work themselves.

own

their

they had

poor,

the settlements,leaving
The Indians simply killed

to

the oxen
and kept up their nomadic
life to a great extent, simply holding
their water
where
courses
rights have been
campgrounds on the water
over."
protectedby the church until I took all the responsibilities

City, Utah

Correspondent, Salt Lake

immorality of our Indians, in my opinion is largely(probably

the Indians
Had
seventy-fiveper cent) due to the presence of low Whites.
been left alone seventy-fiveyears longer; and had they been allowed to
continue
the time-honored
of punishing crimes with the whip
custom
than
would
be
and
they
surelyseventy-five
today easily
per cent better men
pervious
Here
that
they were
absolutelyimthey are.
again we forgot
savages,
such as honor, and that it takes time and
to reallynoble feelings,
careful trainingto raise them to a higher level. Today, they are incapable
back
of feelingthe shame
of a prison or penitentiary. When
they come
from either,they are treated as heroes.
a
whipping
Twenty-five years ago,
had been
to those who
solemnly, modestly, and moderately administered
guilty of thievery,adultery, fornication,gambling or drunkenness, was
results. Two
producing marvelous
years
ago, a deputation of Kootenay
Father
Indians came
to the Great
to beg me
to write in their nam^
(the
and
ask
him
allow
of
the
the
to
said,
use
President)
whip. They
again
*Tell the Great Father that our
and women
men
only laugh at the
young
is
white punishments; it
the whip and the whip alone that kept us straight,
and the same
the generation.'
punishment alone will correct
"The

"

has
I believe that the Government
the present circumstances
There is only one
and is protectingthem.

"Under
at

heart the welfare of its wards

flaw which
are
are

I desire to

the

entitled

understand;
are

bring to

your

notice.

full-blood Indians, and

to

the

care

of the

The

they,

more

the mercy
those who

to

work

as

than

for many
all of them,

point of fact, mostly

helpless.They are, if in good health, unable

interest,and

the

Government,

in

now,

they should.

In

matters

ment
of the Govern-

real wards

to

mixed-bloods,

reasons,
on

easy

to

this reservation,

understand

of business

of everyone
who chooses to deceive them.
But
in health is very limited. The vast majority are
are

their real

they

are

the number

at

of

old,crippled,
helpless.And those, I am sorry to say, are practically
left unaided.
They need food, raiment, shelter,they should be supported.
As it is,they are
practicallythrown on the charity of the white people.
of
Though possessed lands, they are unable to draw any profitfrom them.
blind

or

otherwise

THE

264

Some

INDIAN

AMERICAN

appropriationis made

yearlyfor those; but

it is insuflBcient to furnish

provided for that

in justicetheir last years
to disappear,and
They are doomed
purpose.
should be made
has been collecting
comfortable.
The Government
large
of
of
from
of
this
the
white
not
sums
settlers;why
some
dispose
money
left
in desfor the impotent full-blood Indians who
titution,
are
liberally
money
instead of spending it in improving the irrigation
of the reservation,
which improvement will never
benefit the full-blood Indians* who are
who have
but
will
the
to
turn
disappearing,
advantage of the mixed-bloods
at all)and who, on
account
very littlerightto the land (some of them none
of their superiorintelligence
got the very best part of the allotments at
the time of the opening of the reservation.
The condition of mostly all the
full-bloods is pitiful.If they have leased their lands, it takes them an age
to receive their money,
the local Agent having no authorityto disburse it,
and the Indian Bureau
that
to me
being very slow in grantingit. It seems
receive
them
should
favor
have
be
Indians
made
in
of
destitute
to
provision
with
of money
to provide themselves
food, and a small sum
monthly some
clothes,also to have them provided with decent houses and with fuel when
but those who live on the spot have
No one
they cannot get it themselves.
idea
of
the
privationswhich this class of full-bloods have to submit to,
any
that this evil could easilybe
to me
through no fault of theirs. It seems
remedied.
of money,
Some
$20,
people s^em to think that a monthly sum
should be paid to each destitute Indian, with which he could easilyprovide
for his needs; but knowing them as I do, I would preferto see them receive
only $10 or even
^5 with rations,for if they get more
they will
money,
it
all
in
the
first
the
month."
of
spend
days
them

with

food, raiment

and

shelter.

Means

should

be

Correspondent, St. Augustins,Montana

Note

A very interesting
book, "Life
the early *80*s. This presents an
Indian point of view.
"

Among
account

the Pai-utes," was

written
of the Nez Perce, Bannock

by Sarah
and

Winnemucca
from
wars

other

in
the

"n

"

^ .5

HEALTH

OF

INDIANS

THE

267

high respect for the personnel of the medical branch of

fault is not theirs, but solelydue to meagre
tions,
appropriaand lack of proper
I simply
from
the
inspectioncorps.
reports
desire to cover
of facts
this unpleasant subject with a blanket statement
that the condition is intolerable, and all of us have been criminallynegUgent. We introduced tuberculosis,trachoma, smallpox, measles, diphtheria
to

I have

state.

the Service.

and

of the other

most

let him

statement,

centuries ago

two

is

The

or

and

twenty

or

on

dollars

to

year

of

Persons
in past

an

G.

Great

have

Commissioner

years.

Valentine, made
He

does

went

him

has

lived to

was

that of

of repentance.
the Pueblo
and
letter in which
how

conditions
Honorable

was

are

continued

by

Sells.
awoke

to

the

health

of

need

protection,

pioneer in the fightagainst disease.

for many
few there

planting,but

I refer to

Charles

California

Indians.

he sets

introduced.

successor.

efforts, which

crying in the wilderness, and

one

three million

or

health

that
his

why

spread of disease

to the

But

be

not

reason

no

have

ourselves

we

corps.

for his humane

the fruits of his

see

appropriatetwo

first noted

Leupp

is

tration.
campaign the chief thing of his adminisincreased
and
for
appropriations.
Congress
plead

in California

gentleman

the

health

the present Service head, Mr.

Before
the Government
a

There

called attention

his medical

before

credit is due

not

the miseries

to

prominence

bad, and increased

were

R.

put

end

doubts

woman

four, there should

or

reservation.

every

rich, powerful Government

our

or

man

of travelers among
Indians
with
that today. There
then,

of three

why instead
doctors

If any

the narratives
the condition

compare

earthly excuse

no

fifteen

diseases.

her read

F.

Lummis,

Mr.

years

He

his voice

who

thought
authority upon
has written me
a
long

Esq.,

Lummis

an

which

forth the diflSculties under

were

he labored, and

of
-because he opposed the scheme
roundly denounced
ing
crowdthem
children
accustomed
East,
to
life,
taking
shipping
open-air
them
into contract
schools
thus making of strong, healthy boys
this
and
not
education, but
girls, consumptives. Lummis
fought
of his experienceswere
interesting.
pernicious and wicked policy. Some
He speaks of the former school conditions, and I take it that his strictures
do not apply to the past two or three years.
**It is obvious that to take children from the high, dry climate of New
that

he

was

"

"

Mexico

and

the

steam-heated
the

general Southwest, back to the Eastern winters and to

halls,can have but one effect. That is no theory. I have seen

practicalworkings for

sincere conviction

graduated

more

more

than

that Carlisle and

consumptives and

quarter of

century; and

it is my
have

from home
similar schools away
and
sons
more
daughters forever

alien-

AMERICAN

THE

268

INDIAN

their parents and kin, than they have

people seriouslyuseful in any walk of life.

ated

produced of scholars

from

other

"I

do know

in most

New

that

ago

in New

Mexico.

Pueblo

Indians

that I have

have

Mexico

consumption

thirtyyears

of the Pueblos
ever

almost

was

know

Carlisle;and

that

unknown

the

first

of the

that most

sumptive
consumptive
con-

in my
thirtyyears acquaintance with
thus infected from these Eastern Government
known

back

come

from

was

saw

I do

or

Schools".
**At

meeting of the National

in

July, 1899, I had

An Indian convention

Educational

serious clash with

held in

was

in this

Association

distinguished Indian

city

educator.

conjunction with the N. E. A.

was

busy; but seeingthe dailyreports finallybecame so incensed at the inhuman

and stupid proceedings,that on
Convention
the last day I went
to the
and took the floor almost by force,after listening
of the afternoon's
to most
proceedings.
This man
had with him two very charming and well-schooled Indians
who
called up
and
a
a
man
were
by him
woman,
young
young
of
Carlisle
to answer
And
strictures
the
methods.
to
some
as
they
my
made
The audience
eloquent and loyal defences.
(being as unobservant
much
American
audiences generallyare) were
as
surprisedwhen in
very
I
called
fact
students that
attention
the
that
model
to
the
two
reply
my
Mr. Educator
with
him
both
and
I asked him
were
brought
consumptives,
point blank if they were
consumptive when they entered Carlisle.
**0f course
I got no
and I was
answer
lucky in gettingout of the
"

"

"

hall

alive."

Angeles, Sept. 14th, 1914.

Ales Hrdlicka, in the year 1908, acting for the Indian OflSce
Doctor
the Smithsonian
Institution, investigated health conditions with
Los

and

reference to tuberculosis
On

page

"The

7 of the

five selected tribes of the United

among

report Doctor

states

this report is based were

pursued in
afficted
in the above-mentioned
data to be most

tribes

of the

one

in question are
Oglala Sioux in South

Dakota;

the

name

river of the

same

the

Menominee

California;and

the

in

in northeastern

on

river between

the Colorado

Ariz.

These

them

of tuberculosis,but

tribes

Wisconsin; the

the seacoast

on

northwestern

the Mohave,

The

and along
Washington; the Hupa in

Quinaielt

of the prevalence

among

schools.

large non-reservation

Needles, Cal., and Yuma,

under

which

on
investigations

five of the tribes,shown

with tuberculosis, and in

northwestern

Hrdlicka

States.

"

were

selected not

only because
they live

also because

conditions of climate, environment,

widely differing

civilization,and

HEALTH
with

contact

OF

the Whites.

THE

INDIANS

school visited is the

The

269

one

at

The

Phoenix, Arizona.

carried on
during the two months
investigationwas
when
free from
the various
people everywhere are most
aflFections
that
a
might complicate diagnosis.
pulmonary
"On
to

be

and

the

covered,

toward

of the

account

study

had

time
to

be

available, and
limited

the

what

to

was

bronchial

extensive
most

and

ground
essential

obtaining reliable statistics. In the smaller tribes, as the Hupa

visited,and all the members
nearly all the dwellingswere
In the largertribes,
far distant were
tribe who
studied.
not
were

the Mohave,

of the

AGED

as

short

of midsummer

the

WOMAN

Menominee

hundred

families.

the

and

Among

only full-bloods,who

NEARLY

BLIND

examinations

Oglala, the

the Oglala, these

in this tribe suffer

TRACHOMA

FROM

from

more

were

hundred

one

limited

to

one

families included

tuberculosis

than

do the

half-breeds.
consisted in visiting the dwellings consecutively
actual work
of each member
of every
family,
making a personal examination
families absent members
were
brought
healthy or not healthy. In many
This
from many
miles away
by the Indians themselves for examination.
"The

and

examination
and

was

embraced

the lungs, heart, glands of the neck, and

supplemented by inquiries.

skeleton,

THE

270

AMERICAN

INDIAN

"The

selves,
investigationwas
everywhere promoted by the Indians themwelcomed
an
inquiry into the disease which is deciminating
them, the gravity of which they well appreciate,but against which they
*
*
feel utterlyhelpless." *
found
the Oglala Sioux, of Pine Ridge reservation, numbering
He
in a
of individuals
6,663, very
susceptibleto tuberculosis;the number
thousand
affected with pulmonary tuberculosis
being 30.8, bones and
of persons
joints6.8, and glandular 57.7. The highest number
suffering
from this disease was
found among
the Hupa Indians of California, where the
number
of individuals per thousand
to 60.4, pulmonary tuberculosis.
arose
"In
in the transition period,
the Oglala are
regard to civilization,
which
generallymeans
partialdegeneration. They live in small or fairsized log houses of one
small windows
each provided with one
or two
room,
that are
never
opened. The houses have earthen floors and sod roofs.
In summer
almost every
from poles and boughs, or from
family constructs
less open
shelter in which, while it is warm,
or
pine trees, a more
young
of their time.
they spend most
Usually, each family has also a light,
easilyportable tent, which represents the ancient tipi. These tents are
erected near
the house and are
relative or
occupied by the aged, by some
visitor of the family,or serve
the family leaves home,
to sleep in. When
such a tent is packed, together with bedding, kitchen utensils,etc., into
the wagon,
and is pitched whenever
for the night. Indeed,
a stop is made
there will be at times one
or
more
villagesof these tents near the agency,
about a house where some
or
particularfeast is being given. In summer
these tents are
cool
oppressivelyhot during the day, though they become
if the sides are
raised.
As they are
made
of very
lightfabric, they are
cold at night,and afford but poor protectionduring a severe
rain or hail
*
*
storm, as the writer personallyexperienced. *
"As to clothing,
the Oglala now
dress like the Whites in most
respects,
The women
though the majority still persistin wearing moccasins.
wear
A tendency
leggingsand always a blanket or shawl when going about.
to wear
much
too
the hottest day, was
clothing,even
on
again noticed
and is very prevalent. This is due partly to ignorance and partlyto vanity.
The garments
are
usually far from clean. The writer learned of several
instances in which
the clothingof tuberculous
was
given or sold
persons
who

to

others.
"In

diet the Sioux

are
chieflymeat eaters, the principalkind of meat
They cook this fresh,or cut it into stripsand dry
it on
cords stretched outside their dwellings. Other
articles of
common
diet are badly made
wheat bread and largequantities
of coffee. W^hen they

consumed

being

beef.

HEALTH

OF

INDIANS

THE

271

have

foods.
they purchase crackers and canned
They
money
both as to time and quantity. During feasts and when
irregularly,
the same
wooden
are
present, they not infrequentlyuse
spoon
after another,

utensil, one
other remnants

being

"In

of the

many

cases

were

black

coffee.

been

consumed,

where

seen

both

flesh and

well nourished.

except

cattle which

Yet

indolence

had

few

died

lack in both
*

Numerous

crackers

and

of disease

had

viscera.
eat

not

occasions, all the nourishment

rare

on

induces

and

According to the resident physician.

horses and
only cattle but even
The people are
not
emaciated; in fact, many
there is no
that many
do not
doubt
receive,

dogs that die of disease.

look

that the denizens

seen

of their poverty.
meal
consisted of a

instances

other

or

dish, the bones

same

account

Walker, the Oglala

Doctor

was

whole

the

several

In

the

very

visitors

the floor.

over

dwellingsit
on

from

eat

freelystrewn

qualityof food

quantity and

and

eat

and

disease.

It would

less
they require. This doubtalso strongly promote
the

taining
spread of alcoholism, but fortunatelythere are very few chances for obthe reservation.
liquoron or near
have any
"Few
of the Oglala men
steady occupation. They do very
little farming.
During the summer
hay in the valleys,
they cut some
which
brings fair prices. Cattle and horses are being distributed by the
Government

to

the diflFerentfamilies,and
*

with

stock-raisingis being encouraged

success.

some

people of this tribe

quite shrewd, tractable, and glad to be

instructed, though the instruction given does not always have practical
results. Their most
the above-mentioned
ency
tendare
strikingpeculiarities
life and the disinclination to steady manual
work.
to a seminomadic
They are very ignorant of all matters
regarding hygiene. One of the
them
is the so-called 'passing of the
most
reprehensiblecustoms
among
number
Whenever
of
have
-a
men
gathered in a house, there is
pipe.'
from
mouth
mouth
to
a
passed
lightedpipe, the mouthpiece of which is
"The

cleaned.

never

As

there is often in such

the habit

stages of consumption,
mode

of infection with
This

of

are

be

must

most

other

bands

expert
and

an

regarded

and

competent

if we
*

Bureau

would

save

of American

in the earlier

providing a direct

as

tribes of Indians

by Doctor

employment

of

Hrdlicka, who
well be

scientists, might
in the

transition

suggested elsewhere, it emphasizes the immediate

the

individual

the disease."*

descriptionof the Oglala Sioux

our

group

numerous

period.
need

physicians and

1909.

Pages

one

has

to

been

larger appropriations,
sanitary officials,

the full-blood Indians.

Ethnology, Bulletin 42, Washington,

As

is

applied

11-14.

of

TUBERCULOSIS

PATIENT.

BEDDING

COVERED

WITH

FLIES

AMERICAN

THE

274

INDIAN

shiveringwith the cold. Cooking, smoking, living,in such a small room

would
be justlycalled
colds, and consumption. This may
naturallycause
the IndiarCs Disease^ as it is the most
sickness of which they die;
common
they generallydie of consumption, brought on by their total disregardof
the laws of health.
Sugar-making early in spring, when they used to
and cold water,
gather the maple-sap in the woods, walking in the wet snow
shod

soft moccasins, made

with

stockings;then

common

laid for many,

cranberries in swamps,

of deerskin, and

the seeds

doubt

whole

the

went

of future

much

not

with

better

feet

day
consumption.

wet

than

this

"

Then,

wading in the water for hours and hours, was

also very
Bread, tea,
highly unhealthy. Their cooking was
poor.
the
bread
their
hard
food,
and
made,
principal
badly
pork
heavy.
natural

Indian's
natural

the Indian
is

fast

too

is the woods,

home

is the

home

clearing,in

like that of the deer; the white

it effeminates

"

and

the Indian

naturallyindustrious,

Civilization

country.

open

weakens
is

man

him.

The

lazy;that's

is

also
and
The

man's

coming

Indian

about

no

gathering

on

woman

the way

to

put it.
in California

Franciscans

"The
best and

they

practicalway:
people."
most

the

solved

the

first made

Indian

Christians

in the

problem
then

and

"

ized
civil-

Correspondent,Bayfield,Wis.
by wretched

"Surrounded

these

Although

Indians.
here
to

occurs

as

among

home

conditions

tuberculosis

or

is that

"During
families
cases

were

other

and, in

to

surprisingthat the
is large among

diseases

be considered

reservation
be

lent
preva-

prevalent in

more

to be

such

are

in

as

tribes,it nevertheless

sections, seems

of many
of these Indians
infectious disease occurs

some

the increase.

on

that, if

of

case

household, the probability

the disease will, in time, go through the entire family.

the Cherokee
drive among
full-bloods,probably forty
my
of which

visited, many

of tuberculosis.

In the

quah, there occurred three

tj^etime of my visit. Two

of

some

not

other

hardly

can

other

It appears

extent.

in others,

and

tuberculosis
of the

some

alarming

an

localities than
The

conditions, it is

of tuberculosis, trachoma,

incidence

either have,

or

have

vicinityof Barber, twenty

deaths
of the

of the

from
cases,

tuberculosis
one

not,
miles

within
in the

baby
by me.

one

or

from
three

arms

more

Taleweeks

and

the

the head
The latter case
seen
a
family,were
woman,
The sick woman,
particularly
patheticand deserves specialmention.
of the house, which, though
dying of tuberculosis, was found in the one room
and
small, illyventilated,
poorly lighted,was
occupied by nine other

other
was

HEALTH

OF

infectious

death

of the

patient, which
lost three

visited, had

occurred

members

two

from

later.

weeks

tuberculosis

until the

continued

disease, this condition

of the

nature

275

Being wholly ignorantof the dangerous

people,includingsix small children.

and

INDIANS

THE

Another

within

the

family
past few

years.

"When

the
it

the

housing conditions
remarkable

seems

people even

that

taken

are

into

sideration,
con-

spread among
be partially
This can
explained,
widely scattered, the houses,

tuberculosis

rapidlythan it does.

more

here

encountered

does

not

however, by the fact that they are sometimes

in^many instances, being several miles apart.

NATIONAL

"In

another

arms,

and

the contaminated

ASSOCIATION

WELLS,

family near

fifteen years of age was

about
of a shawl, worn
in her

INDIAN
INDIAN

seen

shawl

seem

AT

the little villageof Eucha,

to

wipe

her mother's

it would

HOSPITAL

ARIZONA

that

her trachomatous

head.
a

The

mother

girlfourteen
with

eyes

held

failure to infect the

young

baby's eyes

short of marvelous.

or

the end

baby
with

would be nothing
influences that surround
these people are
far from
civilizing
good. The class of people that are frequently found as neighbors are a
shiftless,undesirable class. These Whites live amidst unsanitary,meagre
surroundings. It is due to this class of citizens that the use of cocaine
has of recent
alarming proportions. This habit has become
years assumed
"The

quite

common

*'The

that

use

directlyto this cause.

doubt, a positivedetriment

the

directlyto

bootleggersfrom
"Trachoma
Seminoles

to

the

Arkansas
that

the Indians

among

liquor,given

the

to

to

can

by unscrupulous

them

the border.

across

to

appears

than

observed.

of

use

districts close

committed

been

of

I heard

sections, and

some

liquoris, no

have

crimes

Many

be attributed

are

attributed

were

of alcoholic

in

Indians, particularlyin those

Choctaw
border.

and

full-bloods

the

among

several deaths

INDIAN

AMERICAN

THE

276

be

is,no

INDIAN

doubt,

universal

the

among

Creeks

farther south, and many

cases
to the usefulness
positivemenace

seven

NORTH

CABIN,

Six of the

more

the Indians

it is among

Trachoma

even

inmates

DAKOTA
had trachoma

of these people,and should be met

well-beingof many
by a vigorous
control.
for
its
campaign
native medicine
"The
to play a more
man
important part
appears

and

the

among

Five
white

in

and

men,

stores.

country
a

"After
blood

Seminoles

and

Tribes.

The

physicianfor treatment,

medicine

seen

Creeks

Civilized

number
a

Indians

the

than

full-blood
but

the

among

Indians

depend almost

other

seldom

Indians

call

on

entirelyupon

their

of patent remedies, purchased at the

Several bottles of a patent consumption
"cure**
of homes
visited.

careful

use

survey

of the Five

of the

conditions

Civilized Tribes, it

seems

of the

the

local
own

local
were

the fullexistingamong
highly important that

HEALTH
there

should

be

Tuberculosis
batted

that

true

both

appear

of them

Many

the result that the

late to

too

be

"Too

Indians

of these

many

whatever.

provided.
important diseases to be comthese people to an alarming
generallyprevailamong
the increase. It is unquestionably
to be steadily
on

physician is

place

to

the

emphasis

considerable

there is

poor

aid

medical

any

physicians,with
all,or only when it is

white

employ

either not

be

cannot

There

called at

upon
no

individual

the

on

expense

the need for hospital

place available in which
city hospitals. This necessarily

placed

is,at present,
in local

sick except

needy

die without

and
to

avail.

of any

much

treatment

most

sicken

too

are

facilitiesfor these Indians.

entails

the two

trachoma,

Indians

among

277

of medical

well-organizedsystem

and

extent, and

INDIANS

THE

OF

from

instances,

and, in many

their homes

a strange
prejudiceagainstgoing away
Service
the
The
several
sanitariums
are
usually
hospital.
throughout
already filled beyond their capacity,and it is seldom possibleto secure
a

their admission
"In

the institutions.

to

of the

view

to enter

existingin

extremely unsanitary conditions

of

many

throughout the Five Civilized Tribes, it would

the full-blood homes

appear

largefield for usefulness. The people

in contact
with whom
she comes
are
They
easy of approach and tractable.
also readilysusceptibleto teaching, and would, no
doubt, welcome
are
the assistance that the field matron
would be able to give."
would

that field matrons

here find

Okla.

Muskogee,
CorrespK)ndent,
iJ'iveCivilized

Tribes.

Conditions

Health

Tuberculosis,

Indians.

Among

Saving

Indians

Commissioners

of the

Reports

from.

Frank

"

of Indian

B. Meritt.

Edgar

"

H.

The

Wright.

Affairs, 1893-1905.

Red

P. 347.

Man.

May,

Twenty-fifth

Annual

Report

June, 1912.

P. 439.

1914.

Lake

Conference

Mohonk

P. 38.

1907.

Sanitary

Homes

Sanitorium

for Indians.

Schools:

356, 362. 368. 385, The

Indian

Medical

1909.
"White

The

Trachoma

Indian

20. 1913.

Edgar

Lapwai,
Man.

East

May,

Service, Organizing

The

B. Meritt.

Red

Laquna

Farm,

Man.

(Tuberculosis

Sanitorium).

Articles

From

Toledo.

pp.

1914.
the.

J. A.

"

Murphy.

Twenty-seventh

Annual

Report

Lake

Mohonk

ference,
Con-

P. 23.

Plague"

Tuberculosis

Fort
Red

"

of Red

Man."

Problem."

Problem,

Tuberculosis

W.

George P. Doiuhoo,
H.

Important

Sanitarium

M.D.

Harrison,
Phases

and

of.

Yakima

"

Dr.

Indian

D.D.
The

Red

The
Red

Man.

May,

F. Shoemaker,

Reservation.

Man.

The

"

Red

September,
1914.
Man.

Congressional

1912.

P. 3.

P. 377.

May,

1914.

Record, 63rd

P. 351.

Congress.

Dec.

REV.

SHERMAN

Missionary

COOLIDGE;
at

Fort

Washakie,

ARAPAHO

Wyoming

CHAPTER

XXVII.

INDIAN'S

THE

PHILANTHROPIC
Since
marked
of

1850, the

change.
tribes,who

our

belief.

The

these

that

can

Navaho

has

been

not

speak English

stated

also scattered
less

or

belief in the

been

and

tribes

or

of their

the

of other

of the

part

faith

of their

Indians

degree, their religiousbelief, have

with

contact

greater

in the

continue
bands

undergone

the

originalreligion,for

from

remote

in this book,

has

very

find individuals, among

most
clear conception of the Indian's
religious

much

preserve

hereafter

difficult to

extremely
give us any

have

Indians

CHARACTER;

ORGANIZATIONS

Indian's

It is

HIS

RELIGION;

who

the

As

Navaho

do

28,000

There

fathers.

keep

reason

Whites.

to

up,

in their shamans,

confidence

are

greater
and

compulsion.
only
while this is true, the vast
bulk
of our
Indians
But
have
adopted
today
the God
of our
Bible, and recognize his opposite, the evil spirit. If one
of the reports of competent
takes the pains to read a number
ethnologists
have
studied
the religiousactivities of various
tribes recently, one
who
reflection
is impressed with the complications presented. In fact, it is no
resort

to

these

on

extremely
in

one

the

white

able

and

ministers

and

workers

competent

difficult (ifnot

blanket

tribes, and
American

men's

we

impossible) to
paragraph or statement.

must

go

far back

religion,practiced

of the

in its

doctors

under

observers

and

the

cover

1850

year

purity.

We

vary

would

cannot

different

among

find

we
now

it is

religiousbelief

Indian's

Beliefs

that

state

to

affirm

primitive
that

the

alike.
that the deities and spiritsare
religiouslife of all tribes is the same;
States the tradition of the Thunder
Generally throughout the United
Bird obtains, and it typifiesthe supernatural. In the desert areas,
water
is
is more
therefore
other
than
It
soil,or any
quite
precious
necessity.
natural that the Earth
Mother
and Water
Spiritenter very largely into the
of the older Sioux, even
in recent
times,
religion of that region. Some
believed
in spirits,
or
having heard
ghosts, and any Sioux man
or
woman
the callingof the ghosts at night, prepared himself
(or herself) to join his
in
two
the spirit world.
ancestors
or
Major McLaughlin
presents one
in his book*
instances
where
Indians
have
actually given up, taken to
their beds and died, firm in the belief that the ghosts were
calling.
Doctor
defines
and
"

My

that

Eastman

in his remarkable

indefinite

thing, the

striking manner.
Friend

the

Indian, Pages 80, 242,

245.

book, "The

belief in the

Soul

of

the

supernatural, in

Indian,"
beautiful

AMERICAN

THE

280

The

whole

subject

mythology, shamanism,
variance

the

among

desire to

one

In fact, the

totemism,
and

obtain

subjectis

speaking
We

defer

may

by

to

beUef

to

as

is

so

in the

great
natural,
super-

study extensively
Indian religion.

must

one

comprehends

There

conception of ancient
uncertainties

this volume.

scientific workers

that

we

well omit

may

religion generally
of
period
today.
beliefs among
the conflicting

Pure

exist in the transition

does not

"

clear

tribes

taboo.

stocks
linguistic

beset

consideration of it from

the

and

incantations, that

any

so

Indian

religionamong

different

rites
religious
did

of

INDIAN

Indian

"

of the present. The labors of the missionaries, both Catholic and

Protestant, have instilled into the minds of the Indians the teachingof our

Indians

than two
turies,
cenScriptures. Missionary labors, having continued for more
in some
(and three centimes
parts of the country) have had their
effect,and as I stated above, the Indian today believes as do ourselves. As I
excellent study of Ojibwa
pointed out in referringto Miss Densmore's
music (page 20) all the investigators
invariablyseek out the older Indians
them
and glean from
such fragments as remain
of the Indians' former
faith.
hear of ethnologiststalking to educated
We
Indians, and
never
their
recording
opinions.
the Navaho,
the taboo
is more
Among
strongly pronounced than,
and the phratry doubtless had
other tribes. The totem
possibly,among
their originin certain religious
beliefs. But these are not observed
today,
to any
and the scattered bands
appreciableextent outside of the Navaho
referred to.
We
must
consider, in studying the Indian of the transition
period,not the exceptions,but that which predominates. This has been
aim.
and taboo
(bordering
Many of the lesser important customs
my
the religious
As an illustration,
side of the Indians' nature) obtain.
upon
the taboo against the mother-in-law
is stillin effect in many
places. Also,
certain rites are performed when a death occurs.
Such are clearlysurvivals
of more
primitivebeliefs.
that
In a general review of the Indians' religion
be admitted
it must
while
and

our

these

missionaries
are

today

if the bulk

and

teachers

faithful members

have

converted

of churches

and

thousands

of Indians

ful
missions, it is doubt-

of our
330,000 red brothers has been improved spiritually
of
with the white people. I have presented sufficient number
by contact
instances
in
this
book
where
that
meet
to
specific
one
missionary,
they
prove
in contact
with a dozen white persons ranking
priestor teacher, they come
and morally far below American
standards.
spiritually
of honor,
he possessed a high sense
Along with the Indian's religion,
of
resident
and
or
responsibility,
integrity. Judge Thomas,
long a

THE

282

Association

is

thirty-five
years
and

West,

of the

one

INDIAN

AMERICAN

strongest of these

It has

ago.

Samaritan

be had

may

was
organized
throughout the

scattered

fifty-twostations

idea of its good work

some

of the Good

bodies, and

hospitalmaintained

the illustration sented

preWells, Arizona.

by

at Indian

{page 275)
The

educational

humanitarian

and

work

the

of the Association

gathering of Indian

helping to right political

wrongs;
schools; stimulatingand preparing capable Indians for
their people; loans of money
to enable
to Indians
among
homes

to

or

business.

on

carry

influential educational
has

Department

Indians

centers
of family life.
civilizing
purchase of implements of labor
and paying industry. By such
Indian in a positionto earn
his

and

self-reliant.

other

It has

Indian

build

to

for stock

or

Indian

large and
Loan

become

have

for the

loans to Indians

begin

to

self-supporting
hospital,and

become

to

women

as

useful

some

seeks to put the

library, temperance,
young

build

to

Building and

needed

livingand

own

into

leadership

them

done

the Association

methods

wise

which

homes

It has also made

maintained

departments; trained

has

through its Home

work, and

enabled

Association

The

been

has

children

and

nurses,

assisted

trainingas physiciansand teachers,

people. The
working to help their own
and has
branch
a
ctive
of
this
is
Cambridge (Mass.)
organization especially
contributed
generously. The work of the missions maintained
by the
Congregationalists,
Episcopalians,Baptists, Methodists, etc., comprehends
the Indians.
education
and charitable work among
general religious
"home

excellent
a

long been

C. Moffett, Chairman

missions

entitled, "The

to obtain

women

have

Thomas

Rev.
of the

and

men

young

of whom

some

American

review

of

of the committee

on

Indian

the

on

missionary labors

statistical character.

The

presents

an

of

Indians, includingmuch

among

is broad, and

review

This

Trail.'*

New

work

Indian

interestingbook

council", has just published an

the entire United

covers

States.
The

maintained

in various

The

well

California

securingof

homes

California
on

The

by

Missions, Washington, has in charge the

the Catholics.

visited

I have

parts of the West, along with the Protestant

of them

most

with

of Catholic

Bureau

missions

equipped

Indian
for

the work

Indian

number

many

of these

missions, and

find

doing splendid work.

and

Association

has

concerned
In

dispossessedIndians.

conditions, the

secretary, Mr.

itself

more

Chapter XXXI,
E. Kelsey,

C.

with

the

dealing
has

mented
com-

of the association.

Rights Association

is the most

organizations. Organized in 1882, its work

famous

has grown

of all the benevolent

and

expanded

until

RELIGION
at

the

present time

United

States.

OflBce, but

AND
its activities

It has

CHARACTER
of the

most

cover

frequentlybeen

in

283

sharp

reservations

conflict with

of the

the Indian

the present time the relations between

Commissioner
this and other organizations,are most

at

and

his able assistants and

and

helpful.

has

done

Sells

friendly
pamphlet, covering the activities of the organization,
the number
of steals of land it has prevented, the reforms instituted, dishonest
employees forced out of the Service and all other recommendations,
hundred
instances and places.
covers
some
or more
K. Sniffen, returned
Its corresponding secretary, Mr. Mathew
from
Alaska in September of this year, after having spent three months
gating
investithe most
deplorablecondition of the Alaska Indians.
The
Indian Industries League of Boston
was
organized in 1901 and
tribes.

The

much
It does

number

to

encourage

not

attempt

and

arts

do

to

of Indians.

In

industries

certain

among

Indian

missionary work, although it has

the League has held
recent
years

cated
edufairs

and

disposed of largequantitiesof blankets, baskets, bead work, etc., thus

old Indian women
in New
Mexico, California,Washington
aiding many
and

elsewhere.

and

I have

and

other

I have

Messiah

been

always

and

craze,

with

this year,
effects of the Messiah

Had

the missionaries

might

have

ceremony

turned
of

minister
In

craze.

high
the

seized upon

it to

and

Indians

good
noble

the

work

suggestion

of these

opportunity
they let it pass.

from

South

Chapters
the

account.

IX-XI

was,

The

At the Lake

spoke
I have

at

when

Mohonk

of the

described

SittingBull

mania
religious
It

for

Dakota

troops and

organizations,
missionary
good during the

offer.

to

great

accord

evil effects until the

no

were

one

in

believer

organizationshad

Conference

There

criticism, but rather

no

it

evil
it.

dominated.

began, they

first,a purely religious

type.

of Oklahoma

there

is great
heard of

religiousactivity.
numerous
preachers,and
meetings
I was
at various campgrounds.
surprisedat the extent of these, and the
number
of Indians attending such gatherings. The
be a
meetings may
trifle sentimental, but the intentions of the worshippers are
excellent.
Here is presenteda great field for missionarylabors, and if the good people
would
take full advantage of it, a lastingimpression and the furtherance
of religiousactivity would
ensue.
The modern
of the workers in the field
most
missionary spiritamong
has changed in recent years.
There is more
medical activity,
endeavor
more
Among

Last

to
are

year

I met

stimulate

brought

many

native

interest in fairs,school
nearer

the real lifeand

the Indians
Thus
exhibitions,etc.
in the older
the
of
than
missions,
spirit

THE

284

where

days
from

mere

Indian

affairs the

of Friends

Since

potent influence

most

Lake

but the Indian

proper,

The

at

of the

This

and

these conferences

The

etc.

Indian

seemed

OflBce,but

Conflictingviews

to

This

was

all

more.

been

has

the

annual

Dependent Peoples held

by Honorable Albert
continued
conferences
are
by
in 1882

assembled

and

men

by

reference

Conference
each

be

For

somewhat

year

Smiley.

Honorable

the United

familiar with
two

or

Indian

three years
by the

dominated

few years ago it became

again a real open
often expressed,and both the dark and
are
a

K.

affairs,the Philippines,

persons

by general discussion.
to

from

women

in Indian

interested

its friends

Aside

worship.

for them.

shaping public opinion,with

consists of addresses

followed

are

conference

are

Canada

conference

topics,which

done

was

needed
in

for

assembled

were

Other

the

Smiley's death,
Smiley.

At

they
little

begun

was

Mr.

States, Europe and

INDIAN

past thirty years,

Indian

Mohonk.

Daniel

the

intervals

stated

on

biblical instruction

rightand
to

AMERICAN

parliament.
the bright

picture are presented. The conference last year was

affairs.
exclusivelyto a discussion of Oklahoma
An annual
report is published and circulated throughout the world.
who
The meetings have been productive of a great deal of good. Those
attend are
invited as the personal guests of Mr. and Mrs. Smiley and
of their magnificent estate in the heart of the Catskills,
enjoy the privileges
while attendingthe conference.
versity
The Society of American
Indians was
organized at Ohio State Unithe
in 1911.
into being in response
It came
to a feelingon
part
of the educated
Indians of the country that the "Indian
problem*' could
best be solved through an awakening of the race
itself,
through its leaders,
in cooperation with white friends.
The organizationof the society is due to the efforts of Prof. F. A.
McKenzie
of the Society were
founders
of Ohio State University. The

sides of
devoted

such

men

Montezuma

our

Indian

almost

and

women

as

Dr.

Charles

A.

Eastman

(Sioux), Dr.

Carlos

Cornelius

Coolidge (Arapaho),Laura
(Apache),Rev. Sherman
(Oneida),Henry Standing Bear (Sioux), Charles E. Dagenett (Peoria),
B. LaFlesche
L.
Rosa
(Chippewa), Arthur C. Parker (Seneca), Thomas
win
BaldL.
Sloan
D.
Marie
Goulette
(Pottawatomie),
(Omaha), Emma
Chase
Roe-Cloud
(Chippewa), Henry
(Winnebago), and Hiram
(Omaha).
The high stand taken by the Society and its elimination of all selfish
motives
led to an
of its objects by the most
unqualifiedendorsement
friends of the Indian in this country and in Europe.
earnest

RELIGION

AND

CHARACTER

285

The

Society though only four years old has a membership of about

of the most
bers
progressiveIndians in the country are memall trades and professionsare
and almost
represented. More than
and women,
associate
500 citizens of the white race, includingboth men
are
members
of the Society. Most
of them have for years demonstrated
their
Hundreds

1500.

and

earnest

united

unselfish interest in the welfare

of the Indian

and

have

now

the Indian.

their interests with

The

with any
other organization. It is
Society is not connected
membership and has no connection with the
governed entirelyby its own
Indian
shade

Bureau
of

The

or

the

Government.

opinion are members.

Society of American
the Indian

that

so

Indians

Indians

and

seeks

their friends of every

ditions
bring about better condevelop normally as an American
people

may

to

Societyhas asserted that it believes that the full response

for rights;
to the duties of life is more
important than constant demands
The

in America.

the

for with
The

performance of duties,rightswill

Societythus seeks

to

the Indian

urge

to

as

come

of

course.

avail himself

of "civilized" life,in order

learn the ways
with other
able to compete and cooperate successfully
to

believe

matter

of every opportunity
that he may
become
The

men.

members

awakening the abilities of every inupon

progress
ditndual Indian
to the realization of personalresponsibility
for selfy
for rojce
and for country and the duty of respondingto the call to Ojctivity.
the
When
nation remedies
the laws now
hindering Indian progress, work, thrift,
education
and clean morals will then secure
for the Indian all the rights
be given a man
and a citizen.
that may
The Society is not an organization devoted
to complaining. Its aim
Indian

depends

is to suggest and bring about

The Society does not

exist.

it does

seek

to

abolish

the

It strikes at the root

race.

better conditions
seek
cause

wherein

the old evils cannot

local matters;
continuallyfightover
of the
of the misery and the disability
to

of evil,yet it does not

ignore the individual

case

of

hundred
from
injustice.Nearly one
come
applicationseach month
asking legalinformation.
The annual platformadopted by the Denver
and reaflSrmed
Conference
the Wisconsin
in 1914
demands:
at
First, the
University Conference
of
the
draft
Carter
Code
will
Bill,by which a commission
a codified
passage
and the abolition of laws no longer operalaw, recommend
new
legislation
tive;
Indians

and
group

the establishment

of Indians

he knows

his

civic status;

of the definite status

in the United

legalstatus

The

Indian

cannot

advance
from
he may
the passage
Society demands

and

Second, the

States.

of every

how

tribe,band
progress

lower to
of the

or

until

higher

amended

THE

286

AMERICAN

Stephens Bill,through which

INDIAN

the Indians

place their claims directly

specificpermission of Congress in each
Indian progress will be retarded as long as real or fancied claims
instance.
unsettled; Third, the Society asks that the
are
against the Government
tribal funds be apportioned to each individual's personal account, so that
know
each Indian may
exactly what the nation holds in trust for him.
Court

in the

of Claims

effort and

Individual

may

without

will

progress

with

come

aWakened

an

interest in

and

personal resources

personal property, as opposed to bulk holdings;

better
educational
Fourth,
advantages and better sanitaryprotectionare
demanded.
An ignorantand a sick race
be an efficient,useful race.
cannot
health and thrift will bring to the red man
the greater rights he
Wisdom,
craves.

Society publishes a

The

of the

from

contributions

contains

at

race

the pens

of Indians

heart, and from friends of the red

of

All shades

message.

Quarterly Journal

thought

of
who

given. The

are

have

who

man

It

unique interest.

welfare

the true

have

discussion

constructive
free

is open,

editorial board consists of five Indians who are university

is connected
with the University
editor-general
officially
of the State of New
York.
The QuarterlyJournal is a high-gradepublication,
and is an epoch-making departure in the historyof the race.
There are three general classes of membership. Active, Associate, and

and

The

earnest.

graduates. The

Junior.
persons

Each
and

held.

assisted

it is

Each

Phil

There

They

not

thing

vast

overlook

as

in

point,

successful conferences

forth.

them

so

towards

reverent

was

blaspheme.

"Why

often.^"

This

chief, in the presence

do

the

the
white

uttered

was

by

of Col. Carrington

of

good traits in the old Indian

Wright {page 314) has referred

Mr.

tribes
a

not

1866.

number

"

trait

freely. Deceit
so

curse

Cheyenne

other
was

did

He

them.

Frankness

and

Kearney

were

their minds
trade

years

convenient

some

of great importance to the Indian race

and
Indian
where
the
to
a
bringing
problem
point

Spiritto

Head,

stole from

other.

twenty-one

at

are

of age.

has been

mystery.

or

White

Fort

must

is held

blood; Associates

solution.

ask the Great

pagan.

Indian

old-time, non-English-speakingIndian

"unknown"
men

persons

of

less than

great university. Four

some

materiallyin

nearer

The

at

with

persons

are

conference

national

year

been

are

Indians; Juniors

in connection

have
has

members

Active
not

Among

was

that

was

proper

"

everywhere apparent,

but
and

not

and
to

from

Indians

we

theft.
each

spoke

deceit as to trail,purpose,
for the enemy
themselves
such
no
(in the tribe) there was

trickery. Exaggerations

"

were

of
indulged in by story-tellers,

RELIGION
such

But

course.

unknown

AND

deceit

olden

in the

white

as

CHARACTER

287

people practice upon

each

other

was

days.

All the writers, past and present, agree

that the bulk of our
Indians
moral
codes.
certain
There
real
never
was
a
governed by
degenerate
them.
Indians, until white people came
In all our
efforts
among
among
were

Indian

upliftthe

to

those

encourage

We

If

during the present

crucial transition

build upon the natural foundation

of Indian
the Indian.
save
utterlydestroy the past, we cannot

we

bad

am

should

idealist.

no

Indians,

I contend
which

there

as

to

or

may

his

sense

not

that there are

quite aware
white
good
people and bad
general breaking down of the

good

am

are

that if there is a

may

As

should

period,we

good qualities(even though they be tinged with

be true

it is due

"

of honor, and

his

to

and

us

Indians

white
Indian

not

stition).
super-

character.

and

people; but
character

"

the Indian.

to

morality,Leupp presents

the following:"

the Indian a basic sense

of moral responsibility
robust
suflSciently
capable of high religious
development? Let me tell you a true story.

"Has
to

be

number

of years ago a group

of twenty Indians who
had been in controversy
the authorities in Washington entered into a solemn
pact
which
the Government
was
accept certain money
preparing to
with

not

to

their tribe in three or four successive payments,

distribute among
because
for which they
they believed that that would be a surrender of the principle
had

been contending.
judicialdecision which

Later

the questions at issue were

Indians' protest not a

left the

cleared

of the twenty, includinga candidate

for the
their
into
at
to
resistance,bowed
party
attempt
offered them
the money
the
at
and
next
payment,

Nineteen
led the
took

instalments

Bill, stood

was

tell

then

why.

in

out

Soon

arrears.

alone

in

afterward

were

make

I visited the

the others

feel

more

from

their mutual

share

of that
"

'That

money,
cannot

and

did you

I must

release

is honorable,

it, why

inevitable,

was

on

business, and
and

poor,

would

buy;

his

so

he

family

I tried to

of
by assuring him that the withdrawal
left
him
free
to do as he wished.
agreement

*No,' he declared; adding, in

imitate, *we are all bound
by a vow.
choose, but they

had

comfortable

"

about

reservation

me

him

the

on.

applied for the

The
twentieth
whose
English name
man,
his refusal to touch anything, but refused to

privatelyand opened his heart. He

actuallyin need of some
things the money

sought

by

up

leg to stand
chiefshipwho

come

me

phraseology which
I

not.

from

The
my

others

me

may

not

try

take

change

if

to

my

they

oath.'

I answered;
certainly,'
to

I shall not

that I would

swore

for advice?'

'but if you

feel so

strongly

AMERICAN

THE

288
"

'There

is

something you
I vowed
for myself and

others.

their shares either.

drawn

INDIAN
tell me,

can

am

afraid to trust

the

for my

family,though they have not

if I don't
they get their money
even

not

Now,

and

can

mine?'

touch

"I said that I could

get it for them.

of my
if I don't take it?'
money
'*
*It will accumulate
in the Treasury, and be paid to your heirs after
your death.'
"
heart glad,'exclaimed
have made
'You
Bill,laying his hand
my
"

'What

becomes

on
aflFectionately

my

shoulder

is the way
I would have
and children
wife
my

his face

while

beamed

with

satisfaction.

rightin standing out, but I did

were
wrong.'
Indian
"A cynic might find the moral of this story to be that only one
in twenty is high-minded enough to hold his ground againstsuch temptation.
be fairer to temper that judgment with the inquiry,how
But it would
of any
the proportionswould
have arranged themselves
in a like number
'That

not

want

other

it. I felt

to

suffer if I

race?"*
Two

years

ago, when

in

the

the Board

of United

of
representatives

States Indian

Commissioners

practicallyall the

missionary
Washington,
It is no
organizationsappeared and a full and frank discussion ensued.
exaggerationto state that all of these persons representingvaried interests
(and twenty years ago these very
people might have been considered
rivals)left with a resolve to carry on their work with due regard for the
ful
rightsof others. It is quite clear that if the Catholics have a successmission on
Reservation
Reservation
B,
A, and the Presbyterianson
that the good work
should continue, and those in charge of mission A
should not seek to establish a post on Reservation
B, unless it is perfectly
clear that Mission
B is unable
for more
to care
than a portion of the
Indians.
different denominations
the larger
That
where
located on
are
reservations,they should all work in harmony, looking toward the great
for which such worthy organizations exist.
purpose
met

It is true
and
religion,

that
that

the

Indians

confusion

in former

existed

in the

years

minds

did

not

of the

understand
untutored

our

rigines
abo-

representativesof different
This is said in no disrespectwhatsoever,
sects worked
at cross-purposes.
it is merely a statement
of facts. Mr. Leupp presents an
illuminating
illustration on this subject.
the
"Indians
are
always greatlypuzzled by the differences between
toward
of hostilityso often assumed
one
sects, and the appearance
by
in the

*The

Indian

and

past for the

His

Problem,

page

very

303.

reason

that

h4
z

-"

"

CHAPTER
of the

Indians

The

XXVIII.

IRRIGATION

Southwest

in both

PROJECTS

ancient

and

modern

times

built

certain tracts
less extensive
dug irrigationcanals and watered
more
or
in area.
The subject of agriculture as conducted
in arid regions by the
IndianjL is an
and has been
treated brieflyby
exceedingly interesting one
in
the Handbook
of American
Indians.
of the modern
Doctor
Many
Hodge

dams,

New

ca,nals in Arizona,

Mexico

California

and

and other
by the CliflF Dwellers, Pueblos
all
southwestern
and
Comanches,
probably
of irrigationin the raising of crops.
use

follow

tribes.

the

old

ditches

dug

Excepting the Apaches

Indians

understood

and

made

scientific expeditions to the Southwest

Some
of the military and
in
early times found the Pima, Maricopa, Papago, Pueblo and other Indians
fields. With
in possession of large,cultivated
the influx of white
settlers
much
of
this
land
in the later '70's and early '80's, not
only was
priated
approdiverted, thus causing the Indians
by the Whites, but the water
was
in this book
of the
to the case
great privations. I have referred elsewhere
and
Pueblos, and it has been
Pimas, and that of the Maricopas, Yumas
of reports.
in a
have
commented
we
Briefly summed
score
upon
up,
the
rather
entire
(or
irrigation
appropriated)
well-nigh destroyed
zone
fields and ditches have
Their
formerly controlled by the Indians.
passed
to

us.

movement

humane

work

has been
the

Commissioners,
When

parts.

Indian
well

as

F.

Hon.

as

H.

inaugurated
Rights

to

Indian

the
Abbott

the

OflBce, have

all

became

on

problem,

Indian

proposed
is sweeping

the

gratuitous

and

maintenance

the lands

of the

give the Indians

purposes

of

and

make

presented

was

*'

entitled,

It

1914.

to

he

made

of Indian
Briefs
the

on

missioners,
ComIndian

Senate

the entire

covers

this

Indian

mittee
Com-

irrigation

of it herewith.

amendment

relating

in character.
of tribal

use

benefited

distributed,

This

of

played prominent

acting
Secretary of the Board

Affairs, February 9th,

I insert most

and

"The

observe,

Forests."

Indian

Board

Commissioner

paper

In

little remains.

and

study of this subject, and later, as

he prepared an
exhaustive
Irrigation and

what

save

Association

and

to

Its main

Government

Indian

and

irrigation,you

central
funds

in

purpose

the

will

is to stop
construction

irrigationprojects,to charge the costs thereof against

against the pro rata shares in the tribal funds, when
or
individual

voice

Indians

in the

them

whose

lands

are

benefited, and

to

funds for irrigation

expenditure of their own
share
the responsibilityof maintaining and

THE

292

AMERICAN

INDIAN

is enacted into law

operating the completed projects. If this amendment
nearly $400,000 carried each year in the Indian appropriation acts as
reimbursable.
The
facts relatingto existing
gratuity items will become
in support of the proposed
irrigationlaw and practice and arguments
elaborated
in
the
brief
submitted
amendment
herewith, to which
are
fully
I invite your careful attention.
"The
proposed amendment
of Indian

timber

relatingto the care, protection,and sale

is also supported by a carefullyprepared statement,

submitted.

herewith

This

if enacted

amendment,

into law, will

*

in the

the

save

neighborhood of $75,000 a year.

complex problems relatingto the education
and civilization of the Indians of this country and to the handling of their
vast
are
increasingin direct ratio with the increase in
property resources
Government

diflSculties of the

"The

the value
"The

of that property and the individualization thereof.

trative
be closed to the constantly increasingadminiscannot
eyes

burdens

to

the

This increase can

not be explained
allegedbad administration; it is due, in largepart,
of laws enacted
by Congress for the breaking up of
of the Indians and to the establishment
of the policy
Bureau.

the ground of

on

away

of the Indian

carrying out
tribal estates

the vast

of individualization

in connection

of the Indian

business

Bureau

will

therewith.

begin to

Before

grow

the

of the

volume

less,it will become

very

much

which
the Indian
greater; and the value of Indian property over
is requiredby law to exercise supervision,
estimated
Bureau
at nearly
now
one

billion dollars,will

to grow

undoubtedly be

much

very

greater before it begins

less.

going to meet this growing problem? Will

imposed
Congress increase appropriationsto meet the increased demands
and
conditions
the
Bureau?
Is
economic
Indian
law
changing
by
upon
"How

is the Government

there any other way

out?
who
"Those
by
answer
and

of their property

full control
for Indian

saying, 'Give

the Indians

and

administration,'offer

thus

immediate

keep down

the

ship
citizenpriations
appro-

for that

solution

only
in civilization
and advanced
educated
suflSciently
for handling their property.
to accept the full responsibility
Accepting
and it is undoubtedly the correct
this solution for that class of Indians
class of Indians

who

correct

are

"

solution
the lands

for this class

and

"

minerals

it stillremains

true

forests

Indian

and

on

that

the increasing value

reservations

which

are

of
still

of the property of individual Indians who are still

unprepared to protect it, and the future individual allotment of lands to
nearly 50 per cent of the Indians of the countr5% will make the adminis-

closed to settlement, and

IRRIGATION
tration of Indian

Affairs for
*

and

PROJECTS

some

293

to come

years

of

one

increasingdiflSculty

expense.

reclamation

"The

of arid lands

Indian

reservations

by irrigation,
provide better homes for Indian families,and to bring to them the benefits
of civilized societythrough the agricultural
development of their lands,
is one
of the most
beneficent policies
the Government
has ever
inaugurated
in dealingwith their affairs. Too much
credit can
not be given to Senators
and
oflScers of the Government
who
Congressmen and administrative
have had to do with the enactment
of laws and the securing of appropriations
this policy. The
of legislators
have been
motives
out
to carry
benevolent
and patriotic,
and the work
of the Government
engineersand
and
other officials who
honest
have
constructed
the projects has been
However,
a careful examination
comparatively eflScient and economical.
of Indian irrigation
with their
laws and conditions prevailingin connection
on

to

administration
the

reveals defects which

of those

high motives
that

these

field.

defects

on

It is

remedy.

different

not

were

Indian

uniform

"Lack
Indians

of

ditions
Con-

The

legislationwas
defects are
serious, they
should be appliedpromptly

necessarilyexperimental. Nevertheless, the

be faced frankly,and the remedies needed
the good in the existingorder of things
to preserve
greater harm

reflection upon

in the several States.

reservations.

should

before

no

ditions
responsiblefor present law and present contrative
and adminisexist. It was
a
new
legislative

laws
Irrigation

varied

need

eliminate

and

the bad

results.

laws, lack of utilization by

uniformity in Indian irrigation
the part of the Indians
lack
of
voice
on
a
irrigatedlands,

of their

in the expenditure of their funds for the construction

of
and maintenance
their irrigation
projects,and failure to individuahze the reclamation costs

by charging them
defects

against the lands benefited

of the

present

"Approximately nine
of Indian lands.
irrigation
charged

to

tribal funds

million
About

and

are

the most

mental
serious funda-

situation.

the

dollars
seven

balance

have

been

expended

millions of this amount

expended

made

from

for

have

the
been

gratuity appropriations
irrigableIndian

of
600,000 acres
by Congress. About
under
ditch.
this
than 100,000 acres
Of
less
area
brought
thus irrigated
while
of
the area
are
being irrigated
a largepart
by Indians,
is not farmed, but is used to produce hay crops.
And, notwithstanding
the fact that either tribal or Government
funds have been used to irrigate

lands

have

been

these lands, on
Indian

all except three reservations, when

patents in fee

are

issued

allottees,and in every case where their lands are sold under the
supervisionof the Government, either the individual Indian who sells the
to

AMERICAN

THE

294

land

the

or

the tribe

of the

members

thereof

purchaser

right for which

or

tribe not

INDIAN

puts in his pocket the value

the Government

has

consulted

respect

with

paid; and
to

not

the

of the

only

water
are

the

expenditure of

either to the individual

ultimatelypasses in this manner
purchaser of his land, but the individual w^hose
in
land is benefited is given no
responsibility
opportunity to assume
any
connection
therewith
to appreciatethe value of the benefit conferred,
or
while the free-water
right thus secured by the individual Indian offers a
their money,

allottee

or

which
the

to

white

inducement

constant

to

him

to

NAVAHO

part with

NEW

HOME,

his land.

MEXK

striking illustrations of the lack of utilization of irrigable

On
the Crow
be found on
the following reservations:
may
than
Reservation, where irrigationditches have been completed for more
"Some

Indian

lands

ten

years

at

68,756

this is

and

where

the total

area

only 11,376 acres

acres,
irrigatedfor hay crops; on

irrigablearea
by Indians;

is estimated
on

the Fort

at 38,000

under
are

constructed

ditches

irrigatedby Indians,

the
acres,

Flathead

Reservation

but only 1,088

Belknap Reservation,

out

acres

of 22,000

is estimated
and
the
are
acres

most

of

present

irrigated
under

IRRIGATION

PROJECTS

295

by Indians; on Fort Hall Reservation Indians

irrigated
of 35,000 acres;
of
out
on
area
acres
irrigateonly
present irrigable
the Wind
the Indians
Reservation
River
are
irrigatingapproximately
of this
and most
of a total irrigable
of 35,000 acres,
out
5,000 acres
area
is irrigated
for hay crops; on the Uintah
Reservation, out of a total
area
the Indians are irrigatingapproximately 6,000
of 87,880 acres
area
irrigable
is
the Yakima
the present irrigablearea
Reservation, where
on
acres;
the
Yuma
the
and
Indians
at
are
54,000 acres,
irrigating5,350 acres;
Indians
of an
out
are
irrigablearea
irrigatingapproximately 200 acres
ditch,7,670

acres

are

3,300

of 4,000
of

"The

industrial

better.

an

in the

foregoingparagraph is serious
peculiardangers

standpoint,but it is fraughtwith

of the reservations

case

tion
the showing of utiliza-

of the Southwest

much

lack of utilization noted

from

enough
in the

In the reservations

acres.

lands is very
irrigable

where

the

rights are

water

subject

to

the

Reservation
(Idaho) beneficial
lands prior to the year
irrigable
1916, in order to prevent the appropriationof the water
by other water
must
in
beneficial
the
Wind
River
Reservation
use
on
users;
Wyoming
likewise be made
before 1916; and
Reservation
the Uintah
(Utah)
on

operation of State law.

use

be

must

beneficial

made

be

must

use

On

of the

the Fort

water

made

Hall

for the

before

The

1919.

total investment

in the

ditches and the purchase of water

rightson these
irrigation
in the case
amounts
to approximately $2,000,000, and
the expenditure has been
River and l^intah Reservations

construction

of

three reservations
of the
made

Wind
from

"Lack
the Indian.

Indian

funds.

be
of proper
utilization can
not
The present system is doubtless

of interest and

indifference

on

his part.

of the expenditure; the cost

maintenance
the basis of each
on
and

brought home

has

never

to

become

his intimate

him; the

He

of the
acre

money

has not

been

construction

and

consulted

in advance

of
the expense
been explained

irrigatedhave not
being taken out of a tribal fund which

part of his individual

individual interest in its

the value, in dollars and

charged to the indolence of

responsiblefor an undue lack

stood
possession,he has not underexpenditure,nor has he realized

cents, of the benefit.

Indian reservations has been provided

on
irrigation
for in response
natural and normal demand
of white settlers,
to a perfectly
either for the opening to settlement of irrigable
Indian reservalands on
tions
for obtaining water
from streams
vations
or
flowing through Indian reserfor the irrigation
the outside.
As a result, the
of their lands on
construction of irrigation
projectson Indian reservations has often preceded
"In

the proper

many

cases

preparation

of the Indians

for such

construction

and

often has

INDIAN

AMERICAN

THE

296

preceded the development of transportationfacilitiesnecessary to market

and in the case
of the largereservations
the products of the land irrigated,
has been brought to Indians unskilled in the
in the Northwest
irrigation
trained for generations
art of irrigation,
strangers to the art of agriculture,
lifeof the chase, having no knowledge of any of the pursuits
to the exciting
civilized life except a somewhat
of modem
generalknowledge of the raising
of cattle and horses.
Generally,however, this premature development
in the necessity
of such developof irrigation
has had suflScient justification
ment
the rightsof the Indians to the water.
to preserve
of the chief

"One

mentioned

for the failure of the Indians

reasons

utilize their irrigablelands

to

provide appropriationsnecessary
and other equipment, without
main

The
and

with

rare

enable

to

which

has

them

buy

to

the

on

been

the

tions
reserva-

failure to
and

teams

the utilization of their lands

tools
is impossible.

thought apparently has been to build the ditches,

provision has been made to use tribal funds

exceptionsno

than
for any
other purpose
for the
that of reimbursing the Government
cost of construction
of the project. At the same
time the Indian has lacked

the credit which

is available to the white

help

settler

himself.

Through
necessary
appropriationsestablished during the last few
to prepare
But
a remedy for these conditions.
to

mentioned

idlyby

and

witness

stillin

are

similar

ditions
con-

reimbursable

Congress has begun

years

a
vations
majority of the reserpositionwhere they have

on
a

funds in the construction

expenditureof their own
and
maintenance
of irrigationditches which, under
present
and in which expendituresthey have no voice
conditions, they cannot
use
than ample resources
in their undeveloped
helpless,though they have more
lands to secure
make
advances
to
productive
necessary
money
to

sit

above, Indians

livingunder
policy of

the

the

"

use

thereof.
"Another

may

be found

land

to

the conditions

needs

of the Indians.

Yuma

Reservations

10-acre

in most
which
The

tracts, and

adequate utilization of Indian lands

adjust the size of the allotment of irrigable

of soil and
While

and
in

cases

did not
allotment

allotment
take

cases

of 80

has

been

acres

to

each

the industrial habits

on

the Colorado

others, allotments
smaller, suitable
section

have
to

River

been

made

the methods

and
and
in

of intensive

of country, this policy has

of the Northwest, where

reservations

made

into consideration

irrigation
projectson

and

in the Southwest,

several

some

climate

agriculturepracticed in that
in the
lackingalmost universally

been

the

for the lack of

reason

in the failure to

man,

the Yakima,

under
the

general allotment act,

question of possibleirrigation.

woman,

the

and

child is found

Uintah, Crow, Wind

under

River, Flat-

in the tribal funds

of the share
or

the

will

as
briefly,

charge the

payment

of the individual

the share of the individual

land benefited

whose

to

be made

out

land in benefited

it passes from Indian

in the tribal fund is insuflScient.
when

proceeds of the sale of the land

ownership where

follows:

individual

maintenance,

and

of construction

the cost

from

will be suggested

that
legislation

General

"1.

with

needed

remedies

"The

INDIAN

AMERICAN

THE

298

suggested in the above paragraph should

generallegislation
provide that the tribe whose funds it is proposed to use for the construction
of irrigationprojectsshall be first consulted.
should also provide for charging
The proposed generallegislation
"3.
and operation against the lands under the project
of costs of maintenance
tenance
and should give the Indians whose lands are benefited a voice in said mainand operation.
lation
"4.
In order not to overburden
irrigatedIndian lands by the legisThe

"2.

suggested, especiallysince the Indians have not heretofore been

struction
consulted, the costs of supervisoryengineeringand of experimental conexcluded

and

cost

from

the

should be
investigationsand preliminary surveys
charges made against the lands and paid from gratuity
of

appropriations.
**5.

Reimbursable

immediately
lands has not

kept

lack of funds

in the hands

pace

tribal funds

appropriationsfrom

for all Indian

reservations

with the construction

of individual

of

be made

should

utilization of

irrigable
projectsthrough
irrigation

the

where

Indians

to

make

such

utilization

possible.
"6.

Skilled

irrigationfarmers

should

advice

assistance

appropriationsto give
lands."

and

be
to

provided
Indians

of

gratuity
having irrigable
out

CHAPTER
The

American

of the

buffalo

Texas;

United

extended

through

Northwest.

disappeared from
animal

does

called

pushed

Nebraska,
to

appear

have

the

buffalo, occupied
About

times.

and

and

ranged

in

River

buffalo

Arkansas.

Arkansas

tended
ex-

the arid

as

Missouri

western

in eastern

an

the range
to central

Mississippi, the

of the

Missouri

far west

as

of the

headwaters
west

1850,

valley, Manitoba,

River

Minnesota

the

near

settlers

eastern

not

Red

central

to

BUFFALO

in ancient

the

and

and

As

States
from

western

plains of Colorado,
the

THE

bison, commonly

of the

area

XXIX.

The

Louisiana,

or

the Great
Plains, and the
preferring the portion of the country known
as
entire Missouri
River
valley. In the later sixties, when the LTnion Pacific
Railroad
built westward,
enabled
hundreds
of hunters
to ship
were
was
East
unnumbered
The
thousands
of robes and great quantities of meat.
herds
further
restricted, and
were
by 1885, the buffalo almost entirely
disappeared.
Of

the

numbers

Robert

of

these

M.

animals,

of

none

authorities

the

of

of

to

seem

the

earliest

Wright
Dodge
City, Kansas, one
City, the Cowboy
pioneers, recently published a book entitled "Dodge
Capital." He gives the estimates prepared by men
living at the time, as
I present his remarks
to the number
of buffalo.
at some
length as indicative
of the difference
the Great
of opinion even
with
those
familiar
among
agree.

Plains, of their numerical

between

were

It is safe to

extent.

and

25,000,000

in

the

there

that

however,

assume,

buffalo

50,000,000

in the

West

year

1850.

"I

wish

general,
There

big

were

gray

bunch.

here

called

first estimated

Pages

latter

one

game,

and

and

Taking
it ten

bears, wildcats

cinnamon
and

scarce

Major

seldom

animal

life in

seen

and

so

far

mountain
from

the
oflSce

occupying my
Fort
Supply, and
buffaloes there were
between
to how
Dodge
as
many
stripfiftymiles east and fifty miles west, they had
Inman

night, having just made

billion.

figured it again, and

71-6.

and

were

Sheridan

in to consult

Supply.

They

facts concerning

of buffalo,

also black

were

these

Dodge
me

herds

General

mountains.

and

few

early days, in the

There

Fort

assert

wonderful

lions, though
at

to

City.*
vicinity of Fort Dodge and Dodge
antelope, deer, elk, and wild horses,
of the latter frequently
hundreds
wolves
and coyotes by the thousand,
in a
in bands
wolves
and often from
to fiftygray
ten
being seen
in

made

General
it

one

were

trip from

Sheridan

billion.

said, 'That

won't

Finally they reached

do.'
the

THE

300

conclusion
afraid
vast

that

give

to

herd

and

there

winter

INDIAN
hundred

one

the north

again from the north

setting in.

was

Greeley

buffalo

estimated

range

for

has

studied

writer, who

said, they were

This
they believed them.
springopened, and moved
short,
grass began to grow

when

when

the

the

nearly fifteen

twice.
I

years.

five million.

at

nearly five times

that number.

I lived in the heart

told that

am

of

recent

some

at
closely,has placed their number
think
that
he
than
and
I
is
I.
Brick
Bond,
nearer
ninety million,
right
resident of Dodge, an
of
a
old, experienced hunter, a great shot, a man
considerable
reliable man
and judgment, and a most
to
as
intelligence

truthfulness,

that

says

was
highestkilling

Indians

the

of buffaloes

number

I agree with him, only I think there were

Mr. Greeley passed through herds of them
the

million; but

figures;nevertheless

slowly toward

moved

."Horace

be

must

these

out

steadilyback

AMERICAN

he

in

250

all the time.

buffalo

killed 1500

day; and

one

had

He

buffaloes

he had

to be

in

for hostile

the lookout

on

fifteen "skinners," and

his

days, and

seven

he

only

was

of

one

hunters.

many

"Charles
winter

Rath

and

I think

200

cars

there

and

the Atchison,

shipped
and

Topeka

least

at

were

as

buffalo

200,000

over

Santa

Railroad

Fe
more

many

of

the

hides

first

Dodge City,

reached

shipped from there, besides

buffalo tongues."

of
hind-quartersand two cars
Times
August 18th, 1877) remarks:.
{Dodge
City
newspaper
"Dickinson
has
buffalo
hunter
of Mr. Warnock,
a
County
by the name
has killed as high as 658 in one
winter.
Edwards
County Leader.
Ford County has twenty men
who
"Oh, dear, what a mighty hunter!

Kansas

who

"

each

have

killed five times

however, is that of Tom

minutes, and who, from

that many

who

Nickson,
the

15th

in

of

winter.

one

killed 120

September

The
at

record,

on

in

stand

one

the

to

best

20th

forty

of October,

killed 2,173 buffaloes."

Colonel

"It
the

on

is almost

Plains

is poor
as
poverty
"Some
years,
immense

of unknown
was

their

made
numerous

spent thirty years

the Plains, commenting

on

the value

of the buffalo to the Indian, says:

impossiblefor a civilized being to realize the value

Indians

clothing,bedding,

one

I. Dodge, who

Richard

in 1880

of the
house

buffalo.

It furnished

equipment,

and
itself,

on

almost

the verge

with

him

everything.

home,

Without

to

food,
it he

of starvation.

in 1871, the buffalo appeared to move

northward
in
as
column, oftentimes from twenty to fiftymiles in width, and

depth

from

in several

front to

rear.

Other

years

parallelcolumns, moving

flankers covering

width

of

the northward

at the

hundred

rate

same
or

more

journey
and
miles.

with

THE

BUFFALO

the three years

"During

301

1872-73-74,

solemn

treaties made
to

person

put

the white

stop

hunters

the

"Ten

years

from

and

gone,

the buffalo; and

The

first trains

stop for

to

the tracks.

swimming

The

multitudes
The

Missouri

and

these

under

the

had

reduced

to

of food, and

of the Government.

the condition

of paupers,

of those necessaries of lifewhich

Pacific

days

Railway

came

the

pelled
frequentlycom-

were

until these inmiense

has been

River

descending

of these

ample supply

an

them."

for the herds

two

or

American
much

as

boat

bison

reading of

pass.

had

crossed

be filled with

to

ascending the river

or

to

known

herds

Unnumbered

buffalo

compelled

was

thousands

crossings.Prairie fires must

was

very

the accounts

have

were

destroyed

and

indicates

killed, and
that

there

slaughterof these animals as

long-homed Texas steer such
probably afford more
ago, would

real sport in the

In fact, the

cattle.

engaged

ponderous

easilyapproached

of buffalo-hunts

the Southwest

ambush.

special
keep

of these animals.

domesticated
range

of

friends,except the harpies,who, under

upon

two

or

the time

at

about

duty

no

feeble effort to

the assistance

are

the Union

on

one

across;

day

drowned

men

Indians

they

without

guise of friendship,feed

careful

was

made

of

it up,
Territory,but soon
gave
slaughteringthe buffalo

food, shelter,clothing,or any

wait

in contravention

the

country,

the Plains

ago

everything is

without

to

Bureau

support life comfortably without

Now

it

of the Indians.

nosea

could

Indian

of Indian

over

of law, and

the Indians, but

it. The

to

out

all

parties spread
very

with

least five millions of buffaloes

at

slaughtered for their hides.

"This
all in violation
slaughterwas

were

in

forty years
"running hunt,"

animals

and

save

the buffalo.

than

when

stampeded,

The

could

latter

be

in

killing
used

to

sport

to

as

heavy,

were

shot

was

down

from

that he frequently
"oldtimer", long on the Plains, told me
fiftyto seventy-fivebuffalo from one stand. He would secret
little bluff,overlookinga ravine where the grass was
a
on
tionally
excepgood, and from this vantage-point,using a heavy Sharpes rifle,
An

killed from
himself

he shot down
to
a

after another.

one

He

stated

that the bulls would

fallen animal, smell of the blood, paw

the dirt,and
but
until
the
animals
of
scent
him, they would
little,
got
a

Professor

Reports
and

William

T.

Colonel

in the

United

States

perhaps
not

move

National

up

bellow
away.

Museum

of the buffalo
given an extended account
presented us, in earlier years, of a stirring
of a buffalo-hunt.
Coming down to later times, General Custer,
William
of the
F. Cody and others have pictured the excitement
for 1887

and

its destruction.

account

Hornaday

walk

1889

has

Catlin

has

5^

ft

"
"

\
s

BUFFALO

THE
buffalo-chase.

Colonel

in fifteen months,

Cody,

admission, slaughtered4280.*
The

He

slaughterof

senseless

303

thus obtained

according

the

this magnificent creature

by

hunters, frontiersmen, Bills and Dicks, and others between

by

about

brought

soon

Allard

Messrs.

the

and

late Senator

tract

All of these herds

W.

secured

Corbin
where

Hampshire

of the

of Montana,

Conrad

Colonel

Government,

own

extinction

near

A. Jones

of animals

number

few

of several thousand

acres

and
was

saved

were

aside

as

our

The

others.

shipped them
set

of

and 1880,

Government,

(Buffalo Jones) and

own

Bill."

thousands

1850

species. A

the Canadian

his

to

"Buffalo

name

to

New

park.

the present time in the United

States
and Canada
there must
Thus the species
be nearly,if not quite,1500 head.
in preventingpoachers
is preserved. The Government
had great difficulty
in Yellowstone

there

were

increased,and

Park

very

at

slaughteringthe animals, and in the earlynineties

left alive. Public opinion has been aroused to
animal, and it is now
preservingthis typicallyAmerican
from

few animals

the necessity of

certain that the species will not become

extinct.
Buffalo Bill, not
with
his
records
content
numbers

of bison

**bigkillings",took
these, twenty fine specimens
at Madison
Square Garden,

during the '80's. Of

East

of

died of

pleuro-pneumonia while his show was

New
York
The last
City,during the winter of 1886-'87.
hauled about the country and
magnificentcreature
were
At Newark,
Ohio, in the early'80's,when
gaping crowds.
Buffalo
when

Bill's "Wild

West

witnessing the

scarred bison

cow-punchers.

buffalo

"grand

driven

were

Buffalo

animals

and

alreadypowder-burned

roared

with

ever

hunt".

of this

exhibited

before

boy

remember
Three

or

my

four

into the fair-ground enclosure by some

Bill himself dashed
alongside the
up

into the

from

I shall

Show".

survivors

Winchester

appreciation,and

repeater discharged
as

numerous

I attended

sensations
poor,

old,

whooping
lumbering
"blanks"

sides of the
the

The crowd
helplesscreatures.
cow-punchers pursued, and rounded

the

hapless bison before the grandstand, Buffalo Bill reined in his

up
steed, and spurringthe horse (so he would prance),bowed
rightand left.
Professor Hornady's report, together with other information, indicates
that enough buffalo were
carted about the East to have formed
a
very
in some
had they been permitted to remain
favored
respectableherd
"

spot

in

the

buffalo

country.

killingof the buffalo furnished employment for the type of men

in
who
less excitement
more
or
usuallyflock to any frontier. There was
the chase, the animals
hides
and
the
meat
defenseless,
were
absolutely
could be sold. But for the hostility
of the Plains tribes,the buffalo would
The

U. S. National

Museum

Report, 1887,

page

478.

THE

304

AMERICAN

INDIAN

the Sioux, Pawnee,

long ago have disappeared. But when
Cheyenne,
Omaha
and
others
that the Whites
would
saw
Arapaho, Kiowa,
destroy
of sustenance, they inaugurated a campaign of hostility
their means
out
throughthe Great Plains and the Upper Missouri country, against the Whites.
Certain
where
communities
of fearless men
a
were
large number
assembled
became
(such as Dodge City, Kansas,)
headquarters for the
hunters, but the ranging of hunting parties throughout the entire West
As I have
restricted. This delayed the destruction of the buffalo.
was
of
the
the
and
the
railroad,
stated,
coming
subsequent building of other
the Missouri, brought about
railroads, and steamboat
navigation upon
activities and

of Indian

curtailment

the ultimate

destruction

of the buffalo.

exhibited upwards
I present a drawing from Wright's book in which
are
of 40,000 buffalo hides stacked up in the corral at Dodge City.* This was
So many

in 1876.

fell to

The

robe

was

The
and

ordinary one
pricedat $150.

I have

was,

been

It is not

days"

among

of Minnesota.

any

one

few live buffalo

that the price

sold at $1.25.

I entered

three buffalo robes offered for

saw

$75, another

was

Sometimes

rot.

killed for the

at

and

market

eastern

were

killed the animal

to

carcass

tongues, but

thousands

$100, and

was

were

fine

extra

an

recentlysold and the price

told, $1,000 each.

hide-hunters

left the

shipped to the

were

last winter

in Boston

furrier's store
sale.

hides

Unnumbered

dollar.

took

men

as

the

implies,

name

neither the hides

the

nor

pleasure of slaughtering.

mere

all difficult for

to

us

of the tribes,from
of the Indian

Many

for the robe,

the

reconstruct

the Comanches

bands

followed

*'good old buffalo

of Texas

to

the Sioux

the buffalo in its annual

needed
for
migration north or south, killingsuch of the animals as were
is
the
number
There
authentic
and
to
no
use
permitting
greater
escape.
Indians
of early Indians slaughtering
to satisfy
account
a craving for blood.
for the sheer love of slaughter,but the buffalo
killed enemies
sometimes
not
was
an
Having obtained sufficient meat or hides, they simply
enemy.
"civilized".
become
had
for
not
they
quit,
1850
and 1865.
Let us imagine some
villageof the period between
There

are

numerous

accounts

of such, and

we

need

read

accurate, though composite picture. The camp

favorite spot. Young
out
a
scout, observe
men,
upon
great herd, and, lashing their ponies,speed back home
form

news.

an

the
other
*

Page

in the

All is excitement

villagecrier

announcing that
182.

villagesome
gallopsfrom one

buffalo

dance

twenty
end

few

of them

is located

the
with

in

to

some

approach of

the welcome

miles to the east.

of the encampment
is to be held that night.

mediately
Imto

the

Every-

THE

HIDE HUNTER

THE

and

and

hunted

Miss

Alice

related

to

C.

Fletcher

of the

the

the

example

in small groups, rather than

is considered
an
authority upon

Of

the

buffalo

regulationscontrolled

distribution

the Indians,

individually,
or

tribes.

"Tribal

S07

later the Winchester, among

of the Indians followed
many

Sharpes rifle,and
styleof hunt and
men

BUFFALO

The

parts.
who

man

she
the

skin

says:

of the

of the white

tribally.
the

animal

certain

parts of the
slain the buffalo; the remainder

had

this

Omaha

"

cutting up

and

changed

and

carcass
was

the
longed
be-

divided

the helpers,which
afforded
according to certain fixed rules among
an
opportunity for the poor and disabled to procure food. Butchering was
the field,each man's portionbeing taken to his
on
generallydone by men
the
and given to
their property.
tent
women
as
buffalo was
hunted
"The
in the winter by small, independent but
exactions
of the tribal
organized parties,not subject to the ceremonial
hunt.
The peltssecured at this time were
for bedding and for garments
of extra weight and warmth.
The texture
of the buffalo hide did not admit
hence was
of fine dressing,
used for coarse
clothing,moccasins, tent covers,
and
other
The
hide
articles.
of the heifer killed in the fall
parflechecases,
or
early winter made the finest robe.
"The
buffalo was
supposed to be the instructor of doctors who dealt
of wounds, teaching them
with the treatment
in dreams
where
to find
of their use.
The
multifarious
benefits
healing plants and the manner
derived from the animal brought the buffalo into close touch with the people.
It figuredas a gentiletotem, its appearance
referred
and movements
were
its
habits
to in gentilenames,
designationsto the months, and it
gave
the symbol of the leader and the type of long life and plenty;
became
ceremonies
folk-tales
There

put.

in its

delightedold and
were

I have

Handbook

held

were

many

grouped

of American

honor, myths

Indians.

its creation, and

its

young."*

separate
them

recounted

uses

thus:

to

"

Vol. I, page

169.

which

the entire buffalo

carcass

was

very

It will thus

be

existence.

The

chiefs

Indian

were

INDIAN

that he meant

seen

to

many

of the Plains tribes their

of the buffalo meant

destruction

the destruction

of all.

quick to foresee that if indiscriminate slaughteron

of the Indian
race
a
as
people continued, the power

the

were

part of white
That
doomed.
also

AMERICAN

THE

308

tribes. Our
is,of the Plains or "Horse"
of this fact,and Custer, Miles, Sherman,

aware

own

and

Crook

was

officers

army

others

have stated in their reports that in order to bring the Plains Indians into
to destroy
subjectionand control them on reservations,it was
necessary
All the

bison.

the American

inspired their followers

using

of livelihood."

means

councils, or

against the

other chiefs

white

continue
the war
people,
phrase "They are destroying the Indians*
in
always made
Speeches of this character were
to

the

incentive

an

as

and

prominent Sioux, Cheyenne

"

dances, and

preceding war

failed to

never

rouse

militant

spirit.
the

As

Indians

settled

became

robes, dwellings,etc.,

with meat,
provide themselves
experiencedgreat difficultyon
was

as

attempted to
formerly, they

It
of the scarcity of the buffalo.
ington
to turn
to the authorities at Wash-

account

natural, therefore, for them

very

and

reservations

on

for support, since the authorities had permitted the hide-hunters,

who flocked to the frontier at the close
and numerous
persons

frontiersmen

of the Civil War,

to

yet they had

and

while at

wars,

of

the Crows

to

The

truly when

they

"take

rather

much

not

were

Their

culturalist
agritribal
inter-

has been

made

of the

between

wars

Ojibwa and the Sioux, or those between

they led, in the good old buffalo days, was
from their point of view we must
admit that they speak
the

or

existence that

And

ideal.

them

Indians

tion
resulted in the total destruc-

serious, never

In fact,too

the Sioux,

and

other bands.

These

always supported themselves.

times

some

large band.

in lawless acts.

engage

declare.

so

chances

on

Many

an

old Indian

piece of lead"

in olden

has

told

he would

me

times, than

live

as

he

looked
today. The effect of this lawless element on Indian lifehas been overits perniciouseffect. We
by other writers. They have minimized
know
free from disease, until white men
them;
came
they were
among
they desired nothing further than to be properly fed, clothed and housed.

does

The

destruction

of the
and

ration
But

system

it

seems

destroyed that
given them
but it

of the buffalo put an end to all of this, and the presence

curtailed their activities. Hence
the reservation

militaryfurther

was

sprang
to

me,

which

something
not

up.
we

have

all minimized

one

great truth.

Having

should have
the very
life of these Indians, we
was
in its place. The Indian frequentlyasked for stock,

until years

afterwards

that stock in any

numbers

was

issued

BUFFALO

THE
to

them.

issue of cattle to

The

of reports from

because

killed much

that the Indians

and

meat-eaters

were

where

(and

there

of this stock

the Sioux

for

vegetarians.

CREEK

CHIRCH

AND

living in
fortyyears,

northern

by
is numbered
What
corral the
or,
as

it

the hills in herds

there

are

by

paltry few

the Government

men,"

did

their

all within

year

All the Plains

has

who

SYLVIAN.

branded

familiar
"

OKLAHOMA.

Clapp

Major
over

been

follows:

point as

that

tribes

not
expect them to live
cattle. Agriculturewas

1913

left Pine

calves; and

16,000

fiftyto several hundred head each.

proportion,and the calves produced
comprised the reservation,
originally

of small

that

hundred.''

Indians, expect them

utterly destroyed

white

of from

few herds

this

NEAR

Indians

the entire four counties

a

on

of the

spring round-up
Ridge, (thirtyyears ago) these
dotted

me

GROIND

the

At this time

could

Nebraska,

writes

CAMP-MEETING

curtailed

much

was

for food.

We

their own
available,save
the Sioux, stillis) in its infancy.

with

horses

Indians

Superintendents, during the eighties,

meat

no

was

among
A
gentleman

"On

not

Plains

the

Agents and

309

one

to

was

to

permit the

or

the chase

and

commanded:

decades.

This

change

sustenance
two

of the buffalo,

destruction

from

agriculture,

to

was,

"

"Become

manifestly,

AMERICAN

THE

810

The

ration system was

a
writers have maintained.

impossible.
of the

many

would

Indians

INDIAN

have

starved

death.

not
necessity,

Without

ration

been

largenumbers
a
compelled to save

been

cursed

to

gratuity,as

mere

system,

of cattle had

If

so

these
been

portion of
they
and
their
should
these for breeding purposes,
thus increased
herds, we
certainlyhave avoided a great deal of misery.
it is quite clear that the extinction of the bison
Be this as it may,
loss
worked
a
a
hardship not only to the Indians, but was
great monetary
nation.
The
frontier element
to our
own
responsibleshould have been

issued

controlled.
who

will the

at

led

Plains

Great

had, and has,

Canada

1880.

with

in

the class of Bills and

Dicks

between

1850

country

own

our

in her northwestern

Indians

great many

certain

population was, numerically,far weaker than our

Cloud
Red
between
these periods of time.
Such
united band
as
a
in 1866 could have utterlydestroyed all the
against Fort Fetterman

possessions.Her
own

has not

Canada

roamed

and

had

them, and

white

white

settlers in western

Canada

the

were

chiefs

inclined.

so

fact that they never

attacked the Canadians, and that
of the boundary between
the two
countries, bloodshed
indicates

1850

to

wiser
we

policythan
possesseda

in the

Canadian

If

1880,

our

time

that

the

of the Indian

passes,

and

men

historians will record

The

immediately
rampant

was

very

south
from

adopted a much
that followed by our
officials
at Washington.
easy-going
mounted
policeservice such as that long ago established
sponsible
northwest, roving hunters, and undesirable citizens re-

for most
As

The

Indians

never

wars,

view

that most

authorities

Canadian

could

have

been

the
dispassionately
of the

began them.

wars

had

held in check.
events

their

of the Plains,

originwith

selves.
our-

CHAPTER

THE

XXX.

PLAINS

INDIANS

AND

when

time

who
In

this

aged

events

on

Mr.

the

to

he

sent

Wright

me

between

the Plains
is

asked

of the Indian

cause

return

of the

one

book

gamblers,

and

State

in that

few men
living at the present
are
interestingcareer.
"Dodge City The Cowboy Capital", I

The

scouts,

frontiersman

located

City, Kansas,

and

book,

recent

its frankness.

with

opinion as
policy. In

varied

more

buffalo-hunters,

among

the

had

Wright's

Mr.

struck

was

to

M.

have

AGO

YEARS

TODAY

Wright, Esq., of Dodge

boy, in the early '50's. There

Robert

FIFTY

presents

him

give

to

others.

and
me

1855
the years
few living men

and

Indian

our

upon

which

lengthy communication

I wrote

absolute, frank

an

his views

and

wars,

picture of life

true

stock-men

illuminates

1890.

who

Indians

observed

from

observations, which

he

with

the

Sioux,

and

the

Horse

kindly
Wright's
important in that they are offered by one who
of his
has not
held Indians
Mr.
in very
some
high esteem.
Wright saw
friends shot down
raids.
His narrative, if any\^rmest
during Indian
thing,
should
be rather prejudiced against the Indians.
Yet it is not
so,
will be observed
of
the
as
followingpages.
by perusal
Before
presenting quotations from his manuscript I shall sum
up
of upwards
brieflyhis general observations.
a
LfOoking back upon
career
of sixty years
and
Nebraska,)
(chieflyin Kansas
throughout the West
Mr.
that the Plains Indian
Wright concludes
was
vastly better off when
able to roam,
unhampered
by anyone,
throughout the country, than at
the present
time.
of
the
He
village
speaks
great and interestingKiowa
in
located
central
distance
from
about
1868.
Living
some
Dodge City
pioneer point of view.

furnished

me,

and

southern

but

with

are

the

Mr.

more

he

Kansas,

the

Pawnees,

who

Indians, which

included

the

Prairie
number

of killed,

Usually, there
not

agree

As

Apache.

with

or

were

to

in

came

the

occupied the
Kiowa,
wars

among

so

much

flat country,

Comanche,

Cheyenne,
he

themselves,

inflicted upon
casualties in these

damage
few

not

contact,

villageshas
actions.

Arapaho

thinks

been

Some

him, but this is his opinion. Occasionally,one

that

and
the

exaggerated.
writers might
band

would

surprise a villageand take many

impressed
captives and scalps. He was
in the early days with the good health of these Indians, their hardiness,
that they were
and
visited by epidemics. Smallpox
seldom
broke
out
along the Missouri River, and to the east and north, but seldom in southern
Kansas

and

northern

Texas.

He

declares

that

there

was

no

tuberculosis

THE

312

or

trachoma

when

of character
"As
and

he first went

and

has

virtue

been

trained

was

by the great

AMERICAN

such

as

they had

This

is

an

nature

For

error.

century ago,
thorough a system

as

higher.
was
by

warrior

and

hunter,

granted,
peoples,that the uncivilized redskin had
I know

and

people. The generalstandard

earliest childhood.

from

of civilized

mass

of half

much

was

these

among

said, the Indian

idea of education.

no

Indians

INDIAN

years,

from

was

for

the wild

among

personalobservation

that

for their children, in their

of education

line,as that boasted by the civilized white

child was
able to walk, his or her education

It is taken

the time the Indian

From

race.

The

firstlesson

usually
being strapped upon the back of a docile pony and taking a
little practicein riding. In the second step in education
made
to
he was

consisted

become

in

familiar with the bow

half

weapons,

the

boy

out

observant
rock

century

and
At

ago.

or

to

notice.

He

and

distinguishingas
peculiarmark of its own

the father and child

back

the

him

to

to

be

skeleton,

displacement of a stick
child must
study and learn
the

the different marks

readilydetect

moccasins,

tribe had

every

learn to

must

grass,
more

"

When

of five, perhaps, the father took

the age

or

favorite

the Indians'

were

the hills adjoiningthe camp

and admonished
upon
of what
he saw.
ravine
and
hill,a buffalo
Every

or

arrows,

which

arrow,

tree, a footprintin the sand

all these things and many
stone

as

began.

which

tribe

bows,

on

they belonged,
articles.

for its manufactured

of observation,

after
tipi,

a day
during
descriptionof what he had seen
the long tramp, the father or teacher questioninghim.
The child must
and comprehensive account
of his observations, or be
give an intelligent
taken over
the same
ground again and again until he could do so and had
As soon
the
as
acquired a thorough knowledge of the territorycovered.

the child

child had
he

was

was

familiarized

taken

came

required to give

to

acquainted with

to

section of the country,

minutely with one
and yet another, until, finallyhe was
intimately

himself

another

These
same
territoryadjacent to the camp.
with
t
he
Indian
in
more
were
employed
familiarizing
young
extended
ranges of country until, at last, he thoroughly understood his
of miles.
surroundings for hundreds
"But
there were
For instance,
other subjectsin that course.
many
the young
Indian was
similar to that of our
expected to learn signalling,
Indians
well versed in signallingcould communicate
curately
acsignal corps.
with each other though many
miles apart. This knowledge was
the trail,
of war,
augmented by detailed instruction and drill in matters
all the

methods

and

the chase.

Some

captured in childhood

of the old-time
and

raised

and

scouts, who
educated

were

by

with
the

us,

had

Indians.

been
These

THE

814

of Great

Bend

of old Fort

fort there then,

and

there

friendly,which
of

resort

stands

now

five miles west

AMERICAN

the

nor

and

Lyon

from

there

in eastern
of Fort

west

any

INDIAN

on

met

we

Colorado.

Riley to

Fort

them

up

to

There

was

no

Garland

seventy-

military

in the

tains,
moun-

need

of any, for the Indians were

was
no
supposed to be
indeed they were.
This part of the country was
the chief
Kiowas,
Comanches,
Cheyennes, Arapahoes, and Prairie

the present site of Great

Here, on the Arkansas
Apaches.
River, near
is
where
Bend,
they all congregated. Up to 1864, all the Indians mentioned
considered
When
to a great extent.
were
peaceable and were
so
they
sacred
River (which was
caught parties of Whites south of the Arkansas
trouble.
ground to them, where no trespassers were
allowed) there was

Only
and

traders

allowed

were

familiar with

down

there, he

molested, though
with

the

to

region,and

be safe.

If

they

had

be well known

to

unknown

an

ventured

trader

severely,often killed,
Trail small parties
being
through without

stripped of his goods, whipped

But along the great Santa

was

his wagons
burned.
of Whites, and
even
and

treated

in that

the Indians

Fe

single individuals, went

these peaceable Indians,
seen

have

utmost

and

contempt

actual

abuse

at

by

such

times,

the

white

travelers.

propensity to beg or steal seemed born in the originalPlains

Indian. They made away
with any portablearticle at hand from seemingly
sheer love of theft. And
beg! they would beg one blind! They wanted
in
in
everything
sight,yet
early days, they made no disturbance if they
were
given nothing. It actually seemed as if an Indian could not help
begging or stealing,but, instead of accepting this as a fact and treating
it accordinglywith wise leniency,the Whites
of needless cruelty.
made
use
"The

When

picked up something and hid it under his blanket to carry

Indian
kicked out of camp.
I once
saw
an
blacksnaked,
or
away,
climb up on
and lift up the wagon
the hind wheel of a big freightwagon
sheet.
As he was
peeping in, with his back bent and body exposed much
if he were
bent over
as
a big ox-whip, stood
a barrel,a bull-whacker, with
an

Indian

he

was

off ten

feet and

let him

have

it

on

the naked

skin.

That

Indian

dropped

if he were
shot, with a gash where the lash struck as if a sharp knife had
as
and they all jumped
There
other Indians in camp,
cut him.
were
many

laughed uproariously at the discomfited one, who

like this were
given the
Many indignities
crept humbly out of camp.
often many
Indians without their retaliating,
more
even
though there were
the
in the party, which
Indians than Whites
superior
conclusivelyproves
up

and

halloed

and

peacefulness of the redskin.

came

change.

This

was

as

late

as

1868.

But

soon

there

OGLALA
Pine

Ridge,

1909.

WOMAN

Photographed by W.

K. Moorehead

Indian

"The

INDIANS

PLAINS

THE

of the Plains

wars

were

315

the result of

more

combination

Government
First, our
already mentioned.
causes,
with
the
instead
commenced
Indians,
course
a
wishy-washy, desultory
of taking a bold, firm stand with them, and bringing out enough soldiers
them respect the Government
and make
to overawe
by showing them how
understand
what
to expect if they did
thus making them
strong it was,
weak
at the
themselves.
The
Government
behave
not
so
policy was
ment
beginning,that the Indians actuallylaughed at it and said: 'The Governtheir real belief.
is afraid of us; it dare not punish us'; and this was
I heard
Kiowas
whip the United
braggingly say, *Why, we can
some
for
for
cannot
States,
it has been fightingTexas
whip her. We
years and
her settlements, kill,bum, and destroy, drive
down
go and sweep
upon
the settlers glad
and children prisoners,and make
off stock, take women
and the Kiowas
to hide.'
This was
at the time of the Civil War,
thought
the Government
was
fightingonly Texas.
"Now
then, as I have said, the Government
began with the Indians
of

added

those

to

feeble way
and sent a few troops after them, which, of
the Indians bested and forced to retreat.
Then a largeforce was
sent
in

also

very

course,

which

beaten, and, after repeated littlefightsand skirmishes,largearmies

sent
out.
Usually, however, the Indians got the best of the troops
and
confidence
in themselves
and given new
thus emboldened
were

was

were

and
their

strength.
"I have

been

stockman

*breachy',if the break

broken

cattle became
all my
life,and whenever
my
fence
made
in my
was
poorly mended, it was

they
through again and again. Each

time

we

repairedthe fence

little

better than

before, but each time, also,the cattle acquired fresh skill and
force in breaking down
the fence.
At last,it was
impossible to fix the
fence

in

the fence
been
second

can

good

settled at
time.

cattle,and

that

way

and
once,

my

herds

could

not

break

through. If I had

strong when first repairingit,the

and the cattle would
have
never

comparison between

the Government's

Indian

trouble

would

broken

it down

made
have
the

haphazard fence and breachy

my
policyof years ago is the most fitting

make."

were
Wright believes that the military authorities at Washington
rather responsible
for continuation
of an unwise policytoward the Indians,
and is somewhat
critical as to the plans of campaign. It was
take
a great misIn
to send infantry against Indians, but this was
repeatedly done.
the Fetterman
the troops were
infantry. The cavalry horses
massacre,
of the '60's and '70's were
grain-fed,and extra large. Cavalry commands
hauled.
were
accompanied by a wagon-train in which grain and hay were

THE

316

Hence,
progress

dried

AMERICAN

INDIAN

prior to Custer's later campaigns, the American

cavalry made little
The latter went
as
against Indians.
light,carrying a little
very

buffalo

possessed

meat,
extra

an

in battle.

and

guns

horse

ammunition.

his

"

war

pony

Each
"

which

Indian
was

always

warrior
ridden

never

except

ordinary pony, and led the other. In this way the

Indian
soldiers had an
the white cavalry. Mr.
advantage over
Wright
their camps.
They seldom
says that the Indians feared winter attacks on
made
The
warriors endeavored
to lead the
war
during cold weather.
troops

rode his

He

from

their permanent
villages.
Sully found this out, in 1868, when

away

"General

marching
and

upon

hidden

Indian

in another

chase

goose

an

further, not

direction, while

into the Wichita

not

was

villagefrom which

soldier would

the warriors

Mountains.

annihilated, and
have

if he

he

It is
had

supposed he

the families had

led

Sully on

escaped, the trap

Indians

the
was

so

was

removed
a

his whole

wonder

followed

been

well set.

wildmand
com-

little
But

tains
Sully realized the danger just in time, turned around, got out of the mounalmost
Fort
for
miracle,
reinforcements,
to
Dodge
by a
returning
with the Indians harassinghim all the way
and defeat
back.
This ambush
of great mortification
General
was
to
a
source
Sully. General Custer
then took the field with big reinforcements, and surprised the Indian camp
on

the

beat

Wichita

hasty

forced to
River; but, after the attack, Custer, too, was
himself
numbered
he
found
to Camp
as
greatly outSupply,

retreat

He
inflicted on
the Indians
a
severe
nearly ten to one.
and children prisoners,
women
taking nearly two hundred
which greatlydisheartened
the Indians for a while.
But this success
was
in the dead of winter, and might have resulted differently
had it happened
in the summer
with the Indian fightingaccording to his views of
season,
tactics.
war
{See picture,page 302.)
proper
"It was
of the National
Government
a big mistake
to appoint civilians
and representatives of different religiousdenominations
Government
as
oflBcers instead, at a post where
Agents. We should have appointed army
there was
also an
This
a
was
necessity of the times and
merely
agency.
in
visible
the
least
to
conditions, clearly
anybody
acquainted with the
needs of the situation.
Soldiers were
always stationed at an agency, the
commander
of that post was
always subject to the orders of the Agent,
civilian
often
frontier
a
or
wholly unqualifiedto direct militarymovements
and Agent were
exploits,and the ideas of commander
nearly always in
conflict. The officer bitterlyresented being subject to the Agent's orders
and certainlythe former, familiar as he was
with the border and Indian,
knew
better than the Agent could know, coming as he did, as a rule, direct
"

punishment,

THE

PLAINS

civilized centers.

from

officer would

have

but

several Agents

by which

the Indian
that

suffered

Darlington, Agent of the Cheyenne and

weak

but

unsophisticatedto

and

Arapaho, was
degree.

marked

not

of graft

none

only robbed
practisedby

me

cite

Mr.

good old Quaker,

of

one

observation.

own

my

army

with

of the Agents.

greatly. Let

fell under

and

many

and

men,

personally knew

of weakness

instances

many

good

fairly,an

firm hand,

displayedby

not

were

him.

starved

with

weakness

of the Agents

most

Indian

the

criminal

317

kindly and

treating them

govertiedthe Indian

of the littleless than

Moreover,

While

INDIANS

sutler for the

was

and these Indians had stolen a lot of horses and

soldiers at this agency,
One issue day, the Indians rode in, and I saw
several of
mules from me.
and

horses

my

mules, bearing

had

who

brand,

my

possession of

their stock.

among

Now,

the

horses

belonged to Stone Calf's band.

of more
than
Cheyennes, a man
I went
and a pretty truthful Indian.
to Mr.
ton,
Darlingordinaryintelligence,
He promised
stock for me.
told my story, and asked him to recover
my
Indians

Calf

Stone

to

do

he says

Calf,

Stone

Now,

always found

with

up

have

you
are

you

square;

you

himself

Calf drew

my

chiefs of the

Calf, and said

for Stone

sent

so,

honest, and

and

of the head

one

was

him:

to

war,

settled the matter

up

and

Agent's place would

the

to

would

him

at

have

once!'

have
Stone

recovered

never

he

said: *This
would

fairlybreathed disdain at
that this stock did belong to the
me

have

I took

now.

I take

anything

have

and

superb dignity and

give back

never

is truthful

the brand).
(describing

good, honest, truthful Indian, and

back his stock.'
man
give this young

Agent's suggestion. 'I have no doubt

man,' he replied,*but it belongs to
young
and

man

the

at

'This young

lot of his stock

my

when
stock.

stock
been

am

An

it when
at
army

war.'

was

That

officer in

belongs to Wright; give it

obeyed and nothing more

of it.

come

military instead of civilian Agents been appointed, the

robbery of the Indians already mentioned, and system of graft

"Again, had
wholesale
in

general that

went

on

would

benefited, and trouble averted.

largely avoided, the Indian

always was from surveillance,
suppliesentrusted to his care for the

have
Remote

been
as

he

largequantities of Government
of the Indians, the temptation to dishonest practices for private gain
use
was
Agent. Mr. Darlington,already mentioned
as
Agent
great to every
of the Cheyennes, was
honest an
old man
lived and, being so,
as
as
ever
else honest too, but his employees stole from the
seemed
to think everyone
Indians rightand left,and robbed
them
rightalong, under his very eye,
with

of what

and

he

was

notoriouslywell-known

was

not

aware

on

was

going

on.

the frontier, and

The

graft of the agencies

an
Agent became
many

AMERICAN

THE

318

from

of affairs and

resented
the

hostilityagainst
*I don't see
why
gets rich

spoilsof

the

actuallyrich

added

Whites.

The

the Government

lean

sent

man

fat also, and

give

us

man

take

to

drummed

and

us

has about

the property which

fat at our
grows
his

place,and

he may

if he

us,

keeps

is removed

belly tillhe

is

"

he

as

Agent

one

he

fillhis

said:

once

When

all he wants,

the

by

was

he

W'ith

further

the

lest he be

supphes
civilian it

was

had

associates

numerous

steal Government
army.

officer

army

civilian and

the

of the

out

Cloud

expense,

fact that

the

state

the fire of their

to

belongs to

must

we

lean one!'

W'right calls attention to

than
better judge of human
nature
advantage of discipline.Surrounded
aspiringto promotion, he dared not
out, and

realized the

brand

big old chief Red

our
Agents.

Mr.

found

Indians

another

changes

another

to

way

it as

lookingafter

stop his stealingand leave

when
his place. But
one
and

his office. The

it,and

his trade of

at

INDIAN

was

very

different.

''History gives no
some

raid

western

better
one

band, the Indian

of the

have

all the

their agency
Cheyennes
Cheyennes at Fort Reno, in what is now

Cheyennes
Being unused

not
to

Reno,

wish

to

move

appeared

was

Oklahoma.

among

not

long

in

for the removal

in Dakota,

that

to

The

of the

Northern

protested vigorously,but

climate, it

the southern

before malaria

and

Indians

Cheyenne
orders

gave

from

did

Fort

to

pitiful

the

officialsof the Government

Northern

Southern

at

they

the

with

story of the last Indian

in 1878.
It seems
that for no

Nebraska

wished

in proof of feeble Governmental

in combination

Indians

and

Kansas
that

than

reason

Plains

of the civilian Agents, than

incapacity of

through

strikingexample

more

the

policy with

in vain.

after their arrival

them, numbers

became

sick

Terror-stricken
died.
at this almost
unknown
experience,they
possessed with, the idea that the water they had to drink in the
new
poisoned,and that all would die if they remained.
Going
country was
to return
to the Agent, they begged to be allowed
to their northern
home,
Then
but were
refused.
The Cheyennes
provisionsbegan to grow scarce.
applied to the Agent for permission to go on a buffalo hunt to gain food.
Permission
exterminated
was
granted,but the buffalo had been practically
in that locality,
and, though they hunted for days, not a buffalo could be
in worse
condition than before.
were
found, and the poor savages
They
and

many

became

forced

were

they
upon

to

return

them

for

the North, and

the

kill their few

could

Commander

scrawny

the agency,
while.
Again
to

again they
of the

were

and

ponies for
there

meat

to

sustain

killed their

life until

lived
they
dogs
they begged to be permitted to return to
refused.
In pity for their distress,
however,

fort gave

orders

that

small

ration

and

should

be

BETTER

CLASS

OF

FULL-BLOOD

THIRTY

YEARS

PLALXS
AGO

L\DL\NS

OF

PLAINS

THE

possibly,the cowboy. He and the

therefore they had few encounters.
"It is often asked
her

western

are

several

method
deviated

good reasons.
dealingwith
it is

Canada

has

had

this

well-known

course.

321

littleto do with

States had

had

First, Canada,
the Indians.

in the least from

police,and

Indian

since the United

"

Indians, why

of

INDIANS

She

no

was

so

much

trouble with

with

hers.'^ There

the

were

fact that this mounted

frontier.

with
the Indians

them.
claimed

It invited
no

land

and
over

warranted
in Canada,

start, had

firm with

better
never

awed

and

the Indians

Canadian
never

they

broke

did

tained
enter-

Government

their confidence.
as

them, and

by the Canadian
policereallyprotected
fugitivecriminals,knew

Whiskey peddlers,as well as

this, and knew how firm and just these policewere,
the same
Second, the
feelingtoward them.
Indians
and
word
the
its
with
always strictly
kept
Canada's

other,

trouble

from

They

each

its agreements

Moreover,

in the United

for keeping peace

with the former when
at
they might have a refuge at hand, to which
When
to flyin times of need.
line,they knew
they crossed the Canadian
safe from hostile pursuit. It was
a healthy country, well watered
they were
where
Indians
could easily hide
mountainous,
by clear, cold streams;
when
hard pressed. It had plenty of game
to sustain them, and beautiful,
warm
valleys,full of nutritious grasses and plenty of wood, where they
In summer
could winter comfortably and feel in safety and at home.
it
also a place where they found
was
an
equally ideal place to live. It was
a
ready market for stolen horses and sold them to advantage. One may
ask why they could not have selected Texas for like purposes.
Well, for
from
those which
led them
to select Canada.
just the opposite reasons
Texas
with
much
was
more
unhealthy; they had always been at war
it
and
There
which
to
a glorious
Texas,
besides, was
forage.
country upon
they raided the frontier and not only got all the stock they wanted, but
useful to them.
other things that were
many
"One
should consider the natural propensities
of the American
Indian,
and be convinced
better off in his originalstate than at the
that he was
present time, with all the so-called advantages civilization has brought
him.
This was
of the Plains Indian.
true
a
especially
By nature he was
conditions
nomad, a warrior, a hunter, livingin the open air. Under
a
favoring this nature, he was
healthy,hardy, happy individual, like any
of
under
natural
the absolute reversal from this to conditions
growth;
product
he became
diseased, debilitated,
imposed upon him by civilization,
and inferior;as might be expected from any unnatural
growth."

States, and
war

with

their best

the latter,was

reason

that

AMERICAN

THE

322

Plains

The

Desiring to present

'

its details, I wrote

who

those

where

reservation

for

served

had

I present some
I have taken the

between

the past and

long time.

among

of Sioux, answered

thousands

libertyof changing
much

sound

of the

reforms

brief,but contain

present, in all
Indians, selecting

of the missionaries

One

of his recommendations.

and

are

To-day

of

of missionaries

located

are

Indians

contrast

numbers

to

INDIAN

at

He

a
large
length,
fluently.

speaks Sioux
few expressions. His suggestions

common

His

sense.

advocates

he

on

me

letter

have

written

was

been

inaugurated,
general. This worthy missionary presents
the largerbands of Plains Indians
accurate
an
pictureof conditions among
These Indians were
time.
the
(with some
exceptions)at
entirely
present
forty years ago, and for their present deplorablecondition,
self-supporting
rather than they, are
responsible.
we,
of all is the great poverty of these people.
"What
strikes one
most
from hunger, because they do not know
The majority suffer very much
how
could
make
for
But
to make
they
theinselves,we
a
a good living
living.
believe,if they would but plant a couple of acres, say one
acre
one
corn,
will never
do so unless they are
of them
most
acre
potatoes. However,

in 1909, and
but they have

down

held

They

It is useless to

it.

all not

"The

who

Indian

is

most

generallyfor

work

there for

see

great traveller.
Of

few weeks,

come

what

For

it that these

to

this

he

is it to

go

to

"They

should

be

kinds, with the distinct

:|c

:|c

4c

suppliedwith

seed

understanding

that

else it will be taken

"

done.
so

for work,

the railroad

with little,
find all his

back

adults.

they want,
we
ought

reason

does

cattle and horses scattered

by other people'sstock, his own
and several head missing.'^
:|c

white

thingsare

Sometimes
use

with

as

knowing what

is good for them.

would

pleasure.

them

with

treat

children, not

grown-up

knowing what

farmers

more

made

been

nothing but

are

to have

not

to

above

and

some

over

and

hay devoured
the country,

:|c

in time;

they

must

plenty but
pay

not

many

for it before the

of that. If they learn how

have
turnips,they
enough to
grow
how
learn
this
with.
and
to
make
start
to
grind
corn
They ought
cornbread.
If they raise corn,
they could easilykeep chickens, pigs,milk cows,
and have butter and eggs and cheese, just what
the consumptive needs.
next

issue of money,

to

potatoes,

it may

or

corn

and

until the

be necessary
harvest time comes,

ought

have

Of

course

to

pumpkins

out

or

before the crops are matured

i. e., for a year or two.

enough provisionsto last them

the year

to issue rations

After
around.

that

they

Indians

INDIANS

PLAINS

THE

ought to have facilities for buying pigs and chickens at ordinary market
prices. In fact, they ought to be able to buy all their groceriesat market
prices.

time

on

wolves.
have

When

to

visit.
some

from

come

is the habit of visiting. Some

hindrance

"Another
at

miles and

Crows, Arapahoes, etc., and

will be back

Crows
"A
here.
Indians

intention

have

to

for months

get

is

to

is not

gettinganother

my

their homes

leave

mind

to

work

and

present.
of work

the method

"

criticise but

to

they

present of horses.

year

"

will go off to the

Chances
that the
are

Sometimes

miles, etc.

here next

third hindrance

(My

go away

the
Horses, cattle,and all are left to themselves
or
work
is
relatives
if
is
sick, even
one
quit,
only a baby,

on

offer
the

adopted

suggestion.) The

roads

for $1.25 per

look after their placesnor take care

of
day. Consequently, they cannot
of
stock
head
lost
it
is
loss.
One
else.
In
the
at
home,
run
a
anything
long
month's
one
means
Why could the Indians not make their
wages
gone.
do the work that has been suggested,to cultiLet them
vate
at home.^
money
District
farmers
their fields,to plant,etc. ; have the
control them and
make
for work done.
ments
Many of the thoughts above are the sentipayment
of the better class of Indians, so

their part

oppositionon
fourth

"A

shows,
an

etc.,

Indian

not

hindrance

is the fact that

leaving wife,

gets back,

mentioning

bad

may

you

putting these,

to

children

some

one

habits

and

or

so

be

many

go

everything

else is liable to have

and

shameful

there will be little

sure

similar

diseases

plans,into operation.
away

behind.

to

Buffalo
When

his wife and

he

sometimes

Bill
such

cattle

"

brings

back.
"

"But

it is the old

"

"

"

the sympathy of us all.

people that ought to arouse
filth and neglect,eating old scraps, or swill;
They lie around in the utmost
starvingand freezingin spiteof the fact that they draw rations. If they
it is devoured
by the neighbors;and the poor old
get help from anyone,
people have little benefit from it.
children's lot is a hard one, too.
"The
If they live at home, they have
to go through the rain,mud, cold, etc., to get to the day school.
In many
the
must
Then
have
the
to
family
near
cases,
day-school.
they
neglect
camp
their own
home
entirely.
"At present, the prevailingidea seems
to be that the best way
to do
with the Indian now
is to throw him upon
his own
If the plan
resources.
outlined above or something similar were
carried out for a few years, one
could do so.
To do so at present would
I think, a slaughter,a
mean,

AMERICAN

THE

324

Let

massacre.

family and he may give away

barter away
thing for a jug of whiskey.
every
for the white man,
especiallywhen the latter is
death

in his

come

hoof.

He

may

He

no

match

is

INDIAN

what

by
nothing but

the Sioux

murder

call "Holy

mix

to

up

Water,"
Indians

the

therefore

and

with

Whites

his last
*

panied
accom-

it would

be

rapidly on

too

this reservation.
"The

of
civilizing

going to

be made

the Indians

is

When
some
change
long ahead, and then the red
for it. Otherwise
he is simply carried off his feet, dazed,
man
can
prepare
doesn't know
It is all rightto say, let those
where to go, or what to do.
but
who
do not want
what
about
the innocent
to work
starve,
family,
what about his 'sponging'on the others as they call it.'^One Indian cannot
refuse another anything (especially
as
they are all relations)without being
is

slow

process.

it ought to be announced

ostracized.
"I

what

note

oppositeought
mentioned

are

say

you

about

to be true, but

Were

above.

their lack of food

tuberculosis,and

it is not, for many

it not

must

the

of which

most

reasons,

for their careless and

dirty habits,

be the strongest race

on
they ought
care,
proper
the face of the earth.
could be cured.
cases
By proper treatment
many
tend to everybody on so large
As it is they all die. Two
physicianscannot
a

reservation

and

that

say

to

with

and

their limited
"

"These

are

fullyanswer

your

criticise anyone
done

in the

Indians

can

means.

"""""

few

things that I thought

questions. By doing so, I

in the

past.
be saved

Service, for I know

Still I believe
if we

with

try the methods

I should
did not

that
the

in the least

much

other

in order

mention

been

has

mean

or

to

tried and

missionaries, that

suggestedabove

to

the

similar ones."

CHAPTER
scientist

has

than

A.

No
Indians

XXXI.

Dr.

devoted

and

stocks, published in the

the

in eastern

be

such

into

the

While

pottery

of grass, tule,
in the northwest

also made,

food

varieties
herbs.

Roots

"Both

as

covered

with

the

on

small

were

Santa

greater

and

The

totemism

to

larger

and

their
may

often
earth.

State

in

planks

islands, wooden

of the

part

of

(particularly

arts

raft of tules

was

Deer

considerable

In
were

practised.
fishing; but the
main
reliance
placed on numerous
was
these, on
seeds, especiallyof grasses
was

Only

use.

canoes

nowhere

made

the
and
bulk

and

less used.*

were

and

houses

Barbara

there

next

berries

textile

of bark, sometimes

vegetable.
and

guages.
lan-

forced

bands

were

or

the

acorns,

small

are

The

have

"Houses

hunted, and

was

of

Yuman

The

diversified

practically unknown,
highly developed.

navigation. Agriculture was

were

game

of the

brush,

over

of

majority
unusually dark.

are

linguisticfamilies.
and

states

of those

is their

great majority

part of the State

but

means

small

very

well

they

Indians, he
the

Califomian.

was

were

or

region, as

only

Shoshonean

purely

basket-making)

this

twenty-one
the

than

Indians

Athapascan,

State, whereas

considered

California
distinct

are

the

as

shorter

in the south,

of

characteristic

There

way

are

American

of

rather

CALIFORNIA

and
study to the California
description of California tribes

his

In

Handbook

and

America,

North

astonishing
stocks

natives

OF

time

more

Kroeber.

L.

that

California

INDIANS

THE

gentile organization were

totallylacking
terized
characwas
mythology of the Californians
by unusually well-developed and consistent creation myths, and
traditions.
by the complete lack not only of migration but of ancestor
Their
ceremonies
and
elaborate
as
numerous
were
compared with the
prevailingsimplicityof life,but they lacked almost totallythe rigidritualism
of America.
and extensive
of most
symbolism that pervade the ceremonies
One
connected
with
set of ceremonies
secret
was
usually
religioussociety;
a
held in remembrance
of the dead."
another, often spectacular, was
in all parts of the

We
Indians

are

concerned

the

past

continent, there
and

generally

the

Mexican

adventurers
*

Handbook

The

in this

sixty

is

no

true

State.

in which
The

of American

from

ranchmen
Indians,

the

page

191,

the
an

native

confiscation

followed

Government,

with

Without

years.

area

diminished.

and

book

by

the

1849-1860,
Vol

I.

condition

exception

of the
on

the

California
American

suddenly
properties by
great influx of gold-hunters,
are
responsible for the depopulation

of the

mission

has

so

THE

plorable condition

AMERICAN

in which

INDIAN

these

Indians

found

themselves

about

1880.

Prior to the influx of the

Forty-niners,the Indians had been self-supporting

(although the action of the Mexican
near
came
bringing
government
about their destruction). California people themselves
took little interest
in the wretched
condition of the aboriginalinhabitants and it was
not until
States Board
of Indian Commissioners
the United
and the Indian Rights
Association

active

became

that

reforms

and

citizen of California

commissions

sent

individuals

or

inaugurated. Honorable

were

(and founder

of the Lake

Albert

Mohonk

fornia,
Cali-

to

K.

Smiley,

Conference)

was

work.
A Mr. Painter was
sent
out
especiallyactive in this humanitarian
in
Association
the
Indian
1885.
Painter
made
vestigation
by
Rights
a thorough inand laid formal complaint, with the backing of the Mohonk
Conference, before the President of the United States. The usual delays
occurred.
who

in turn

Association
of that

referred

President

The

the

to

General,

Attorney

Secretaryof the Interior. The Indian Rights

and Mr. Herbert
Welsh, Secretary
responsibility,

assumed

now

Indians

The

matter

referred it to the

his check

organization, sent

of the

the

for $3,300

pending before

was

Indians

of the

the

held

be

to

while

the

case

court.*

public at Lake Mohonk

by
various
H. H.
speakers, and through the country generally by Mrs.
Jackson.
The
of the mission
Indians, sustained by these various
case
heard
and
in the courts
and resulted in
individuals, was
organizations
victory for the Indians of California.
further evicted and became
ceedingly
exDuring the '90's the Indians were
wrongs

destitute.

died

Many

made

were

of

starvation.

The

Indians

seemed

alike took
utterlyunable to protect themselves and miners and ranchmen
As
illustration
California
the
in
of
them.
of
situation
an
advantage
every
as
compared with that in the Black Hills,South Dakota, I will here relate
a

at Dead
story told me
had
A miner, who

Black

spent some
1875, when gold

Hills about

chain,

as

fob,

convivial

some

Indian

by

the

in 1889.

wood

two

Indian

teeth.

struck

and

knocking out several teeth. Two

souvenirs.
to his watch-chain, as
present, suggested that the miner

might be different from

Out
*

in the

Report of

on

him

years

the

course

Board

in California,

discovered;

He

Deadwood

one

wore

he

mouth

to

came

the

his watch-

on

hall he informed

dance

occasion

in the

took

with

California

his six-shooter,

jewelerdrill and wire

An
old trapper, who
happened to be
Sioux
two
or
teeth, as they
one
procure
of these he had

''Digger teeth", and

foothills in the

Eighteenth Annual

In

companions, that
hair

ten
was

of

of Indian

few

would

add

to

davs, the miner

Commissioners,

1886, page

46.

his collection.
met

Sioux

LINGUISTIC
From

STOCKS
Handbook

IN

CALIFORNIA

of American

Indians

THE

Kroeber

Dr.

260,000.

INDIANS

CALIFORNIA

OF

the number

estimates

at not

less than

The

150,000.

little less than

of Indian Affairs for 1913 shows
a
figuresof the Bureau
for 1910.
This decrease
20,000, being slightly
largerthan the U. S. census
conservative
of the most
is certainlyextraordinary,being nearly 90%
estimate
of former
population, and nearly all taking place within the
of persons
memories
are
variouslygiven as war,
living. The causes
now
famine, whiskey, disease,etc., and all doubtless played their parts in the
decrease.

Merriam

Dr.

states

the

causes

as

follows:

appallinglygreat and rapid decrease in

principal
the Indians of California is not the number
directlyslain by the Whites,
killed
the
number
more
directly
by whiskey or disease, but a much
or
subtle and dreadful thing: it is the gradual but progressiveand resistless
of which
confiscation of their lands and homes, in consequence
they are
far from water,
often
and
barren
forced to seek refuge in remote
localities,
in places
usuallywith an impoverished supply of food, and not infrequently,
"The

where

the

is too

climate

winter

constitutions.

for their enfeebled

severe

aggressiveselfishness of the Whites,

of the

Victims

of the

cause

outcasts

in the

land

in
sacred institutions,weakened
of their fathers, outraged in their most
body, broken in spirit,and fully conscious of the hopelessnessof their

condition,
their

camps

must

we

wonder

the wail for the

that

is often

dead

heard

in

.^"

SpecialInvestigatingAgent, appointed under the Act of March 3,

it as largelydue to the "progressiveabsorptionby the white
of existence."*
of the Indians' every
means
During the famines
race
the
after
American
all Indian bands
to which
occupation,
subject
were
the old people and especially
the children would die.
at
Government
After California was
fully American, the National
it
has
Commission
of
citizens,
as
distinguished
Washington, sent out a
The

1905,

states

done

many

California
W.

Barbour,

craft.

Honorable

Redick

They traveled about

all Indians
that

treaties with the

in other parts of the country, to make
Honorable
consisted
of
the
This commission
Indians.
George
times

time.

west

Two

with

were

Honorable

militaryescort

of the Sierra Nevada,

treaties

and

McKee

made

about

and

90%

by the whole

O.

made

M.

Wozen-

treaties with

of all in the State

Commission.

at

They

taking a different part of the State. Four

separated,each member
and
four by George W. Barbour
made
were
by Redick McKee,
E. D.
C. Fremont,
John
Keyes, George
eight by O. M. Wozencraft.
well known,
and others afterward
Stoneman,
signed as witnesses to some
all
alike and were
much
treaties were
of these eighteen treaties. The
then

treaties

Report of C. E. Kelsey,SpecialAgent, March

21, 1906.

THE

330

definite and

simple.

of the United

INDIAN

AMERICAN
In each

treaty the Indians

States, agreed to keep the peace

accepted the sovereignty

with

Whites

and

with

other

Indians, ceded to the United States their title to their lands and agreed
and bounds
in the treaties.
to accept reservations,duly laid out
by metes
On

its part the United

States reserved for Indian
and agreed to pay for the lands ceded

reservations
cash.

not

When

these treaties went

to

forever the specified

use
by the Indians, in goods,
Washington, they were
accompanied
extraordinarycheapness of the lands

callingattention to the
and the country upon
congratulatingthemselves
the Indians were
too unsophisticatedto demand
annuities
of beeves, thousands
goods promised consisted of thousands

by a statement
acquired and
that
The

the
or

fact

money.

of sacks

of flour,thousands

of blankets, suits of clothes, dresses, tools, work animals,

cloth, iron, steel, etc., worth about $1,000,000 at that time.
Teachers,
also promised on
schools, blacksmiths, farmers, etc., were
a
large scale.
The

reservations
of land.

acres

The

than seven
promised aggregate more
treaties
were
eighteen
signedby 422

tribes,or bands.

186

districts and

there

of the reservations

much

was

the United

chiefs

laid out

were

half million

representing
mining

in the

the treaties among

the miners.
submitted
of
the
Senate
to
were

oppositionto

time, 1851-'52, Indian

that

At

Some

and

treaties

States for ratification.

eighteen California treaties were

ratified. Nothing further
not
heard
about
them
discovered
was
until, fifty-twoyears later, they were
in the secret
archives of the Senate, the injunction of secrecy
removed
and the treaties published. The Government
of the United
States seems
duly brought

to

never

The
as

before

the

Senate

made

any

attempt

have

nevertheless

Government

well, and

every

but

has

the

benefits of the

not

on

then

treaties
some

been

other

its part
made.

were

make

to

has

land
from

the

priceagreed or

It would

that

seem

treaties,it should

ratified

or

pay

of California.

further
the

the

treaties.

reservations,

eighteen treaties,

carried out

other

any

received

Government

price agreed, whether

that the Government

rightof occupancy,
day. The failure

should
a

Government,

could

call their

own.

There

was

Not
no

foot of land

have

right which

of the

the
taken

has not

treaties and
were

source

of

remained

gagement
en-

the

disastrous

which
they
aboriginalfood supply which
white man
might not be appropriatedby some
day, and most of the
any
soon
appropriated for mines or cattle or agriculture. The
country was
Indians
forced into a hand-to-mouth
were
existence, interspersedwith
of
the
which
famine,
periods
risinggeneration perished. A great
during
to

Indians

or

and

if the

the

ensuing period of inaction by the National

the

other

the

paid

taken

any

benefit to be derived

not, and
steps to acquire the Indian
to this
legallyterminated
were

These

and

THE

INDIANS

OF

CALIFORNIA

331

introduced
the
were
variety of diseases, previously unknown,
among
Indians, against which they had no inherited immunity. Diseases which
white

among

considered

people are

of littleconsequence,

such

whooping-

as

fatal to

cough, measles, etc., are

virulent
scarcity. The more
also took

their toll from

Indians, especiallyduring periods of

diseases such as smallpox, tuberculosis,etc.,

the Indian

and

camps,

claimed

whiskey

its thousands

of victims.
In

part of the United

other

any

would

doubtless

have

resulted

possiblein California.

The

in

States, the

treaties

failure of the

general Indian

This

war.

of Indian

extraordinarynumber

not

was

dialects (over

known), belonging to some

twenty diverse and antagonistic
racial stocks, was
enough in itself,to have prevented anything like united
135

are

now

action.

Within

200,000

active, vigorous,masterful

of the

The

day.

mining

Indians

districts and

with bows

and

California

so

or

year

could

not

possiblynot
and

arrows

clubs.*

clashes between
Indians

as

Indians

an

and

mustered

Indian

period of

would

with

the

have

cause

weapons

the

occasional

with

war,

The

in the

they were
hopelessfrom
disastrous

fullyas

been.

to

armed

was

near

was

100,000

best

30,000 warriors

California,and

Whites, which

campaign

open

have

The

Nevertheless, there ensued

start.

armed

in all

from

occupied by

was

men,

to

encounters

are

the
ferred
re-

recorded.
"battles", of which quitea largenumber
are
as
locally,
The Indians were
shot
of
miners
down
surrounded
and
by posses
usually
and citizens,in retaliation of some
the
Indians, or some
aggressionby
been "wiped
to have
allegedaggression. Some Indian bands are known
to,

out"

by

because

their

the Federal

room

by cattle

wanted

was

for the

Government

men

protectionof

settlers. No

or

action

is recorded.

the Indians

In

The Hupa
the diflSculties resulted in actual border warfare.
one
case
Indians, goaded into action by the influx of settlers into their valley,went
the warpath, during the sixties. They were
on
joinedby their neighbors,
ensued
for a
the Yurocs, or Lower
frontier
Klamaths, and a sharp
war

couple

of years.
land

the

reservations.
war

under

averted

was

which

The
to

Government

finallybought

Indians

gave

the

similar trouble

by

one

the Indians

and
arose

of those
received

the Hupas

the

and

Valley in

at Round

compromises
one-quarter

out

squatters,

Yurocs
the

well known

of their

own

stored
re-

definite

but
eighties,
in the
land

West,

and

the

settlers received

three-quarters.
Reports published from time to
Indian
OflSce was
not
wholly without
"

The

Federal

census

for 1850

showed

Indians, 31,266 being "domesticated."

W'ashington show that

knowledge of Indian conditions

time

at

population of 92,597 Indians; State Census

the
in

of 1852, 255,122

THE

332

AMERICAN

INDIAN

California,but littlewas

attempted and less accomplished for Indian relief.

established, or attempted to be established by
Executive
order.
One was
invalidated by the Courts, which held the land
to be within a Mexican
land grant. One was
raided and seized by settlers,
who had suflScient political
the caninfluence to hold the land and secure
cellation
Several

reservations

were

of the Executive
and

another

desired

was

Tule
or

reservation

River,

to

their

The

than

more

few

to

centrated
con-

was

settlement".

"opening
period remains to this day, and

in size

of the Indians.

consent

suflScient influence

and

included

with fine timber

laid out

was

secure

of that

diminished

was

One

by cattlemen

Congress

upon

small

one

order.

half, without

Only

this

OflSce

appearing in the Indian

items

one,

knowledge

the

rather
in reports to the Board
of Indian Commissioners,
were
reports,
more
optimisticthan the situation warranted, for the oflScers making
or

those reports were

at the same
and doubtless
mentioned
The

fact that

favorable

time
as

items

givingan

ship
steward-

own

things as they could.

is eloquent of the conditions

favorable

many

were

of their

account

so

few

estimates that the California Indians

existing.Dr. C. Hart Merriam
of 7,000 per annum*,
and this must
rate
decreasingat an average
have been under conditions involvingan
of misery and
appallingamount
well understood
that the California Indians were
suffering. It was
"fading
occurred to no
to have
to look into the
away" rapidly,yet it seems
one
what the
and see
matter
or
why the Indians were
decreasingin numbers
being faded. Commissioner
physicalsteps were
by which the Indians were
fornia,
Wozencraft, in the earlyfifties,
an
published
appeal to the people of Calibut it met
of ejecting
with no
The process
particularresponse.
Indians from the ownership or possessionof anything considered of value

then
were

to

white

any

went

man

perished diminished
left to die.
race

It

could

which

they

able to

do

at

on

each

without

once

simply because there were

be expected that the members

fewer

year,

hardly to

was

of Indians

the number

check, and

readjust themselves

had

been

submerged

so.

Nor

could

it be

so

to

who

Indians

of this savage
fierce civilization under

the

suddenly, and only

few Indians

expected, doubtless, that the

were

white

new

population,so largelyfrom the Middle West, with 200 years' traditions

of Indian fightingbehind
them, should show any particularconsideration
for Indians who were
unable to fight. The
attitude of the great majority
of white

citizens

minority
church
there
*

were

to

seems
were

American

not

was

apathetic, rather than

allowed
have

their will with

made

wanting

Anthropologist,page

any

the

efforts

on

hostile, and
Indians.
behalf

distinguishedinstances
603, Vol. VII, No.

4.

For

the

years

of Indians, and

where

active

more

individuals

no

local

though
braved

INDIANS

THE
local

for the

public opinion by standing out

times

the

upon

small.

was

CALIFORNIA

OF

The

rightsof Indians,

of the

attitude

333

Calif ornians

the effect

is reflected

by the provisionsof their early codes in regard to Indians. See Act of the
Legislatureof California approved April 22, 1850, Ch. 408, section 3650
of that day. Indians were
Code
et seq. of the California
placed under
Originallyan Indian could not sue or be sued, but
justicesof the peace.
of Indian minors was
Cruel treatment
altered in 1855.
this was
punishable
by a fine of $10. Any Indian who had fallen into the clutches of the law
finable offense, had his labor sold to the highestbidder, until his
a
upon
for the fine.*
worked
fine was
Any
out, the purchaser giving a bond
haled into a justice
of
be
the
Indian
could upon
citizen,
complaint
any
Indian
"able-bodied
vagrant" and his labor sold to
court, adjudged an
These
laws were
enforced
for four months. f
the highest bidder
never
before
dead
letter
had
become
and
were
a
they
long
oppressively
very
laws
of
which
Indians
the
in
Nor
State
1883.
ones
were
only
repealed
finally
forty years,
occupation,for some
might complain. After the American
which
Indian could in California acquire
in
there was
an
no
practicalway
The Indian was
citizen and
not
title to land from the public domain.
a
could
not

select land

not

under

which

of the

and

too

onerous,

few

Indians

no

were
one

could

become

land

He

acts.

There

citizen.

was

citizen,until the

was

no

law

passage

in

Act

designatedto

was

heard

ever

Indian

other

or
as

Indian
homestead
The
Acts
1887.$
of little value, as the technical requirements were

allotment

1883

homestead

the

be naturalized

not

California

general

of 1875

under

could

alien and

an

that Indians

see

Under

of the Acts.

the

assisted and

were

generalallotment

Act

and

made
in California.
1800 Indian allotments
were
subsequent to 1891, some
This allotting
done by SpecialAgents sent from Washington, who were
was
unfamiliar
with local conditions, hence water
rights,soil quaHties,timber,
looked

not
etc., were
of little or no
were

value

after,and
to

the

value

the Indians.

to

few

unappropriated
*

allotments

Sec. 3662.

f Sec.

allottees.

that

were

In the remainder
the

and

of Indians.

number

the Indian

in the five northeastern

made

counties

of these allotments

at least two-thirds

allotment

laws

About

counties

1400

of the State and

inhabitable

have

of the State

brought

of the 1800

no

were

ments
allot-

in these

of great
littleland

proved

there

was

relief to

the

larger

"
t Act of Feb. 28,

3668.

1887

(24 Statutes

at

Large, page 388).

valuable little
occupying, that b, the more
"In thirteen cases I found the land the Indians were
the land occupiedwas
not only
outside of the reservation as laid out and in six of these cases
was
valleys,
unpatented and unprotected,but the land patented to the Indians was barren rocks, utterlyworthless.
from the land selected for the Indians in an
In one
the reservation patented was
six miles away
case
the boundaries were
at all and the adjoining
not marked
entirelydifferent township. In most cases
owners

moved

the lines

over

onto

the Indians.

AMERICAN

THE

334

The

twenty

period of
years

and

war,
was

near

INDIAN
and

oppression lasted rather less than

by a period of eviction of somewhat

war

succeeded

when
filed on a tract of land and
At first,
a white
man
longer duration.
Indians
he
find
might
suBMnarily ejected any
livingthere, the Indians
could move
to some
tion
on
adjoiningtract, where the opportunitiesfor starvatime
But
much
land
became
went
were
equallygood.
as
scarcer
on,
and fewer land owners
were
willingto allow Indians to occupy their ranches
in small part. The evictions continued
and as those recentlyevicted
even
could find no unoccupied tract to live on, they began to crowd into other

settlements, which
that
small

had not yet been summoned

The result was
to move.
in
parts of the State, the Indians gradually concentrated
known
where
lived
settlements, locally
rancherias,
as
they
upon

in many

the sufferance of

A change in ownership
land owner.
kindly-disposed
some
In these rancherias
eviction for the Indians.
usually meant
both
the conditions were
sanitation
and morals.
The
to
unspeakable,
as
Indians felt they were
in their last ditch and that there was
nothing for
them to look forward to but extinction.
The Indians were
surrounded
by
in contact
civilization,but not of it. They came
chieflywith the vices

of the land

the

of civilization and
American

vicious

white

occupation three-fourths

element.

of the

Forty

California

after

years

Indians

had

the

still to

learn what

of them were
stillheathen.
a missionarymight be and nine-tenths
priestand the Levite had passed by on the other side,and the good
Samaritan
in Jerusalem.
had been unavoidably detained
The first general awakening as to conditions among
the Indians of
California came
with the publicationof Helen Hunt
Jackson's "Century
of Dishonor"
in the eighties,
and "Ramona",
and by 1890 Congress had
passed an act for the relief of the Indians of Southern California. This
needed.
The
much
Smiley Commission
was
appointed under this Act
The

increased

the number

of small

reservations

in

California

Southern

from

of those formerly in
thirty-fourand enlarged most
able
indefeasible
title and these
fixed
to
a
give
They
thenceforward
Indians were
in
their
The
homes.
secure
Smiley ConMnission
not
was
given funds suflScient to develop water upon the tracts reserved,
most
a
tains
important matter, for the Indians had been crowded into the mounabout

seventeen

to

existence.

and
The

were

on

Southern

barren tracts, which

California Indians had

to

longerbefore an attempt was

where
they could live with
Northern

and

Central

made
some

no

white
wait

no

at

that time

wanted.

some

California,numbering

those in the State, received

man

fifteen to twenty years

to put their lands into habitable shape,
The Indians of
approach to comfort.
to

benefit from

more

the

than

three-fourths

awakening

as

to

of

Southern

AMERICAN

THE

336

been

below

the starvation

their

livingwas,

line and

their

was

perform whatever

labor

they

Where
not

too

many

suflScient work

and

with

for remaining
racial stocks

The

also renders

themselves

old racial

their
we

concentrate.

necessary

Indians.

as

placeswhere

perized.
pau-

trated.
concen-

place,there is

one

antagonism between
to

Indians

their

may

the
The

own

reasons

call superstitious

antagonistic
Indian

ciation
Asso-

could
no
proposed
be secured from the public domain, small tracts should be purchased, in
the immediate
neighborhood of the Indians, where they have friends and
employers.*
Association
The
Indian
then, 1904, began a vigorous campaign in
of securingfrom Congress
California,largelyeducational, for the purpose
the land

that in

in

in
and

planned
with

the Indians

the

have

districts,which

it inadvisable

therefore

wish

concentrated

are

Indians

their ancestral

within

sentimental.

or

Indians

wish

not

not

as

have

them

Association

independence, or

things they did

did

Indians

life about

Indian

their

Association

the

The

get.

can

to

Also, the Indian

the industrial

to

it,but such

of the California

Most

own.

interfere in any
manner
industrial position. Above
all

not

far above

usually not

adjusted themselves

measure

some

it

INDIAN

basis for further

work

land for allotment

on

behalf

of the California

nearly all of the societies working for the benefit

had been nearing a
California matters
joined.
most
crisis,with the Indians there, owing to lack of water
reservations,
on
indefinite boundaries, etc., and
also
for
relief. The
were
they
asking
the leadingspirit,
Sequoya League, of which Charles F. Lummis, Esq., was
the most
California. In 1905 Congress directed
active body in Southern
was
an
investigationof the whole Indian situation in California,and C. E.
California Indian Association,
Kelsey, General Secretary of the Northern
the investigation.The report of this investigation
selected to make
was
Office March
the
Indian
made
was
by
21, 1906.
published
Congress soon
an
appropriationof $100,000 for the relief of the California Indians and
further appropriatedtwo years later. Some
further sums
$50,000 was
were
also given for fencing,surveying and other such items.
The
plan presented
with
Indian
favor
Board
of
the
Association
the
Indian
met
by
In this effort

of Indians

In

Southern

*When
Kelsey took charge he found on
and on most
of them none
at all.
irrigation
no

reservation

was

there any

attempt

made

no

reservation

This

to

in

was

country

protect the

water

there

adequate supply of water for

is absolutelylife. On
irrigation
supply,and land which controlled the
an

where

I think the surveyors

have
left out of the reservations in most
must
done so
cases.
carefully
fifteen or twenty years'slow starvation for the Indians, and greatlyincreased
knowingly. Thb meant
I have spent one-third of my
difficultieslater when we
time during
tried to correct
things. I presume
California Indians, which ought to have been
the last ten years in fightingfor thingsfor the Southern
water

was

settled twenty

years

before.

THE

INDIANS

Commissioners
almost

Mr.

Kelsey
lands

allottingsuch

and

of Indian Affairs and was

adopted
appointed to have charge of purchasing
required and served until the appropriations

was

as

exhausted.

were

337

the Conmiissioner

and

in toto,

CALIFORNIA

OF

were

The

for water

need

the

upon

Southern

fornia
Cali-

chieflyfrom direct appropriationsfor the

IrrigationService and a large share of this work is already completed.
California have all been settled
The vexing boundary questionsin Southern
considerable additions made
and some
to the reservations from the public
Cahfomia
the work
of getting
domain
and from purchase. In Northern
small fraction of land is not quite so far along,
all Indians on their own
California Indian
but is nearingcompletion. When, in 1903, the Northern
land
for
the
landless Indians
its
Association
to secure
movement
began
reservations

met

was

situation

of California, the land

about

follows

as

reservations, So. Calif

On

reservations.No.

On

allotments,So. Calif
allotments.No. Calif

On

California

Indians

estimated

was

On

On

of the

land

3,500

Calif

1,700
250

2,800
and

by churches, societies,etc.,

owned

by

themselves

1,100

to be landless

Estimated

8,000
17,350

It

estimated

was

The

domain.

2,000

some

were

Indians

fewer

that

above

possibleto

given homes
proved inadequate in some

2,000 could

be

in the State

Indians

more

had

take

about

estimates

land of their

own

than

had

than

was

public

respects. There

been

supposed.

the

from

estimated

Still as

and

it proved

of 4,200 from the publicdomain

and within the National
be purchased was
land must
from whom
not increased.

care

Forests, the number

for the purchase of

more
enough to take care of one-half
appropriationshall have been used, nearly

Congress has recentlyappropriated$10,000

land for these Indians, but this will not
of those

remaining.

of the California

should

be

this has
and
the

been

done

Indians

will have

for immediately.
without

practicallyno expense
magnitude of the work, the
by

no

that the debt

means

which

been

expense

has

be

The

understood

of reservations

for maintenance.

the Government

extinguished.

given homes.

It should

the establishment

with

conceded
is

provided

this

When

10,000

be

In

others
that

or

comparison
and

all

agencies

it must

with

been

small

owes

the California Indians

be

INDIAN

AMERICAN

THE

338

present land situation (1914)in California is about

The

as

follows:

On

reservations,No. Calif

1,944

On

reservations. So. Calif

On

3,416
2,800

On

allotments,No.
allotments.So.
allotments,No.
allotments.So.

On

National

On
On

Calif. (Old)
Calif. (Old)

250

Calif. (New)

400

Calif. (New)

238

Forests

3,000

newly purchased lands

Allotments
arranged for
On land owned
by Indians
On land owned
by churches, societies,etc

4,800

Not

1,841

On

yet taken

600
300
250

of

care

19,839

awakening in regard to the California Indians was by no

The Indian Association has been working upon
to land.

The
confined
sentiment

Association
work.

began efforts

The

Indian

other

school

age

By

1904

it

in Northern
1914

to

Also
was

an

and

take up

some

school
various

that

number

were

the

way,

privilegesand to
phases of Indian

only

of field matrons
1000

in any kind
less
than
that
1000 were

California

public

eightday schools and increased

increased

estimated

under

purchases were

schools

secure

organizationsto

it is estimated

increase in school

the land

OflSce established

capacity of others.

appointed. In
2800.

the first. After

and
religious

urge

the

from

means

Indian
of
not

were

children

school,

out

in school.

of
of

The

largelyin the public schools of the State.

Racial prejudiceagainst Indians
in California in the earlier days was
intense and the idea of allowingan Indian child in school was
considered
numbers
the
Indians
decreased
in
all
fear
As
of
them
passed
preposterous.
For many
and in time a kindlier feelingarose.
this racial
years
away,
of Indians from gettingan adequate
prejudiceprevented the greater number
of work.
With
increased population and the increased
amount
increased demand
for labor with a
an
development of California came
Indians.
industrial
diminished
The
prejudice against
position of the
Indians has therefore improved. In some
parts of the State the Indians
well
fair
In
there is littlework for anyat
others
employed
are
fairly
pay.
one
and in these portionsof the State Indians have to go many
miles for
They cut wood, put up hay, cultivate and pick hops, pick
a littlework.
and other fruit and do all kinds of odd jobs. As their employment
grapes
is stilllargelyseasonal,it is not wholly satisfactory.One excellent thing
attendance

is

THE
the

about

INDIANS

In 1907

California

there

missions
Catholic

increased

have

work

local churches

neighborhoods.

The

California

livingwithin

made

before

the

Indian, often termed

Statements

not

are

mentality,little above
beings. Such statements

human

quite

that

the

the brutes
entitled

tribes.

Teachers

had

This

4,000.

has been

were

allotments
sary
neces-

was

plished
accom-

considerably

California
about

of
own

3,600,

legislation
was

and

are

exceed

not
some

homes.

own

in the

in their

600

some

Further

The

number

Indians

"Digger",

wanting

of deficient

missionaries

now

and

Forests,of whom

of Northern

missionaries.

of Indians,

be given their
(36 Stat. L. 855)

California

is that

the Protestant

1914

probably does

number

established.

were

are

in the

3,000 could

in 1910.

maligned.

of converts

the National

the forests

before

The

number

By

twenty

Indians

themselves

considerable

found

California

interested

have

Indians

to the Indians

missions.

seventeen, with
extended.
There

of the

14,000

missions

Catholic

to

has also been

field for about

In

three Roman

or

339

itself.

five Protestant

were

California and two

CALIFORNIA

revival of interest in the California

recent

more

largelyin

it is

OF

Indians

were

the lowest

of all

credence.
to no
Kroeber,
and
all
writers
Lummis,
Merriam, Powers,
having
actual acquaintance with the California Indians, place them
as
equal to

Barrett, Goddard,
of the

any

other

American

schools say that the California Indian children

Indians they have ever
as any
taught. Nearly
are

in the public schools

inferior to that
admitted
those
with

of the white
few

that

in better

of California

Indian

children

of Indian

honest, reliable and

them

be done

cannot

thousand

one

same

have

Indian

Indian

children

scholarshipis in no
age, though it must

after adolescence.

attend

from

wise
be

few

of

schools

graduated
high
exception,pronounce

labor, without

capable. They

when

we

Oriental

California

and capable
intelligent

can

be

trusted

to

work

alone,

Conviction
floatingWhites.
of. Statistics gathered in 1909
of an Indian for theft is almost unheard
showed
twenty-eight Indians in the prisons of California for crimes of
the influence of liquor,and not
when
under
violence, mostly committed
Indian
for
theft
crimes
robbery or
markable
one
or
against property. This is rewhich

with

as

their

of the

financial circumstances

Employers

honors.

children

and

in the
are

consider

labor

or

the straits under

which

the Indians

are

often

placed.
Present
Southern
water

is

schooled.

conditions

look

favorable

for

the

California

Indians.

In

harassing troubles have been settled,and

California is overpossible. Southern
being supplied wherever
schools have a capacity for about 1200 pupils
The Government
California

the

most

there

and

minute

for other
revert

of
this

forms

The

former

to

the

The

years.

has

last

itself the

The

of Indians.
The

Office.

Indian

the field and

all times

be

unwillingbureau
doubtless

be

put

tend

years

show

to

that

attributed

is, an
for

outsider

eight

some

the Indian

Office

to

power

Office has received

may

and

yet
individuals,

from

new

More

initiate any
for the relief
movement
spiritthat compels redress has not resided in the Indian

within

not

The

aroused
to
people seem
that
matters
unlikely
appropriation will take
has been accomplished

seems

together. This may

influences lasted longer. That
in charge of the work
was

hundred

one

it

stillhomeless.

Association

Indian

white

and

conditions.

the fact that the external

to

from

of school age in that district. In

have been supplied with

California

all others

than

"spurt"

children

of assistance

part of the Indians

INDIAN

seven-eighthsof the Indians

of land.

amounts

ever

care

Indian

800

California

the need
will

about

are

Northern

in

AMERICAN

THE

340

presumed

to

act,

always the

from

come

associations

who

have

the

or,

outside,

compelled

often

unwilling Congress to
an
inclined
bureaucracy. I am

with

case

sufficient reports from

knowledge of conditions at

had

for relief has

often from

more

or

to

movement

every

all times

at

have

This

act.

think

to

an

is

this

of organization. As it is, the authority

largelyfrom the manner
with
who seldom or never
lies
the field and
decide questions
see
persons
without personalknowledge of that they are doing. The men
who know

results
to
are

the

field have

no

and

power

the

who

men

have

the power

do

know

not

the field.
has

Bureaucracy
so

of initiative and

resent

any

in

My

Brother's

Keeper."

Charles

My

Brother's

Kee^ier."

Charles

The

Story of Cyrus

The

Pity of It."

The

Sequoya

Vol.

XVIII,
The

League.

the

League."

League."

of the

investigations,

Leaf.

"Quaker

Sequoya

Reports

think

to

all

more

Charles

"

The

Land

1900.

F.

Warner

Land

1900.

Lummis,
Ranch

of Sunshine.
Out

1903.
Indians

Vol.

of Sunshine.
of Sunshine.

Land

C. J. Crandall, 1900.

S. Wilkins,

of Sunshine.

Land

1899.

F. Lummis,

lose all

of

sense

F. Lummis,

to

Out

Vol.

West.
West,

XI.

Vol.
Vol.

XII.

139,

pp.

XII.

XII.

pp.

207,

263,

333.

28, 90.

pp.

352.

244.

pp.

Vol.

XVIII,

1903.

Vol.

pp.

81, 213,

XVIII.

pp.

355.

441; Out

West,

Part

II,

589.

Sequoya

Bullying
The

pp.

Hawk."

Bertha

New

inclined

am

The

employees seem
learn to
individuality.They soon
This is probably why the reports of conbut routine work.
ditions
California and elsewhere have fallen into deaf pigeonholes.

power

Turning

in others.

than

result and

curious

one

Service

in the Indian

etc.

Board

Charles
Indians.""
Charles
of

Indian

F. Lummis,
Charles

Out

1903.
F. Lummis,

F. Lummis.1903.

Commissioners,

Out
and

Vol.

West.
1903.

Out

West.
Interior

XVIII,

West.

Vol.

pp.

Vol.

XVIII,

Department,

pp.

477, 625.

XVIII.

pp.

669.

743.

1871-1908,

for

full descriptions

of

CHAPTER

XXXII.

STATISTICAL

MEN

AND

WOMEN

The

we
past forty years
Secretary of the Interior

in the
these

detailed, but

not

were

Agents, Superintendents
In
table

the

1908

United

containing

valuable

and
I do

though
chapter
my

of the

do not

wish

statistics

form

in condensed

this book

to

the

late years,
opinions of

Commissioners

of Indian

Board

the

to

become

excellent

that

reason

general

for the

tables

is

lems.
probUnder

vital statistics.

discussed, in

presented

not

Indian

in handling

Government

I have

have

published

information

The

twenty-six questions.

health

to

Until

employees.
to

Indians, but

advancement

Indian

on

OflSce reports.

it omits
devoted

health

FIELD

THE

reproduce the table here for the

protection of property, and

not

it was,

had
Indian

and

States

of service

was

have

presented

and

answers

IN

BY

PREPARED

TABLE.

way,

the
that

reason

statistical in character.

too

of the statistical and

other reports submitted
Feeling that none
by
Honorable
the
Superintendents, Special Agents, Inspectors
even
or
Commissioner
himself
emphasized the phase of the situation which in
the most
important, I have prepared a table of my own.
my
eyes seemed
Two
in the
and woman
general questions might be asked every man
Indian
Service, every educated
in,
Indian, and every
or
near,
living
person
"

"

Indian

communities.

First,

"Is

discriminated

On

must

two

The

the

citizen,

white

or

is he

being

general

well

important questions hang

the

entire

who

knew

and

missionaries

and

to obtain
opinions from those
progressing. The information

States, where

region
Michigan.
west

table

upon

Of

were

of the

Indians

now

live.

Mississippi,with

the

I desired

Naturally,
exception of

and

excellent

is based

Race.

United

the

to

physicians.
in the

as

physical, financial
years?"

decided

wards

our

in Wisconsin

1913

Red

thought, I
how

confined

tracts

treated

pertinent and

very

all of the

cover

was

are:

citizen

his moral,

American

some

first hand

at

it

"Has

of the

After

Indian

diminished, the past twenty

or

these

future

the

against?"

Second,

increased

These

prepared

statistics

necessity,it
other

Department.

sent

could

observers.

Sells in his report of

Superintendents, teachers and

by Commissioner
in
not

It

by

include

presents

statements

the

views

or

of

opinions of
employees

INDIAN

AMERICAN

THE

342

deliberation,a series of fourteen

questions were
prepared and
and women
addressed to upward of 300 men
representingevery reservation,
school.
half
of these
Indian
Nearly
replied,and on
community, or
345 to 358 I have
grouped under these
presented their comments
pages
the questionssufficiently
elastic
various questions. I have tried to make
the
of
section
to cover
subject. Specific
phase
requests appliedto one
every
For instance, a series of
of the country, might be out of place in another.
be
if
answered
the
not
Navaho,
might
intelligently
questionsconcerning
applied to the Ojibwa of Wisconsin.
that the answers
observes
In studying the table of statistics,one
This
is
natural.
of
tration;
illusdifference
As an
indicate a wide
quite
opinion.
at Pine
a
Superintendent,
Ridge, Major Brennan
competent
thinks that
who has been in charge of the fightingSioux for many
years
than formerly;whereas
there is less sickness and more
a prominent
progress
missionary takes the opposite view. Another missionary offers a compromise
between
view, and the opinion of his worthy
as
Major Brennan's
This difference does not reflect on the report of Major Brennan,
co-laborer.
honest difference of opinion. Missionaries
and their assistants
but is an
After

"

"

go

about

does the

the Indians

among

Agent,

who

of the

of

certain part of the reservation

officialduties.
many

than

more

engrossed in

lengthy, and extremely interesting.

all of them should be reproduced in this chapter.
it possible,
Were
of answers
received promptly, others have
A number
to
were
come
hand a few at a time, the past four months.
Others are still arriving. It
be remembered
that these people are
all earnest
must
workers, whether
the
the
Government
hence
benevolent
or
organizations
employed by
in
will reach me
too late to be included
delays. Beyond question,many
timid persons,
who seem
to
the table. There is also a class of excessively
think that to answer
the questions,may
involve them
in controversy, or
the Interior Department.
It is quite surprising that so
cast reflection on
correspondents should take this view.
many
On
The differences of opinion in nowise affect the table as a whole.
backward.
the
Indians
section
rather
in
be
reservation,
a
one
large
may
Not

few

is

are

answers

"

For instance, there will be

than

about

would

report

Earth.

In

conditions
and
drink

the
are

sickness at Pine Point, White

more

Earth

condition

worse

great Indian
Also

gamble.

Hence,

agency.

his Indians

among
area

whereas
satisfactory,

distress.

and

White

in Oklahoma,

of eastern
back
near

Therefore, if such

the

Earth

priestat

than

Oklahoma,

the towns
are

Point

the Agent at White

near

the

there is much
in the hills,

facts

ation,
reserv-

Pine

schools
ing
suffer-

will live Indians

taken

who

into consideration.

Ftoin
l)\
A.

'*

/mlian

filattkrti.

ami

Th^ir

Makri

James.
r.forKc VVharUm
riiirn it Co.. ^'ui.lislle^^^.

i'. Ml

OLD

BAYETA

SADDLE

BLANKET

STATISTICAL

A
of the apparent

many

by

readers.

frank, and
omitted

my

table will be

of my
of their recommendations

many

of

343

readilyunderstood
correspondentshave been very
and suggestionsare purposely
like criticizing
them would seem
to incorporate
This is not my purpose,
frequently
as has been

in
discrepancies

Upwards

for the

TABLE

that

reason

hundred

the present administration.

pointed out in this book. All I desire to do is to present facts,and
sensible remedies
suggestedby correspondentson the groimd.
If

we

average

wherein

sections

eflBcient farmers

up
are

and

the entire table and

located

allow

schools; where

teachers,have

brought

for the progress

include

in the

Superintendents,through

about

advance

of Indians,

we

will find that

in many
parts of the country there is a distinct advance.
In other portions of the United States the natives are either at a standstill,

showing is in the Navaho

country, where
Superintendentsand missionaries,by
Rev. Johnson, and by the Agent at Shiprock,Mr. W. T. Shelton
where
carried
the
desert
blossoms
like
the
out
The
now
by
rose.
generalpolicyas
ants,
Major Peter Parquette,Superintendentof the Navaho, and his able assisttheir own
has been to let them
alone and permit them
out
to work
salvation under a slightsupervision.As the Navaho
are
today the largest
in this
body of Indians speaking the same
language,and chieflyfull-bloods,
of
statistics
Navaho
in
the
the
are
suflSciently
point progress
country,
strong
to appreciablyraise the entire tone
of Indians in the United States. This
should be a lesson not lost on our
Congress. While this is true and other
communities, such as Tulalip Agency, Washington, show a marked
gain,
the generaltone of Indian communities
in the arts, health,
to advance
as
take
must
The table clearlyindicates this. We
etc., is not satisfactory.
in
into account
factors
of
the
two
spondents.
correimportant
studying
reports
my
First, the Superintendents,very
naturally,wish to present
their wards in as creditable a manner
exaggerate,
as possible.They do not
for they are all honest and competent observers.
But they rather minimize
and the
the sad side of the story. The
teachers, missionaries,priests,
doctors rather lean toward
view of conditions.
a pessimistic
In our
final analysiswe
find that a majority of the correspondents
realize the diflBcultiesunder which the Indians labor, being discriminated
claim
That is, that although we
againstin their respectivecommunities.
for the Indians, all the facts point to the conclusion that the
citizenship
is not effective. While we
claim to care
for the health of the
citizenship
of doctors and hospitals.While
Indians, we have an insuflScient number
build many
we
plants,prepare model farms, etc., we do not
irrigation
the
Indians
with
suflBcient
seed, stock, implements, wagons,
etc..
provide
or

have

good

retrograded. The

work

has been

done

best

by

all the

"

THE

344

AMERICAN

INDIAN

Most important of all,where we

whereby they may become self-supporting.
have given the Indians deeds to their property, the majority of them
lose
the property.
It is not pertinentin the table of statistics to enter
into
the questionwhether
the Indian or the white man
is at fault in this respect.
The

bald facts
The

lands

to

are

the effect that Indians

statistics indicate

has

advanced

far advanced.

that
In

education

education

lose their property.

is advancing, and

allottingof
certainlyhave
under
fifty(save

alone, the Indians

marked

degree. Practicallyall Indians

schooling.
page 27) have had some
For various reasons
the names
of the correspondents are
omitted,
In
in
files.
are
although their originalcommunications
preserved
my
various
chapters throughout the book, I have incorporated partialor
from these same
complete statements
correspondents. In the table, the
been presented in a few words.
of
to the questionshave
answers
Many
actual quotations,but others present in condensed
form
the sentences
are
the opinions of the writers. Many
correspondentshave devoted an entire
to
answering one question. Frequently,after answering the questions,
page
the correspondenthas written several pages in order to present his views
concerning the Indian problem. Others have selected such questions as
appeared to them to be of primary importance, and have answered these
at considerable
length. A majority of the correspondentsrealize that the
protection of the Indian's property, the safeguardingof his health, and the
to

those referred to

relation

on

between

problem,

and

that

the

two

all other

races

constitute

considerations

the
are

essentials

secondary.

of the

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I-

CHAPTER

XXXIII.

FARMING

AND

INDIAN

Commissioner

Sells has

his administration.

That

made

is, he

STOCK-RAISING

FAIRS
the
has

the chief aim of

"gospel of work"
emphasized and encouraged farming

and

stock-raising. Before quoting from the Commissioner's

reports and
circulars on
this subject,it should
be taken
not
amiss if the statement
is
made
that
of Commissioners
and
during the administrations
Morgan
education
Jones, this important feature of Indian
not
was
sufficiently
of the central, northern
took
Indians
and mountain
emphasized. Many
With
familiar.
the
of
the
to
horse,
stock-raising.
naturally
they were
care
It was
but a step from
has been
trated
illusas
horse-raisingto cattle-raising,
of the Sioux
in the case
number
of
tribes
(page 309). Truly, a
cattle

pK)ssessedmore

information

From
of Messrs.

generation ago than at the present time.

received, I take it that under the administrations
made
to encourage
Valentine, a serious effort was

Leupp and
movement
stock-raising,on a larger scale. While this new
have
Mr.
been
when
either
Mr.
Valentine,
or
inaugurated
by
Leupp
may
Mr.
Abbott
and
became
he
Commissioner,
expanded
encouraged
acting
efforts in this direction.
Orders
issued to Superintendents, giving
were
the leasing
Indian
in supervising individual
greater discretion
moneys;
policy was
simplifiedand self-supportingIndians permitted to lease their
handle
their own
funds; a higher
surplus lands and to a greater extent
standard
with larger salary was
established
for the Indian
Service farmer,
who
under
his
the Indians
was
expected to do house to house work among
supervision, giving practicaladvice and securing definite results in the way
of increased
the
production from Indian land; active cooperation between
Bureaus
of
of Plant and Animal
of
the
Agriculture
Department
Industry
was
promoted; the Civil Service Commission
provided tests for farmers
intended
with
and
to secure
men
more
practicalequipment, and
experience
farming

the

and

United

States

was

divided

into

four

Civil

Service

districts in order

that

eligiblefarmers might be secured for that part of the Indian country

of
their farming experiencehad
been
obtained.
The
possibilities
the working out of this policy in all its phases was
demonstrated
particularly
while
the Winnebago
in three years
in Nebraska,
where
reservation
on
Albert H. Kneale
practically
was
Superintendent, this tribe of Indians was
where

transformed
to

be found

3000

acres

into
on

any

one

of the most
allotted Indian

of Indian-farmed

sober

and

reservation

industrious

groups

in the United

land, in the first year,

under

the

of Indians

States.
new

From

program,

which
in

the

gave

three

there

and

years,

that

so

the Dutch

many

the

advent

B.

Edgar

live stock

purchase
of agricultural
lands.

in the

to

"I
farms.

is

as

follows:

the climate

that

these farms

cases

to

locate

in order

to

with

Assistant

been

years,

are

stock

date of

sioner,
Commis-

active in advocating

very

they might
large areas

that
their

September

2, 1914, to all

"

been

to tilltheir farms

necessary

furnished

and

reservation

Superintendents.

the schools have

case

every

equipment

church

new

of

are
making the greatest use of our school
largetracts of fertileland capable of raising
in which
the school is located will permit. In
well irrigated.
we

of

"In

of the

heart

has, the past few

They usuallyconsist
crop

the end

at

their allotments

to

Sells,as has been stated, the Department

should be done than
to be saved, much
more

satisfied that

not

am

moved

appropriationsfor Indians in order

and farming implements to improve

Superintendentsare

be

had

Sells' oflBcialinstructions, under

Mr.

some

build

of Mr.

Meritt

reimbursable

every

Church

discouragingdelays

Indians

by

had

of instructions

issuance

mere

farmed

acres

adherents.

realized that if the Indian

the

without

to act

of the Indians

missionary out

its Indian

With

12,000

were

Reformed

additional

reach

INDIAN

Superintendentfreedom

Washington,

an

AMERICAN

THE

360

with

which

or

be furnished

can

with

all the

to the fullest extent, and they can

substantial showing in
to make
a

stock-raising.
"The

boy pupils in our schools furnishes

ample opportunity for intensive farming. If this trainingis to be of real
value and be effective in accomplishingits purpose,
the farming operations
the
time
should be financially
successful and at
conducted
in accordance
same
with
"I

modern

its

methods.

convinced

am

handling of
such

the

agriculturaltrainingof

that

there

these farms, and

farm

to

see

is

I want

large field

in the
for improvement
field officer who has charge of

every

is of such

that its management

development
and objectlesson.
"The
constantlyincreasingdemands
to

for the

Indian

the

Service

careful economy
that every
see

resource

is

the

consistent

developed to
"See

make

that

rendering proper

it necessary
with the end

in connection

nature

will insure

as

ness
productiveness,practicaluseful-

highest degree of

on

the

various

only
sought, but

with

not

Indian

to
at

appropriations

exercise the
the

education

highestobtainable degree.
employees in charge of your farms are men
and
efficient service, carefullydetermine

most

time

same

and

capable
the

to

industry
of

suitable

FARMING

AND

STOCK-RAISING

for the particular soil of the tillable land

crops

best attention

the

raisingand

361

of your

farm, giving the

of these crops.
"Our
farms should grow
oats, wheat, and raise alfalfa,clover,
corn,
timothy, etc. You should raise all the potatoes and other vegetablesconsumed.
We should not be satisfied with raising
feed for the school livestock,
but

to

should

we

"I

raise

use

everything the farm, garden

orchard

and

will

produce.

raise livestock to

the fullest of your capacity;raise

colts from the school mares;
school.
let your
calves grow into beef for your
Grow
a good herd of hogs to follow the cattle that
the
and
waste
feed
use
you
want

to

you

from

the table at

kind

that there will be

milk

to

the

and

Make

grow

ham,

make

pork

your

own

your

dairy amply large and

your

plenty of milk,

and

hogs

bacon

own

the school.

and

cream

practicablecure
dry and corn your

Where

meat.

and

sausage

of such

the skim-

Feed

butter.

your
own

beef."
There

is

In recent
on

fair

World

Indian

years,

At

Red

attended

by

2000

stated:

fairs have
schools.

become

of grain grown
that would

The

by

the Indians

average

was

included

animals, the registeredHolstein

The

numerous.

of the Crookston

apples and
"The
preserves,

beautiful
beaded

held
has

Ojibwa
York

by

judging of

the stock

and

done

was

of oats,
and
acre,

specimens
the

to

display,which

cattle being
Durham
by Supt. C. G. Selvig,

School.
also

was

fine

the Indians.

watermelons.

sweet

are

1914, the

the stock

was

most

raised

missioner
Com-

feature

in the New

twenty-fivebushels

included blooded

were

West"

publishedaccount

fullymatured.
perhaps next in importance

corn

"There

popular,and

very

old "Wild

The

Lake, Minn., September 19th,

persons.

wheat

"What

effort of the

the earnest

"

"Exhibits

barley and
yellow dent

at

or

eliminated.
was

this will indicate

conditions.

reservations,

most

been

but

more,

improve

to

There

display of vegetables
The

also crab

were

and

fruit, all of which

cantaloupesand sugarapples and displaysof other

exhibits included

fruits.
women

and

and
pickles,
display ever

work.

These

girlshad

exhibits

other dainties.
seen

at

exhibits not

But

county

only

fair
were

pies, cakes, jellies,

of bread,

probably
was

done

the most

found

in the

neatly,but

artistic and

display of
the beaded

other
The
exhibit included among
designs and coloringswere
gorgeous.
hat
bands,
head
dresses,
moccasins,
banners,
dress, sacques,
belts,
things
buckskin
having been made by the
new,
leggings,and jackets. All were
Chippewas the past year for displayat the fair.

eS

B
o
js:

X
y.

"

.Si

3i

THE

364

AMERICAN

INDIAN

year'sfair mark the start of the Indian along the road,

let
hereafter
the purpose
of which
is self-supportand
independence
fair
milestone
of
Indian's
each
be
the
the
a
fixing
stages
progress
year
your
that goal.
toward
the
"It is the primary duty of all Superintendents to understand
for
Indians under their charge, to study the resources
of the reservation
which they are
its climate, the character of its land, the type
responsible,
of cattle owned
the
Indians, their horses, their sheep and their other
by
the Indian.

Let this

"

stock.

INDIANS

*****

RECEIVING

INSTRUCTION

IN

PLUMBING.

HASKELL

INSTITUTE,

KANSAS

widespread negligenceand mismanagement in the cultivation

breeding of stock, and the handling of grazing land is no
for the continuance
of such conditions, and they will not be perexcuse
mitted
Indian reservation during my administration.
to exist on
an
"Be continuallyat the fair yourselfwith your
farmers and all of your
industrial employees.
"Let
the exhibits emphasize in an impressivemanner
the difference
between
inferior and
high-grade agriculturalproducts, and let them
"Former

of the soil,the

FARMING
in

demonstrate

STOCK-RAISING

AND
uncertain

no

profitresults

that greater

way

365

from

raisingthe
Encourage

everythingproduced on the farm or ranch.

This should not be diflScultwhere
progressiveview.
he has before him a clear object lesson such as is emphasized by placing
his horses, cattle and
oats, wheat, alfalfa and forage on
sheep, his com,
exhibition in legitimate
rivalrywith those of his neighbor at the Indian fair.
and
"The
improvement of stock should be aggressivelyadvocated
Indian
and
stock-raiser.
the mind
of every
farmer
He
impressed upon

best and

the most

of

take the

the Indian

to

should

brought

be

to

that

understand

NAVAHO
From

stallions and
with

the

rams

secure

W.

James'

destructive

worse

to

than

Blankets

and

purchased during the

in the past.

the Indian's

success

animals
as

last few

should

He

stock must

useless male

bulls,

their Makers*'

well-bred

of sufficient and

universal

of well-bred

thousands

HOGAN

SUMMER
"Indian

the best results the male

the old and

so

were

evils of lack

almost
to

G.

the

not

months

male

stock

to

and

do

away

the

breeding
in-

that

in order

only be improved

but that

understand

which

have

stock-raiser must

heretofore
be

been

disposedof."

THE

366

Carlisle

The
were

farms

4th,

says:

AMERICAN

school

farms

INDIAN
this

at all the educational

summer

quite

were

as

prosperous,

The Carlisle Arrow

centers.

of

September

"

The

First

Farm

in fine
and the six head of young
cattle are
forty-eightcows
125
also
30
70
are
shoats, averaging
hogs, averaging
pounds;
pounds; 22 small pigs,and 12 brood sows.
of milk produced during the summer
"The
months
amount
average
and
week.
butter,
eighty pounds a
eighty gallonsa day,
of tons of ensilage.'*
is material for hundreds
"There

"The

condition, as
30

was

J|C

J|C

wheat

and

oats

were

J|C

Second

The

"The

J|C

J|C

Farm

unusuallygood

and

the

abundant.

yieldwas

of fine potatoes.
The large flocks of turkeys and
thirty acres
number
of
The
thriving.
eggs gathered have kept the hospital
summer."
the
supplied throughout

There

are

chickens
well

are

school

"The

The

record.

breaking year

garden

farms

crop

also have

for Carlisle in
*

The

Indian

exceeds, in quantity of production, any

on

yielded abundantly, making this a recordthe fruition of agriculturalproducts."

*

ii

:ili

reservations,will play no
popular on many
which
problem. It does not matter
one
this
work
excellent
incentive
of the Commissioners
most
to
inaugurated
Whoever
and progress.
most
was
a
responsiblefor it, hit upon
happy
expedient. Manifestly, the Indians should be encouraged to continue
in honest
these fairs and to engage
competition. Everyone will heartily
of the scheme

approve

of which
A
up

fairs,now

to

we

had

have

tracts
to

him

to

abandon,

rather

will

again

are

come

than

to

the white
of

West"

feature

the past thirtyyears.

farms, formerly under cultivation,had
and

Oklahoma.

carried
under

labor, especiallyso

the encouragement
progress.

above,

curtail,the "Wild

or

man.

industry are

"

much

entirelytoo

few years
ago, Indian
bushes
in Minnesota

OflSce,as outlined
these

so

part in solving the Indian

small

to

If the
successful

cultivation.

The

plans

termination,
Indian

two

reimbursable

of the most

most

will feel

since the fruits of his toil will

The

grown

Indian

of the

accrue

of
couraged
en-

to

appropriationsand

hopeful signsof

Indian

CHAPTER

XXXIV.

IMPORTANT

FOUR

BOOKS

important Indian books,

possessed
library,for the very
every
of them
the
of
that
all
of
of
Indian
them
treat
today. Two
good reason
accurate
to be included
strictlyhistorical,and the other two suflBciently
are
I write

As

and

in

I would

that

this page

lie before

there

that

books

Helen

are:

Indian,"

the

The

Indian

Francis

Dispossessed,"

Indian

Indian

"The

Leupp's

E.

Honorable

and

Dishonor,"

of

"Century

"The

Humphrey's

His

and

McLaughlin's

James

"My

1910.

books

of these

authors

Jackson's

Hunt

Seth
K.
published in 1886;
published in 1906; Honorable
Problem,"
published in 1910;

and

in his

them

category.

These

Friend

four

me

reader

but

conditions,

all familiar

are

approach

with

subject from

the

Indian

the

problem

somewhat

different

points of view.
Honorable

Major
was

the

on

Jackson

noble

Leupp
among

her

Sioux

prior

became

who

woman

afterwards

forty-two
time.

that

to

Aflfairs.

and

lived

to

see

Himt
Mission

United

of the

and

years,

Helen

interested, first in the

in all Indians

of Dishonor"

"Century

of Indian

in the
the

of California, and

wrote

Commissioner
for years
Indian
Service

was

served

has

frontier

was

Indians
She

F. E.

McLaughlin

States.

its influence

spread

number
of editions
A
were
English-speaking world.
has
who
S. K.
long been a
Humphrey,
Esq., a Bostonian,
of
the legal point of view
staunch
friend of Indians, presents in his book
ing
the breaking of treaties and agreements,
and the despoliation of the followthe

throughout
published.

tribes:
of these

"

Mission

authors

treats

plea for him,

"Lest
we
forget."
Major McLaughlin

in

more

the

my

years

than

any

in the

reservations

Nez

Indians, Poncas,
of the
to

modern

the

Indian,

testimony
been

has
other

man

United

Perces,

of

LTnited
in

the

and
these

States

he

to

Indian
corps.

understands

etc.

Each

call attention
witnesses

competent

inspection

States, and

Umatillas,

I desire

"

Inspector during
He
the

visited

all

Indian.

Beginning with the early days on the Plains, he relates his personal
experiences,and gives sound advice in the handling of Indian aflfairs. From
all I can
of, or talking with frontiersmen,
gather from reading accounts
former
who
fought against Indians; oflScers of our
troops in Indian
wars;
Indian
and
Missionary reports,
Agents; and after study of Government
I think
is correct
when
of
he says
McLaughlin
concerning the Indians
forty years ago
"

THE

368

AMERICAN

INDIAN

"And

diflFerent body of men,

a
they were
physically,from the
very
Indians of today. They wore
air of sturdy independence. They were
an
equipped according to their natural requirements. Their minds
were
horred
generallyattuned to magnificent ideas of time and distance.
They abthe limitations

place. They

were

into friends worth

of that

Indian

that the white

man

foes to be reckoned
the

having.

It is

his dwellingaccepts as aflFecting

with, or they might be converted
matter

of

advanced
day
capacity for, civilized pursuits without
debasing and degenerating physical and moral
could

have

not

been

of, and

from

Major
Red

McLaughlin
His

Man

the process

Portion"

profound regret that the

to his present knowledge
being subjected to the
conditions

that

were

separable
in-

of transmutation."
is

perfectly correct

when

he states

in

that the

his

enormous

chapter
sums

"Give

the

of money,

tribal and

held by the United

States should be divided
individual, now
them.
of shysterlawyers,feasting
Indian
Otherwise, the swarm
on

among

claims, will continue

to increase.
Congress should act immediately and
of the Indians
provide for the division of this money,
even
though some
it.
So
in
States
the United
squander
long as fully$48,848,744 remains
torneys",
Treasury, just so long will we have this continual fight with "claim atand the Indians will not work
this
the
distribution
of
pending
The
somewhat
Scripturalquotation which was
great wealth.
changed
Conference
last year, expresses
by one of the speakers at the Lake Mohonk
this view
most
"Where
the Indian
admirably
lies,there will
money
the grafters be gathered together."
"

the

At

time

of this

ployee
writing Major McLaughlin is still a valued emIndian Service.
have
could
he
Undoubtedly
written a great deal stronger than he did.
the lines
Reading between
of his book, I take it that the Major now
realizes that the chief reason
for the almost utter failure of our
Indian policyis because of lack of proper
protection of Indian property rights and health, and further, that the
the Indian, and of which
in Congress
citizenshipwe handed
orators
our
and in benevolent
had
much
has
organizations
to say,
so
proved a hollow
mockery and a sham.

of the United

States

that Mr.

Humphrey lays claim to legaltraining,but

masterly fashion, exactlywhat has been done to the
Indians
who
have
civilized country.
accepted the pledged word of our
It is not a sentimental
book, but a carefullyprepared narrative drawn
from oflBcial documents,
and should have had an
eflFect on
our
Congress
and Interior Department long ago.
am

his book

not

aware

presents in

FOUR
the first

In
pays

the Indian

BOOKS

of "The

chapter

Indian

tribute and

merited

his character.

and

virtues

IMPORTANT

understood

emphasizes
honesty.

He

Problem", Mr. Leupp

independence,his many

His

and

forth his

sets

369

trait of the

Indian

oldtime

his

generally
have
formed
the Indians
exi"eriencedtraders among
repeatedly inthat they had lost less money
me
on
long-standingIndian accounts,
than in their comparatively small dealings with
aggregating large sums,
successful trader among
the white people in their neighborhoods. One
the Sioux who, in the early nineties,lent some
$30,000 to the Indians near
ward:
him in anticipationof a payment
to receive, said aftersoon
they were
not

"

"Old,

'I did not

I lost from

lose

testimony is borne on
they were
taught how
of doing so.
I have

than

more

half-breed

who

had
among

dollars held

forgottenall

obedience

These

at

to

up

in their

about.

of

Indians

the

the

palms,

to

transaction, and

the reservation.'

on

universal

of them

loan

repay

ever

employee

some

or

that
same

thought

pay-table,after

Government

Agent

The

is that, until

comment

few

trade, very

Indians

seen

out

in

the whole

on

live

all sides,and
to cheat

their annuities, walk

many

$150

did not

instances, I ought
class, who

which

add,

to

pretty backward

ceiving
re-

with

so

the creditor
observed

were

acting simply

were

in

to their natural

impulses."
Mr. Leupp states franklyin his preface:
"The
reached
Indian problem has now
a
stage where its solution is
almost wholly a matter
of administration."
he served in various Indian
Because
capacitiesfor almost twentyfive years
with organizationsas well as Commissioner
of Indian Affairs,
and as in that latter oflBce it was
his duty and privilege
ject
to regard the subin its broad aspect, an extended
review of his book is entirelyproper.
Under
Chapter II, "What
Happened to the Indian," he discusses
what
all know, the end of the "buffalo days", and the beginning of
we
the ration system.
that this encouraged idleness.
He maintains
Along
with the ration and reservations systems sprang
the
educational
plan
up
"

for the benefit of Indians.

At

and

The

many

to support

the

denominational.
these

amounts

unnecessary

the

Catholic.

were

sectarian
much

dispute
Hard

first there

schools

larger.

between

This

government

increased

until in 1870

the

feelingswere

few

were

Government

brought

it

was

about

denominations,

engendered,

and

its

schools,

appropriations

$100,000, and later

an

the

unfortunate

and

Protestant

and

instead

of

working
Indians, all these worthy

togetherin amity to Christianize and educate the

people were
engaged in a dispute as to who should receive the most money
from
the United
States Treasury! We
imagine the feelingsand
may

FULL-BLOOD

SIOl

GIRL,

1888

THE

372

which

AMERICAN

INDIAN

the

have

hearty support of Christian people, and all their efforts

toward
self-helpand civilization. An incident will illustrate the two
are
The
oflBcer of the United
States Army who
sent
to receive
was
systems.
the
Alaska from
Russian
Government
ernor
Govstopped in British Columbia.
Douglas had heard that an Indian had been murdered
by another
Indian.
He visited the Indian tribe; he explained to them
that the murdered
the culprit. The
was
man
a subject of Her
Majesty; he demanded
found guilty,and was
murderer
surrendered, was
was
tried,was
hanged.
the oflBcer happened to enter
On reaching Alaska
the Greek
church, and
the altar a beautiful copy
of the Gospels in a costlybinding studded
saw
on
with jewels. He called upon
the Greek
bishop, and said, *Your Grace,
had
better
I called to say you
that copy
of the Gospels from the
remove
be stolen.' The bishop replied,*Why should I remove
church, for it may
it? It was
the giftof the mother
of the Emperor, and has lain on the altar
law in the
seventy years.' The oflBcer blushed, and said, 'There is no
afraid it might be stolen.' The
Indian country, and I was
bishop said,
*The

book

is in God's

away.' The
the Gospel

book
was

remained.

it is His

The

book, and
became

country

I shall not

ours,

and

take

the next

it

day

stolen."

Jackson

Mrs.

house, and

takes

in

detail

the despoiling of the Indians

She treats of the Delawares,
thoroughly than Mr. Humphrey.
Nez
fornia
Perces,
Poncas,
Sioux,
Cheyennes,
Winnebagoes, Cherokees, CaliShe devotes a gruesome
of
Indians, etc.
chapter to the massacre
She devotes
Indians by white people
an
appendix of 171 pages (small
type),to a narration of outrages perpetratedby white people on Indians,
broken
of Indians
treaties, and outrageous treatment
The
by Whites.
appendix includes a spiritedcorrespondence with Secretary of the Interior,
Carl Schurz.
There
also several letters to the Rocky Mountain
Hon.
are
edited by Mr.
N. Byers. The
W.
letters were
News, a Denver
paper,
Schurz
written in 1880.
it
should
be
was
remembered, when
Secretary,
occurred.
A tribe of Indians
the famous
Ponca
had been forcibly
case
taken
from
their homes.
and Philadelphia,
Through friends in Boston
who had their case
before
the
sustained
and
in their
courts
were
brought
even

up

more

contentions, these Poncas

were

returned

to

their reservation.

As

to

the

had attacked
and killed a
Byers correspondence,the citizens of Denver
number
Indian
of
children
in
and
located
women
large
men,
a
villageon
distance from the mining camps.
Mrs.
Sand Creek, some
Jackson
clearly
has

the
It

bands

better

of both

is unfortunate
does

not

arouse

arguments.
that
the

the
same

present condition
interest

as

did

of

some

the

case

of the
of the

Indian
Poncas.

The

yet there has been

lot of the Poncas, and

because

373

than fell to the

suffered far greater wrongs
outburst of righteousindigno
nation

of Minnesota

Chippewas

BOOKS

IMPORTANT

FOUR

of what

happened

to

them.

a number
Territory,there were
United
authorities
of
the
States
jurisdiction
and others in their raids
and these Indians did not wish to join Geronimo
in the Southwest
and Old Mexico.
By the 11th of March, 1871, there were
assembled
the camp.
300 Indians
over
near
They had brought in, in a
short time, more
than 300,000 pounds of hay which the oflBcer in command
and his band, that the
purchased. In view of the hostilityof Geronimo
should
desire
and
be
to
work, seemed
hensible
incompreApaches
willing
peace,
in the Southwest.
The
frontier element
always hostile to

In

of

Grant,

Camp
Apaches encamped under
1871,

near

Arizona

the

"

Indians
and

resented

"

their

presence.

The

Indians

continued

to

come

in

510 in the camp.

presentlythere were
30th of April, these Indians
The
were

attacked
by a large force of
gentleman who furnished Mrs.
C. B. Brierley,
Jackson with the information
was
Acting Assistant Surgeon,
Jackson
Mrs.
United
States Army.
presents Surgeon Brierley'sreport
need not present particulars,
to say that a largenumber
in detail. We
save
killed
while
and that the white
of the Indians were
in camp
surprisedand
the dead
mutilated
people of Tucson, not satisfied with killingthe men,
white

bodies

of

in 1840
in 1871

1841.

children.

Lyman
He

The

of

Northampton, Mass.,

made

report

to the Board

was

pioneer in

of Indian

Arizona

Commissioners

explainsthe hostilityin later years of the Apaches toward

of
Johnson
people, as to how one
agreed with the Governor
killed
Indian
of
Johnson
scalpsat an ounce
gold each.
procure

which

white

Senora

J. H.

and

Tucson, Arizona.

and

women

Mr.

the

from

men

to

largenumbers
reprintsmost
Mrs.

of

women

and

of his report.
Jackson's book, as

children

I have

"

and

few warriors.

Mrs.

previouslystated, created

and

of the hundreds
this country and in England. None
in her "Century of Dishonor"
incidents contained
were
ever

and

could

impressionin
denied.
be

Jackson

profound
of facts
fully
success-

sound
offered by her are
Many of the recommendations
with
the
applied
profitat
present time, although thirtyyears

elapsed since she laid down her pen.

Humphrey may be said to have carried her work down to present
times (1906),although there is much
discredit since he wrote.
to our
As to the irrigation
problems, he says:
the defenceless
"Whether
he were
beginner of the Northwest, or
of the Southwest
the skilful agriculturalist
desert with ancient systems
have

Mr.

"

AMERICAN

THE

374

INDIAN

the Indian was

The forceful settler
never
regarded as a man.
irrigation,
usual formality
less than
dispossessedthe irrigatingIndian with even
his highly-cultivated
because
lands were
the more
valuable, either by
driving him into the desert and pre-empting his land, or by diverting
his water, thus making his land a desert.
Typical of these Indians were
the four thousand
Pimas
of Arizona.
They had practisedagricultureby
than three centuries.
In the
irrigationalong the Gila River for more
live
of
farmers
and
the
records,
*they are
wholly by tilling
early
language
the soil,and in the earlier days of the American
historyof the territory
of

"

SEMINOLE

they

INDIAN

HOUSES

AND

CYCLONE

the chief support of both

section of the country.'
the Whites

1886

suit in the federal court

Indians, but
such
Within

case

water

was

to

years

of

the

Pimas

divert

the waters

of the Gila
the clear

were

reduced

from

191S

of this

River.

rightsof

district attorney who

would
could expect to live
men

callingfor rations, while the white

undisturbed.

OKLAHOMA,

military elements

talked of to maintain

never
pressed. No
against voting white

seven

humiliation

began

WEWOKA,

the civil and

were

"In
A

CELLAR.

the

prosecute

pohtically.
independence to the

settlers used

the Indians'

FOUR
"

been

yet the

the years
their one
are,

fill

to

'It has
and

has

Enough

Indians

IMPORTANT

been

about

written

volume,'

BOOKS
the

the

wrote

need

375

of water

for the

discouragedAgent,

starving

after ten

years.

urgently presented to your honorable oflBce time and again,

is just as great and the supply no greater/ So
need of water

went

In

on.

1900

the cry

came

from

the desert, *This

their very
life,has been taken from
resource,
into
indolence,
misery, and vice.'
perforce,lapsing

water,

them, and

Thirty

they

thousand

rations.
appropriatedfor more
the Indians' rights
"Finally,after eighteenyears, the suit to recover
There
received its final quietus. The district attorney reported in 1904:
could be taken up and prosecuted to a favorable
is no doubt but that the case
it would be impossible
for the court to enforceits decree^
ending,but
dollars

was

of prosecuting such
dollars.'

the expense
thirtythousand

and

"This

long

Government

suit would

lost the

ago

between

cost

right to

say

that

twenty
it could

and

not

of its agricultural
citizens.
a federal law against less than
a thousand
balance of Arizona."
Its officialswould not disturb the political
enforce

the

and its antithesis

he writes:
uplift,
"But
side to this picture. During all these years
there is another
of trouble, the Indian
was
faithfullyattended
by a great Unselfishness,
The
always striving to re-establish him, to educate and enlightenhim.
with no oppositionin administeringthis portion of its
Government
met
the workers
and intelligent
were
granted its most
trust, and
generous
the
have
ideals
of
the
for
been
the Government's
high
people
always
support;
it
be
often
action
led
selfish
few.
to
a
even
though
by
inspiration,
the scope
of this book
the great good
"It is not within
to recount
As

that
save
more

to the

has

opposing forces

to

come

to make

than

full

attend

Indians

they

have

for the

worked

constant

the

"

through this branch

Indian

the
have

Indian's
had

their way
presence

saved

of the Indian

here of its greatness.

acknowledgment

education.
to

toward

of these

"

"

them

Many
tracts

civilization.
among

the

of

tribe, and

good land,

Indeed, had
Indians

Service,

It has done

who

much
dividual
in-

many

upon

which

it not

labored

been
for

their good, littlegood land would have been left to any Indians.
the two
"These
are
great influences which have shaped the Indian's
the foundation
his land; the other,
destiny; one, steadilyhewing away
his
the
education; both generously
moulding
faithfully
superstructure^
supported by a vote-seekingCongress.
is coming into full citizenship
the first has failed,the Indian
"Where
both have
education, and Christian teaching. Where
through agriculture,
find the Indian
and
succeeded
in their opposing efforts,we
figuratively,
"

"

often
but

the

on
literally,

INDIAN

AMERICAN

THE

376

rocks; educated,

aimless, in his arrested development.

and

saved,

forlorn,
"

has missed

He

amiable,

the fundamental

of mankind."

lesson
Mr.

"When
Russia's

conclusions

Humphrey's
we

hear

be

reproduced
the

injusticeamong

natives

in horror from the

turn
wastes, we
the oppressor.
But when
the tale of

Siberian

indignation upon
is told, we
liftour

eyes

INDIANS'

to Heaven

COMMERCIAL

"

not

being so

DEPARTMENT,

in part.

of Africa, or

oppressed
our

own

well able to

HASKELL

see

to

Poor

in

vent

Lo

ourselves

INSTITUTE

'

test!'
reverently, 'Tis the Survival of the Fitthat
Those
who
think lightlyare
wont
to exclaim
impatiently,
It is
the Indian's story is a closed book.
nearly so; but the book of
closed except by those who think lightly.*****
historyis never
"Bishop Whipple of Minnesota, who gave the best part of his life
the
Indian
to
declared, after recounting the acts of broken faith
cause,
as

to

see

others

of dark

here

may

"

and

murmur,

"

which

led up

to

the great Sioux

massacre

of 1863, *I submit

to

every

man

the question whether

the time has not come
for a nation to hear the cry
of wrong,
if not for the sake of the heathen, for the sake of the memory

FOUR

IMPORTANT

BOOKS

377

bleaching on our prairies/ This bookful

*
*
*
been perpetratedsince. *
more,
Plains
Richard
I. Dodge, after thirty-threeyears
the
as
on
Indian fighter,
displaysin his *A Living Issue,'this same
confidinghope:
*It is too much
of these (politicians)
to expect any
to risk the loss
one
of votes
and thus jeopardize his future career
for a miserable
savage.
Politicians will do nothing unless forced to it by the great, brave, honest,
human
heart of the American
people. To that I appeal! To the press;
For
in the land; to every lover of mankind.
to the pulpit;to every
voter
the honor
of our
common
country; for the sake of sufferinghumanity;
force your
this issue*." *****
representativeto meet
self
of Indian Affairs delivered him"Thirty years ago a Commissioner
miserable
of a fervent opinion which
classic. The
should
become
had
story of the California Indians
dragged itself through twenty-five
ested
of relief had been blocked in Congress by the intermeasure
years; every
of

friends whose

our

of wrongs,
"Col.

few

and

the

"

bones

no

the
has

man

of the United

commentary

place or

States who

hardly be written
that the Indian

in

the

at

voters, the Indian

Indian

have

has not

beck

at

and

has been

to

any

exist under

part in it.' A

more

in the land

status

The

that in

argue

unhappy
been

forciblyto

seems

Indian's
time

illustrate the
the

illuminating

story does

not

can

argue

given the protectionof the

little coterie of

call of every

ment
Govern-

of the Free

loose- jointedrepublicwhere

subjectedto

class of

*This

country.

fair chance

sentence.

one

should

franchise; but it does

in the

Few

Commissioner,

the Indian's

on

is
legislation

have

Vociferous

Indians,' concludes
truth that

are

volumes

national

irresponsible

devilish variations of human

more

the mercy
of an
openly oppressive,but more
is no
There
despotism
style of government.
who
cruel
than
of
unused
that
to
more
suddenly
men
whimsically
power,
find themselves
vital interest
in absolute control of a people whose
one
is in continual
conflict with
an
advantageous foothold on good land
their own
chief desire
the possessionof that same
good land."
I have
All four
reprintedfrom these books for a definite purpose.
jects
authors had practicalexperiencewith Indian affairs;all knew
their suboflBcials
have
historians
not
Our
and
one
was
public
visionary.

caprice than

consistent

if he

and

at

were

centralized

"

"

"

"

denied

none

of the statements

continue, and
for

we

have

change our
repeatedly warned,
us

we

in these books.

Since the abuses

remains
forgottenthe lessons of the past, it now
policy to do so absolutely. We have been
cannot
our
responsibility.
escape

Indian

to

contained

"

CHAPTER

XXXV.

OFFICIAL

VIEWS

OF

INDIAN

CONDITIONS
Commissioner

Sells very

of his Supervisors
kindly instructed a number
reply to my fourteen questions covering the present
Indians.
condition
of our
The
questions need not be repeated as they are
given in the table, Chapter XXXII.
These
repliespresent the administration
point of view, and I herewith
that
as
are
append such of the answers
already not repetitions. Those
do not
information
omitted.
are
special
convey
Honorable
H. B. Peairs, Supervisor of Schools, Washington, D.C.,
and

Superintendents

writes:

"

VI.

"From
that

condition

of the

the

during

there

given

has

which

been

Indians

opportunity
time

one-half

than

observations

extended

confident

I had

to

of

much

doing

I traveled

of the

very

is very

during

marked

and

than

and
it

year's work

in all sections

reservations

past five years,

progress

better
full

one

the

that

in the

of the country

schools.

The

the

ten

was

am

general

years

ago.

field in 1897,
visited

and

past four

more

have

years

and
opportunity to visit practicallyall of the reservations
schools, and I unhesitatinglysay that there is a marked
improvement."
VIII.
"The
mixed-blood.
an
They are
English-speaking people,
more
intelligentand more
capable in every
considering the average
way,
mixed-blood.
Their homes
far superior and they are
ambitious
are
more
to improve conditions.
The fact that they are
unwilling to remain as they
me

an

in many

are

this

instances

only emphasizes
XIII.

to

"I

believe

protect the Indian

there
or

difference

results

are

the

instances

both,

great

opinion as to
Indians.
What
might be
be considered
by others as
instance,

any

class.

should

some

oppose

Personally,I

be taxed

in order

as

that there should

troublesome,

but

conditions."
is

making

conscientious

property

human.

and

effort
doubtedly
Un-

weak
ministrat
adthrough bad legislation,
has
been
done.
There
is
injustice
great

where,

what

is best

to

do

in many
to be

considered

instances

for the

an
injustice, might
by some
being the best possible thing for the Indian.
positivelythe taxation of Indian lands of
very

believe

public roads, bridges,

believe

being somewhat

interests,both

that

that funds

of local institutions, such

of

their

Government

in all of his

of

For

in

desire for better

all productive inherited

might

become

public schools, and

etc.

On

the

other

be greater freedom

available

Indian

lands

for the support

for the proper

maintenance
those who
there are

hand,

in the matter

of

issuingpatents

THE

380

VI.
Indian

"I

cannot

Whites

have

one

or

precisionas

in five years

even

of the Indian, with

in the environment

knowledge of the

my

is less than
localities,

two

said, however, that

be

can

great change
which

this with

answer

country, except in

"It

INDIAN

AMERICAN

ten

there

few

years

has

old.

been

exceptions. The

settled pretty well in and around him and have diffused ideas
to adopt in more
or less degree. I speak of matters

in time he is bound

of dress,food, shelter,etc.

superficial
aspect of his life is changing.
morals,
law,
etc., are being modified.
manner,
It appears
that he is going through that period of transition,forgetting
the old code of life,
at least not regardingit,and yet not dominated
or
by
the new.
This transition period is always one
of distinct loss both in moral
this point of view, he is not as well off today
From
force,and achievement.
he
but
until
he has passed through the critical period,
ten
was
as
years
ago,
it is unfair to make
comparison by years merely."
VII.
Certain
Indian
tribes had
"Immorality is a relative term.
moral
which
codes under
they lived and lived acceptably, or morally.
In

like

Those

The

his attitude

the diversityof the

marks

ing
today. Thus we find the Crows deterioratstill
next
door,
are
Cheyennes, living practically
sexual morality of the former is low compared to that

general condition
while

the difference in them

differed and

codes

toward

of those tribes

Northern

the

good stock.

The

of the latter.
"Few

Indians

partner

one

frequent; even
promiscuity is
is common,

the

so,

not

after

practice monogamy

only, and

finds few

one

in the lower

prostituteis

Such

not.

are

conmion

the best

prostitutesamong

Even

common.

Anglo-Saxon ideal

the

for life. Divorces

partner

one

tribes where

tribes have

"

and

tribes, and

promiscuity

stillthe remnants

of

phallicismin their ceremonies.

"The

state

of morals

generallyspeaking, as
authority has become
and
Federal

there is

law has

no

is not

due

it is to

the

much

of low Whites,
the presence
fact mentioned
above, that the tribal
so

loosened, their
definite code,

or

own

to

social restraints

its enforcement

have

peared,
disapsucceeding. The

the ground on reservations where it retained

the Indians are citizen allottees,
the State does not

covered

never

and where
jurisdiction

itselfto exercise control;local judicial

machinery is reluctant to punish
infractions of the law, partly because the community concerns
itself very
exert

little with
because
share

offences

of the

of the

expense

taxation.

kind

involved

among

in

Indians

themselves,

prosecutions,in which

and

partly

Indians

bear

by
regards that morality which is designated honesty, I hardly
believe that the word of an Indian today is as good, man
for man,
as in the
no

"As

OFFICIAL

VIEWS

381

to give testimony
previousgeneration. Traders would be more
competent
this point,because
in their business they have learned whom
to trust
on

and

whom

to

IX.

*The

white

Indian

where

his

suspect.
is

man

likelythan

more

not

is concerned.

own
advantage
pushing quality of the Whites, as
qualityof the Indian. It is frequentlya racial
It is often a matter
of mere
competitionbetween
an

the innate

had

conversation

with

bank

oflBcialin

an

to

take

This

the

of

advantage

is due

as

much

to

corresponding retiring

rather than
Whites.

Indian

moral

matter.

For instance, I

country, where

once

banks

The man
discountingIndian notes at an impossibleusurious rate.
highly respected in the community, well regarded for honesty, a
church
We
worker, and in my
own
opinion a good, typical American.
discussed the matter
he
and
concluded
'I
reasonably,
by saying,
suppose
this sort of thing seems
unpardonable to you,' and when I acquiesced,he
were
was

continued, *We
money,

look

at

it about

else will.' The

one

some

this way,
if
Indian makes
"

do

we

not

get the Indian's

resistance to such

no

ment,
treat-

partlythrough inability,
partly through inambition.
XIII.
"In general,it is;in some
instances it is too paternalistic;
in
crowded
Indian
to an issue contrary to distinctly
others, it is sometimes
good
policy by interests which bear upon
general public policy. In other
words, the Indian interest must
frequently be sacrificed for general and
broader

interest.

is protecting the Indian, and

might say that the Government
be more
If the public would
protectinghim well, but the public is not.
might exert less paternalism,with great advantage
just,the Government
"I

to the individual

"It

should

Indian.
be

added

that

often

the Indian

findingGovernment

protectionirksome, just as

parentalauthority.

As

protect the Indian

when

one

Government

he doesn't

want

stands
a

in the attitude

oflScial aptly said, *It is hard

to

be

of

child often feels toward

to

protected'."

G. Wilson, Supervisorof Indians, Rosebud, Oregon,

Horace
questionsrather briefly.He believes that the general condition
of the Indians is better than ten years ago; that the Indian is naturally
increases through contact
with low Whites;
immoral, but his wickedness
that the mixed-bloods
in the best condition; white people are taking
are
white
at home;
advantage of the Indians; Indians should be educated near
Indian
that
the
to secure
men
women
are
marrying
Finally,
property.
Government
is protectingthe Indians.
Honorable
Charles F. Peirce, Superintendent of the Flandreau
school.
South
of pupils each year.
Dakota, says he has in charge a large number
Honorable

repliesto

the

THE

382

He

considers

moral

the condition

condition

white

people

AMERICAN

in the

than
satisfactory

more

of Flandreau

INDIAN

Indians

surround* ng

compares

community

under

there is little drunkenness; that the observance

good

as

that

white

among

the mixed-bloods
"The

people; that
are

more

Flandreau

Indians

Dakota, voting and

otherwise

years,

and

that the
that

of

conditions; that

same

of marriage relat'ons is

of the

most

ago;

years

Indians

are

as

full-bloods;

industrious.
have

been

citizens of the

State

of South

taking part in municipal affairs for twenty

is nominally holding jurisdiction
while the Government
over

CLASS

them,

ten

favorably with

they need

DOMESTIC

IN

but

very

ART,

HASKELL

INDIAN

little protection,and

SCHOOL.

KANSAS

that is being exercised

by

necessitydemands."
A. Thackery is Superintendent of the Pima
Indian
culosis
and tuberAs to the prevalence of trachoma
School, Sacaton, Arizona.
ten
give much
years ago as compared with the present, he cannot
that
deaths
from
there is a high percentage of
He admits
information.
tuberculosis, and recommends
inexpensivehospitalcamps.
of their water
VI.
rights
"Speaking for the Pimas alone, the matter
the Government

Honorable

is the

as

Frank

factor
principal

to

be considered

in connection

with

their advance-

OFFICIAL

VIEWS

383

in the past ten years, as upon

their rightto the water
of the Gila River
their sole opportunity for industrial independence. The Pimas
are

ment
rests

victims

of circumstances
beyond their control in so far as the irrigation
problem is concerned and the Indian OflSce is now
taking very active steps
the encroaching whites
wherever
to protect the rights of these Indians
have jeopardized them.
**The

VII.

Pima

primitivepeople, but

to

err

such

deviations

high standard

of

occur

as

morality for
due

are

to

the

own

as

be

have

liable
is, after all,human
nature, which
nature, and
as
his white brother, whose
will
all
leaves
much
example we
agree

Indian's
to

Indians
I believe

desired

if set

up

in

far

as

standard

the

which

to

other

races

should

aspire,"
IX.
have

"Yes,

so

as

appropriatingriver

water

to

which

the Pimas

prior right.

X.

"Again speaking of the Pimas

conditions

here

make

it desirable

only, I believe the peculiarclimatic

that

the

boys and

girlsshall receive

trainingin this

their

be farmers, and
correlate with
in

locality.It is safe to say that 95% of the boys will

such training as they receive along agriculturallines should

their home

conditions

localitywhere

climatic

and

this it is not

conditions

vary

tained
likely to do if ob-

greatlyfrom

southern

Arizona.
XIII.

"I

believe the administration

is taking every possiblestep to
safeguard the interests of the Indians within the limits allowed by the laws
governing and the funds at its disposal,hampered as it is by the political
of Indian
as
always, seek to control the management
intriguerswho now,
Affairs for their personalbenefit and gain. Your true reformer is first and
always an extremist; to him a thing is either black or white, good or evil,
He knows
a crime
no
or
a virtue.
gradation of color,no perceptionof proportions,
values.
of
To
him the world is made
no
knowledge
up of entirely
unrelated
evil.

imposed
and

to

antitheses, and

It is easy
upon

for such

all acts
a

person

of which

he does not

to contend

himself approve
are
have been

that the Indians

by those entrusted

find evidence

to

with the management

of their affairs
But the broad-minded
support their contentions.

investigatorwill recognizethe peculiarracial problems with which those

have had to deal, will give due
interested in the Indians' advancement
consideration
will weigh carefully
to the enormity of the task set them,
the intricacyof the machinery with which
the workers have been forced
observation
to labor and will hesitate to judge adversely where
superficial
would
such
to
warrant
a
judgment justifiable."
appear

THE

384

AMERICAN

INDIAN

I regret that I could not

full. But the quotations will

view, and
to

that

in
produce these lengthy communications
give an idea of the Departmental point of
dangers are fullyappreciated,and every eflfortmade

the

them.

overcome

Commissioners'

Past
Honorable

T. J.

Views

in June, 1889,
Morgan, appointed Indian Commissioner
the
chief
its
as
aim, the
crystalized
policyhaving
followed by Honorable
He was
educating of Indians.

be said to have

might
and the
allotting,
D. M.
Browning,
appointed in May,
succeeded

who

served

1897,

the office. We

to

for four

served

Honorable

years.

until December,
dismiss

may

the

1904,

W.

when

A.

Jones,

Mr.

Leupp

of the Commissioners

careers

that they did not foresee

preceding Mr. Leupp, with a blanket statement
a
policy emphasizing allottingand educating,and minimizing protection,
would bring about disastrous results. Mr. Leupp's administration
felt the full force of the evil eflfectsof policies
cessors.
inaugurated by his predehave already discussed Mr. Leupp's views, and further comWe
ment
that

is unnecessary.

Coming
that

down

to

Valentine

Mr.

the Indian

and

Mr.

Valentine's

recognized in the

strove

to combat

October, 1909, he delivered

Should

Know

About

service

them.

been

weak

and

incomplete, or

book

Mr.

that

dangers confronting
Conference,
the Public
entitled,"What
of

much

for

trouble

his inspection
is due
in this

largelydue to his
necessity of increased

it is

the

to

the

that

elsewhere

commended
"

find

we

Mohonk

In this he admits

I have

Valentine's

1909,

the

the Lake

Bureau."

faulty reports.
health propaganda
eflforts that
aroused
Congress became
appropriations.
to

sense

At

splendidaddress

the Indian

has

appointment, June,
full

The

F. H. Abbott, who served from

acting Commissioner, Honorable
September, 1912, to Mr. Sells' appointment in June, 1913, carried out the
policiesinaugurated by his former chief. Abbott
opposed wholesale
allotments
firm
in
stand against
the
took
He
made,
as
a
hastily
past.
the allotment
schemes
the present
Indians
at
proposed for the Navaho
time.
Mr.

Sells'

this book.
as

He

Assistant

officer. It
for the
the San

policy has

been

fortunate

was

Commissioner,

was

due

granting of
Carlos

to Mr.
a

Indian

referred to at

length on

previous pages

who

entered

Meritt's

right of way

the Bureau

eflfortsthat the

in 1910

Reservation, Arizona,

was

as

applicationof

for the construction

of

of

E. B. Meritt

in his selection of Honorable

prevented.

chief law
a

railroad

line

through

His

work

on

OFFICIAL
behalf

of the Yakima
eflfective. He

settingforth
and

the aims

Indians,

VIEWS
in

has delivered
of the

385

protectingtheir
a

of addresses

number

now

under

cially
espe-

Lake

Mohonk,
the present administration,

Department under
Rights Association

cooperates with the Indian

The
inspectionservice is

rights,was

water

new

at

in its excellent work.

chief, Honorable

E.

B.

practicalfield-man of wide experience,he has selected a corps

carried on in a thorough manner,
of competent
are
now
men.
Investigations
and incompetent persons
removed, and not simply transferred,as in former
Linnen.

As

times.

MOURNING

THE

Photographed by

Rev.

DEAD
Julius

Jette, S. J., in a cabin at

Nulato, Alaska,

April

1913

o
Q
"

"

Q
"

"i
;?;

Q
;?;

PS

"

lands

Their
ten

rent

better

INDIAN

bringing more

now,

to

money

them

than

they did

ago.

years

"I think
And

AMERICAN

THE

388

is doing all it can

Government

our

I think

it has

been

for several

do for the Indians'

trying harder

years

and

interest.

harder

each

duty by these people. The restrictions on their lands,

their perfectsystem of schools,their vigilanceto keep whiskey from them,
their eagerness
that the heart
to protect them; all these things go to show
of the Government
has a soft spot for the Indian and it will be a sad day
do its full

to

year

for the Indian

the Government

when

him

turns

loose."

Correspondent, Hugo, Oklahoma

"The
in the

should

Government

do

Conditions

local courts.

to

more
are

very

secure

justicefor citizen Indians

bad."

Correspondent, Santee, Nebraska

"Too

red

much

tape."
Correspondent, Odanah, Wisconsin

"If the U. S. Government

enforced, the Indians

would

laws, protectingthe Indians, could be only

be well

protected."
Correspondent, Beaulieu, Minn.

protectionto the Indians would be the giving to each man

goods and lands that belong to him as an individual,or to
brief period exercise an
his family, and then for a very
elder brotherly
rather by way
of suggestion. This is my
control of his aflfairs,
opinion as
in this region at the present time."
to the Indians
best

"The

the

portion of

S. Dakota

Correspondent, Rosebud,
"When

farms, miles
industrious
Indian

"In
on

eighteen years

over

town, wore
When
they

ago,

lived

many

citizens' clothes,talked

allotted,they

were

in consequence

they

were

English, were

left their farms, flocked

the

and

became

their

on

allowed

etc.
blanket, Osage language, old customs,
forced
allotted,they were
Oklahoma, where they were
to

their allotments

very

way.

villagesand

returned

them

from

away

in

here,

came

to have

together,
In
to

eastern
northlive

on

industrious.

conclusion, I would say

with the Whites,
a
par

turn
as

soon

the
as

Indians

loose

possible,and

entirely,place
that

should

soon."

Correspondent, Pawhuska,

Okla.

be

RECOMMENDATIONS
"The

Government

389

doing something in the

is

industrial

trainingof the young, but

things into life;the Government

these

sick, and
disease

has

and

Indians

several
death

on

are

sell a license to

says

open

saloon

saloons may
not sell liquorto Indians, yet drunken
dandelions on a lawn.
I need not say more.
as

big; it is ineflfective. The

of

Commission

made

pumping-stations,and
the Indian

problem

within

act

"Had
done

settlement

had

surrounded

of land

school

parents.
week, and
the

home,

is too

into the hands

put

something

than

more

give the Commission

must

power

without

be

Two

care

Earth

might

Reservation?

not

have

been

study of the

social creature; of choice he lived in

have suggested the
his friends. This would

him

as

by
ments
villagesrather than scatteringthem upon allotknowledge of, or taste for farming. In these
any

been

built houses

on

for 150

tracts

one-acre

families,

provided a school, hospital,store, etc. The

day-school,and the children left in the homes of their
been

field matrons

from

of vision,what

into

might have

would

we
politics;

the White

on

revealed

have

villagesmight have
there

common

Government

be
are

as

are

I say this without

experts in this matter.
but of the system as a whole.
We
must
get

of heart and

men

gathering of Indians

and

The

The

reservation.

certain limits.

we

would

problem

on

are

of

out

for the Indians

Indian
a

who

carry

hospitalfor the

Indians

should

with hearts that

men

criticism of individuals

any

to

whole
of

up

to

are

that he may

man

ambition

paid for caring for the sick; yet

the increase; the Government
recognizes the
that no liquorshall be sold to them, yet will

physicianswho

wards, and

as

of intellectual and

way

fails to stir up an
has established

time

to

time

could

visit every
gather the women

of children, etc.

The

home

at

least

for instructions in

physician could

each

once

care

easilylook

of

after

the sick.''

Correspondent,Cass Lake, Minnesota

"In

the town

of

Yerington,Nevada, having a white populationof 682

(lastcensus), there are at least fifteen placeswhere liquoris sold. Yerington
is situated in Mason's
the
from
about
miles
tion,
reservavalley
twenty-five
and is surrounded
by a farming section and in the outlyinghills are
mining prospectors and a few mines in operation. Occasionallya
many
stranded

prospector drifts into the town, and readilylearns that the easiest
get another 'grubstake'is to bootleg whiskey to Indians, and so
way
there is considerable of this work done.
of Yerington
Also, in the town
to

are

many

Indians

are

places where *yen-chee'is sold, and

opium users.

good

per

cent,

of these

THE

390

AMERICAN

INDIAN

in June he has made

the Agent took charge of the agency
some
Indians
their
land
the
from
(allotments)
regulationsrestricting
leaving

"Since

at

all

and

any

office before
of

revenue

and

by requiringeach Indian to get a

this regulationhas

seasons,

of these

some

towns, so much
and circulated a

ex-judge made

an

that

so

from

the

down

the

pass

leavingthe reservation,and

cut

attorney of low caliber

an

both Indians and

petitionamong
the Indians
disciplining
Agent's

of the
investigation

Whites, requestingan

Their
supplemented by a request that he be removed.
heard by an officer at Yerington and the testimony submitted
chargeswere
of
in a way
theatrical comedies; one
that was
more
amusing than many

be made,

which

was

the witnesses

even

him

The

to

say!
was

to

smell of

the attorney and

whiskey

on

the

asked

it

what

attorney and

he told

was

nesses
of the wit-

some

noticeable.

very

"The

turned

so-called Medicine

Men

think, the greatest hindrance

are,

when they
the tribal evils that the Paiute Indians have to conquer;
doctoring'a sick person and are convinced that the patient is going
to die, they accuse
some
progressiveIndian of being a witch' and claim
the sickness is due to a spellcast over
them by the witch'.

among

are

it would

"I think
go
a

school at such

to

free life at home

tender

makes

and
"I also
if

doubt
them

that in

far

and

more

it would

improve more
land, so as to
enough agricultural
water

his farm.

of

on

make

money

is

the

it

could

the benefit of the Indians

yearly spent

that

all cultivate

few years,

within

These

children, as

their lands

in

in order

large
to

Indian

every

possiblefor him
even

stitution
con-

tuberculosis.

reservation
so

the

it weakens

cases

to

more

which

land,

to

part of said

number

be far

The

to

develop

could

make

non-

get

living

be spent to assist him in

With
like.
such a

fencing his land, procuring farm implements and the

start and well-meaning officers,
who, when necessary,
insist that

forced to

not

were

six

to
susceptible

great percentage of the money

reservation schools, would be used

on

(fiveto

more

children

change from
years).
at such a
strict routine school lifeis hard, especially

convinced

am

if the Indian

earlyage

very

to a

I do not

age.

be better

properly,most

even

would

of the Indians

strictly
would,

and also support their children.

self-supporting
should be made
to assist their
grow
up, in turn

become

they

parents in their home

duties.

day-schools,as a rule, should suffice also for the Indian

children. In these they could surelyreceive such an education as is necessary
for an honest and happy living.Most
of the white children in country
districts have no
better opportunity.
Correspondent,Phoenix, Arizona
{Formerly lived at Yerington,Nev.)
"Reservation

RECOMMENDATIONS
Indians

"Competent
bloods

or

schools

should

391

be

given control of their business; fullor

by the retention of coal royalties,
Oklahoma
needs
Congressional action.
it needs Federal buildings or battleships."

full-bloods educated

near

maintained

direct

by

schools for Indians

than

more

Correspondent,Muskogee,
"The

general tendency
the Indians'

over

the

of the

Government

property and

generallyagreed plan for

person,

ultimate

take

to

while of

Oklahoma

the

away

guards
safe-

in line with

course

is proving very
citizenship

tive
destruc-

at the

It is the general rule that Indians

present stage of advancement.
the proceeds either in
patents in fee sell their holdings and waste

given

riotous

or
livingor foolish investments
manipulations of
than
procedure cripplesthe coming generationmore

Such

their
the

aflfairs.

present

one.

"The

is further

Government

about every
politician
An experiencedfield man
a

"The
and

attempt

necessary

with

the

time

as

than

we

is at

to

educate
Bureau.

care,

supporting Indian schools until such

public schools of a type better

meantime

is in

shape

to attend

now.

theory of
who

men,

instead of

disadvantage in having

desirable
put Indians in public schools while finally
placesand should be pushed
present a failure in most

the Indian

"The

to

greatest
have

at

three years to take charge of the Indian

should always be in this position.

content

were

hunting for

if it

is sound

administration

follow

to

followed up by exwere
perienced
policyalreadypromulgated

ideas to be called their own."

new

Correspondent,Sisseton,

South

Dakota

them
"Continually giving things gratis does not make
ciate
apprewhat is being done for them, but rather makes them inert and destroys
all ambition.
It looks rather strange to see
yearly thousands of dollars
the
children
of
in
desert in distant and magthese
educating
spent
nificent
poor
schools.
think

of

giving their

"Sooner

having

Thousands

or

of well-to-do

later the

their hard-earned

taxpayers

have

make

livingfor themselves,
hopeless."

will be

not

learned

to

parents could

and

not

even

change.

of the United

thus

And,

States

spent.
help themselves, depend

money

Indians
a

such

children

white

if
on

by

will

object to

that

time

the

themselves, and

support their children,then

Correspondent,Phoenix,

their future
Arizona

"The
which

INDIAN

AMERICAN

THE

392

building of

furnish in abundance.

suggest the necessityof regularemployment

to

civilization.

work

Mills

turning the

should

have

necessityfor material
would
Study of the men
leading
discipline
proper

suggest the

would

homes

the forests would

been

forests into lumber

as

as

established
fast

as

it

the

and

to

set

men

for lumber,
and all other

needed

was

for their work,

over-plusto pay the men
operation.
expense
"The
warming of the homes and other buildingswould suggest the
come
necessityof fuel;the barbaric improvidence of the Indian would be overwoods
the
to
time
able-bodied
must
when
man
by settinga
go
every
and gather a year'ssupply of fuel for his home, as well as for all the public
and

suflScient

of

institutions.
"The
Indian

need

women

of
as

togetherwith
of sheep and
"The

blankets, etc., and

clothing,

the wide

acres

the establishment

need

under

Indian

does not

machinery, etc.
charity,but

need

I would do away
he possesses.
powers
therefor. I would not
work and wages
Indians

to

except

who

had

plan requiringthem
before they secured
would

have

all the work

white

permit a

man

to

of

on

he must

with

be trained to

all annuities

ago

years

their debts.
traders

They

pay.

after
and

and

The

become
the

the
the

an

acre

of land."
Minnesota

told them:

you

can

deal with licensed

them; dealers that are not licensed you

pay
trade with both kinds for convenience
sake and
dishonest

the

question of honesty and justice.Fifteen

honest, truthful,just,paid
Osages were

U. S. Government

money

use

substitute

make

must

while when

"Of

and

majority of

and

personalallotments of land
stead
learned to farm, and then only on the homecertain improvethe land and make
to live on
ments
title. Except for supervisorsand experts, I
would I
the reservation done by Indians, nor

hold title to

is for instance
the

more

or

one

learn to tillthe

Correspondent,Cass Lake,
"There

the

of woolens.

of mills for the manufacture

suggest the establishment

would
men
supervision,
proper

for stock, handle

"The

peculiarabilitiesof

of foods would

largefarms, where,
soil,care

the

beadwork, rush mats, and grass baskets,

of grazing lands, would
suggest the raising

in their

evidenced

is short,they refuse to pay

and unjust.

must

not

otherwise;

the unlicensed

dealer,

Osages, nineteen years ago, all the full-bloods were

poor,
ment
glad to get a pieceof beef when sick. The first year after allotvery
they let the renter bring them their share of the grain,but the second

RECOMMENDATIONS

393

after their share themselves

improved their opportunity

that some
to others not
so
Osages loaned money
only this year but ten
the
The
is
misfortune
the Osages and I say
to
greatest
years ago.
money
often it is a curse
to them.
They have a largetrust fund in Washington
and an apparently unlimited supply of oil and gas and also other minerals

year

they went

and

"

Oklahoma

Correspondent, Pawhuska,

CREEK

"In

MAN

some

AND

WOMAN

ways

the

CUTTING

Indians

WOOD.

SYLVIAN,

OKLAHOMA.

1913

improving but not so surely and

encouraging of the old native dances which
to pleasethe Whites,
scenes
enacting of war
are

rapidly as ten years ago. The

is simply heathen
worship; the
is fast putting him back of what
he was
ten
Indians are the most
law-abidingin most cases.
take advantage of the Indian.
The Government
the Indian.
run
Largely the local politicians

years

The
is not

The

ago.

full-blood

white

people always
properlyprotecting

reservation

Correspondent,Standing Rock,

affairs."
No.

Dakota

THE

394

"I

think

trained

no

could

more

nurse

of

matter

of cleanliness

matters

be

in the

here

done

these

among

ignorant in the

INDIAN

AMERICAN

Indians,

knowing how

and

nursing. There
The
people

of

way

field matron.

no

to

capable
who

at

but

"

farmers
who

one

in

ventilation."

Correspondent, Greenwood,
"Government

are

children, and

for young

care

is

who

/arm, and

takes

an

least visits the sick, are

doctor

"

I will not

more

say

people,and
the needs of these people."

interest in his work

among

So. Dakota

his

and

Correspondent, Pala, California

unjust. The boardingschools should be nonsectarian.
There should be more
day-schoolsto promote
should
be protected
the home
life. If the Indians are
wards, they
in the courts.
For instance, two years
a
girlwhose father had
ago
young
left
her
breach
nice
sued
for
of
a
just
promise by a mixedproperty, was
defended
blood.
She was
not
Ignorant, she did not appear in court.
by
low
and
her
the Indian Agent.
fine
horses
sold
of
at
were
Many
prices
the mixed-blood
reviewed
rece'ved $1,000. This case
ment
was
by the Departdences
of Justice in Washington but never
righted. They recognized eviof fraud, but the time limit had elapsed. There should be a good
tricts,
smaller disThere should be much
lawyer as legal clerk at each agency.
in charge of them, who
would
and more
and better farmers
by
the Indians
and raise
their land, milk cows
to farm
example encourage
stock.
Notwithstanding the large issues of stock, the Indians have few
"The

Indian

courts

cattle and

more

here.

out

With

horses
a

than

twenty-seven

railway station within

this reservation, very

on

incompetent and

are

little is raised to

ago

years

I first

when

came

Indian

miles of

nearly every
ship out, either stock or grain."

ten

Correspondent,McLaughlin, So. Dakota

Indians, largely,are

"The
to

several

upon

miles

from

them.

But

license.

without

first and

causes;

Indians

greatest I blame

obtaining licenses to marry.

the agency.
The old custom
now

Any

unless

they

authorized

are

best for
early marriages was
of
cannot
past eighteen years
get
age they

minister

should

with

parents.

the students

The

and

hundred

are

of

forced at all to be sent

license.

of them

Many

boys and girlsare

to school after they are

Immorality is due
the Government
for insisting

holding their lands.

Correspondent,Standing Rock

be

allowed

kept

in

to

school

sixteen, it should

Reservation, North

them

marry
too

be

long. If
optional

Dakota

THE

396

AMERICAN

INDIAN

'go around.' If the main school of the tribe, the one at Fort
well equipped as a trade school, much
Defiance, were
good would accrue
for the advancement
to the tribe;in fact, I consider this a prime necessity
are

too

few to

of the tribe."

Correspondent,St. Michaels, Arizona

ALASKAN
Two

INDIAN
have

trachoma,

CHILDREN;
four

are

NULATO,

normal.

ALASKA

Photographed, 1914

the
kept strict order among
all
Indian
or
people, punished
guilty by
imprisonment, kept
doctors from the place and fined them
much
as
as
fiftydollars if caught
the
the rulingof
abolished
reservation.
After
while
the
Government
on
a
the chief and headmen
by appointing paid Indian judges. If the guilty
fined
ever
were
they hardly
paid their fines,if put in jailthey managed by
other to escape, and many
or
destroyed
some
way
years ago the jailwas
"Years

ago

the Indian
the

chief and

headmen

fines

RECOMMENDATIONS

by

fire and

For
seems

has

attempt

no

the last year or

to be no
more

the

two

law

or

397

been

ever

made

judges have
authorityon

the

by

Such

of

extermination

sure

The

Sound.

Puget

at least allow

them

to die

Indian
natural

it.

there

now

death

to

never

Whites

and

and

to

settlers.

would

sent

the

on

Let

us

funeral."

decent

soon

die

to

disappear.

give them

the

see

white

to

open

is doomed

race

hope

of the Indians, who

of their little holdingsby bad

be tricked out
beach

be

step would

rebuild

to

that

so

the reservation.

conclusion, in this my 80th year of age,

reservation
will be thrown
the Indian
when

"In

day

Agent

dismissed

been

Correspondent,Bellingham, Washington
Indians'

land

all the water.

The

"The
taken

is without
is such

law

worthless.

and

water

the Indians

can

not

Whites
hunt.

have
of

Many

suffer for food."

them

Correspondent,Likely,California

and

"The

Government

then.

Give

no

money.

are

lazier

The

today

should

them
more

than

stop paying the

all that

them

Chippewa

now

money,

allotments, houses, and

belongs
they get, the less they
twenty years ago."
to

"

exert

themselves.

They

Correspondent, Cloquet, Minnesota

"With

respect

to

the

great credit that he has

here, it is

full-blood Indian

no

desire to receive

patent

be

to

said to

in fee to

his

his land,

holding on to their originalallotments, and inherited

Little land is offered for
land, with a spiritwhich is truly commendable.
sale belonging to the full-blood,and there is a well-fixed determination
the full-bloods

and

the full-bloods to hold

among

and
and

they

as

knowing

white

men

too

who

full-blood here
not

are

know

they

on
can

to their land.

receive

As

good

the land here is

figureif the land

so

able
valu-

is sold,

of the great pressure

brought to bear upon an Indian by
their
desire to purchase
land, I say again that the Indian

is to be

sell the land which

congratulatedupon
the Government

his determination

has allotted to him

and

that he will
his

family."

Correspondent, Pendleton, Oregon

BAY-BAH-DWUN-GAY-AUSH.

Photographed in

87

the family
and knew
possessedof a remarkable memory
the chief witness for the Government
Ojibwa. He was
blood relationship {See pages 95 and 399)
establishing

This old blind medicine

man
hundreds
historyof some
in

AGE
1914

was

of

CHAPTER

XXXVII.
AND

There

WOMEN
of the

preceding 1880, that

years
popular belief, the Indians

The

between

nearly

bands

some

life

was

and

1850

in vogue

in many

The

1878.

average

home

at

was

our

troops inaction,

too

much

emphasis

warrior.

as

their chief aim

Indian

warpath, as are
citizens.
Entirely

as

men

Indian

warfare

the

on

the

did make
the

But

age.

the Indian

communistic

MORALITY

life,beyond the Mississippi,in the

picturesque if not beautiful.
Contrary to
Certain
not
continually at war.
zations
organi-

were

same

MEN

old Indian
was

of young
men
among
of life until reaching middle

just as different from

the opposite of the
has been placed upon

INDIAN

LIFE.

PROMINENCE.

OF

much

was

COMMUNISTIC

THE

places

communistic

of the

west

sentiment,

sippi
Missis-

evinced

in

different from
life today,
so
our
clan-group, was
I find myself compelled to illustrate it through the following

village and

every

that
incident.

old

The

blind

medicine
found

dwun-gay-aush, was
the edge of a swamp
of

out

his

at

Minnesota.

Point,

Pine

Otter-tail

Pillagers,Bay-bah-

helpless,living in

me

He

Valentine,

Commissioner

property.

the

of

man

by

on

wretched

shack

had

swindled

been

on

recommendation,

my

and
his friend, the
kindly issued orders that old Bay-bah-dwun-gay-aush
be
rationed
aged May-cud-day-wub,
as
Wednesday
long as they
every
lived.
the original birch-bark
Out of gratitude, the old man
roll
me
gave
Medicine
of the Mid-di-we-win,
Grand
the roll-keeper.
or
Society. He was
In 1909,
which
be

to

The

all.
and
as

They
our

live

take
in

other

support
did

desire

to

in

present

abridged form

the

degree, illustratingthat phase of Indian character

the sentiment
is expressed as
In a general way,
referred.

beavers
not

everything
each

death.

It contains
five degrees,
requested that publication

"

They do
to

his

old.

years

the old shaman

Beaver

I have

which

follows

until
the

or

102

was

translated, but

been

deferred

fourth,

received, the roll

when

have

danger

help each
the

old.

is

grandfathers, who

other

strike

we

the
Their

near.

other, build
Thus

harmony.

of each

They

common.

when

in

together

advantage

the

They
do

water

one
village.
people. They share
night, and thus signal

occupy

white
at

storehouses

dams

Ojibwa
learned

as

of food

together, care

should

this from

live
the

as

do

beaver

are

for the
the

beavers

clan.

to

open
young

and

THE

400

The

AMERICAN

between

INDIAN

this beautiful sentiment

obtainingin
today
passing away
selfish point of view
of the communistic
life,and the adoption of the more
of the white man,
Indian character was
not greatlyimproved.
The begging dance, quite conmion
three generationsago, surtwo
vives
or
aries
here and there in spiteof efforts of the Government
and the missionto extinguishit. This same
begging, or giftdance, has been permisunderstood.
a
Sioux, Pawnee, Cheyenne, or other
sistently
Originally,
his friends togetherand distributed in addition to
Indian, who assembled
his blankets and ponies,became
He had done
food, even
man.
a famous
and a love of his fellowa good thing. His act was
prompted by generosity,
The Agent and missionary,however, told him that one
should not
man.
b
ut
the
he
accumulate
and
hoard.
All of this
must
on
give gifts,
contrary
was
confusing to the Indians of the transition period. The older
very
most

contrast

Indian

Indians

communities

{page 32^)

is very

marked.

that

and

With

the

refuse their friends food, and

cannot

such

in the faith of their fathers feed those less fortunate

as

than

stillcontinue

themselves,

doing they deprive themselves of food.

The absolute change from these communistic
ideas, from the general
brotherhood
of the red man,
to the more
practical(ifnot sordid) views of
the white man,
had a curious effect on many
of the Indians.
The sharper
Indians soon
that among
observed
the white people there were
rich and
The missionary,unselfishly
laboringto upliftthe aborigines,was
poor.
in
this
world's
Yet
he was
and endeavored
goods.
self-sustaining
very poor
Indians
the
become
teacher
Both
the Government
to
to persuade
so.
and the missionary impressed upon
the aborigineideas of thrift. Soon
after allotments
were
issued, and the Indians received same,
appeared
although by

other white

so

men

bankers, real

"

land

Indian

certain

class of half-educated

or

the missionary pleaded, and

talked and blustered much,
the

missionarywaxed

poor,

Indians
the

and

men

thus

well-to-do

lawyer of the Great

hard, cold fact stood

one

the Indian

poorer,

or

observing that

shrewdly

Agent and

All of these

merchants.

became

but the

out
man

rich.

although
Father

indisputably:
in the frontier

incomprehensibleto the old Indian, who clung

The
perfectlyclear to the educated Indian.
latter realized that certain white men
the good
did not practicewhat
much
the
missionary preached. To such, the word theftsounded
very
the
Indian
So
evil
in
drifted
into
as
same
cases
thrift.
ways,
many
town
to

waxed

rich.

estate

timber, and

secured

communistic

It

was

ideals, but

"

and like the white

man

life of his father, and

between

the two

words

"

of the frontier town, he scorned the old communistic

difference
to his ear
there appeared practically
no
I have

mentioned:

thrift and

theft.

THE

COMMUNISTIC

Indian
Of

those

achieved

more

consideration
and

names,

if readers

biographicalsketches
far fewer

no

great

discrimination

of most

in

were

sorry

I present

the Handbook

large number

that space
a

The

Indians^ short
has produced

negro

than

the Indian, yet the negro has always vastly

During forty years there has been practically

men

the

North

Slavery retarded

man

save

have
him

been
in

in the South.
many,

sense,

and

His

tional
educa-

his

opportunities
yet slaverytaught him

We
would
had.
industry which the Indian has never
and women.
largerproportion of prominent negro men
have:
in this book, we
Omitting those previously mentioned

expect

who

forbids

partiallist of their

of American

of these will be found.

against the black

advantages
enforced

will consult

401

Women

and

in this book.

careers

the former.

multitudinous.

Men

representingthe olden days, there

less prominence. I am
or
very
of their

outnumbered

LIFE

"

therefore,

American

Sioux; Black

Beaver, Delaware;
Horse, Oglala Sioux; Big Mouth,
Kettle, Cheyenne; Bloody Knife, Arikara; Chas. Curtis, Kaw; Chas.
D.
Carter, Chickasaw; George Cop way,
Chippewa; Francisco, Yuma;
Sioux; Peter
Bear, Brule
Gall, Sioux; John Grass, Sioux; Hollow-horn
Jones, Missisauga; Kanakuk,
Yakima;
Keokuk,
Kickapoo; Kamaiakan,
Sauk; Kicking Bird, Kiowa;
Kintpuash (Capt. Jack), Modoc; Leschi,
Brule

Black

NisqualH;
Brule

Little Crow,

Sioux; Little Raven, Arapaho; Little Thunder,

Sioux; Lone W^olf, Kiowa; Mahtoiowa
ing
(Whirl-

Sioux; Little W^ound,

Bear), Brule Sioux; Many Horses, Piegan; Joel B.Mayes, Cherokee; Nagonub, Chippewa; Nakaidoklini, Apache; Namequa, Sauk; Nana, Apache;
Napeshneeduta, Sioux; Nawah, Apache; Albert Negahnquet, Potawatomie;
John Otherday, Sioux; Ouray,
Ojibwa, Ojibwa; Oronhyatekha, Mohawk;
Peter Perkins
Fte; Eli Samuel
Parker, Seneca; Quana Parker, Comanche;
PotaSimon
Pizhiki
Pokagon,
(Buffalo),Chippewa;
Pitchlynn,Choctaw;
John
Alexander
Lawrence
Creek;
Pleasant
watomi;
Posey,
Porter, Creek;
W.
Red
Horn, Piegan;
Quinney, Stockbridge; Rain-in-the-Face, Sioux;
Red
John

Nose, Cheyenne;
Band, Sioux; Gabriel Renville, Sioux; Roman
Ross, Cherokee; Sassaba, Chippewa; Satan ta, Kiowa; Scarf ace Charlie,

Iron

Schonchin, Modoc; John Sunday, Chippewa; Souligny,Menominee;

Standing Bear, Ponca; Tamaha, Sioux; Tendoy, Bannock; Solimon Two(White Cloud), Chippewa; James D. Wafford,
stars, Sioux; Wabanaquot
Wamditanka
Cherokee;
(Great War
Eagle), Sioux; Wapasha, Sioux;
Eleazar
Chief),
Williams, Iroquois;Winema
(Woman
Washakie, Shoshoni;
Modoc; Wopohwats, Cheyenne; Allen Wright, Choctaw; Yellow Thunder,
Winnebago.
Modoc;

AMERICAN

THE

402

Doctor

Charles

judge

Cloud

Red

A. Eastman

of the Plains

and

Indians

INDIAN
than

"

of 1850-1890

SittingBull, he

there is

whom
has

"

of the greatest Indians of modern

In addition to the Indians, both educated

(Sioux) two
been

presented

in this Indian

History,

informed

educated

was

at

school

mission

private school in Elizabeth, N.

not, whose
who
two

and

there

occur

have

names

larly
particu-

were

about

in Nebraska

1850.

later

reservation, and

the Omaha

on

to

Crazy Horse

and

times.

prominent in helping their own

people.
bom
Bright Eyes (Susette La Flesche) was
She

that next

me

Spotted Tail

considers

competent

more

no

were
forcibly
reservation,
Territory from their home on Niobrara
removals
South
Dakota.
In order to bring Indian
before the public.
La
Flesche
her
Susette
and
brother, visited
Standing Bear, accompanied by
the principalcities of the United
States, where her appeals for humanity

at

removed

toward

the

aroused

race

urged

was

In

interest

the Government

on

of thousands.

that there be

this request has been respected,when

until her death in 1902.
active with her pen

brightestIndian
Sarah

became

women

Winnemucca,

in the Bannock

scout

as

penetrate the country

in the

after

and
eighties,

biography.
Mr. Leupp

There

is

century
a

in his book

have
man

great Indian,

Sacagawea,

us.

who

book

we

or

one

What

or

of 1877, when

of the

devoted

guided Lewis

in

She

1844.

Indian

no

his

Indians

O.

O.

would

man

in the East

She died in 1891,

produce

to

be done

in

educating Indians, yet

Do

we

Clark

was

to

due
of

the Pacific
nurse,

we

Chief

and

and

progress,
to

his

an

Indian

national

character.

For

than

person.

trained

Indian

of the fame

Clara Barton, the noble Civil War

of Tecumseh,

latter

to

such

misunderstand

not

stamp
The

by

place in

continuallyasking him
T. Washington?"

were

Booker

to

reputationare

have
and

produce

attention

any

worthy of

as

stated that people

woman.

Sequoya.

woman

of

one

General

served

the Piaute's wrongs.

on

Indians

labored

his attainments, and

to

the

splendidwork

we

Nevada

in

and
officials,
War

quite possiblefor the

singlegreat

before

very

was

considered

was

career.

this question: "Will

It is

She

bom

was

of others might be included

score

more

practicable. She

occupied by the hostiles. She lectured

wrote

remarkable

Paiute,

result, a request
of tribes,

removals

times.

Government

interpreterto

Howard

of modem

As

no

and

the

the Ponca

1877-78

Indian

to

her

J.

own

have
me.

more

not

mean

produced
a
truly

Joseph, Red Cloud,

educated
fiftyyears
and his alphabet,
efforts rathet

than

Sacagawea, the poor

Shoshoni,

.^ Not

Excepting

ocean
a

one.

few other American

women.

THE

have

we

no

and

COMMUNISTIC

even

person,

character

than

this

noble Indians,

stood

forth

who

women,

underwent

clearlyas

more

40S

such

brave

and

gers
danheroic

Sacagawea. We have produced a great many

prominent, but not to be considered truly

same

and

men

white

among

privations,or

LIFE

women,

great.
One
and

unless

misrepresent,if

not

may

some

large sense.

There

whom

Henry

is Mr.

educated

Indians

them

may

If

educated

an

have

employees.

with

entered

should

that

the

seen

than

Indian

public arena

are

None

matters.

his entire time

up

dominant

to

men

chief among
of the
most

But

as

for the fishermen

Indians

working

of

figure.
for his

of Labrador, he would
the educated
of it. Hundreds

teachers, ministers, or

Government

everybody knows, upright and able. But

a
positionheld by these excellent gentlemen,
be
held
of
their
in
might
by one
own
standing as
Race in America, and in an intelligent
and forceful

are,

as

difference between

positionthat
for the Red

sponser

others.

always been a surpriseto me that

this opportunity and availed themselves

All of them

of his

great

Washington,
people in the

bright Indians,
two

or

other

the

give

works

one

Indian

Booker

It has

educated

vast

and
true

concerned

Grenfell

not

of the

of young,
and

Indian

famous.

there is

number

Roe-Cloud,

are

Doctor

people,
Indians

are

be said to have

as

become

claims

one

of the past. There

will not arise a
are
able
Indian
champions the cause
strong,

women

Such a man
should
presentingthe needs and aims of his race.
uncompromising front against graft and incompetency. A
present an
could not attain to this position,
mediocre
but given the opportunity,
man
there is no reason
under the sun
educated
Indian should not go
why some
into historyas a truly great man.
down
It is quite incomprehensible that so many
of our
educated
Indians
manner

are

fashion,
this

All of them

timid.

brothers

the

in
to

the wrongs

subject
"

said that

not

realize the

West.

as

is Dr.

one

has

Indians

need

have

of Indians.

come

referred, in

the

rightsof

national

situation

American
his

character.

is

Eastman

Admitting

before
the

dreadful

Dr.

Montezuma.

uncompromising fighterfor
The

few

so

more

especiallyfrank
much,

it remains

public as

upon
to be

stern, able,

race.

The

that

moment

and

of

of many
of their
less
or
guarded

the

an

Indian

exceptionalability,
strength appears on
platform,and
presence
his
the
the
the American
throujgh
champion of
race,
people
press, becomes
will rallyto his support.
Indian
is chieflyconcerned
But if such an
in
furtheringthe interests of some
society,or missionary organization, or of
denunciations
and does
a
singletribe of Indians; and if he presents mere
not

suggest proper

remedies, he will achieve

no

great

success.

INDIAN

AMERICAN

THE

404

is doing a good work, but in my

Indians
Society of American
far
humble
greater results if in addition to
opinion,it might accomplish
its advocacy of new
laws, the division of Indian money,
etc., its powerful
medium
of
selected
the
some
champion,
organizationbegan a fightthrough
for the full protectionof Indian rightsand an effective,and not a paper
citizenship.

The

LARGE

HOUSE,

INDIAN

BERTHOLD

FORT

Indian

On

Immorality
not

do

moral

immoral,

not

things which
code.

point

with the white

came

Indians, and

among

one's

on

I have
we

stated that morality

of view.

This

although
to

is

SIX

OF

was

proper,

Many

least do

at

relative

The

not

unmoral.

were

abundance

an

it elsewhere.
or

was

entirelytrue.

of them

some

There

man.

alluded

consider

FAMILY

Morality

Elsie E. Newton

380, Mrs.

page

term, or depended
oldtime Indians were

RESERVATION.

of

cruelty

Indians
forbid

would
in

our

Indian customs
considered
are
by us
against this, some
Drinking, while practicedin Mexico and among
Apaches,
and in some
unknown
Southwest
tribes,was
practically
throughout the rest
the
of the United States prior to the landing of our
respected ancestors
on
to

As

be immoral.

shores

of

the Creeks

Virginia,New
was

York,

ceremonial, and

referred elsewhere

to

and

Massachusetts.

not

indulged in

pluralmarriages. These

as

do

The
an

not

drink

black

intoxicant.
seem

to

have

of

I have
been

COMMUNISTIC

THE

405

than they were

by the patriarchs
usuallysupported their wives, even
of easy
after separation. The
modern
method
divorce, followed by the
heard a
usual suit for alimony, is reserved to politewhite society. I once
Navaho.
the
An
worthy gentleman lamenting plural marriages among
educated
Indian
be
and
he
mentioned
the
names
happened to
present,
of two
prominent white persons (to be found in Who*s Who in America).
Both occupy
and one
has had six wives and the other five
high positions,
The educated
husbands.
Indian ventured
to the worthy "upto remark
reservation would fail to produce
lifter" that a careful search of the Navaho
the so-called pagans) two
(even among
polygamists equal to these representatives
considered

the Indians

LIFE

by

of the Old

any

of the

white

immoral

more

Indians

Testament.

man's

civilization!

I have
Indians.
dance
reallyimmoral
among
which
in
the
immorality
publicgatherings
many
of the Indians during these dances was
denounced.
Although witnessing
thirtyor fortydances on different reservations,all the performersI observed
dance, the men
wore
were
properly dressed. Even in the Sioux Omaha
In the squaw
do collegestudents during a track meet.
as
quite as much
I have

heard

dance,

in which

other.
a

Yet,

pastime.
a

gave

at various

both

sexes

minister

The

take

part, the partners do

denounced

evening the

attended, and

us

gentleman's daughter.

two-step in which

such dances.

once

next

very

dance, all of

the reverend
or

seen

never

addresses

partners hold

me

white

He

each

hold

even

taking part in so innocent

employees on that reservation

I had

each

not

for

pleasureof dancing with

in the waltz
nothing wrong

the

saw

other

and

"

there

is

harm

no

in

the squaw
dance in which the participants
this merely to indicate how
scarcelylook at their partners. I mention
I am
inconsistent
dances.
with
reference
to Indian
are
people
many
informed
take part in the maxixe
that some
of the educated
Indians now
and
was

the

Yet

fox-trot.

scandalized

when

he

he observes

of Paris and

New

objectedto

If the
in

reverend

gentleman,

observing a squaw-dance,

educated
York

young

men

and

women

to

what

whom
must

referred,

I have
be

lapsinginto

feelings
paganism

his

the

taboo of the begging dance, and the curtailment

the older
in which
ordinary Indian dances, leave no amusements
Indians may
participate.Consequently, they are quite likelyto gamble
in far more
and engage
harmful
pastimes. Ordinary dances should be
and
the
dance
permitted,
gift
regulated.
The

of the

Government's

I
C/3

CHAPTER

XXXVIII.

Some
the

of

promises

of this character

available

Mrs.

Rose

the

to

book

and

devoted

kindred

white

Earth

of Indians

and

PURCHASES

stories of Indian

happenings,

not

mean

of which

most

are

citizen.

investigation in Minnesota,
through interpreters,Mr.

Ellis, persuaded the

material

I do

reservations.

our

heroism,

is much

There

subjects.
of

many

to

stories of actual

average

White

UNWISE

STORIES.

on

traditions, but

or

quite unknown
During the
joined a group
or

write

should

one

fulfilment

folk-lore,

TWO

old

and

men

frequently
Lufkins,

relate

to

women

I
John

of

some

their

told by a man
experiences. The first story, that of Ojibwa, was
the tribe.
famous
He
warrior, noted for
was
a
bearing the same
name
as
his bravery in action against the Sioux.
His friend, No-de-na-qua-um
(the
the
been
shot
also
famous
had
warrior,
a
Temperance Chief),
right
through
in his chest and back.
lung, and proudly exhibited to us the scars
The
at the time, without
story of Ojibwa is presented as taken down
explanations or additions, being a literal translation.
Ojibwa's
"When
a

home

I
and

left outside

assaulted

Sioux

the two

"About
about

heard

that

Hole-in-the-Day,
while

the

dinner.

Captain sat
replied,'I am
used

my
"

and

He

who

for

as

near

me.

the man.'

this

summer

while

at
we

The

The

went

he asked

he had

me

me

tried

to

get

'Did
how

you

and

came

with

them

found

Lake

I killed him,

and

little

eating

I did.

Sioux?'

kill the

for

sent

them

which

eat,

and

myself,

Little Rock

at

been

and
to

Sioux

soldiers

over

Captain said,

Then

guns

the other

and

soldiers

camping

were

there, they told

was

I killed

war,

chief. After

me.

the

white

The
three

of the

find them.

coming.

were

head

was

sent

soon

'

said, What
Then
the

along with
along with me?

go

soldiers

one

into

went

Snelling.
one

of the Indians,

shot

not

when

took

up,

who

The
I

and

I said

gun.

bullet.
"Then

afterwards,

soldiers

As

could

Sioux

Fort

near

ran

During

man.

three

were

woman,

the Indians,

of the winter

the

there

ago,

husband

did this and

year

the middle

her

by

white
who

white

and

the door

killed the

two

long

young,

screamed,

woman

we

was

Story

did you put in your gun? ' I told him,

I shot him
and scalped him.'

Captain said, 'I am

you.' He said, 'Have
'

'

again said, Yes.'

sent
you

to

come

made

after
up

'

I put in

you.'

your

mind

powder

I said, 'I will

fully to

go

AMERICAN

THE

408

INDIAN
*

take him until

"Hole-in-the-Day then stood up and said, You cannot
I give my
I will bring him myself after the ice goes out.'
consent.
"The
Captain said, You are a chief and you can bringhim down when
convenient.'
The Captain shook hands with me
and said to Hole-in-theDay, 'Bring your son down to the fort in the spring.' Hole-in-the-Day
told our
hunte!rs not to go out but to go to Fort Snelling,
and about forty
*

of

down

went

us

there in

When

canoes.

got

we

there,

near

we

sent

letter

the next day. When

saying we would arrive about noon
by the interpreter
Holearrived
back.
at the landing a soldier tried to shove our
we
canoes
in-the-Day jumped out and kept the soldier from hurting us and sent word
to

the General

that

we

were

there.

Then

officers

some

down

came

and

Hole-in-theHole-in-the-Day tore all my clothes off, leaving me naked.

We
himself
walked
made
naked
himself
and painted
red.
Day
up the hill
We
led to the flagpole.The General
together,the Ojibwa back of us.
were
and
shook
hands
with
out
came
us.
Hole-in-the-Day said to the General,
'I am
here.
I am
Hole-in-the-Day. I promised you I would be here at
to
this time and bring my
If you want
I am
son.
giving my son to you.
hang him, hang him; if you wish to punish him, do so; if you care to place
him in the guardhouse, put him there. I give him to you.'
"I did not speak.
'Just a minute, Hole-in-the-Day,'
'I'llwait until
said the General.
the Sioux arrive and you
tell me
then the same
words in their presence.'
"

Then

the Sioux

of him, with

The

came.

head

General

scattered

men

in the center

was

in front.

And

chief here
shall do

so

"After
to

over

he

was

us

and

today
accordingly.'
the General
and

given

"Then

he has given

will

we

to

me

be

said this,the Sioux

punish him
punished.'

the soldiers

Indians

looked

inside.

They let

The

on.
me

his

me

came

up

as

and

look through

to

head
see

we

soldiers took

son

to

said

'Hole-in-the-Dayis head
punish as I see fit and I
man

said, 'Turn
General

fit.' The

the

small window

back

said,*Holehe had

words

same

put handcuffs
me

Sioux

400

the General

Then

chief repeated the

in-the-Day,speak.'
my
before.
Then
the General spoke to the Sioux:

and

on

me

this

man

said, 'No;

while

all the

guardhouse and put me

and see what was
going

on.

speak and then Hole-in-the-Day would answer,

the soldiers with
day long. About evening I saw
two Sioux on
balls
and
whom
and chains,
they led them to
they had fastened
down
to
the guardhouse. The guards unlocked
door and brought me
my
in
and
where the two
the
Sioux were.
We
room
same
were
guarded
put
"The

and

Sioux

they kept

at

would

it all

THE

410

"You
northern
stock

AMERICAN

know

must

Minnesota,

of the white
"As

walked

we

that

INDIAN

this

when

the

was

of the great blizzard in

suffered, and much
many

winter

people died,

some

people froze to death.

along,my grandmother

said she did not

exceedinglycold and

feel well.

It

traveled

the wind blew very hard.

We
along
We
to a
slowly,each- helping the other through the driftingsnow.
came
little creek, and my
grandfather said, *Let us stop here'. Near this creek,
down
sank
exhausted.
Grandfather
broke dry wood
grandmother
my
made
and
a
largefire. We put grandmother by the fire and she lay down
while the rest of us moved
about to warm
ourselves.
During the night
the side of a big rock
grandmother died and grandfather carried her over
and placed her there. We passed a hard night;it was
bitterlycold and the
in the
wind howled
Grandfather
said the evil spirits
through the trees.
feet
and
the
I
In
felt
in
at
us.
pines were
laughing
pains
morning
my
spoke to my grandfather and said, 'Grandpa, my feet hurt very much.
There
is something the matter
with them.'
He
built up a big fire and
them
to remove
helped me
leggingsand we warmed
by the fire,but
my
I could not keep my
feet near
the heat, because of the pain I suffered.
"We
had eaten the last of our
food the previousevening. It continued
to snow
cold that the limbs of tl;etrees snapped with loud
and was
so
noises. My mother
died of the cold about noon.
After she died, we changed
the
of
sheltered
side
hill
and
to
our
a
position
grandpa built another fire.
All that afternoon and night it continued
Grandfather
to snow.
lay down
about dark near
the fire,and he lay partlydoubled up with his face toward
the fire,and his back away
from it. He put me
inside the hollow his body
and
his
formed, so that the fire warmed
body protectedmy back from
me,
the cold. I felt that I was
could not keep up the
freezing. Grandfather
the wood.
He held
fire,for he began to get stiffand he told me
to throw
on
grew

me

close to him
"The

not

snow

can

was

bank

third

to

day
beautiful day, and
a
"Grandpa said, *That
hear

get
"I
"

we

it because

"After
to

said,now

continued

about, but I managed

move

The

it

all night and

up

be

must

and

save

to
a

travel.

'No,' commanded
You

are

too

Then

the

sun

out,

came

bell ringing in the distance.

church.

We

the bell of the Mission

the air is stilland

your

warm?'

you

day. Grandpa could

ing.
enough to keep the fire burn-

get wood

weak

heard

we

then, 'Are

cold.'

long silence, grandfather said, *My

I cannot

son,

live.

Try

life.'

replied,*No, I will

stay here.

up

to

too

were

and

all of the next

not

my
young

leave you.

I will die with

grandfather, 'you
to

die.'

And

must

he gave

go.
me

you.'
You

must

his papers,

not

for he

TWO

was

chief and

had

I shook

hands

things.

like wood.

when

little

he

"

I looked

back

411

from

Washington and a medal, and other

told him goodbye, and started in the
I cut two sticks for canes
to help hold me
up, as my
I was
weak
Grandfather
and
raised
hungry.
very
half sitting
himself
with
his
hands
was
up, raising
papers

direction of the bell.

legs were
his body

STORIES

with

him

and

"

him, he looked

at

at

and

me

then

put his head

down.

I went

time.
I heard some
along slowly for some
one
singing. Then I
that
About
I
weak
and sleepy
thought
people were
was
callingme.
noon
and could not go on.
My legswere
heavy, like logs. But it had become
I cut down
much
small bushes, made
bed and lay down,
so
some
a
warmer,
tired. While
and stand
lying there my grandfather seemed to come
very
by me, and I said to him, *Are you going along.^'and he replied,*Yes, yes,
don't lie here.
Get up and exert yourselflike a man.'
"When
had

I woke

roll over

to

I cut two

day

more

my

legsbegan

and

me

gave

Oh, what
took

they

months

pain
to

me

afterwards

"A

few

weeks

to hold

reached
and

soup

hurt

to

They

me.

me

up.

cabins

some

afterwards
rubbed

I suffered!
a

was

feet and

with which

in the afternoon

and

in and

morning and I
legs down

was

get my

canes

me

good.

it

up

and

In

doctor, and

to

struggledon

most

of my

some

meat

them

with

few

days

he

cut

off both

and

cold.

hill in order

I suffered tortures

stiff and

very

wished

I
up.

of that

people. They carried

fine.

chopped
but

snow

feet

my

to

stand

my

Then

that did

no

began to decay,
legs. For many

die.

later, the people

and found my
went
out
grandfather
They also recovered the bodies of my
mother.
If grandfather had not held me
next
to
grandmother and my
the fire,and protected me
with his own
body that long,cold night,I, too,
would
s^"
today be in the Land of the Spirit
dead

by

the ashes of

our

littlefire.

Unwise
The
of

educated

Indians

protectingtheir

reflections
who

should

on

property.

themselves
At White

in the Government
educated

should

take

unfortunate

more

brethren.

positivestand
Far

in the matter

be it from

me

to

cast

these persons,
but truth compels the statement
that a number
have been foremost
in safeguarding the interests of ignorant

aboriginesavailed
secure

more

Purchases

Indians.

This

of close association

with

Earth, of the thirty-seven

men
affidavits
sad fact

their fellowmen
and

securinglands, at least
impressed Inspector Linnen
as

women
a

tioned
men-

dozen
and

to

were

myself.

"

"

c/2

UNWISE
and

often

we

an

acres

the

is to follow the

illustration. In Oklahoma
of land

413

regarding it. The temptation on

example set by white men.

talked

Indians

educated

PURCHASES

enough

were

I met

Joe B

do you own?"
"Oh, about
the heart of the white man.

Indian.

2,000." Joe

I said, "Joe, how

red, as

was

Mr.

ago

that

forty
acres

many

color, but he had

Frost

in

of these

154

suits.

I present

excerpts from

Frost's

Mr.

herewith.
Mohonk

Conference, Wednesday evening,October IJf,19H

:^

:"

"Immediately subsequent to the removal of the restrictions act of

veritable Saturnalia of deed-taking from the unrestricted allottees
a
The
carried on by the hungry land-buyers,white, red, and black.
who has secured a priordeed from the now
unrestricted allottee had the

best chance
such

an

N.

land suits before the Departreferred to the 30,000 Oklahoma

ment
his
is
of Justice.
published statement. Senator Owen
According to

Lake

man

A.

Frost

concerned

was

began

Honorable

in the State

remarks

1908

of Justice

to

me

some

present

me

of land
investigation
acted as Special
Mr.
Assistant to the Attorney General.
Frost was
asked to resignfrom
his oflSce a short time ago.
address at the Lake
He delivered a stirring
this year.
Mohonk
Conference
In this address (ofwhich I present a part)
Years

cases

the Department
of Oklahoma.

informed

He

for any

part of
Let

had

him.

to

been

There

secure

are

now

"Under

and he did

one,

secured

by Senator
today pending in

of Indian

for recovery
and many

new

lands,

most

Owen

so

in thousands

of Oklahoma,

or

these bills 154 so-called

of them

of

by
cases

Many

cases.

his agents for

againsthim

involvingrestricted

allottees

unrestricted.

the law

taken

deed

in pursuance

of

an

illegalcontract

is

as

and completely valid

contract
is;in the absence of a new
illegal
consideration.
If the prior deed was
violation of the
invalid,if it was
a
fore
restrictions against alienation imposed by an act of Congress and therethat
and
deed
in
and
if
void,
was
completely
subsequent
totally
void

as

pursuance

the

and

in furtherance

belief that the second

deed

is

of that
as

firm
invalid contract, then it is my
invalid
the
first.
as
totallyand absolutely

propositionis necessarilythe question of adequacy of

consideration.
unrestricted
cases
again solely as an
Using the Owen
whether
I do not know
an
illustration,
paid or
adequate consideration was
made
from
him
formation
inthe
to
was
secure
not, though an
attempt
necessary
If such was
of
it, without success.
to determine
paid,
course,
Involved

in this

AMERICAN

THE

414

in his, as

in all other

cases,

no

INDIAN

further action

ought

to

be taken

ernment.
by the Gov-

presented this propositionof law to the Court; the Court said,

be rightin the principleof law which you have
so, you
may
the allottee being unrestricted, is without
stated, but the Government
itself,
behalf
have
suit
his
second
deed
that
to
to
celled.
canon
bring a
any
power
I urged upon
the Department an authorization
to appeal from the
decision of the Court
for the reason
that a remedy left to the volition of
the incompetent allottee is no remedy at all. Up to the time of my ceasing
with the work in Oklahoma, no appeal had been authorized.
to be connected
that may

I do

be

know

not

word

"A

why.

in conclusion.

It

e\ad)(entthat there has been

seems

of late,

the part of the Washington departments dealing with Indian affairs,

influence in connection
with Indian
matters.
to political
susceptibility
voice in emphatic protest againstthe introduction of the
I want
to lift my
Indian activities. As an illustration: Mr.
into
Mott, than
spoilssystem
of the Indian people,and who
faithful servant
whom
there was
no
more
in their behalf in the matter
has accomplished wonders
of minors' estates,
he
removed;
was
was
replaced by Judge Allen as counsel for the Creek
in the litigation
tribe of Indians.
At the time, there were
I conducted
taken by him personally,or by a
to cancel deeds
sixty odd cases
some
upon
a

in which

company

which

he

was

was

interested, from

appointed counsel.

said before, is involved

in

members

Owen,

Mr.

of the

the United

Creek

tribe of

States

Senator,

coveringfull-blood and
mixed-blood
lands, taken from the Cherokee
people. In charge of the
official commonly reputed to be a personal
has been placed an
litigation
appointeeof Senator Owen, the United States attorney who was at one time
in the suits. I do not mean
himself a defendant
by this to imply that any
all
of
have
will
these
not
not accomplish much
gentlemen,
or
or
good
one,
for these people,but I do wish to contend most
emphaticallyfor the utmost
from all possibleentanglements which
and freedom
singlenessof purpose
selected to deal with
might even
unconsciouslywarp judgment in the men
as

I have

he

these and
of
I

all Indian

154

some

cases,

strikingat anybody in high places. It is farthest from

sincerelywish for them all the highestdegree of success

behalf of the Indian.

all too
wish

What

great degree among

to

I have
many

repeat that there should

gation, in connection

with

for the purpose

thoughts and
my

I cite these illustrations,not

matters.

in their efforts in

said with reference to them

other
be

all Indian

men

is true

to

an

of prominence in Oklahoma.

selected

in connection

affairs in the

State

with

the Uti-

of Oklahoma,

UNWISE

absolutelyfree

men

from

that their efforts and

all

415

suspicionof influence, of any kind, in order

be devoted, singlyand solely,
to that
may

their work

will benefit the

which

PURCHASES

allottee;and

Indian

in this connection

I want

to

had associated with him in public work a more

man
ever
say, too, that no
eflBcient
than it has been my
and
devoted
set of men
loyal,
privilegeto
had

I
in Oklahoma.
activityin Indian matters
not
those who decry the people of the State of Oklahoma
as
am
a
among
I have
that people for a period of six years;
whole; I have lived among
learned to love and respect them, and to admire their enterprise
and spirit
of progress
amid
necessarilyadverse circumstances, not a little of which
caused by the work I was
was
engaged in, necessary as I believe it was.
"Arouse
the citizenshipof Oklahoma
would
the citizens of
as
you

have

in the

the State of New

find that it is
at

York

of my

or

of the

composed
duty

the call of

to

once

of my

years

Civilized

administration
better

will find
and
there

many

"Another
of the

except

these

connection

with this work,

assertion that nowhere

acquired."

lands

those

unsafe.

are

ordinarilyfalls

titles than

in connection

the citizens

of these matters,

Oklahoma

in

to

it exists

litigation

and

to

you
to

them,
have

upon

lot of any
one
in the United
States

man,
can

once

too

years

my
I

the

in

the

today you
widespread
personally,

I.

or

correct.

been

reviewingof

the

taken

interested
as

attempt

among

Based

and

Oklahoma,

much

as

Affairs

as

to

these suits, a much

heretofore

statements

Oklahoma

Indian

of

therefore

are

Commissioner

with

of

have

as

the
necessitating

eastern

called forth the

of the

work

deprecatethe wrongs
impression I want
wrong
and other causes
litigation

in eastern

which

Superintendent

such

among

respond

beyond question,just as

who

in the discussion

than

the

existed among

universallyof
are

of the

of their offices and

feelinghas
that

and

Tribes

ready

men,

will

you

to

since the institution of these suits,and

you,

thereof, because

consequence

type of

wrong.

existence of the conditions

The

is proof of this;but, mark

Five

suppress

there exists the other class is

"That
elsewhere.

class and

same

to

State of Massachusetts, and

own

more

In

quence
conse-

much

generality

made

that

titles probably

confidentlymake

there be found

they have

titles

experiencein

of

been

any

the
better

properly

After

WOMAN

OJIBWA

AN

drew

out

of

hearing her story,

that

she

was

Unable

swindled
to

thumb

sit up,

room

affidavit

an

OF

CONSUMPTION

containing her testimony,

requested
the

paper.

where

it has
March

the

been

to

the effect

of property,
and left to die in poverty.
that I take her hand
and affix her

$20,000 worth

she

print to

DYING

The photograph was

light was
poor,
very

necessary

1909, Pine

to

redraw

Point, Minn.

it.

taken
and

in

INDIAN

AMERICAN

THE

418

in addition
freight(thus earning money
desired to continue the
to their free sustenance)complained, and
leasingprivilegein order that they might loaf. Captain Lee concluded
that Mr. Seger was
the only man
able to persuade the Indians to return
that if he
to their former
mode
of life. Seger was
given to understand
learned the language,and gave up his lifeto the care of this band of Indians,
he would be continued
in the Service.
the Indians sixtymiles
He moved
River and founded
what is known
to the Washita
as
Seger'sColony. The

who

formerly raised

story of his work

makes

very

the

placewas
eighthouses.

these Indians

the many
difficultieshe
established
reading. Seger
a school and
interesting
among

known
He

hauled

and

corn

and

Seger township. Indians

as

labored

for

than

more

twelve

later

constructed

twenty-

persuaded a

ary
mission-

soon

years,

came
over-

in
organization to establish a mission and the last year he was
charge the net profitsof the industries carried on at his school amounted
to $6,993. The
story of his removal and the subsequent purchase of much
of the Indians'

land would

be

in this country.
I never
could
retained. Frequent removals, or
but

in Indian

faithful

communities

understand

what

has occurred

why

competent

changes in Washington,

much

is lost and

elsewhere

men

are

not

of less moment,

are

little gained when

very

perfectedhimself in a study of his people,is

removed
from oflSce and some
stranger placed in his stead.
Several thousand
Indians owning farms protect themselves
and hold
their own
against white people. They do this notwithstandingchanges of
of laws. Such need no protection,
and I have said littleconcerning
men
or
them
in this book.
I would that all Indians were
so
placed
satisfactorily
in our
body politic.As an illustration of this class of Indians, I present
the

employee, who

of
repetition

has

following incident.
When

I observed

with Major
travelling
on

the cabin

of

allotment, a largeboard

Brennan

educated

an

sign which

Pine

across

read

Ridge reservation,

wished

Indian, who

to

protect his

follows:

as

NOTICE
NO

TRESPASSING

ON

MY

WILL

ALLOTMENT
OF

THE

JOHN

There
Mr.
our

have

Commissioner

this year.

been

number

C. Scott, who

Duncan
He

of Indian

showed

us

holds

BE
UNDER

ALLOWED
PENALTY

LAW

T.

BEAR

in

of references
that

Affairs,attended
few thin

this book

oflBce in Canada
the Lake

pamphlets

"

Canada.

correspondingto

Mohonk

all the

to

Conference

laws.
regulations,

COMMENTS

SUGGESTIONS

AND

419

in the management
of
procedure,etc., necessary
Canadian
Indian affairs. With
us
we
employ skilled lawyers to fathom
of
needs delve into thousands
the intent of our
They must
legislators.
And after one
set of attorneys
laws, rules and statutes.
pages of conflicting
and
have presented their views, the mass
of legalrulings is so enormous
task usually arrive
complicated that other attorneys assigned the same
at exactlyoppositeconclusions from those presentedby the first corps!
Scott also informed

Mr.

issues

Government

MEDAL
Secured

as

he has

in Canada,

woman

do

of

methods

statements,

deeds

no

PRESENTED

from

Mrs.

that when

white

marries

man

Indian

an

The
part in tribal or individual property.
their farms
to the Indians, but they live on

PRESIDENT

BY
Cloud

GRANT

TO

CHIEF

CLOUD

RED

IN

1871

and

Jack Red Cloud for the Trustees

Red
of Phillips
Academy,
Solid silver. Full size.
Mass., in 1909, by W. K. Moorehead.

All incentive

ours.

us
no

to

graftis removed.

The

Andover,

simple,effective

dian
Cana-

of Indian affairs,
plicated
management
compared with our ponderous, comand ignorant handling of the same
class of people in this country,

points a

strong moral.

very

Of those who

emphasize

Illinois,and
These
to

in

two

done

much

of Honorable

Honorable

Chapters
who

have

the work

Henry

gentlemen

served

IV- VIII.

There

did

good work,

but

on

behalf of the Indian, I

James

M.

Graham,

neglectedto

Congressman

York.
George, Jr., of New
the CongressionalCommittee
on
other

members

I believe

Messrs.

were

on

this

Graham

same

and

from

referred
mittee,
Com-

George

THE

420

AMERICAN

INDIAN

the

only two who attended all of the sessions. Omitting the members
Congress alreadymentioned in the book, those who have been especially
active in protectingIndians are Honorable
Senators LaFollette,Townsend,
Ashurst, Lane, Page and Gronna;
and Honorable
Congressmen Konop,
and
Stevens
Church, Campbell, McGuire,
Miller, Lenroot, Murdock
(Nebraska).
I have tried to indicate in a number
of places in this book why so
of our
Indian tribes are practically
far as progress
at a standstill,
so
many
concrete
Put into one
statement,
along lines of civilization is concerned.
the reason
for the unsatisfactory
Indians is due
condition of many
of our
before they
to the following: First, we
have hurried them into citizenship
of the farms
full responsibility.
were
Second, many
qualifiedto assume
and tracts improved by Indians, after much
labor, have been taken away.
were

of

"

Certain

of the missions

were

successful, and

very

of them

numbers

the present day. The famous Riggs family of missionaries among

the Sioux, succeeded in buildingup communities
of Christian Indians and
are

at

so

promoting thrift and

and

the Catholic

mission

done

with Indians

is

change

no

on
we

to

sure

than

Pine

near
one

in management,

their part is
have no more

than

when

of the Pima

and

illustrations of what

are

be

can

So long as there
hurried, much progress

are

not

has been

But, unfortunately,
as

persuaded

Minnesota,

their confidence.

and the Indians

destroy all incentive

we

Ridge

has secured

result.

in

Gilfillan's missions

industry. Rev.

band

of Indians

to

become

further progress.
This
in addition to other tribes

to

was

indicated,

progressive
done

in the

tioned.
frequentlymenthe
to
see
self-supporting
only
result of their labor swept away.
Beyond question,we have hurried the
him far too rapidly.
Indian, and forced allotments and citizenship
upon
We should have moved
ful
slowly,as they do in Canada, and avoid the dreadscandals and the increase of disease and pauperism. The Indians are
less confused by our
etc.
or
numerous
more
rulings,changes of oflScials,
case

Indians

An

Indian

Papago,
develop farms and become

said to

me

healthy. You

were

tell us

to

The

in Minnesota:
told

again live in the

old

us

to

open

"We

used

live in houses.
air. The

white

to

We

live in the open air and

sick. Now
became
you

man

has

minds."

many

of gradual extension
of civilizinginfluences
in all sections of the country where such a
is followed, the Indians are
doing quite well. Indians can be led, or
method

generallysuccessful.
far

more

And,

than
satisfactorily

driven.

The

Navaho

been

have

was

plan
suaded,
pernever

driven, but were

permitted to slowly, yet satisfactorily,
progress
summed
to
me
our
along certain lines. An educated Indian once
general
up
"You
policy with reference to the average Indian in Oklahoma:
put a
"

COMMENTS
few

words

valuable

of

English in his mouth,

Even

the

coat

in his hands, and

property

expectinghim

men,

SUGGESTIONS

AND

his back, thrust

on

him

send

421

out

deed

among

to

white

shrewder

hold his own."

to

wildest

along the

led

path to
we
manner.
Setting
approached
aside temporarily my
rule not
1850, permit me
to indicate what
Rev. Zeisbergerand Rev. Heckewelder
accomplished in
the Ohio
wilderness
Revolution.
before the American
They established
missions on
River and conducted
in
these successfully,
the Muskingum
at
war
spite of the fact that all the Ohio and Indiana Indians were
with the settlers of Kentucky, Virginia and Pennsylvania. These
men
Indians

might have

civilization had

dealt

with, and

worked

those in the West.

other

and
other

been

the subject in the proper

to refer to affairs prior to

white

evidences

class of Indians

among,

At the time the missions

the

murderers,

of civilization

hostile

destroyedby
chapels, houses, fenced

in advance

were

as

were

of that

as

of

many

son
William-

one

fields, and

exhibited

in any

the

Spanish
lay in this
fact: that the missionaries
were
permitted to labor unhami"ered in a
moralizing
desection of the country, there were
white people near,
remote
no
no
natives
the
influences.
force
did
not
industry
They
upon
suddenly, but by a slow and persistentpolicy of training and education,
brought about the desired result. With us, in these modern
days, in far
have
in
too many
haste
not only exhibited undue
places,we
preparing our
Indians
for citizenship,
but we
have
shown
a
general incompetence in
white

The

managing

their affairs.

Indians

for the

reason

is yet another

There
are

central

lying between

community

missions.

success

and

discouraged, or

Pennsylvania and

of the Moravian

equally important
backward,

or

reason

indolent.

mission

so

of

many

Most

our

nations,

or

learn the lessons of lifein the hard school of adversity. The

tribes of men,
Indian had his school of adversity, but the curriculum
was
totallydifferent
from
on

that observed

the

one

{page375), and
The
found

in any
Mr.

what

hand
on

other

institution of similar character.

Humphrey

the other the exact

Through

had,

nothing else. The Indian

destroyed the Indian
conditions.
exceedingly difficult to adapt himself to the new

"great Selfishness"
it

He

has called **the great Unselfishness"

oppositeof "the great Unselfishness."

education, he

"

was

able to fathom

the inconsistencies

of the white

teachings and practices. Being human, he refused to develop his

covetous
property, if by so doing he merely fattened the pocketbook of some
man's

white

man.

His

occasions, and,
The

unlettered

vast

tribal estates

relyingtoo

much

aborigine,as well

upon
as

furnished

him

with

moneys

at

stated

these,he drifted into indolent habits.

the educated

Indian, observed

that

we

422

AMERICAN

THE

INDIAN

continuallyconcerned with the Indian rather than with white people

This to them
was
inexplicable.
responsiblefor the Indians' condition.
The illustration presented me
this score
on
by a certain educated Indian
owned
a
large
presents the thought quite forcibly."Suppose a ranchman
which grazed some
his ranch
thousands
of sheep. Around
tract of land on
of coyotes.
The
wolves frequentlydestroy the sheep.
ranged hundreds
The
ranchman
is continuallychanging the sheep from
one
pasture to
He devotes all his energiesto the
another, in order to avoid the wolves.
sheep, instead of destroyingthe wolves."
Consider the whiskey problem, about which so much
has been printed.
There are laws and regulations
sufficient to control this evil. Yet everyone
in preventing Indians from drinkingwhiskey, or arresting
concerned
seems
drunken
Indians.
So long as the State authorities do not enforce the laws
who introduce whiskey, it will be impossibleto prevent
againstwhite men
the laws against theft
Indians
from
drinking. Equally applicableare
from Indians.
In spiteof all our
few white men
ever
are
investigations,
As
the
of
for swindlingIndians.
in
sent to the penitentiary
case
whiskey,
there are ample laws for the protectionof Indian property and the punishment
H.
of grafters,
seldom
enforced.
Honorable
William
Taft,
yet they are
ex-President
of the United
States, has in his public addresses frequently
called attention to our lax enforcement
of laws and our
apparent disrespect
of the courts, as compared with the high regard in which the EngUsh hold
their legalmachinery, and the impartialmanner
in which
they administer
justice.
All these things,in their ensemble, discourage the average
Indian,
Prison sentences, instead
justas they would affect the average white man.
were

of small fines,would

put

an

end

to

graft and drunkenness, and would

have

far-reachingeffect in raising the Indian to a real citizenship.We have

suasion and it has failed absolutely. Let us now
employ force
againstthe guilty.

tried moral

In

he

should

we

should

We

be

policy upon
absolutely by facts

in

experience

festly,
Mani-

and

of its great Service

have

we

facts.

in

principles.
past experiences.

and

country

own

our

it is safe to affirm that

of the Indian,

from

branches

in all other

Government

is

interested

scientific

Indian

governed solelyand

historian

persons

conclusions

draw

our

The

facts.

sociologistsand

government,

formulate

Yet, although our

profits by human

handling

facts; the

records
and

politicaleconomy

with

scientist deals

the

studying Indians,

scientist in that

CONCLUSIONS

XL.

CHAPTER

in

elsewhere,

not

heeded

our

the lessons

of the past.
The

policy the past

Indian

for the

better.

carried

out

remains.

as

The

planned,

few

either
to

buy farms,

portion
increase

have

must
areas,

the
You
make

and

land,

of them

no

as
us

land

more

now

in

You

paupers.

of the

care

the

of

it will

Minnesota
as

present

or

away
cannot

the

expect

unless

them

hold

to

on

to

them

move

including
the

Indians
Indian

and

them

are

not)

follows:

as

you

their

further

no

reservations

Indians,

save

be

can

Omitting
of
satisfactory(although some
be bluntly stated
today may
from

and

necessary

Either

area.

all other

them,
be

tract,

There

that

economy

paupers,

Navaho

great

be

can

property

with

all

for

Sells

Cato
Indian

and

estates,

crowded.

suffer.

or

classifyingthem
confronting

take

The

appreciably changed

Honorable

continue

to

is

population

situation
can

Indians

Domain,

of Navaho

to

and

Nevada.

or

Public

more

Oklahoma

permit

or

Idaho

of the

vast

has

years

by
much

conserve

still possess
land

In

three

or

is sufficient

reservations.

Montana,

shall

we

Indians

protection, there
a

two

instituted

reforms

If the

"

desire
own

to

with

from
citizenship
a
people, unless you change their status
paper
them
without
the ordinary proof
to a real citizenship. Making
citizens,
tection
enjoyed by other Americans, produces instead of citizens, paupers.
The
detailed evidence
of this has been presented in previous chapters.
much.
the Indian
that we
We
all admit
Nobody denies that we
owe
and
education
have
Indian
done
the individual
service, through our
a
is
land
under
is
there
it
that
influences.
not
then,
more
civilizing
Why,
of the conflicting rulings and
cultivation
Because
today than in 1871?
entered
into
laws, the breaking of treaties, the cancelling of agreements
farms.
This has discouraged
the taking of individual
by States, and, finally,
the

white

the average
Indian.
Far be it from
the

firm

conviction

me

to

that

be
our

disloyalto my own
particular form

Government,
of government

but

I express

is such

that

AMERICAN

THE

424

administration

of

Indian

INDIAN

Aflfairs is rendered

extremely difficult.

Put

form

is not conducive
of government
factory
to satisbluntly),our
or
supervisionof a dependent people. The reason,
management

plainly(ifnot
as

office of Indian

he is removed
been

Affairs

learns

than

more

and

thinking man

every

his

and

duties, and

and

two

and

one-half years.

for the

name,

the

accept
wears

The

same

Superintendent is
Indian's

shrewd

place. Since

the average
tenure
is true of Indian

could

never

still

high

Commissioner
and

competent

installed in his

another

formerly called Agents.

becomes

the

make

we

The

politicalappointment.

thirty-oneCommissioners,

over

is because

knows,

woman

no

than
efficient,
there

1834

of office is

have
trifle

Superintendents
why they changed the
perfectlywillingto
Agent. I am
**It is the same
only he
man,
"

understand

an

definition

"

different coat."

The

has not
worked
frequent changes in the office of Commissioner
Since 1907
the advantage of the Indians.
have had three Commissioners
we
E.
F.
G.
and
Commissioner
R.
Valentine,
an
Leupp,
acting

to

"

F. H.

Abbott,

Cato

and

were
intelligent,
as

political
pressure;

resigned under
the

Indians'

submit

and

This

even

is

rights

must

go

the

resubmit

and

as

the

over

evidence

same

of the

true

who

cite the

of

of the

or

are

appointee succeeds

one

Secretary
case

energetic and

removed,

they
fightingfor
old story, again and again,

result those

same
as

been

been

have

they
a

have

men

Honorable

I would
illustration,

an

All of these

Sells.

their predecessors,but

another.

Interior himself.

French-Canadians

of

As

northern

Minnesota
.

After

the

strike from

to

headed
come

by
down

one

Earth

White
the

White

Gus

from

H.

Earth

Beaulieu.
and

Canada

Garfield
begged Secretarj'^

we
investigation,

rolls the
It

was

French-Canadian

contended

settled themselves

on

element

that those persons

the Ojibwa, and

"

had
were

presented to make
our
position impregnable. Secretary Garfield hesitated to act, and passed
the matter
Mr.
to his successor,
Ballinger,who in turn transferred it to
Mr.
retary,
Secbefore Secretary Lane.
If the Honorable
Fisher, and it is now
first
the
Mr.
in
acted
and
had
Garfield,
place heroically
promptly,
he would have placed the burden
of proof on the shoulders of the FrenchCanadian
of
element
(where it properly belonged), and several pages
Indian historywould not have been written.
unpleasant American
Be these things as they may,
they exist,and until our Congress appoints
the entire Indian body
national and paid commission
to take over
a
a

continual

and

of trouble.

source

their property

"

so

long

politicalfootballs,just so

Enough

as

evidence

the Indian, and

long will the

games

was

the Indian
continue

Office,remain

played

in the

old

MISS

She

KATE
is

BARNARD,

waging battle for

OF
the

OKLAHOMA.

See pages

protection of Indian

minors

137, 150, and

and

orphans.

170

CONCLUSIONS
whether

in the

427

Service, employed by missions, members

Government

of

are
private citizens
doing
of their rulingsor methods
of procedure,
criticize some
their part. We may
for we
all make
or
mistakes, and no man
woman
engaged in the real work
avoid error.
of the world can
particularly
Frequently we make enemies
for
stand
the
of
the
Indian.
is true, the
if
while
this
But
so
we
rights
up
trend
is
in
favor
of
of
and
the great
the
treatment
Indian,
general
just
his
the
in
view
is
into
absorption
object
body politic.
Whether
the relative
this shall he accomplished depends entirelyupon
strength between those who build up, and those who destroy. The issue
is between
the grafter and bootlegger,and the respectablecitizen. The
is as yet unspoiled. The
Sioux, the Apache, the Crow and
great Navaho
others are
to
doing very well. If we permit foolish or unwise legislation
in the region inhabited
dominate
by the tribes I have named, we shall
homa
have destroyed in Oklaas
we
destroy the best of that which is left,even
I have clearlypointed out the high character of
and Minnesota.
the Ojibwa and the Five Civilized Tribes forty years
as
compared
ago
with the present, and that the responsibility
for this decline rests with us,

state
philanthropicorganizations,

oflBcials,
or

"

"

rather than

the Indians

with

Since 1834,

have

We

way.

road, and

by

have

we

gone

themselves,
on

persuaded

in

the Indian

or

OflSce.

of bands

scores

foolish legislation,
wars,

the

to

take

the

their originalconfidence in us.

As if these were
not
of Oklahoma,
where
one-third of the entire
have

we

individuals

this,we

had

and

before

man's

white

stroyed
etc., desuflBcient,in the

crowding by Whites,

great State
located,

ing
blunder-

well-meaningbut stupidand

Indian

is

body

and
brought
through reports of Commissions
cloud of witnesses,the result of our
In
spiteof
policy.
us

have

removed,
recentlydeliberately
most
competent and longestin the
persons
Mott, Gresham, Frost, Kelsey and Wright.
the great majority of citizens of Oklahoma

forced to

or

Service in that State

"

What
the

of the

resign,some

Messrs.

"

Did

the real reason?

was

law-abidingand upright
"

desire that faithful servants, who understood

their duties,should be forced
out?
No!
Because
of oil,coal, land, timber
a
relativelysmall number
and

stock

men

has
have

been

wished

to become

and,

at

agitation in

Oklahoma,

the insistence of interested

oflBce of the

men

not

through

interested

dominated

the

in

their

papers
news-

politics

accusers.

of it all.

by Congressmen
from

sentiment

who
influenced, persons
were
accused
of the very
thing which

Politics is at the bottom

The

rich. PubUc

been

from

begun by
persons

the
and

small

coterie referred

to,

and

vented
pre-

newspapers,

not

that State,has resulted in the present removal

all of this
Does
Indians.

best able to protect the

AMERICAN

THE

428

indicate

By

that the
As

means.

no

INDIAN

Commissioner, Mr. Sells, will not protect the Indians?

I have said,he and his able assistant, Mr. Meritt, and

honorable
and upright men.
But
againstthe wishes of Congress. The Congressmen are

all the oflScials are

in their intentions

dealingin Indian lands

although

"

"

but

two

they are

the desires of their constituents.

or

act

stand

cannot

all honest

three of them

compelled to

Witness

they
are

and

right
up-

record

on

as

with

in accordance

that the candidates

the statement

few

for oflBce,with very

to be removed
were

exceptions,ran on the platform that all restrictions

federal safeguardswithdrawn
{pages139 and IJ^J^,)
he
method
of procedure
The Commissioner,
a
although
prepare
may
in the Probate Court (as Mr. Sells has
for the Judges handling Indian cases
the few remaining
done), is reallypowerless,if Congress decides to remove
in
missioners
safeguards Oklahoma, or to divide up any other reservation. All Comhave said practically
the same
thing: that they stood back
and eduin favor of progress
cation,
of the Indian, protected his rights,were
Statements
etc., etc.
embodying this sentiment are found in every
of
the
Commissioners
address
various
during thirty years.
public
Commissioner
The
spend years in upbuilding industry among
may
a

to

certain band

settlement,

and

of Indians.

The

the reservation

moment

of the Indians

most

is thrown

open

speedilydispossessed.If he desires

are

rightsof the Pimas and the white people livingalong

missioner's
the Gila River w sh the water, all the Inspector's
reports, and all the Comthe
gressmen
speeches,and all
Agent's protests, are in vain. The Con-

to

protect the

from

water

of the

any

else

affected

will be defeated

districts must

they
exceptions,such as Honorable

W.

Burke

Dakota,

Charles

H.

others, who

have,

of South
in

at

the next

N.

Murray

with

agree

election.

There

of Oklahoma,

Honorable

James

spiteof popular clamor, stood

M.

their
are

stituents,
con-

many

Honorable
Graham

and

for the rightsof the

Indians.

working
given the
in splendid
States was
This had a very evil effect,
condition.
in that there was
no
publicagitation
for
outside of the Indian Rights and the California Indian Associations
Indian
The
the
best
that
to
was
thing
ever
protection.
happened
very
the making publicof dreadful conditions in California,Minnesota, Arizona,
The

lack of true

publicityin Indian

Affairs, is also

1900
and
powerfullyagainstthe Indian. Between
impressionthat the Indian generallyin the United

and

were

we

Oklahoma.
This

the

1909

factor

aroused

Choctaws,

both

said

after Commissioner

the oflBcialsand

Congress.

regarding the Oklahoma

Moorehead's

report

was

Victor

expose:

made

"

Locke, Chief of
"The

public,I

saw

very
one

day
of the

CONCLUSIONS

429

country
judges in the Choctaw
printed notices to guardians with

from

county

going

750

respect

with
printing-oflSce
with

settlement

to

their

wards."

Indian

If we
had such publicityapplied to every
reservation, while it would
realize that,
unpleasant,the taxpayers of the United States would soon
unless our
policyis radicallychanged, they will be called upon to support
of homeless
number
vast
a
Beyond question,either the nation,
paupers.
this burden.
I desire to go on
the respectiveStates, will soon
or
assume
this
record
as
prophecy.
making
those high in authorityhave misled
As a concrete
illustration of how
James
that Honorable
S. Sherman,
Vicethe public, I desire to state
be

President

of the United

Committee

on

Conference

in

Indian

for

States, and
Affairs, in

some

October, 1911, stated that

Chairman

years

public address

of the House

before the Lake

the United

States

Mohonk

Government

kept all its treaties and obligationswith the Indians. Respect for the
replying to this amazing and
high oflBce he occupied,prevented anyone
audience
The
was
composed of 400 or more
preposterous utterance.
Sherman's
address
and
Mr.
of
was
refK)rtedin many
prominence,
persons
the
concluded
result
that
reader
with
the
naturally
average
newspapers,
that those who
were
seeking to better the condition of the Indians were
had done its full duty. If the
sentimentalists,and that the Government
chairman
took that view, we have the explanaCommittee
of which he was
tion

had

of many

of the evils of the past fifteen years.

I can
promise,faithfully
kept by the Government,

or

authorities
"The
a

either ignored
treaties with

singlevolume.

came

no

the Indians

which

score

the

effort to fulfill.
have

been

published in
leavingout the merely

gathered and

be said with confidence, that

intended
to grant the Indians
more
report, just issued, he takes the positionthat

freedom.

Interior

the
intelligent,
or

agreement

every
a

existingfriendlyrelations, there is not one treaty

was
negotiatedin good faith by the United States."
As
the final proofs of this chapter were
struck, the announcement
from Washington
to the effect that the Honorable
Secretaryof the

formal
that

It may
ratifications of

or

made

For
cite

withdrawal

Government
of

should

supervisionover

hasten

the

individual

as

day

many

In
of

our

of removal

Mr.

Lane's

Indians

are

of restrictions,

Indians.

careful study of the field,indicates that somewhere

third and one-half of our
Indians might be immediately
A

between

one-

merged into the

is indisputablethat

body politic.As againstthis statement, the evidence

the remaining two-thirds
(or one-half) if made
free,in the
will
be
in
the
condition
the Indians
term
as
same
implies,

full

sense

that

of California,

CHIEF

PEO-PEO-TOLEKT.

NEZ

Photographed

and

PERCE

CHIEF

WARRIOR.

copyrighted by

L.

V.

JOSEPH'S

McWhorter,

1911

WAR.

1877

CONCLUSIONS
Oklahoma.

and

Minnesota,
to

as

progress

431

If all of

the Cherokees

made
Indians were
free,and perour
mitted
did, priorto their removal west of the
the
1900 in the State of Oklahoma,

and until about the year

Mississippi,
criminate
But
so
long as the white people disSecretary'splan would succeed.
against Indian citizens,and the citizenshipof the Indian is
Indians
different from that enjoyed by ourselves,the settingfree of all our
at

Plans

Two
On

disaster.

Indian

for

I have

26

page

the United

in certain

will end

this time

Administration

referred

the great and eflScient machinery of

institution is composed
tremendous

to

This

Office.

States Indian

Reform

of many
and
smoothly. Frequently
complicated parts, and they run
certain parts are replaced. But is this great machine
operated in the best
interests of the Indian
and of the public? The brain responsiblefor the

plant, and the officers in charge of its

produce a finished product of real value
needs change their
How
to the world.
can
they do so when they must
finished
real
interests
of
in
the
often,
not
a
operation
product,but because
of political
expediency?
of this

guidance,or management
various

It
solve

to

seems

there

to

occupy

remain

should

in her

mistakes

us

the

management
in

reverse

with

body
Naturally,more
Thirty
arrangement.
is

There

into effect today.

no

or

less

years

reason

he believed

with

why such

If the Board
a

stood

is

Affairs, that
makes

the

the Board

Office

through such

of Indian

Commissioner

no

in Congress.

of

missioners
ComIndian

sensible arrangement
is not carried
the Commissioner
and the

inimical

were

committees

States Board
the

Affairs has

between

Commissioner

that

proposed

may

man

seldom

of Indian

into the

the United

advised

that

acts

we

proper

Indian

consult, except the

politicscreep

ago

and

While

of

England

Commissioner

to

Assuming
fifteen years,

that

The

whom

CongressionalCommittees,
decisions which

fifteen years.

by which

ways,

a
dependent people. When
good man
his peoplethoroughly.
oflBce until he understands

and

consulted

or

of

is true.

real advisory

Affairs.

two,

are

Indian

in oflBce ten

is found, he is continued

With

and

only two
problem. Granted
the positionof Commissioner

me

the
satisfactorily

secured
man

desire to

Departments

Commissioner

would
to
was

not

be forced to accept

dians.
the best interests of the In-

continued

frequentlymet

with

in oflSce ten

him, unwise

or

lative
legis-

not be common
at present.
as
the first suggestion has its merits, it seems
to me
that the plan
in the Lake
Mohonk
platform October, 1913, presents the most

would

"

CHIE

THE

432

practicalsolution
a
paid National
Indian

of

the

has

nine

too

were

Others
Robinson

Meritt

bill

to

were

selected

The

have

I have

The

This

be

idea.

the

seven.

Joe

platform,

Sells and

Mr.

some

that

of

Senator

of the Mohonk

and

"

composed

Honorable

solve the

fK)litical although

communities.

given much
indicated

Commissioner

Mr.

else would

one

problem,

members

be

since such
all personally

were

in

Its members

are

all

exceedinglybusy

time, in spiteof their other callings,to the

previous pages.

himself, able though he be, in my

considerations
political

by
high

be

of three.

not

Commission

critics contended

suflScient.

would

worth

$1,200,000,000

should

of the Commissioners,

of

of the

Commissioners, serving in honorary capacity,

suflBcient time for investigationof conditions on the reservations,

in Indian

They

is beset

Some

view

of Indian

devote

as

be two

In

National

the

Commission

appointing a

Commissioner

criticism.

Board

and

work,

be

speakers advocated

of the

beings and

discussion.

five would

would

above

men.

human

the Commission

third member.

as

commission

cannot

that

place

of Arkansas, last winter, having heard

introduced

many,

of the

Commissioners.

proposed

considerable

thought

One

the

of Indian

of 330,000

that

take

to

the Board

involved, he

are

caused

INDIAN

problem.

Commission

welfare

property

This

of the Indian

Affairs and

fact that

AMERICAN

which

"

humble

fault of his

no

opinion

own.

Philippineaffairs with the work

has
each Commissioner,
differentiated, and responsibilities
placed upon
resulted in a development of the Islands which has attracted the attention
A similar
of the world during the brief period since the Spanish War.
is entirelypracticable
commission
of men
of recognized qualifications,
A

in Indian
The

another
and

Commission

so

our

affairs.
is

recommendation

Mohonk

divide

would

in charge of

is

the

work

The
men
seven
absolutelysound.
one
having charge of education,
a fourth
a fifth finance
irrigation,
citizenship,

between

them,

of health, a third of
on
through the list. Having
and

that of the

honorary

"

assumed

Board

missioner
control, the oflSce of Com-

would

be abolished.

would
be open, quarterly reports would
of this Commission
and its findingsmade
public. Its first duty would be to

roll,based

on

All competent
Government

thus

educated

Indians

the full-blood and

could

be

mixed-blood

immediately

ings
hear-

be

lished,
pubcompile a
Indians.

eliminated

from

to
citizens and cease
supervision. They would thus become
of
The
full-blood,
body.
ignorant
property
every
be restricted for twenty-five years,
child, or incompetent would
enabling all Indians to have reached adult age.

be included
minor

ethnologicallines,of

The

in the Indian

CONCLUSIONS
We

it to the American

owe

Politics would

into effect.

that its

reason

Indian
not

the

for the

Commission,

reportedin the papers, the good

class, would either attend the hearings

the undesirable

as

idea be carried

that the Commission

interfere with

publichearingswould

well

citizens,as

433

be

with the quarterlyreports. Thus a generalsteal

make all of his business
cannot
impossible.A singleCommissioner
and
he
does
much
that
the
reaches
never
public,
lightof publicity.In fact,
because
I believe that
the Commissioner
take the public into his
cannot

or

familiarize themselves
be

would

confidence, abuses
that

which

There

or

would

deal with
who

men

I have
that

of

dishonesty,were

to

Commission

instead of

hearingsand findingswould
appeal to Senators
of Dr.

have

fraction

as

compared

with

Grenfell, through his lectures and

The

effect

deterrent

Congressmen.

or

We

not

are

our

total Indian

they are
population.

fishermen

condition

is far better than that of the average aborigine.Similar

Indian affairs through the reports and hearings of a

given

to

Commission,
the Indian
No

would

would

matter

arouse

compared

the American

such

publications has aroused

Labrador

wrongs

sponsible
re-

in Labrador, and

interest in this country that he can

work
collect for his Labrador
far greater than that expended in support of six Indian missions.
interested in him and his work because of the appeal he makes.
are
no

men

cation
publi-

an

suffer

do

influence.
white

covetous

Indians.

our

publicand

outside

T. Grenfell in Labrador

W.

of the fishermen

condition

the

individual.

an

otherwise

the work

for the Indian

it remains

establish without

organizationslaboringamong

numericallybut
Dr.

Often

occur.

Office should

often contrasted

for the
Yet

to

to appeal to
organizations,

be far less incentive

of the Board's
certain

with

other

the Indian

compelled to
on

bound

are

Rights Association,

with

Indians, and

our

people,and

sum

People
The
their

publicity
National

brighterday

for

certainlydawn.

what

is said,the Commissioner

must

fightalone and single-

handed
Mr.

Both
of Congress. His is a great responsibility.
with the members
Leupp and Mr. Valentine, in conversations with me, have admitted

that the chief

in handling the Indian problem is found in the word

difficulty
is dependent on
"politics". The Commissioner
Congress for his appropriations.
of Congress, and
He may
be sustained or opposed by members
the publicwill remain in ignorance. He may
tary
not appeal save
to the Secreof the Interior. He must
keep in mind the wishes of his poHticalparty.
He will not admit political
when in office,but after leaving the
pressure
Mr. Leupp has
Service, he may
tell his story of trouble with politicians,
as
in his book.
"The
Indian
further
Mr. Valentine could enlightenus
on
Office in Politics",did he care
Commission
to speak. A paid National

THE

434

would

AMERICAN

INDIAN

be dominated

by no political
party. Ten years'service would enable
with
the
familiar
the needs of the Indians, whereas
entirely
Commissioner, serving less than three years, barely becomes
average
acquainted with the problem when he is succeeded by a new appointee.
I recommend
consideration of the American
to the earnest
people the
Commission
of
American
Indian.
of
salvation
the
the
idea, as
only means
It will be said by critics that many
of the tribes are
making satisfactory
that
and
need
the
no
Commission;
organizationof the
present
progress
Indian OflSce is sufficient. This is partly true, but a study of the table of
lishes
in this book, estaband reference to the testimony submitted
statistics,
the sad fact, that the majority of the Indians must
lose unless we
make
radical change in our policy. It is useless to blind our eyes to hard
a
facts;and these are that we develop a certain area after painstakinglabor,
and then through unwise acts (or legislation)
we
destroy the very tracts
have improved.
we
The Indian must
ultimatelybe merged into the body poUtic,as has
been aflSrmed.
But in bringing about this deseratum, it is not necessary
to crush all happinessout of his life. For fifty
the Indian has followed
years
devious and uncertain trail,in the fond hope that he might reach his
a
who through unintentional ignorance
and women,
journey'send. If men
have given no heed to the welfare of our
red Americans, will interest their
Representativesin Congress, and also help to crystallize
public opinion
it is quite possiblethat the National
against further harmful legislation,
Commission
plan may be carried into effect. After many
years of study
of the subject,I firmlybelieve that the welfare of the Indian depends upon
the creation of such a Commission
has been indicated
as
composed
one
not of those interested in political
but on the contrary of competent
parties,
who understand
who are
Indians and their needs, of men
men
willingto
devote the best years
of their lives to transforming the rough, uncertain
which
trail along which the Indian has toiled,into a broad highway, upon
civilized
the Red
the
Man
travel
his
ultimate
destination
to
safely
may
community. And having reached the end of his journey, the Indian will
live henceforth peacefully,
and enjoy to the full the blessings of liberty,
equalityand justice.

it to become

"

"

INDEX

Abbott, F.H., 18, 242. 247, 248, 291, 359. 384, 424.
Affidavits, 71, 74, 75, 77, 81, 82, 83, 84, 90, 91.

Agriculturallands cultivated, 24, 27, 29,

Ah-bow-we-ge-shig, 93, 94.
Ah-yah-baince, 81.
Alabama,
Alaska

Board

66.

Brennan, Major John

Allen, Edgar A., 13, 204.

AUen, C. W., 174.
13, 74. 95, 149, 157, 247, 249, 251.

74. 149, 247.

AUotting, 27, 28, 33, 59, 62, 70, 71, 73, 76, 133, 248,

R., 13, 100, 105, 342, 418.

Bright Eyes (SusetteLaFlesche), 402.

Bristow (Senator).246.
Brooke, Major John R., 122, 125.
Brown, Capt. Frederick H., 177.
John

Brown,

252.

B., 133, 379.

Browning. D. W.,

384.

Brul6, 99, 401.

333, 337, 338, 389.

American

Horse, 125, 128, 184.

Andrus, Miss Caroline W., 13, 209.

Apache,

CitizenshipCommittee,

Indian

249.

33.

Allen, J. Weston,

36, 68, 69. 149. 22i,

432.

Boston

Indians, 283.

Anundensen,

Commissioners,

of Indian

240, 288, 291, 326, 327, 332, 336, 340, 417. 431.

Budrow,

Mr., 77.

26, 43, 44, 219,

222, 223,

Ephraim,

84.

Buffalo, 299-310.
233,

237, 238,

311. 314, 373, 404, 427.

Bull Head, 123, 124.

C, 57, 59, 66. 68, 90.
Burch, Judge Marsden
of Catholic Missions, 93, 282.
Bureau

Appropriations, 26, 27, 63, 64, 363.

Arapaho, 31, 102, 311, 314, 317.

Bureau

of

Bureau

of Indian

Arizona, 219, 221, 222, 223, 225, 233, 235, 237, 241,

Burke, Hon.

242,250,265,282,291,373.
Arkansas, 43.

Califomia, 28. 33, 70. 174, 213, 219. 241, 253, 267,

Armstrong, Gen.
Art and

industries, 10, 28, 29, 35, 37, 227. 229, 232,

River

Bannock

H., 137, 155, 428.

Canada,

41.

Association. 282, 327, 335, 336.

337.

Califomia

Reservation,

Charles

Indian

Califomia

241, 244. 256. 359-366.

Bad

Indians, 325-310, 372, 375.

18, 33, 54, 179,

191. 192.

Carlisle Indian

Ballinger,Secretary,424.

School

29, 38, 39, 79, 203, 201, 210,

212, 215, 267. 268, 366, 412, 416.

Barbour, Hon.

Geo. W., 329.

Barnard. Kate, 11, 13, 137, 150, 151, 154,160,

Carter

Bill,285.

Code

BarUett, George E., 101, 102, 112, 118, 132.

Barrett, S. M., 233. 238.

Carrington,Col. H. B., 177, 178,

Carrier Pigeon (Journal),31.
Century of Dishonor, 94, 183.
Chapin, A. R., 125.

Bassett, Jim, 58.

Cass

167, 168, 170, 426, 427.

81, 95, 399.

Beaulieu, Clement, 55, 91.

Beaulieu.Gus, 65, 67, 71, 79, 91. 93,
T., 418.
Beimi, Lawyer, 80.

Blue

Whiriwind,

192.

Lake, 45, 47, 51. 57.

Cattle, 24, 29, 44, 237, 271, 359, 361.
124.

Cherokees. 33, 133, 135, 140, 143, 153, 159. 274, 372.
431.

Cheyenne, 31, 102, 178, 185, 253, 254. 286. 308, 311.

98, 171, 172, 217. 277. 340.

127.

163.

Catch-the-Bear.
424.

Bear, John

Big Foot, 127, 128.

Big Head, 152.
Blackfeet,253.
Blackmore, Hon. Wm.,

198, 199,

Carl. John, 91.

41, 42.

Bay-bah-dwun-gay-aush,66,

197.

310, 321, 371, 418.

Indians, 253.

Bibliography,14,

271.

Affairs, 25, 76, 261, 329.

270, 274, 282, 283, 291, 297, 325-340.

C. S., 205.

Ayer, E. E., 13, 31, 36, 40,

Ay-nah-me-ay-gah-bow, 5Q.

Ethnology. 15, 20, 100. 181, 229,

314, 317, 318, 372, 380, 400.

Chickasaws,
Chief

179.

133, 140, 143, 159, 161.

Joseph, 253,

402.

Chilocco

Indian

School, 37, 204, 208.

Chilocco

School

Journal, 29.

Chippewa

(seeQjibwa)

INDEX

436

Chippewa Music, "0,

Choctaws,

Department of the Interior, 25, 70. 141. 147. 168,

86.

133, 140, 148, 152, 153. 159, 164, 165,

Choctaw

Investment

Company,

Indian,
Citizenship,

167.

33.

Civil Service Commission,

359.

59, 60, 67.

Clapp Amendment,
Clapp, Senator Moses E., 67, 68,

185, 200, 212, 225.

Diagram Indian Service, 82.

Dickenson, Judge J. T., 166.
Dixon, Dr. Joseph K., 12, 248.
Dodge City,Kas., 182, 299, 300, 304, 311, 319.
Dodge, Gen. (Col.),174, 175, 177, 179, 236, 281,

167, 276.

93.

300, 376.

Cleveland, President, 133.

Doubleday Page Co.,

aiff-Dwellers, 291.

Dninkeness, 31, 53, 54, 61. 62. 73. 74, 75, 76. 77.
276, 363, 422.

Cochise. 220. 237.

Cody, Col. Wm.

Dull Knife, 319.

F., 199, 301, 303.

43, 44, 235, 236, 291, 304, 311. 314.

of Indian

Commissioner

Affairs.25, 26, 28, 29, 31,

41, 50, 68, 93, 96, 136, 183, 260, 265, 337, 341, 367,
of

Commissioner

the Five

Civilized Tribes, 11, 28,

157.

139.

Life, 399. 400.

CongressionalCommittees, 49, 185, 193,

Coolidge,Rev. Sherman, 201, 278, 284.

194.

Correspondents(data),213, 214, 216, 260-264,

274-

277, 387-397.
of

Claims, 286.

Crazy Horse, 184,

402.

Creeks, 133, 137, 140, 143, 148, 155, 162, 214, 276,
414.

Crops, 24,

29.

Crow, 26, 174, 190, 191, 253, 254, 294, 308, 380, 427.
Crow

Dog, 120,

121.

Foot, 123, 124.

Crook, Gen. G. H., 222, 223, 238, 239, 308.
Curtis, Miss Nathalie, 15.
Gushing,Frank Hamilton, 229.
Custer, General, 103, 184, 185, 190,303, 308, 316.
Dagenett, Charles E., 13. 201.
Dances. Ill, 305, 400, 404, 405.
Darr, John, 112.
Dawes

College,200,

Commission,

Eliot,Rev.

Samuel

EUis, Mrs.

Rose, 78, 407.

207.

133, 135.

Flammand,
Flat

Hip.

Joe, 80.
185.

Fletcher, Miss Ahce C, 307.

Florida, 35, 240, 265.
Foreman.
Grant, 13, 137, 139, 160, 168.
Forrest,E. R., 13, 231, 246, 259.
Col., 125.
Forsj-the,
Fort Belknap Reservation, 34.
Fort Fetterman, 310.
Fort Laramie, 177.
Phil.

Fort

Dennis, C. E., 85.

Densmore, Miss Frances, 20, 66, 86, 280.
Denver Conference, 285.

Fort Robinson,

28, 359.
Department of Agriculture,
Department of Charities and Corrections, 137, 150,

Four

189, 394, 413.

Justice, 12, 57, 60, 70, 90, 95, 96,

Kearney, 177,

286.

180.

Foster, Charies, 103.

Confederated

Fourteen

Important Books,

Tribes, 257.
367-377.

Franciscan
French

170.
of

236.

Fairs,256, 361, 363.

Fairbanks, Albert, 55.
Fairbanks, Ben, 55, 91.
Farms, 359-366.
Farrell,F. E., 31.
Easier, Addie B., 165, 166.
Federal Government,
331
Fetterman, Col. Wm.
J., 177, 315.
Few Tails, 129, 130.
Fewkes. Dr. J. Walter, 229.
Fisher,SecretaryW. L., 424.
Five Civilized Tribes, 11, 28, 29. 133-172, 204, 209.

81.
Day-cah-me-ge-shig,

Department

250.

A., 224, 229, 242. 218.

276, 277, 379, 415, 417, 427.

Crow

Dartmouth

335,338.

Council, 143.

Creek

Education, 27, 30, 37, 40, 50, 200-217. 231. 251. 282,

Espinosa Pedro,

Coronado, 233.

Court

Charles A., 13, 15, 102, 185, 199, 201,

202, 279, 284, 402. 408.

Eldridge,Mrs. Mary L.,

384, 428, 431, 433.

Communistic

Dr.

Eastman.

Colorado, 43.
Comanches,

12.

Fathers, 225, 241, 274.

Mission, 36.

Friedman, Moses, 201.

Frost, A. N., 13, 139, 168, 413, 427.

INDEX

438

Louisiana, 43.
Lufkins, William, 80, 83.
Lufkins, John. 94, 407.
Lusk, Charies S., 93.
Lummis, Chas. F.. 14, 210, 267, 327,

Moorehead,

K"

64, 81, 83, 87, 90, 96, 149, 428.

Morgan, T. J., 12,

384.

Morrison, Robert, 77.

Mormons,
243, 261, 417.
Moty Tiger,Chief, 162.

336.

Maine, 31, 32, 33.

Malecite Indians, 33.

M.

Mott, Hon.

L., 11, 13, 137. 140, 141, 143, 150.

155, 160, 162, 167, 170, 414, 427.

Mangus-Colorado, 233,

Murphy,
Murray,

238.

20, 21, 22, 25, 35.

Maricopa, 291.
Marriages,Indian, 26,

Dr.
W.

Joseph A., 14,

N.,

273.

428.

Murrow,

Rev, J. S., 137.

National

Commission

National

Indian

May-dway-we-mind, 56.
McGillicuddy,Dr., 128.

Navaho,

21, 24, 26, 31, 44, 47, 219,

McCumber,
Senator, 141.
McKee, Hon. Redick, 329.

Negro, 23, 132, 205,

McLaughlin, Supt. (Maj.,Hon.). J., 102, 121, 122,

Nelson

Marsh, Prof., 176,

243.

180.

Contracts,

Medal

of Red

Menominee,

Ooud,

Me-zhuck-ke-ge-shig,
55, 66, 68,
77.
Me-zhuck-ke-g\vay-abe,

Mrs. Elsie E.. 97. 216, 379, 404.

York, 21, 33, 35, 265, 415.
Nez
Perce, 253, 372, 430.
Nez Perce War, 253.
Nichols-Chisholm
Lumber
Co., 61. 71.

New
43i.

No

Neck, 120, 121.

Carolina, 33.
No Water, 109, 110, 111, 114.
O'Brien, E. C, 14, 56, 90.
Official Views of Indian Conditions,
North

81.

Michelet, Simon, 59, 64, 68, 70, 71,

97.

Michigan, 35.
Miles, Gen., 128, 130, 180, 191, 192, 240,
Miller,Okoskee, 135.

89-98, 99, 204, 308, 342, 361, 373, 399, 427.

MissionaryDenominations, 33, 93, 281,

Ojibwa Music, 86.

Ojibwa*sStory, 407.

225.

133-172, 205, 214, 265, 273. 277, 281.

283. 284, 318, 342, 413-415, 425, 427, 428, 431.

Missionaries, 33, 49, 85.

Minnesota, 33, 265, 366.
Minnesota
Historical Collections,175.

Oklahoma,

77, 79, 80, 84, 140,

Delegation,145.
O-mo-du-yea-quay, 80.
O-nah-yah-wah-be-tung,80.
Oklahoma

Indians, 21, 26, 47, 48, 53, 57, 66, 68,

168, 352-358.

One

432.

282.

62.

Dr.

Monument

at

Mooney,

James,

Carlos, 203,

Wounded

Knee.

Out

403.

130, 131.

100, 101, 102. 127, 128, 129, 191.

21

43.

West

Owen,

34, 260, 261, 264.

130.

35.

Onondaga Reservation,
Oregon, 260.
Ottawa,

385, 413, 418, 425.

Money belongingto Indians, 26, 40, 42, 47,

Montezuma,

Feather, 129,

Oneida,

Conference, 50. 97. 151, 284, 326, 368, 384,

Montana,

378-385.

Oglala,99, 100, 113, 173. 270. 271.

Ojibwa, 35. 36, 41, 43, 45-56, 57-65. 66-76. 77-88,

308.

Mille Lac Indians, 63, 65, 93.

Mission Indians, 297.

C,

68.

Newton,

Merriam, C. Hart, 327. 328, 332.

Messiah Craze, 99, 100-107, 121. 185, 199, 283.
Mexico, 220. 221, 223, 235, 237, 239, 325, 326, 373.

Mohonk

85.

64.

267, 268, 283, 291.

35. 36, 40, 41, 43, 268.

Modocs, 253. 254.

Moffett, Rev. Thomas

279.

Mexico, 219, 220, 221, 222. 223. 241. 249, 265,

New

419.

Maj. Wm. A., 201.

Meritt, Edgar B., 12, 25, 360, 384,

71, 74, 75,

Act, 59,

Nelson, Senator Knute,

New
Brunswick, 31, 33.

164.

Mercer,

Mixed-blood

335.

241-252,

401.

Nelles,Rev. Felix. 68,

L. V., 13. 255, 257. 258, 262.

McWhorter,

(new),431-434.

Association, 250, 281, 327,

280, 342, 343. 420. 423, 427.

123, 191, 279, 367, 368.

McMuiray

381,

404-405.

Mah-een-gonce, 66, 94.

Mah-een-gonce'sStory, 409.

Maps,

W.

Morality, 53, 61, 62, 66, 73, 74, 352-358, 380,

(Land of Sunshine),

Hon.

Sen. Robert

Pagan Whites,

327.

L., 203, 413,

414.

289

Paiutes, 253.

Papago, 31, 219, 223, 224, 225, 226, 227, 228,

219.

INDEX
SanCarios,

Paricer,Arthur C, 14. 19, 201.

Parker, Gabe E., 11, 46.
Park Rapids Lumber
Co., 61.
Parquette, Peter,

33.

Peabody, Dr. Charles,

Pfeace Commissions,

Scott, Duncan

14.

C, 418.

419.

^ 149, 162, 163, 258, 433.

Seger,John H.. 14. 417.

Sells.Commissioner,

418.

12. 16. 21. 23. 25. 26. 28. 151.

167. 267, 283, 341, 359. 360. 363, 378, 384, 423,
424. 432.

89.

281-289.
Organizations,
Philanthropic
Phillips
Academy, Andover, 21 1, 245.
63, 81, 97, 399.
Pillagers,

Seminoles, 35. 133, 140. 143,

Pimas, 219, 222. 223, 224, 291. 374, 382, 383.

Shangraux, Louis, 118, 119, 120,

Shave Head, 123, 124, 125.
James T.. 54. 55, 56.
Shearman,

Pine

Ridge, 99-109, 111, 117, 122, 125, 128, 132,

270,

174,

309,

418.

420.

Plains Indians, 99, 174, 177. 187. 304, 308, 309,

Politicsand Indians. 139, 144. 376.

204, 372, 373, 402.

Potawatomie, 35, 43.

Powell, Maj. James, 99, 178,
Pratt, Capt. R. H., 200, 201.
Indian Men

201. 203, 401,

402

Lake, 45. 47. 51. 57, 59.

29.
Man. The (Journal),
123, 124.
Tomahawk,

62.

326.

Wilkins. 85.
Institution.12. 15. 219, 265.
Sniffen,M. K.. 13, 25. 247. 255. 283.
Societyof American Indians, 281, 285, 286, 404.
Spotted Tail, 120. 178, 181. 183. 281. 402.
Stahlberg,Dr. Isaac, 69.
Standing Rock. 104. 107.
Statbtics. 22, 23. 24, 26. 27, 28, 29, 32, 42. 43. 45,
Rev.

265.

Steenerson,

F., 105.

Hon.

Halvor, 59.

68.

Act. 59.
Stephens BOl. 286.
Stephens,Hon. J. H., 149, 150.
Stevenson. Mrs. Matilda, 229.
Strikes-the-Kettle.124.
Steenerson

104, 107.
D.

180, 184, 190-199, 402.

334.
Smiley Commission.
Smiley,Hon. Albert K., 284,
Smiley,Hon. Daniel, 284.

59. 133. 142, 155, 156, 168, 257. 295.

Statistics of Indian conditions. 341, 345-358.

156.

Robinson, Senator Joe, 432.

Rock, Grace, 77.
Rock, Mrs. John. 77.
Roe
Goud, Henry. 201. 207, 403.
Roosevelt, President, 140. 143. 144,
Royer, Doctor

395.

Smithsonian

HospitalService,
Pueblo, 219, 229, 230-232, 267, 268, 291.
Recommendations,
40. 387-397.
Red Cloud, 99, 121, 173-189, 281, 318, 402.
Red Cloud, Jack, 186. 419.

Religion,279-289.
Report of cases, 155,
Riggs Missions, 409.

121.

Sherman, Jas. S., 429.

Smith,

27.

31.

Public Health and Marine

Rosebud,

128.

SittingBull, 99, 102, 121, 122, 123-132, 173, 179,

and Women.

Property valuation, 26,

Public Domain,

Red

Cavah-y, 125,

181, 268, 270, 304. 308, 322, 372, 400, 407.

27, 28, 37, 40, 41, 42, 47, 50, 51, 57, 59, 61, 62.
73, 103, 157. 159, 229, 250, 343.

Red

Seventh

276.

Sioux Music, 189.

179.

Property(Lands,Timber. Minerals),21, 23, 24. 26,

Red

402.

Shelton, Maj. W. T., 247, 252, 343.

Short Bull, 119, 120, 121. 125.
Sioux. 26. 47, 63, 99-117, 131. 132, 173, 177. 178,

Politicians, 26, 50. 376. 395.

Prominent

Sequoy,

Sheep, 24, 29, 44. 250, 364,

311-324.

Poncas,

213-

Secretaryof the Interior. 54, 55, 91, 96, 136, 143,

175, 179, 253.

Peairs,H. B., 14, 378.

Peirce,Chas. P., 14, 381.
Penobscot, 31, 32, 33.
Pepper, Dr. George W., 241.
Perault,Joe,

^'"'^"*

Fe

217, 227, 266.

204, 400.

Pawnees,

222.

Trail. 174.
Sauk and Fox, 36.
Saunders, Fred. 77.
Schools. 27. 87, 38. 39. 48. 87, 106. 138, 146,
Sante

252.

Pftssamaquoddy, 31,

439

108.

258.

Stone Calf. 317.

233.

Sturdevant. W. L.. 141.

SuUy, Gen., 816.

144.

Swindlingof Indians, 71, 75, 76, 77. 79. 80, 81, 82,

Sacagawea, 402.

84, 87, 98, 136, 150. 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 160,

St. Luke, John, 71.

163, 166. 254.

INDEX

440

Taft. President, W. H., 151,

Talequah, 135, 138,

Tennessee,

Wanamaker.

4"".

146

33.

Thumbprints,

163.

27, 32. 52, 54, 85, 208, 209, 211, 250.

265. 267, 269, 276, 277, 345. 351, 382.

Treaties, 41, 62, 195. 329, 330,

Property, 21,

Tribal Customs,

211, 250, 265, 267, 268, 269, 270, 272, 273. 274,

Union

PaciBc

121.

Railway,

Utah, 263.
Utes, 107, 253. 258,
U. S. Reclammation

Valentine, Robert

301
.

259.

Service,257.
G., 11, 12, 69, 207, 242, 254, 267.

359. 384, 399, 424, 433.

Valuation, Stock, 24.

Vanoss, Andrew, 82.
Vaux, Hon. George, Jr., 14, 149, 167,
Victoria,220.221.
Metre. J. T., 71,

Van

Wakaya, Simon,

246.

247.

Bird. 108.
Earth, 41. 48, 45, 49, 51, 53, 55, 57, 59, 66,

224.

Whitside, Major, 125.

Wigglesworth,Dr., 250.
Wild Rice Lumber
Co.,
Wilson, Horace, 381

247.

Expedition,248.

61.

Winnebago. 35,

372.

Winnemucca, Sarah, 264, 402.

Wisconsin, 35, 36, 40. 41, 42, 43, 213, 265, 273,
Wisconsin UniversityConference, 285.
Wood, Brig.-Gen.P. G., 125.
101, 102.
Wovoka,
Knee Massacre, 123-132, 186.
Wounded
Knee Creek, 117, 119.
Wounded
Wozencraft, Hon. O. M., 329, 332.
Wright, Rev. Charies, 68. 69.

Wright,J.George,14, 28, 133. 139, 157, 150, 161,

Wright, Robert M., 14, 182, 286, 299, 311.
Wyoming, 43, 295.
Yakima,

83.

153.

Wallace, Dr. W. W., 14,

Waller, Mr., 82.
Wanamaker

233.

70, 77, 89-98, 254, 409, 411. 424.

20.

275, 277, 345-351. 382, 416.

Tucson Faims Company, 225, 226. 227.

Lakes. 49.
Strike,120,

Rev. Anselm, 14, 241, 242,

Whipple, Bishop, 371.

Weber,

White

Tuberculosis, 27, 32, 35. 54, 85. 92, 208. 209, 210,

T^o

Department, 25, 132, 173, 200, 223,

White

371.

40.

Tribal Funds, 27, 40.

Twin

War

W., 45, 98.

Washington, Booker T., 402.
Weasel, The, 102, 112. 117.

81.

Tiger,Moty, 162,

Tribal

Dance

Warren, William

Texas, 43.

Trachoma,

12.
Rodman,
Music, 189.

War

26, 253, 255, 257, 295, 385.

Yellow

Bird,

Yuma,

219, 223, 291.

127.

Rev.,
Zeisberger,
Zuni. 229.

232.

421

274.

427.